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Unit 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and

Physiology (Week One)
Distinguish between anatomy and physiology and explain how they are related
Anatomy  Structure dictate’s function
 Structures determine functions allowing for
 Structures of the human body
better comprehension of the mechanisms of
 The study of structure
disease and structural abnormalities associated
 Structure determines function
with pathology
 Also known as morphology
o To help integrate otherwise isolated
o Gross
facts into a complete picture
 Study of body parts visible to
the naked eye
 LARGE
o Microscopic
 Study of cells, cytology, and
tissues – histology
 SMALL

Physiology

 Study of function
 How does it work

How are they related?

Define the term pathology

Pathology  Study of disease
 Anatomical structure difference to related to
 Concerning the cause, origin, and nature of
the function or dysfunction for diagnosis
disease within the body

Describe the characteristics of life.

Definition of Life  No on perfect definition for life
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 Modern researchers “exhibits self-sustaining, biological
processes, which include many of the characteristics that
we list below as being alive”
o Shares a number of basic characteristics not
associated with inorganic matter
 Taken together, these characteristics
define life and separate them from
non-life
 Self-organization needed to live
o Responsiveness, conductivity, growth,
respiration, circulation, digestion, absorption,
secretion, excretion, and reproduction
 Each characteristic of life is part of all the
physical/chemical processes that take place in our bodies –
the sum of all of life’s total chemical processes is called
metabolism
 procreation, offspring, related to cellular reproduction
(mitosis) essential for growth and tissues
Respiration
 Gas exchange obtain oxygen to produce energy
 Removal of gaseous wastes (co2)
Digestion
 chemical and physical process of food break down as food
enters the stomach, physical process stomach moves and
releases chemicals to digest and move into our intestines,
and more chemical and physical break down to move the
food for digestion, contraction of the intestines, water to
move it, chemical releases of enzymes

Movement

 External movement
o (go for a run, move my muscles, pick
up a coffee)
 Internal movement
o how the body moves to promote
function

Responsiveness/conductivity

 Ability to sense change (warm) ability to react (move

away)

Reproduction

Table of the Characteristics of Life

Characteristics Descriptions

Responsiveness Ability of an organism to sense, monitor, and respond to changes in

both its external and internal environments

Conductivity Capacity of living cells to transmit a wave of electrical disturbance form

one point to another within the body

Growth Exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between an

organism and its environment

Circulation Movement of body fluids containing many substances from one body
area to another in a continuous, complete route through hollow vessels

Digestion Process by which complex food products are broken down into simpler
substances that can be absorbed and used by individual body cells

Absorption Movement of molecules, such as respiratory gases or digested

nutrients, through a membrane and into the body fluids for transport to
cells for use

Secretion Production and release of important substances, such as digestive

juices and hormones, for diverse body functions
And delivery of cellular products necessary for body functions
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Excretion Removal of waste products

Reproduction Formation of a new individual offspring, or new cells being created

Define metabolism and explain its significance.

Metabolism  Metabolism is vital for function – it takes or creates

nutrients, wastes, or energy for the body to utilize
 The sum of all of life’s chemical processes is called
metabolism
 Each characteristics of lie is part of the physical/chemical
processes that take place within the body
 Complex, intertwining set of chemical processes by which
life is made possible for a living organism

METABOLISM IS….

 All chemical reactions that occur in the body – and in is

further subdivided into catabolism and anabolism
 The process either breaks things down, or builds things up
through different mechanisms of action.

Differentiate between anabolism and catabolism.

Anabolism

 Refers to the construction of larger molecules from smaller

molecules
o Accomplished by dehydration synthesis – the
removal of water molecules during the reaction
 Requires the use of ATP to provide energy for the
construction of larger molecules – 6 pounds of ATP are
produced by the cells on average/day with every single
molecule being used

Catabolism

 Refers to the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller  General type of catabolic reaction that
chemical units adds water to breakdown large
o Energy (sometimes heat) is released in the molecules
process  Catabolism reactions usually result in production of ATP
o Hydrolysis (adenosine triphosphate) a macromolecule that stores
energy in its cell
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Discuss the basic physiological needs.

 Physiology = function
o Requirements of organisms
 Necessary to maintain life
 Survival depends on certain available factors

Essential Need Description

WATER Most abundant substance in the body

-40 litres (60-80% of body)
-Transportation
-Lubrication
-Regulation of body temperature

FOOD Nutrients to provide chemicals for body needs

-Energy
-Building blocks for larger molecules
-Regulates and produces chemical reactions

OXYGEN Room air 21%

-Requirement to produce energy (ATP)
-Oxygen + nutrients = energy

Temperature Measurement of heat

-Amount affects rate of metabolism
-Temperature increase = metabolism increase
-Temperature decrease = metabolism decrease
-Body tries to maintain 37 C (98.6 F) body temperature

Pressure Application of force to something

Atmospheric pressure
-– important for bodies--
Hydrostatic pressure
-- pressing of water against our blood vessels –

Discuss the concept of homeostasis and explain its importance to survival.

Homeostasis o Conditions of the internal cellular environment

 External environments (temp/humidity) are constantly
changing – important aspects of our internal environment
(body temperature, water content) usually remain
remarkably stable
like pH (acid, bases) and salinity (concentration
of salt), also vary
 Contents of extracellular fluid that bathes each body cell
may experience a change
o Good health depends on the correct amount of
each substance in the blood and other body
fluids
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 Constant chemical composition of the internal important concept in physiology and help us
environment must be maintained within the very narrow understand the mechanism of disease
limits (normal ranges) or sickness/death can occur o Each cell, tissue, organ, and organ
o Homeostasis describes ‘relatively constant system plays an important role in
internal states maintained by the human body. homeostasis
Meaning “staying the same”  Body’s regulatory systems rely on homeostatic
 Concept is one of the most unifying and important themes mechanisms to maintain the body’s set points
of human physiology ranges and maintain its physiological stability
o Maintenance of relatively constant internal
conditions despite internal or external
environment
Example:
1) If the external environment varies (thermal), the internal
homeostatic control mechanisms attempt to maintain the
body temperature at a relatively constant set point of
about 37 C (98.6 F)
2) Concentration of human blood glucose has a normal set
point range between 80 and 100 mg of glucose per
millilitre of blood depending on diet and timing of meals
 Specific regulator mechanisms are continually
adjusting body systems to maintain homeostasis
– this ability of the body to “self-regulate” in
order to maintain homeostasis is the most

Discuss the importance of feedback mechanisms, and differentiate between

negative and positive feedback.
Homeostatic control mechanisms
 Processes that maintain or restore homeostasis are called
homeostatic control mechanisms
o Involves all organ and systems of the body
 The body must always respond to changes in the external
and internal environments
Examples
1) Exercise increases the demand for oxygen and results in
accumulation of more waste carbon dioxide than when we
are at rest
a. Increases the breathing rate above its average
bpm, to maintain an adequate blood oxygen
level and also increase elimination of CO2
b. When exercise stops the increased RR no longer
exists – returned to normal
 To accomplish this self-regulation a complex integrated
communication control system called a feedback loop is
used
FEEDBACK LOOP
 Information about changes in the internal environment is
transmitted within these control loops by nervous
impulses by specific chemical messengers called hormones
– which are secreted into the blood
o All feedback control loops have the same basic
components
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AFFERENT and EFFERENT
 Feedback loops use afferent and efferent signals to dictate
which direction the signal goes from a sensor mechanism
to a particular integrator mechanism
o Signal movement from the integrator
mechanism to an effector mechanism
 Afferent = signal travels toward a
particular center
 Efferent = signal is moving away from a
particular center
 Feedback loop the body must first be able to sense the
variable that is changing
*hypothalamus is the brains temperature control zone/regulator
Negative feedback control system
 Most important and common homeostatic control
mechanism regulating the internal conditions of the
human body
o They are always inhibitory – they oppose a
change by creating a response that is opposite in
direction to the initial fall from normal
o Sensory nerve cells or hormone-producing
glands often act as homeostatic sensors
o If deviations from normal take place – the sensor
generates afferent signal (nerve
impulse/hormone) then transmits the
information the integration center
 Sensory receptors in the skin and superficial blood vessels
act as sensors by monitoring the body temperature
o Feed back information is related through nerves
via afferent signals to the integrator and then
sends the efferent nerve signal to effectors
 Negative feedback control systems stabilize physiological
variables and prevent them from straying too far away
from their normal ranges
o Sometimes control systems flows ahead to
trigger a change in anticipation of an event that
will follow
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something stops the process – amplify or change

accelerate a change
Examples:
 Events that lead to a cough, sneeze, the birth of a
baby, milk production by a new mother, an immune
response to an infection, or the formation of a blood
clot are all examples of positive feedback control
systems that work for the benefit of the body

Example

1) Eating a meal causes the stomach to stretch triggering

sensor walls in the stomach – this action triggers feedback
response causing the release of gastric juices and
contraction of the stomach muscles – and eventually the
stomach will return to normal after the food is gone
a. The stretch stimulus of the stomach triggers the
small intestine and related organs to increase
digestive secretions as well – before food arrives
– this system is called a FEED-FORWARD system
and is usually involved in negative feedback
control systems

LEVELS OF CONTROL

 Complex functions of cells, tissues, organs, and organ

systems are integrated into a coordinated whole by
different feedback loops, feedforward systems
operating at different levels of organization

Including

1) Intracellular controls – operating at the cell

2) level through genes, enzymes, and regulatory proteins
3) Intrinsic controls – operating at the tissue and organ levels
– via chemical signals such as prostaglandins
4) Extrinsic controls – which typically involve the
nervous/endocrine systems

Positive Feedback Control System

 Do not usually help the body maintain a stable condition

 Mechanism are stimulatory in nature – instead of opposing
a change in the internal environment (and causing a return
to a normal set point) they amplify or reinforce the change
that is taking place in the body
o It may cause death or be harmful
 Only a few positive feedback control systems operate in
the body under normal conditions
o Positive feedback accelerates the process of
being controlled – the feedback causes an ever-
increasing rate of events to occur until
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Describe the levels of organization within the human body.
Levels of
Structural organization
 Chemical reactions form the base, followed by
organelles making up cells, cells making tissues,
tissues making up organs, and organs making up
organ systems – the sum of all of these levels working
together as a coordinated whole is the human body
 All life is based on chemistry – there are more than
100 different building blocks called elements making
up all of nature – each element is made of atoms
consisting of varying numbers of subatomic particles :
protons, electrons, neutrons – we are nothing more
than organized protons, electrons, and neutrons that
make up atoms, which then bond together to make
molecules – which combine to make even larger more
Organization
Cells
Tissues
Organs
specific complex molecules called macromolecules –
enormous macromolecules form organelles –
subcellular structures or packages of gel-like fluids
surrounded by membranes – organelles are tiny
organs that allow each cell to live – they are to cells
hat organs are to bodies and organelles cannot
survive outside of the body so a cell cannot survive
Example organelles
 Mitochondria (powerhouse of the cell), cilia (tiny whiplike
extensions of specialized cells
Unique and complex relationships exist between atoms, molecules,
macromolecules and organelles to make up the cytoplasm
Function/Description
 Foundation and basic building blocks of the body
 Smallest structural units that possess and exhibit the basic
characteristics of matter
 Specifics of a cell result from a hierarchy of structure and
function that begins with the organization of atoms,
molecules, macromolecules, and organelles
 One adult is composed of one hundred trillion cells
 Each cell is surrounded by a membrane enclosed in
cytoplasm and organelles and has one or more nuclei whose
DNA control’s the cells activities – they specialize and
differentiate to preform specific functions
Example: Fat cells, sperm cells
 Specific genes are active in some cells and not in others
 Cells are organized into tissues
 Tissues are organized cells
 Groups of many related cells that develop together (from
the same part of a human embryo) and preform certain
functions
 Cells of tissues of nonliving substances that hold them
together
 A group of tissues becomes an organ
 Four major types of tissues
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
 And subtypes within these tissues ^
Example: cardiac muscle is specific to the heart only
 Tissues formed together create organs, which are structures
made up of several different kinds of tissues arranged to
preform specific functions
 Organs are operational units of our bodies – the heart is
made up of specialized cardiac muscle, connective tissue,
and nervous tissue
 Organs create organ systems
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Examples:
- The lungs, heart, brain, kidney, liver
and spleen are all organs

Organ systems  Organ systems are the most complex of all of the
organizational units of the body
 Each organ system, such as the digestive system, comprises
varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged so that they
can preform complex functions of the body
 Different systems work together to accomplish a larger goal
– to create an organism
 There are 11 major organ systems
Examples: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic/immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive

Organism  Organism level – is composed of 11 organ systems and is

more complex than the sum of all of its parts
 The bodies are marvellously coordinated in teams of
interactive and self-regulating structures capable of
surviving in the most hostile environment
 the human body reproduces itself (and genetic information)
and maintains ongoing repair and replacement of worn or
damaged parts – in a constant and predictable way
 the human body is interdependent and do not operate in
isolation
 the human body is a complete biological system – and needs
to be healthy to live

List the eleven body systems and give the general function of each.

Integumentary System:

 Functional category = support and movement

 Principal organs = skin
 Primary functions = protection, temperature, regulation,
sensation

Skeletal System:

 Functional category: Support and movement

 Primary principal organs: bones, ligaments
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 Functions: support protection, movement, mineral and fat

storage, blood production

Cardiovascular system:

 Functional category: transportation and defense

Muscular system:  Principal organs: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
 Functions: exchange and transport of materials
 Functional category: support and movement
 Principal organs: Skeletal muscles tendons
 Functions: movement, posture, protection

Lymphatic and Immune system:

 Functional category: transportation and defense

 Principal organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, spleen,
Nervous System:
thymus, tonsils
 Functional category: communication, control, and  Functions: immunity, fluid balance
integration
 Principal organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
 Functions: control, regulation, and coordination of other
systems; sensation; memory

Respiratory system:

 Functional category: respiration, nutrition, and excretion

 Principal organs: lungs, bronchial tree, trachea, larynx,
nasal cavity
 Functions: gas exchange, acid-base balance
Endocrine system:

 Functional category: communication, control, and

integration
 Principal organs: pituitary glands, adrenals, pancreas,
thyroid, parathyroids and other glands
 Functions: control and regulation of other systems

Digestive system:
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 Functional category: respiration, nutrition, and excretion

 Principal organs: stomach, small and large intestines,
esophagus, liver, mouth, pancreas
 Functions: breakdown and absorption of nutrients,
elimination of waste

Reproductive System:

 Functional category: reproductive and development

Urinary System:
 Functional category: respiration, nutrition, excretion
 Principal organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
 Functions: excretion of waste, fluid and electrolyte
balance, acid-base balance
 Male principal organs: testes vas deferens, prostate,
seminal vesicles, penis
 Female principal organs: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus,
vagina, breasts
 Functions: reproduction, continuity of genetic information,
nurturing of offspring

Describe anatomical position

Anatomical Position o Exhibits bilateral symmetry – the external right

 Body’s structures are relative to one another without
confusion
 Positon is – the body is viewed in a standing posture with
the feet and head facing forward and the arms at the sides
with the palms facing forward
and left sides of the body are roughly mirror
images of one another
Example: can be used for a comparison of the injured side with
the noninjured side.
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Describe the standard planes of reference in the body

Planes of the body Coronal Plane

 There are three major body planes = that lie at RIGHT  A frontal plane, the coronal plane divides the body into
ANGLES to eachother anterior (ventral) and posterior (doral) portions which are
o Transverse, sagittal, coronal not equal

Sagital Plane Transverse Plane

 A lengthwise plane running from front to back, dividing the
body into right/left sides
o Sagittal section is made in the midline of the
body it is called a midsigittal section
o It produces equal symmetry
 The crosswise plane divides the body or any of its parts
into upper and lower parts
o Also called horizontal plane
o Mid transverse divides an individual into
anterior and posterior sections near the area of
the umbilius
Example: organs of the abdominal cavity, appear in a
transverse plane (lower portion)
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Define the common anatomical terms of direction.

----- In relationship to positions ------ Deep

Superior  Further away from the body surface

 Upper or above ---- in relationship to organs ----

Inferior Lumen

 Lower or below  Hallow, often fluid-filled interior of organs

Anterior Central

 Front or in front of  Near the center/middle

Posterior Peripheral

 Back or in back of  Nearer the surface or outside

Medial Medullary

 Toward the midline of the body  Inner region of an organ

Lateral Cortical

 Toward the side of the body  Outer region or layer of an organ

Proximal Basal

 Toward or closer to the trunk or base of an appendage  Base/widest part of an organ

Distal Apical

 Farther away from the trunk or base of an appendage  Narrower tip of the organ

Superficial

 Nearer the surface

Name and locate the principals body cavities of the body

Body Cavities viscera that reside within the
cavity, or to the thin
 The human body contains two major cavities – the ventral membrane that covers the
and dorsal cavities internal organs
o Further subdivided and contain compact
arrangements of internal organs
 There are thin membranes that line the body cavities or
cover the surfaces of the organs within the body Ventral Cavities
o These membranes have special names parietal  Upper Thoracic (chest cavity) and the abdominopelvic
and visceral cavity (abdomen and pelvis)
 A thin serous fluid between the o Includes left/right pleural cavity and a middle
membranes lubricates the organs so portion called the mediastinum
that they can move around without  Lower abdominopelvic cavity is divided into an upper
injury abdominal cavity and a lower pelvic cavity
MEMBRANES THORACIC CAVITY
Membrane Area Area Organs
Parietal Inside wall of a body cavity or
membrane that covers this right pleural cavity right lung (in pleural cavity)
wall
Mediastinum Heart (in pericardial cavity),
Visceral Refers to the internal organs or Trachea, Right/left bronchi,
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Esophagus, Thymus gland, orbital cavity (eyes and

Aortic arch and thoracic aorta, associated muscles/nerves),
Venae cavae, Various lymph middle ear cavities (housing
nodes and nerves, Thoracic the bones of the middle ear)
duct Spinal Cavity

Left pleural cavity Left lung (in pleural cavity)

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Area Organs
Abdominal cavity Liver, gallbladder, stomach,
pancreas, intestines, spleen,
kidneys, ureters

Pelvic Cavity Urinary bladder, female

reproductive organs, uterus,
uterine tubes, ovaries, male
reproductive organs, prostate
gland, seminal vesicles, parts
of vas deferens, part of large
intestine: sigmoid colon and
rectum

Dorsal Cavities

 Include the cranial and spinal cavities

o Head has smaller cavities

Cranial cavity

Area Organs
Skull Brain
Head Oral cavity (teeth and tongue),
nasal cavity (nose and sinus),
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Area Organs
Spinal column Spinal cord

Name and locate the regions and quadrants of the abdomen

Regions and Quadrants Abdominopelvic Quadrants

 Anatomists divide the abdomen and pelvis into a grid of 9
imaginary regions
 Physicians divide the abdominopelvic area into four
quadrants
 Both help to locate and internal pathology like a tumour or
mass, or describe the site of pain
Abdominopelvic regions
Right Hypochondriac Right portion of the liver, the ga llbladder, the right
kidney, a nd parts of the sma ll intestine
Left hypochondriac Pa rt of the spleen, the left kidney, pa rt of the
stoma ch, the pancrea s, pa rts of the colon
Epigastric Majority of the stoma ch, pa rt of the liver, part of
the pa ncrea s, pa rt of the duodenum, pa rt of the
spleen, and the adrena l glands *a rea s pushes out
contracted diaphra gm during brea thing
Right lumbar Gallbladder, the right kidney, pa rt of the liver,
a nd a scending colon
Abdominopelvic quadrants – subdivided into four quadrants, RUQ, LUQ, LLQ, RLQ
Left Upper Quadrant Left portion of the liver, larger portion of the
stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of
transverse and descending colon, parts of small
intestine
Right Upper Quadrant Right portion of liver, gallbladder, right kidney,
small portion of stomach, portions of ascending
and transverse colon, parts of small intestine
Left lower quadrant Majority of small intestines, some of the large
intestine, female/ male reproductive organs, left
ureter
Right lower quadrant Cecum, appendix, parts of small intestines, the
right female/ male reproductive organs, right
ureter

Left lumbar Descending colon, left kidney, a nd pa rt of the

spleen

Umbilical Na vel, ma ny parts of the sma ll intestine

(duodenum, jejunum, a nd ileum), tra nsverse colon,
a nd the bottom portions of both the right/ left
kidney

Right iliac / right inguinal region Appendix, cecum, right ilia c fossa , *pa in genera lly
a ssocia ted to a ppendix*

Left iliac / left inguinal region Pa rt of descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ilia c
fossa (left inguina l region)

Hypogastric Organs around the pubic bone – bladder, part of

the sigmoid colon, a nus, orga ns of the reproductive
system (uterus, ova ries, prosta te)
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Use regional terms to describe the areas of the body

 Divided into axial portion

o Head, neck, trunk
 Divided into appendicular portion
o Arms and legs
 these regions and appendages is further divided
 every individual (even identical twins) differs superficially
from other individuals – each person passes through fetal
development and has unique identifying characteristics as
an adult
 terms used to describe body regions are standardized –
most people think gross body regions are familiar to us –
but their misuse is common

Example: anatomist term leg refers to the area of the lower

extremity between the knee and ankle not the entire lower
extremity

Body Regions

Body Region Area/example

Abdominal Anteriortorso below the diaphragm

Acrominal Shoulder

Antebrachial Forearm

Antecubital Depressed area just in front of the elbow

(cubital fossa)
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Axillary Armpit (axilla)

Buccal Cheek (inside)

Brachial Upper part of arm

Calcaneal Heel of foot

Carpal Wrist

Cephalic Head

Cervical Neck

Coxal Hip

Cranial Skull

Crural Leg

Cubital Elbow

Cutaneous Skin (or body surface)

Digital Finger or toes

Dorsal Back or top

Facial Face

Femoral Thigh

Frontal Forehead

Gluteal Buttock

Hallux Great toe

Inguinal Groin
Lumbar Lower part of back between ribs and pelvis

Mammary Breast

Manual Hand

Mental Chin

Nasal Nose
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Navel Area around navel, or umbilicus

Occipital Back of lower part of skull

Olecranal Back of elbow

Oral Mouth

Orbital or ophthalmic Eyes

Otic Ear

Palmar Palm of hand

Patellar Front of knee

Pedal Foot

Pelvic Lower portion of torso

Perineal Area (perineum) between anus and genital

Plantar Sole of foot

Pollex Thumb

Popliteal Area behind the knee

Pubic Pubis

Supraclavicular Area above the clavicle

Sural Calf

Tarsal Ankle

Thoracic Chest

Zygomatic Cheek