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com

A level formula sheet

AS Level (unit 1-16)

Compiled by: Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal

S. Formula Symbols Explained
No
1. 𝛿 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 (𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴)
𝛿𝐴 %𝐴 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐴(𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
%𝐴= × 100 𝐴 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝐴

Unit 1 & 2. Kinematics and Accelerated Motion

2. 𝑑 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
𝑣=
𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
(if speed of the body is constant) 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚 𝑠 −1

3. ∆𝑠 = 𝑐𝑕𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

∆𝑠 ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)
𝑣=
∆𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚 𝑠 −1

4. 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚 𝑠 −2 )
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠1 )
𝑎=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

5. 𝑣−𝑢 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑎=
𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑠 −2
6. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
7. 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2

8. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

9. 𝑢+𝑣
𝑠= 𝑡
2

Unit 3. Dynamics
10. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
(Newton’s Second law) 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑠 −2

11. 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 (𝑁)

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1

Unit 4. Forces – Vectors and Moments

AS Level formula sheet Page 1
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12. 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

13. 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

14. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

(when body makes and angle 𝜃 with the
horizontal and no other force acts on
the body except weight)
15. 𝑎 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃
(when body makes and angle 𝜃 with the
horizontal and no other force acts on
the body except weight)
16.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑠 −2 )
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝑑 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 (𝑚)

17. 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹(sin 𝜃) × 𝑑 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝛉 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡

F 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐳𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥
𝜃 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝑑 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 (𝑚)
d

18. 𝜏 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑚)

𝜏 =𝐹 ×𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑁)
𝑑 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 (𝑚)

Unit 5. Work, Energy and Power

19. 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐽
𝑊 =𝐹 ×𝑑 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑁
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

20. 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐽

(when force and distance makes angle 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑁
𝜃 between each other) 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

21. 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝐽)

𝑊 = 𝑝 ∆𝑉
(work done on a gas or by a gas)
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)
∆𝑉 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3
 Work is done on the gas when gas is being compressed under the
action of force. Volume of gas decreases.
 Work is done by the gas when gas expands and does work on the
external body.
Note: Pressure and temperature should remain constant.

22. 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

1 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚 𝑠 −1

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23. 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝐽)
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑕 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝑕 = 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡(𝑚)

24. 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

× Note: efficiency is in percentage so it does not have any units
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
100 %

25. 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

× Note: efficiency is in percentage so it does not have any units
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
100 %

26. 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Note: efficiency can be in fraction as well. It does not have any unit.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

27. 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝑊 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝐽)
𝑃=
𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠

28. 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝐸 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)
𝑃=
𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠

29. 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Unit 6. Momentum
30. 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑚𝑠 −1
Note: symbol for power has upper case letter ‘P’ whereas for
momentum its lower case letter ‘p’
31. 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)
(law of conservation of linear 𝑢1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
momentum) 𝑢2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑣1 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑣2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
32. 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)
(If the bodies stick together after the 𝑢1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
collision) 𝑢2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
33. 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑚
2 1
𝑢1 + 𝑚
2 2
𝑢2 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣2 (conservation of kinetic energy for elastic collisions)

𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑘𝑔)

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−1
𝑢1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 )
𝑢2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑣1 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑣2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

34. 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (for a perfectly elastic collision)

35. Relative velocity: 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 (if A and B are moving in 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐵 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
opposite directions)

𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 or
𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 (if A and B are travelling in
same direction)
36. 𝐹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
∆𝑝 ∆𝑝 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝐹=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

Unit 7. Matter and Materials

37. 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝑚 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝜌=
𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3

38. 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)

𝐹 𝐹 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝑃=
𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚2

39. 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)

𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 )
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑕 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1
𝑕 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

40. 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑁 𝑚−1 )
(Hooke’s law) 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)

41. 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)

𝐹 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝜎=
𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚2 )

42. 𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)
𝜀=
𝑙 𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)

43. 𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)

𝜎 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)
𝐸=
𝜀 𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

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′
44. 𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)
𝐹𝑙 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝐸= 𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑒𝐴
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚2 )

45. 𝐹1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1 (𝑁)

𝐹2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 2 (𝑁)
𝐹1 𝑙1 𝐹2 𝑙2 𝑙1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1 (𝑚)
= 𝑙2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 2 (𝑚)
𝑒1 𝐴1 𝑒2 𝐴2
𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)
(for comparison between two objects 𝑒2 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)
made up of same material but having 𝐴1 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑚2
different dimensions) 𝐴2 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑚2
46. 𝐸 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)
1 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑕 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑁)
𝐸 = 𝐹𝑥
2 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)

47. 1 𝐸 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑥2
2 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑁 𝑚−1 )
𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚)

48. 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑚3 )

3 𝑙. 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑉 = 𝑙. 𝑠

3
49. 𝑉1 𝑙. 𝑠1 𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚3
= 𝑉2 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚3
𝑉2 𝑙. 𝑠2
𝑙. 𝑠1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚)
(for comparison between 2 materials) 𝑙. 𝑠2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚)

50. Manometer: Situation a)

𝑝 = 𝑝0 − 𝑕1 𝜌𝑔

Situation b)
𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝑕2 𝜌𝑔

𝑕1 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)

𝑕2
𝑝0 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)
𝑕1 = 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 (𝑚)
𝑕2 = 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 (𝑚)
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1

Unit 8. Electric Fields

51. 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝑁 𝐶 −1 )
𝐹 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝐸=
𝑄 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

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52. 𝑉 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝑁 𝐶 −1 )
𝐸= −
𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 (𝑉)
(for parallel plates) 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑒𝑠 (𝑚)

53. 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

𝑄𝑉 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
𝐹=− 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 (𝑉)
𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑒𝑠 (𝑚)

Unit 9. Electric Current, Potential Difference and Resistance

54. ∆𝑄 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 (𝐶)
∆𝑄 = 𝐼∆𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

55. 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝐴)

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚−3 )
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
(current in a wire) 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑚2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

56. 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
(Ohm’s law) 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)

57. 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
58. 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑉2𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
𝐸= 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)
𝑅

𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

Unit 10. Kirchoff’s Laws

59. 𝐼𝐼𝑁 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐴)
𝐼𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐴)

(Kirchoff’s first law)

60. 𝐸 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (𝑉)

𝐸= 𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝. 𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (𝑉)

(Kirchoff’s second law)

AS Level formula sheet Page 6

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61. 𝑅0 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (Ω)
𝑅0 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + … . . + 𝑅𝑛 𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω)
(resistors in series) 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω)

62. 𝑅0 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (Ω)

1 1 1 1 𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω)
= + + ⋯.+
𝑅0 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω)
(resistors in parallel)
Unit 11. Resistance and Resistivity
63. 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)
𝑙 𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Ω m)
𝑅= 𝜌 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚)
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚2

64. 𝜌1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω m)

𝜌1 𝑙1 𝜌2 𝑙2 𝑙1 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚)
=
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚2 )
(For comparison between two types of 𝜌2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω m)
conductors ) 𝑙2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚)
𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚2 )

65. 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙1 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚)

=
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚2 )
(For same type of conductors but with 𝑙2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚)
different dimensions) 𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚2 )

Unit 12. Practical Circuits

66. 𝐸 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑉 = 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝. 𝑑 (𝑉)
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉) where
𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 (𝐼)
𝑟 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 (Ω)
67. 𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅1 (𝑉)
𝑅1 𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅1 (Ω)
𝑉1 = 𝐸
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅2 (Ω)
(potential divider) 𝐸 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 (𝑉)

68. 𝐴𝑌 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑉)

𝐸𝑥 = × 𝐸0
𝐴𝐵 𝐸0 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑉)
(potentiometer to determine e.m.f of an 𝐴𝑌 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (𝑚)
unknown cell) 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝑚)

69. 𝐸𝑥 𝐴𝐶 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑉)

=
𝐸𝑦 𝐴𝐷 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑉)
(potentiometer to compare 2 e.m.fs ) 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑚)
𝐴𝐷 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙(𝑚)
Unit 13. Waves
70. 1 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)
𝑓=
𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑠)
AS Level formula sheet Page 7
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71. 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑊 𝑚−2 )
𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
𝐼=
𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚2

72. 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊 𝑚2 )
2 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑚)
𝐼 ∝𝐴

73. 𝐼1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊 𝑚−2

𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑚)
=
𝐴1 2 𝐴2 2 𝐼2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊 𝑚−2
(for comparison between two types of 𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑚)
waves)
74. 𝑣 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝐻𝑧)
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑚)

75. 𝑣 𝑓𝑠 × 𝑣 𝑓0 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝐻𝑧)

𝑓0 = =
𝜆0 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑠 −1
(when source is moving away from the 𝜆0 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝑚)
observer) 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐻𝑧)
76. 𝑣 𝑓𝑠 × 𝑣 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑓0 = =
𝜆0 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
(when source is moving towards the
observer)
77. 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑖𝑠 3.0 × 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1 .
(only applicable to electromagnetic 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝐻𝑧)
waves) 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑚)

78. 𝑓 ×𝑐 𝑓0 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)

𝑓0 =
(𝑐 ± 𝑣𝑠 ) 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐻𝑧)
(Doppler effect when applied to 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑠 −1
electromagnetic waves) 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑠 −1

Unit 14. Superposition of waves

79. For constructive interference 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝑚)
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝜆
80. For destructive interference
1
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝑛 + )𝜆
2
81. 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚
𝑎𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)
𝜆=
𝐷 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)
(Young’s double slit experiment) 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 (𝑚)

82. 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑚)

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 𝜆 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 (𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠)
(diffraction grating) 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡)
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚

AS Level formula sheet Page 8

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83. 1 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑑=
𝑁 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚−1 )
(for diffraction grating)

Unit 15. Stationary Waves

84. 𝜆 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ) 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚
(end correction) 𝑙1 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 (𝑚)
𝑙2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 (𝑚)

Unit 16. Radioactivity

85. 𝐴 𝐴−4 4 𝐴
𝑍 𝑋 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 𝐴−4
(Alpha decay) 𝑍−2𝑌 = 𝑑𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
4
2𝐻𝑒 = 𝑕𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑕𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

86. 𝐴 𝐴 0 𝐴
𝑍 𝑋 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒 𝐴
(Beta decay) 𝑍+1𝑌 = 𝑑𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
0
−1𝑒 = 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

87. 𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 𝐴 ∗
𝑍 𝑋 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾 𝐴
(gamma decay) 𝑍 𝑋 = 𝑑𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝛾 = 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠

88. 1
0𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
1 0 1
0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −1 𝑒 +𝑣 1𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
0 −
(beta – minus decay in terms of proton −1𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝛽 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
and neutron) 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜

89. 1
0𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
1
1 0 1𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
1𝑝 → 10𝑛 + +1 𝑒 +𝑣 0
(𝛽 + 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
+1𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
(beta – plus decay in terms of proton
𝑣 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜
and neutron)

90. 0 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑘

𝑑→𝑢+ −1 𝑒 +𝑣
(beta – minus decay in terms of quarks) 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑝 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑘
0 −
−1𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝛽 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑣 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜
91. 𝑢 → 𝑑 + +10𝑒 + 𝑣 0 +
+1𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝛽 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
(beta – plus decay in terms of quarks) 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜

AS Level formula sheet Page 9