TOPIC: PRINCIPLES OF NORMAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

The Newborn
The period of the newborn’s growth and development over the first 1-2 months is known as the
neonatal period of development.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 There are five states of arousal in which newborn babies spend their time: regular sleep,
irregular sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness, and crying.
 Newborns use crying as a means of communication—there are different cries to elicit
various responses from caregivers.
 Some of the newborn’s senses are well developed at birth, whereas others will take
months to fully develop. Touch is the most highly developed at birth, while vision is the
least developed.
 There are several important reflexes that a newborn baby shows after birth, each with a
specific duration and function. The rooting/sucking, Moro, stepping, and Babinski reflex
are a few of the most common at this age.

Key Terms

 colic: Severe pains that grip the abdomen or the disease that causes such pains (due to
intestinal or bowel related problems).
 plasticity: The brain’s ability to change and adapt over the course of a lifetime; changes
in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, neural
processes, thinking, and emotions.
 neonatal: Of or pertaining to the period of time immediately following birth.

A newborn baby is born helpless and needs constant care in order to survive. The newborn’s
first and greatest task is adjusting to the world outside the womb. The first two months of
newborn growth and development are known as the neonatal period of development.
States of Arousal
There are five states of arousal in which newborn babies spend their time; these
include regular sleep, irregular sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness, and crying. Most of an
infant’s time is spent in either regular or irregular sleep (8-9 hours of each); it is during this time
that the infant’s brain continues to develop the necessary connections for survival and growth.
Brain plasticity refers to the idea that the brain is not yet committed to specific functions. If
certain areas of the brain are damaged during this sensitive period, other areas of the brain can
take over and handle new functions not previously assigned to them.
Newborns use crying as a means of communication—there are different cries to elicit various
responses from caregivers. Whimpers or weak crying may simply indicate the desire for
attention (“pick me up and cuddle me”), whereas intense screaming could mean hunger or
some other form of distress. Most parents do well at identifying their newborn’s unique cry for
each need; however, some infants suffer from colic and/or cry for no apparent reason.
Senses
Some of the newborn’s senses are well developed at birth, whereas others take months to fully
develop. For example:

 Touch—Touch is well developed at the time of birth, and infants are highly sensitive to
pain. Because touch is important for bonding and emotional development, it makes sense
that this is one of the infant’s earliest active senses.
 Taste/Smell—Newborns have the ability to distinguish between several different tastes;
sweet is the preferred taste at birth, perhaps because mother’s breast milk has a sweet
taste. Again, this is a basic survival mechanism—the child needs food to survive and
prefers the food their mother can provide. Newborn babies can also recognize their
mothers’ smell and will show a preference for smells they recognize from the womb.
 Hearing—Sensitivity to sound improves greatly over the first few months of life;
however, newborns recognize familiar sounds that they heard while in the womb,
especially their mother’s voice. Newborns prefer the human voice to other sounds, and
infants as young as 3 days old can distinguish between several different sound patterns.
 Vision—Vision is the least developed of the newborn baby’s senses. Newborns can only
see objects or people clearly when they appear within 18 inches in front of them—usually
the distance between the infant and his or her mother’s face when the infant is being
held. Visual acuity is very limited but develops rapidly over the next several months. Color
discrimination occurs around the age of 4 months, but newborns still prefer bright colors
and patterns to gray or dull ones.

Reflexes
There are several important reflexes that a newborn baby shows after birth; each has a specific
duration and function. For instance:

 Rooting/Sucking—This reflex allows the baby to find the mother’s nipple (or bottle
nipple) in order to eat. It can be elicited by stroking the baby’s cheek; the baby will turn in
the direction of the stimulation and look for the nipple. Rooting (the stroking of the cheek
to stimulate the feeding response) is replaced by sucking at around 4 months of age.
 Moro—The Moro reflex is thought to help babies cling to their mothers for safety and
protection. If a loud banging noise is made near the baby, the baby will make an
“embracing” motion (extending arms and legs then bringing them back toward the body)
in an attempt to cling. This generally disappears around 6 months of age.
 Stepping—The stepping reflex prepares the baby to start walking independently. When
the baby is held under the arms with their bare feet touching the ground, the newborn
will make “stepping” movements with his or her legs. This generally disappears around
the age of 2 months.
  Babinski—The function of the Babinski reflex is unknown, although it may have to do
with walking. After stroking the bottom of the baby’s foot from toe to heel, the baby’s
toes fan out and the foot pulls up and away toward the shin. This can last up until the end
of the first year of life, though it often disappears around 8-9 months. At this point the
reflex changes, and the toes curl down and the foot curls in response to the same
stimulation. If the earlier Babinksi reflex is found in an adult, it can indicate some form of
brain damage.

Physical Development in Childhood

Children’s physical development occurs rapidly during the first few years of life as they develop
both gross and fine motor skills.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The development of both gross and fine motor skills helps a child go from being a
completely dependent newborn to being an independently functioning toddler in about
three years.
 Gross motor skills coordinate the large muscle groups that control our arms and legs
and involve larger movements like balancing, running, and jumping.
 Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscle movements, usually involving
the hands working in coordination with the eyes.
 Children meet a myriad of physical development milestones in the first few years of life,
from walking to drawing to self-feeding.

Key Terms

 posture: The way a person holds and positions their body.

 dexterity: Skill in performing tasks, especially with the hands.

Infants and children grow and develop at a rapid pace during the first few years of life. The
development of both gross and fine motor skills helps a child go from a completely dependent
newborn to an independently functioning toddler in about a 3-year span.
Gross versus Fine Motor Skills
Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. Gross motor
skills coordinate the large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger
movements like balancing, running, and jumping. By the end of the second year of life, most
children (except those with disabilities or other special needs) can stand up, walk/run, climb
stairs, jump, and skip. As children grow older (ages 4-5), many can also catch balls, ride bikes,
and run with more speed and agility. The prerequisite to all these skills is postural control—the
ability to hold one’s head up, sit independently, and stand. Appropriate posture allows the child
to learn to walk, run, and engage in other gross motor skills.
Fine motor skills, by contrast, involve the coordination of small muscle movements, usually
involving the hands working in coordination with the eyes. Hand-eye coordination allows a child
to perform such skills as drawing, using buttons and zippers, eating with utensils, and tying
shoes. Children increase their mastery of these skills through practice. For example, at age 2, a
child’s drawing might be a series of crayon scribbles, but by age 5, he or she might be able to
draw a person’s face complete with eyes, nose, and mouth.
Physical Milestones
As stated above, children grow very quickly and meet physical milestones rapidly in the first few
years of life. The following is a list of the major milestones that occur in children during those
first formative years.
Up to 24 months:

 Crawls skillfully and quickly

 Stands alone with feet spread apart, legs stiffened, and arms extended for support
 Gets to feet unaided
 Can walk unassisted near the end of this period; falls often; is not always able to
maneuver around obstacles, such as furniture or toys
 Uses furniture to lower self to floor; collapses backwards into a sitting position, or falls
forward on hands and then sits
 Enjoys pushing or pulling toys while walking
 Repeatedly picks up objects and throws them; direction becomes more deliberate
 Attempts to run; has difficulty stopping and usually just drops to the floor
 Crawls up stairs on all fours; goes down stairs in same position
 Enjoys crayons and markers for scribbling; uses whole-arm movement
 Helps feed self; enjoys holding a spoon (often upside down) and drinking from a glass or
cup; not always accurate in getting utensils into mouth; frequent spills should be
expected
 Helps turn the pages in book
 Stacks two to six objects per day

Up to 3 years:

 Walks up and down stairs unassisted, using alternating feet; may jump from bottom
step, landing on both feet
 Can momentarily balance on one foot
 Can kick big ball-shaped objects
 Needs minimal assistance eating
  Jumps on the spot
 Pedals a small tricycle
 Throws a ball overhand; aim and distance are limited
 Catches a large bouncing ball with both arms extended
 Shows improved control of crayons or markers; uses vertical, horizontal and circular
strokes
 Holds crayon or marker between first two fingers and thumb (tripod grasp), not in a fist
as earlier
 Can turn the pages of a book one at a time
 Enjoys building with blocks
 Builds a tower of eight or more blocks
 Enjoys playing with clay; pounds, rolls, and squeezes it
 May begin to show hand dominance
 Manipulates large buttons and zippers on clothing
 Washes and dries hands; brushes own teeth, but not thoroughly

By age 6:

 Gains greater control over large and fine motor skills; movements are more precise and
deliberate, though some clumsiness persists
 Enjoys vigorous running, jumping, climbing, and throwing etc.
 Span of attention increases; works at tasks for longer periods of time
 Can concentrate effort but not always consistently
 Has fun with problem-solving and sorting activities like stacking, puzzles, and mazes
 Enjoys the challenge of puzzles, counting, and sorting activities, paper-and-pencil mazes,
and games that involve matching letters and words with pictures
 Recognizes some words by sight; attempts to sound out words
 Increased functioning which facilitates learning to ride a bicycle, swim, swing a bat, or
kick a ball
 Able to trace objects
 Folds and cuts paper into simple shapes
 Can tie laces, string (like shoes)
 Cognitive Development in Childhood

Cognitive development occurs rapidly during childhood as the brain continues to grow and
develop.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Cognitive development refers to the development of a child in terms of information

processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, and language learning.
 The brain grows and matures rapidly during early childhood, faster than any other organ
in a child’s body.
 Through a process known as synaptic pruning, neurons that are not useful to the brain
die off, making room for more relevant connections that help a child learn.
 The process of myelination improves message transfer between synapses and assists in
brain development; essentially, it assists in the development of advanced brain function.
 The concept of neuroplasticity explores how the brain changes in the course of a
lifetime and how different areas of the brain can evolve and adapt over time.
 Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development focuses on the development of
concept through make-believe play and symbolism. In the concrete operational stage, a
child’s thinking becomes more logical and focused.

Key Terms

 synapse: The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a
muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass.
 myelination: The production of a coating of myelin around an axon.
 neurotransmitter: Any substance, such as acetylcholine or dopamine, responsible for
sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons.
 glial cell: Non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide
support and protection for neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system.

The Brain During Childhood

Cognitive development refers to the development of a child in terms of information processing,

conceptual resources, perceptual skill, and language learning. The brain grows and matures
rapidly during early childhood, faster than any other organ in a child’s body. Once nerve cells in
the brain are in place, they form synapses. These synapses release neurotransmitters, which are
chemical signals that help the brain communicate. Synapses evolve rapidly, and in doing so,
some synapses will die off to make room for new or more important ones. If a neuron is not
being used by the brain, it goes through a process known as synaptic pruning—the removal of
unnecessary neurons to make room for necessary ones.

Myelination

Glial cells, which account for half of all brain mass in early childhood, are responsible for a
process known as myelination. This process improves message transfer between synapses and
assists in brain development. The connection between neighboring neurons (which is made
smoother through myelination) allows for advanced brain function, such as planning and
implementing behaviors and integrating sensory information from the environment. Due to
synaptic pruning, myelination, and a child’s environmental experiences, the developing brain
will grow from 30 percent of its adult weight at birth to 70 percent by age 2.

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity is also an important aspect of early childhood development. Also known as

brain plasticity, neuroplasticity is an umbrella term that refers to changes in neural pathways
and synapses caused by changes in behavior, environment, neural processes, thinking, and
emotions—as well as changes resulting from bodily injury. The concept of neuroplasticity
explores how the brain changes over the course of a lifetime and how different areas of the
brain can evolve and adapt over time. This change occurs on a variety of levels, ranging from
cellular changes (caused by learning) to large-scale changes in response to injury. The role of
neuroplasticity is considered important to healthy development, learning, memory, and
recovery from brain damage.

Cognitive Development and Piaget’s Stages

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget was one of the most influential researchers in the field
of child development. He developed his four-stage theory of cognitive development based on
the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world
around them. Two of these stages, the preoperational and concrete operational, are especially
important in early childhood development. According to Piaget, each stage of development
incorporates previous knowledge; that is, a child needs to go through an earlier stage in order
to fully develop in a later stage.

Preoperational Development

Preoperational development allows children to increase their mental representation of objects,

generally through make-believe play. Piaget states that language is the most flexible means of
mental representation; at the same time, young children do not yet have the capability to use
language alone as a means of representation. Rather, children perform actions as a means to
master language and symbolic thought. Sociodramatic play, in which children play with others
 and create elaborate plots and characters, culminates in the understanding of representational
thought and activity. Much thought during the preoperational phase is egocentric—focused
only on the child’s point of view.

Concrete Operational Development

During the concrete operational stage, a major turning point in cognition occurs: the
appearance of more logical and organized thought. Several key thinking processes emerge
during this stage, including reversibility, seriation, and transitive inference. Reversibility is the
capacity to go through a series of steps and mentally reverse them, ending up at the
beginning. Seriation is the ability to order items by a quantitative dimension, such as height or
weight. Transitive inference is a relational concept in which children can understand how
objects are related to one another; for example, if a dog is a mammal, and a boxer is a dog,
then a boxer must also be a mammal.

Socioemotional Development in Childhood

Childhood is a time of rapid emotional and social development, as children learn to regulate
emotions and interact with others.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant

across the human lifespan. Social development is the way in which humans learn to
interact with one another.
 Emotional self-regulation refers to a child’s ability to change his or her emotional state
to either match that of others (social), or make the child more comfortable in a particular
situation (social and personal).
 The ability to empathize, or identify with the feelings of another person, helps aid in the
development of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic (helpful, beneficent, or
unselfish) behavior.
 Play is one way in which children develop relationships with others. Several types of play
exist, and each type builds upon the last in a three-step process.
 Intersubjectivity refers to the psychological relation between people; in child
development, it refers to the very rapid cultural development of newborn infants.
 Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts,
feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own; this is known as theory of mind.
Key Terms

 empathy: The capacity to understand another person’s point of view, or the result of
such understanding.
 temperament: A person’s normal manner of thinking, behaving, or reacting.
 intersubjectivity: The state or condition of involving or occurring between separate
conscious minds; a term used to represent the psychological relation between people.

Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the
human lifespan. Social development is the way in which humans learn to interact with one
another. Together, the development of both of these factors reflects the changes in a child’s
emotions and relationships with others that occur throughout childhood.

Emotional Self-Regulation

During a child’s life, he or she goes from looking at emotions from an external point of view to
an internal point of view. As children develop advanced language skills, they develop the ability
to regulate emotions. Emotional self-regulation refers to children’s ability to monitor, evaluate,
and modify their emotional reactions in any given situation. It is a skill that develops over time,
and involves both responding to situations with emotions that are socially acceptable and
developing the ability to withhold emotions or delay spontaneous reactions when necessary. A
child’s temperament has a large impact on emotional self-regulation: children who are more
negatively focused tend to have a more difficult time with regulation than those who are
focused on the positive aspects of life.

Empathy

The development of empathy is a crucial part of emotional and social development in

childhood. The ability to identify with the feelings of another person helps in the development
of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic (helpful, beneficent, or unselfish) behavior.
Altruistic behavior occurs when a person does something in order to benefit another person
without expecting anything in return. Empathy helps a child develop positive peer relationships;
it is affected by a child’s temperament, as well as by parenting style. Children raised in loving
homes with affectionate parents are more likely to develop a sense of empathy and altruism,
whereas those raised in harsh or neglectful homes tend to be more aggressive and less kind to
others.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/infancy-and-childhood/