The Challenge of Applied Sociology

Author(s): Donald E. Gelfand

Source: The American Sociologist, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Feb., 1975), pp. 13-18
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27702154
Accessed: 05-11-2015 06:53 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Sociological Association and Springer are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The
American Sociologist.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE CHALLENGE OF APPLIED SOCIOLOGY *
Donald E. Gelfand
Boston University

The American Sociologist 1975, Vol. 10, (February) : 13-18

Finsterbusch's article in the November, for effective work in these new positions.
1973 Footnotes details the decline of new to a large degree, sociologists will be
Clearly,
jobs in sociology in recent years. It has been in programs related to the local com
utilized
expected that the reduction in job opportuni munity. This discussion will therefore center
ties for new Ph.D.s would slow down the en around the relationship of the sociologist to
rollment of students in graduate programs. the community. It will also reflect a personal
However, attending graduate school and de attempt to develop a program integrating
laying the search for a job may become an "community" and "applied" sociology.
attractive option for many students.
Whatever the patterns that begin to emerge and the Social
Sociology Sciences
in the next few years, the number of students
That sociological research is already being
receiving M.A. and Ph.D. degrees will cer read and appreciated by a number of applied
tainly outpace the supply of new academic
disciplines should be clear at the outset. This
positions. Sociologists have therefore begun to is perhaps most evident in the field of com
examine the possibilities of expanding the
number of jobs outside academia. While so munity mental health. That a field with
"community" as a component should have a
called "applied'' sociology has a long history,
the development of a tradition of training for strong sociological bent is not surprising. The
community has been a major unit of analysis
positions of this kind is not established in
since the early growth of sociology in the
the discipline. It is probably reasonable to
United States. As a noted psychologist (New
estimate that many holders of advanced so
who are within brough, 1964) has remarked, the growth of
ciology degrees working ap fields such as "community
plied settings have given up their profes psychology,"
"community psychiatry" and "community
sional identity as sociologists, instead taking
organization" reflect the new interest of these
on positions as ana
"researcher/' "systems
' disciplines in sociological perspectives. The
lyst/ "community specialist,'' or a variety
of other titles. As more question then is not one of proselytising for
job opportunities the acceptance of sociology's value in applied
outside the university begin to develop, so
arenas, but of defining the relationship of
ciology must begin to define its relationship
to application more clearly and provide train sociology to those disciplines which are al
ready actively engaged in applied efforts.
ing relevant to the work of sociologists in
Sociology's belated entrance into applied
these settings.
endeavors will make it impossible for sociolo
This long-range task is being undertaken
at present. We gists to assert exclusive rights to a body of
only sporadically can, how literature. Similarly
of the ways sociologists working in
ever, begin the examination
applied settings will often find themselves
sociology can be used in a number of applied
areas and the type of training capable of serving as members of interdisciplinary teams.
This will demand a higher degree of inter
providing sociologists with the skills necessary
disciplinary sophistication than now possessed
*
The ideas discussed in this article have been influ by most sociologists. Behavior modification,
enced by the author's work as co-director of the recently stressed by Tarter (1973) as im
at Boston
Community Sociology Training Program portant to sociology, may be one component
This program, which is being funded
University. by the of the applied sociologist, along with an ex
National Institute of Mental Health, has as its goal
the training of sociologists who would be able to obtain tensive background in psychology, history,
jobs in community organizations. Information on the economics, political science, anthropology and
can be obtained from the author.
program possibly law.
18

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 14 The American Sociologist

Listing fields is easier than defining the velopments and so-called "new towns." In
boundaries of the work that sociologists will these communities, difficulties in selling clus
undertake. Because research is certainly
one tered town houses have been attributed in
element of this work, competency in research large part to the high value Americans place
methods and theory must be considered essen on private green space as part of the single
tial for the "pure" as well as the "applied'' family home. Sociologists, with their inter
sociologist. Sociological studies with strong est in norms, culture, and interaction, should
applied implications are numerous. The works be vital participants in the development of
of Armor (1972) and Teele (1973) on school better physical environments. The lack of so
bussing represent one widely discussed recent ciological knowledge on the effects of physical
example. Applied sociologists will thus be space on behavior must be remedied if so
called upon to develop and carry out research ciology can contribute effectively to design
about many issues ranging from drug addic concepts. The ongoing work of Suzanne Keller
tion to education, housing and welfare. How in New Jersey and William Michelson in
ever, the extent of the applied sociologist's Toronto (1970) start significantly in this
endevors do not end with research. Working direction.
in organizations in the community, the soci Obviously, improved physical designs that
ologist will find himself involved in roles that take cognizance of sociological variables will
go beyond the research stages of projects and not solve all of the problems faced by Ameri
extend into the areas of planning, imple can society. Dean (1949) recognized this when
mentation, and evaluation. he traced the over-reliance of Americans on
physical changes to allieviate a host of social
ills ranging from alcoholism to illegitimacy.
Sociology and Planning Questions of the distribution and delivery of
While often viewed as a separate discipline, services, housing, employment and their de
planning clearly involves important sociologi velopment of programs in these areas are
cal issues. Some architects, landscape archi vital, inescapable issues. For sociologists to
tects, and urban planners have recognized this pursue research into these areas and then
but have encountered difficulty locating so leave the important processes of planning,
ciologists competent to assist them. The un implementation, and evaluation to others rep
fortunate consequences of neglecting sociologi resents a failure to maximize the usage of
cal variables manifest themselves in many sociological knowledge.
commercial and residential areas. For a current example of this we can again
Th?
Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. turn to trends in mental health. The com
Louis, currently in the process of being de munity mental health movement has caused
molished to a great fanfare of publicity and many "helping" professions such as psy
snickering about the failure of public housing, chology and social work to question the ef
was designed by one of the country's most ficacy of their therapies and develop new
noted architects. It was, after its completion, concerns for dealing with the factors in the
hailed as a major architectural achievement. environment that affect the well-being of the
While all of Pruitt-Igoe's problems can not individual. They have also recognized that
be attributed to the architect's failure to con definitions of mental illness and deviance may
sider sociological issues, many of the low vary from group to group. In the past, ethnic
income residents in the project faced the prob group members have encountered major prob
lem of the demands of high-rise living. This lems when they attempted to obtain profes
contrasted strongly to the life-styles they led sional assistance from members of other cul
in three-story tenements. Sociologists, had tures. Residents of Spanish-speaking com

they been called upon to assist in the design munities relate numerous stories of a lack of
of the project, should have been able to understanding of their problems, many of
focus upon the use and meaning of space and which can be attributed to cultural differences.
the effects of space on interaction patterns Sociologists with an understanding of such
and alienation. differences can be instrumental in bringing
considerations are involved in the
Similar these concerns into traditional mental health
development of middle-income suburban de centers. They can assist in developing a sensi

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 The Challenge of Applied Sociology 15

tivity among mental health professionals these areas and in the preparation of the
towards treating mental health problems with Environmental Impact Statements now de
methods applicable to the groups' culture. manded by the federal government. We must
Spanish-speaking sociologists are now devel develop the ability to respond effectively to
oping methods that would utilize the tradi these requests.
tional "spiritualist" as a resource tied into
the new mental health centers in the com New Sociological Skills and Methodologies

munity. Although the need to refine sociological tools

for the particular requirements of applied so
Sociologists and Program Implementation ciology has already been mentioned, it is im
Sociologists have other valuable roles to portant to pause here and further assess the
play in the development of plans for the im skills and methods that sociologists will re
plementation of programs. Some modes of im quire in the new roles now becoming available
plementation may violate norms of the com to them. Sociological skills now considered
munity and doom programs to failure from standard tend to fulfill canons of science but
the outset. Excessively bureaucratized pro do not meet other parameters. These include
grams may violate norms of communities minimal invasion of individual privacy, low
wherein changes are effected through personal financial cost, and efficiency of operation.
interaction. Informally run programs may en Survey data techniques tend to utilize door
counter the opposite reaction from communi to door methods, which intrude on many in
ties that accord great weight to authority and dividuals, are high in cost, and consume sub
formal relationships. Sociologists should be stantial amounts of time. These factors may
able to bring inputs of this nature into de not inhibit the university researcher working
signs for implementing programs. on a time schedule of his own choosing. They
Supposedly sociologists also possess a sophis may threaten the sociologist's ability to work
ticated understanding of social structures and in communities hostile to researchers, and in
the barriers particular social structures may organizations meeting specific deadlines and
erect to the creation of effective programs. possessing limited financial resources. This
These barriers may be political or organiza will include a large number of community
tional in nature. An example of this is the organizations who require research that can

negotiations now underway in Boston between be utilized in their planning and completed
community groups and a developer for the in a minimal amount of time without impos
conversion of an old hotel into a facility for ing a large drain on their funds. In firms
the elderly. The question of political repre specializing in environmental evaluations and
sentation and strategy of the community in utilizing sociologists to study socio-economic
the negotiations can be clearly related to con impacts, the time factor will probably be
flict theory and political sociology's concern more important than cost considerations.
with power, coalition, and alliance. The major deficiencies of survey data tech
The relationship of sociology to evaluation niques and low-cost but extended participant
is less cumbersome to define. Evaluation has observational methods must be recognized in
become a major concern of sociologists who order that new methodologies can be devel
recognize the potential funding to be found oped. It is not possible at this point to specify
in studies of programs in areas such as school these techniques completely. They must de
bussing, delinquency, and drug addiction. Our velop out of the experiences of sociologists
knowledge and skills, however, still have gaps who become involved in applied areas. Some
that mitigate against sociology having its potential useful methodologies for this pur
fullest impact on the area of evaluation. An pose include TenHouten's (1969) refinements
example of this is the growing concern for of "snowball sampling" and Sanders' (1960)
understanding the socio-economic impact of "Community Social Profiles." Sociologists in
environmental changes on communities. This applied positions may have already developed
may include studying the impact of highway some superior techniques that have not been
expansion, refinery modernization, or flood disseminated through the discipline due to the
control projects. Sociologists are increasingly artificial separation between applied and basic
being called upon to contribute to studies in sociology.

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 16 The American
Training Applied Sociologists: One Approach
Models for training sociologists in the roles
that have been discussed above can be found
in related disciplines. All of the disciplines
that have applied traditions stress extended
periods of field internships for students. Soci
con
ology departments have unfortunately
fined the field experiences of their students to
research topics related to specific courses. So
ciology departments have also neglected de
veloping linkages between themselves and
other social sciences.
Developing an
effective program for the
training of sociologists who will be able to
apply their skills may not necessarily require
any major upheavals but rather a clear specifi
cation of required skills and a search for
sources able to provide these skills. These pro
grams may eventually result in special certifi
cates being provided for their graduates along
with the standard M.A. or Ph.D. degrees.
The program now being run at Boston Uni
versity starts from the premise that training
of this nature need not abandon mainstream
sociology as excess baggage but rather must
utilize sociological knowledge as a strong base
from which to build. Sociological theory, meth
ods, and substantive fields are important tools
for the sociologist whatever his or her eventual
career goals. Students in the program are
thus required to develop the same competency
expected of their colleagues without applied
interests.
The groups tend to part company at two
levels: first, in the attainment of interdis
ciplinary knowledge and secondly, in their
interest in field work. Students in the train
ing program are required to partake of of
ferings in other social sciences and social
work. An understanding of these areas as
they apply to the community and an ability
to utilize their conceptual schemes has already
proved extremely exciting for the students,
and its value will soon be demonstrated in a
number of theses and dissertations.
Field work is required of the trainees on
an intensive basis: full-time during the sum
mers, continuing on a half-time arrangement
during the academic year for two full years.
This arrangement is time consuming but in
valuable. With the immersion of the student
in field work and the community, the defini
tions of the roles sociologists can play and the
type of skills they must have feeds back into
This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sociologist
the planning of courses and reading. The
long period of time allocated to field work is
based on the assumption that only an in
tensive experience can be invaluable. Full
time summer internships allow the students
to become closely involved with the agency's
work in a way not possible during the aca
demic year and certainly not possible during
the few hours per week that typify the field
work of most students undertaking term
papers.
For many local, state, and federal organiza
tions, experiences with sociologists or a clear
understanding of sociology as a discipline are
rare. Students placed in organizations for an
extended period receive invaluable training
for their future work. They also perform the
important function of acquainting personnel
in these organizations with sociology and its
potential usefulness to their particular efforts.
Given these goals, sociologists who have ap
plied concerns must learn to speak and write
effectively and clearly (Foote, 1974). Their
audience must be seen as consisting not only of
fellow sociologists but colleagues from other
disciplines and staffwith whom they will work
in organizations and agencies. This latter
group may include many individuals with
little if any social science background (Foote,
1974).
A final element of the Boston University
program, one that has proven increasingly
important, is a series of weekly workshops.
The workshops are open to anyone interested
in attending, though specifically they are
oriented to the needs of sociologists working
in applied areas. At this writing we have
focused on four major areas: 1) local com
munities?their socio-economic and demo
graphic composition, their problems, and the
programs being developed to alleviate these
problems; 2) interdisciplinary approaches to
the community; 3) strategies of intervention
in the community; and 4) skills. Through this
series students have been brought into con
tact with a large number of agencies and
given an opportunity to discuss and analyze
the activities of organizations in communities
with varying socio-economic composition,
ethnicity, and political and economic struc
ture. While some of the workshops have been
held at the university, we have adopted the
stance that academics interested in the com
munity (in order not to impose further on
 The Challenge of Applied Sociology 17

community workers and residents who provide narrowing considerably after graduate school.
their time and knowledge) should be willing "Continuing education" for both of these
to travel. Holding workshops in community groups is an important service that must be
settings such as multiservice centers, Model developed. It may be more crucial for applied
Cities' offices,mental health centers, and set sociologists because of their distance from the
tlement houses provides an opportunity to academic environment. Continuing education
relate to community activities in an environ through intensive seminars and conferences
ment where these activities are being under will enable them to delve into new sub-fields,
taken. In these settings, or in the university learn new skills and thus maintain high stan
classroom, the workshops have been small dards of applied sociology.
scale attempts to break down the isolation of
the community from the academic world. Applied Sociology and Values
Our emphasis on skills represents an at It is impossible to end a discussion of the
tempt to bridge the gap between the tech always thorny issue of applied sociology with
niques graduate sociology departments stress out taking note of the arguments that have
and those required in applied efforts. These been raised against this form of sociological
include good interviewing skills, a technique endeavor in the past. Much of the hesitancy
discussed in methodology courses but rarely towards undertaking sociological work in the
intensively studied. Skills in evaluation, pro community can be traced to negative atti
posal writing, the collection of qualitative tudes toward applied sociology. Three argu
data, and some understanding of planning ments are often raised against applied
are all passed over too quickly in standard sociology: 1) it violates the norms of value
courses (Foote, 1974). Workshops are proving neutrality; 2) it is unscientific; 3) it violates
to be a setting where skills of this nature can freedom of inquiry by obligating the sociolo
be intensively examined. gist to the organization that employs him.
We must provide new training for sociolo Lundberg (1961) found it impossible to con
gists who will be able to fill a broader market ceive of sound scientific analysis being
for their services, but the discipline must also conducted from anything other than a value
begin to think about sociologists who have free stance. Lynd (1939), Gouldner (1962)
moved into applied positions and, in many and most recently Friedrichs (1970) have
cases, abandoned their identity as sociologists. all noted the deficiencies in the value-free
The sociological content and quality of their stance. As they .point out, the sociologists'
work is not yet clear because of the lack of choice of topics, methods, and conclusions al
easy accessibility to their work. The process of ways reflect the researcher's biases.

tapping this resource is now beginning with
the goals of not only examining their activi
ties, but also bringing active applied sociolo
gists into a closer relationship with academic
sociology.
Sociology departments have seen their role
of preparing candidates for advanced degrees
as the sum of their training obligations. A
number of social scientists have commented
the difficulty of maintaining their level of
knowledge or of keeping up with new devel
opments in the field when away from the
university environment for any length of
time (Friesma, 1971). We may therefore ex
pect that sociologists in applied positions will
have difficulty keeping abreast of theoretical
and methodological developments as well as
areas outside their own specialty. The prob
lem also affects academic sociologists who find
their knowledge of many areas of sociology
Our attention must then focus on the sci
entific validity of applied sociology. There is
little truth to the argument that stamps all
sociological work in community organizations
as unscientific. On the contrary, sociologists in
these positions will find that there are numer
ous projects open to them that meet the
canons of scientific validity. These may range
on from studying communities to determine their
socio-economic composition (in order to de
velop mental health services) to studying at
titudes towards educational achievement (in
order to develop new community-school
relationships).
For the "applied" as well as the "basic"
sociologist, the problems of the relationship
with the sponsoring organization are similar.
The applied sociologist must be sure that the
values and ideals of the organization that em
ploys him coincide with his own. The aca

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 18 The American Sociologist

demie sociologist must subject those groups REFERENCES

D.
offering funding to the same scrutiny. The
Armor,
1972 "The evidence on bussing." The Public Interest
problems that result for the academic so 28 (Summer) :90-126.
ciologist who fails to be critical of funding Dean, J.
sources are well illustrated by the uproar 1949 "The myths of housing reform." American
over "Project Camelot" (Horowitz, 1967). Sociological Review 14 (April) :281-288.
J.
The applied sociologist may find that the Evans,
1970 social action programs."
is only interested in "Evaluating Pp. 239
employing organization 252 in Louis Z?rcher, Jr. and Charles Bon
jean
sociological work that legitimates the goals (eds.), Planned Social Intervention. San Fran
of the organization and that organizational cisco : Chandler.

pressures mitigate against sound sociology. Finsterbusch, K.

1973 "The 1973 academic market sociolo
The sociologist in this position has the option job for
gists." Footnotes 1 (November) :3.
of resigning, just as the academic sociologist
Foote, N.
must be ready to exercise the option of re 1974 to work." American So
"Putting sociologists
fusing grants that reflect an agency's desire ciologist 9 (August ) :125-134.
to find methods to control certain unapproved Friedrichs, Robert W.
1970 A Sociology of Sociology.
forms of behavior. New York: Free
Press.
Given this sort of awareness sociologists
Friesma, H. P.
should see new opportunities in applied so 1971 "Urban studies and action research." Urban
ciology as an important step in providing Affairs Quarterly 7 (September) :3-12.
new sources of employment and furthering Gouldner, A. W.
the theoretical and substantive development of 1962 "Anti-Minotaur : the of a value-free
myth
Social Problems 9 :199
the field. Furthering the application of so sociology." (Winter)
213.
ciology is crucial if sociologists are to have Horowitz, Irving
the impact they seem to desire on social issues. 1967 The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot. Cam
As Evans (1970:251) has commented: bridge: M.I.T. Press.
What is needed as we look to the future is an Lundberg, George
1961 Can Science Save Us? New York: David
increased number of top-notch social scientists
who from their graduate McKay.
emerge studies with
a desire to put their skills towork in the Lynd, Robert S.
applied 1939 for What?: The Place,of Social
of social action Knowledge
settings programs. Despite all
Science in American Culture. Princeton:
the talk these days about "relevance," relatively Princeton Press.
University
few social scientists with this kind of orienta
Michelson, William
tion are from our schools.
emerging graduate 1970 Man and His Urban Environment: A Socio
If we want our to have the impact
disciplines logical Approach. Mass.: Addison
Reading,
on public that we
policy continually argue they Wesley.
should, this is a serious which must J. R.
problem Newbrough,
somehow be solved. as stand 1964 mental health: a movement
Otherwise, things "Community in
now, we as social scientists are in the untenable search of a theory." 70-81 in Arthur J.
Pp.
position of continually the govern Bindman and Allen D. Per
criticizing Spiegel (eds.),
ment for not its spectives in Mental Health. Chi
basing judgments and deci Community
sions on social science research while at the cago: Aldine.
same time being to provide Sanders, I. T.
unwilling the prac
1960 "The social American
tically oriented professional talent necessary for community profile."
this to occur. Sociological Review 25 (February) :75-77.
Tarter, D. E.
While it is too early to judge the effective 1973 "Heeding Skinner's call: toward the develop
ness of the programs now ment of a social American So
being directed technology."
8 (November) :153-158.
toward these goals, the discipline must ciologist
begin Teele, James
to recognize the importance of these efforts.
1973 School A Case Study of
Evaluating Bussing:
Not to attempt to move into these new direc Boston's Operation Exodus. New York:
tions can only result in sociologists Praeger.
becoming
a more inbred group, unable to contribute TenHouten, Warren
1969
effectively to the challenges of social change
Site Sampling and Snowball in
Sampling
Biased Nets: for the Study of
and the basic issues of a decent Methodology
community Community Organizations. Los Angeles: Re
life.
port to U.S. Office of Economic
Opportunity.

This content downloaded from 129.101.79.200 on Thu, 05 Nov 2015 06:53:25 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions