Mixec and

Mixed purre
nd pu FAO
FORESTRY
PAPER

forest plantat
forest plantations
ns
103
in the tropics
in
E nl subtr
and pics
su btropics

Based on
Based on the
the work of
T.J. Wormald

saree
sarec Agcnty foi Reapotch Cooperation
onth Clevelopmq Count roa

FOOD
FOOD
AND
AND
AGRICUL TURE
AGRtCULTURE
ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION
THE
OF THE
NATIONS
UNITED NATIONS
1992
Rome, 1992
 The designations employed and the the presentation
presentation of
of material
material in
in this
this
publication
publication do not imply
imply the
theexpression
expression of
ofany
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opinionwhatsoever
whatsoever on on
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the part
part of
of the
the Food
Food and
and Agriculture
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Organization of
of the
the United
United
Nations concerning
Nations concerning the
the legal
legal status
status of
of any
any country,
country, territory,
territory, city
city or
or
area or of its
its authorities,
authorities, or
or concerning
concerning the
the delimitation
delimitation of
of its
its frontiers
or boundaries.

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©FAO
© FAO 1992
1992
 (il
(i)

FDREI'l)RD
ROREWORD

"Plantation forests
forests represent
represent approximately 3% of the the present
present forest
forest
area rut contriWte a lTU.lch
but contribute much higher proportion of the annualannual world
world production
of wood"
wood"1.'. In several countries
countries in the
the tropics these plantations
plantations have
have been
been
priIrary source
the primary source of products and in others have
of wood products have even been seen as as
alternative sources
sources of supply to to the
the natural
natural forest,
forest, which
which they
they thus
thus protect
protect
fran
from over-exploitation. Plantations are also established
established to provide shelter
for livestock
livestodk and to prevent erosion by by wind or water, and
wind or and to
to provide range
provide a range
of non-wood forest
forest products.
products . Recently there have have been proposals to create
plantations to
plantations to act
act as
as "c.97-bon
"carbon sinks"
sinks"with
with the
the aim
aim of
of reducing
reducing global
global wanning
warning
caused greenhouse effect.
the greenhouse
caused by the effect. objectives of
The objectives of plantations
plantations were
were
surmarised
summarised in one
one of
of the
the reccmrwandations
recommendations of
of the
the 10th
10th World
World Fbrestry Congress:
ForestryCongress:
"A large increase
increase inin the area of plantations
plantations is an absolute necessity,
necessity, in
order to satisfy a growing demand products, to
demand for wood products, reduce stress
to reduce stress on
on
natural forest ecosystems andand to
to sequester
sequester atmospheric
atrrospheric carbon".
carbon".

Yet forest
forest plantations
plantations have
have attracted
attracted criticism,
criticism, despite
despite their
their potential
potential
benefits. The rapid expansion of industrial plantations
of industrial plantations in in the
the last
last forty
forty
years has
has led
led at
at times
times to
to strongly
stronglyadverse
adverse reactions
reactions. . These
These plantations
plantations have
have
been oveJ:Whelmingly
been overwhelmingly ccmposed
composedofof only only aa few
few species
species on on any scheme,
scherre, and
generally of a single,
single, even-aged
even-aged species
speCies inin aa compartment. Sometimes, in
carpa.rt:ment . Sanetimes, in
creating these plantations,
plantations, the rightsrights of access of of local people
people toto the
the site
site
have been lost,
lost, or species have been replaced on
been replaced on which theythey depended for sane
depended for sare
aspect of their daily lives;
lives; often the clearing of the land and the burning rurning
of debris
debris have
have caused
caused erosion.
erosion. many people
To many
TO people the the appearance
appearance of such
of such
plantatiOns, even in
plantations, even in maturity, is is artificial.
artificial. Sane
Some tenperate
temperate countries have
claimed that
claimed flCM is
that stream flow is acidified
acidified inin certain
certain situations;
Situations; sare other
sane other
countries have suspected
suspected that
that site
site productivity
productivityhashas been
been reduced in second or or
rotations. The
subsequent rotations. The mcst
II'OSt apparent
apparent cause
cause of thesethese problems
problems is thethe
perceived unnatural ccmposition
composition and and structure ofof the large,
large, even-aged
even-aged blocks
blocks
of one or
or aa few
few speCies,
species, and the apparent solution seems at
solution seems at first
first sight
sight to
to be
be
to plant a mixture of many
many species
species and ages.
and ages.

A
A similar situation of of criticism on
on the one hand and large
large potential
potential
benefits on the other arose with increasing errphasis
emphasis on the use of species
of Eucalyptus. The SWedish
of the genus Eucalyptus. Swedish International Developrent
Development Agency (SIDAl
Agency (SIDA)
ccmnissioned FAO in
commissioned mID in 1985
1985 to prepare aa study2
to prepare studt to
to review
review the
the available
available
infonnation
information on the
the ecological
ecological effects of Eucalyptus
effects of Eucalyptus plantations
plantations which
which provided
provided
. an authoritative report
report onon the state
state of
of knowledge
knCMledge at
at that
that time.
time . The present
study
study and extensive annotated
and extensive annotated bibliography
bibliography has been ccmnissioned
has been commissioned byby the
the
SWedish
Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation
C=peration within
within Developing
Developing Countries
Countries (SAREC)
(SARECl
with the aim of objectively analyzing the available evidence
evidence for or against
establisrnent of plantations composed
the establishment ccmposed of several species a::npared
compared with
with
those composed
ccmposed of one
one species.
species.

11 The
The Paris
Paris Declaration. Tenth World
World Forestry
Fbrestry Congress,
Congress, Paris.
Paris . 17th
1991.
to 26th September, 1991.

2 "The ecological effects of Eucalyptus" M.E.D.Pcoreand

by M.E.D.Poore
Eucalyptus" by andC.C.Fries.
Fries.
Forestry Paper
~ Forestry
FAD Paper 59.
59 . 1985.
1985.
 (ii)

F1IO
FAD is
is indebted
indebted to Mr. T.
toMr. T. J. Wormald, who
J.Wörmald, who had overall responsibility for for
drafting the study,study, and to Mr J. J. Cedergren and Ms F. Goulet who did
Ms F. did !lOSt
ncst of
the
the literature research; to Messrs
literature research; Messrs G. B. Applegate, C.
G. B. C. Cossalter, R. R.
Delmastro, S.
Delmastro, T. M::lk,
S. T. F. <Mino,
Mok, F. Cuino, A.
A. Persson and J. J. L.
L. Whitm::>re with many
who with
Whitmore who many
lOClre fran around
more from around the world provided helpfulhelpful comment
a::mrent on the first draft;
the first draft; and
and
for thethe bibliographic
bibliographic assistance of of the Director,
Director, Librarian
Librarian and Staff
Staff of
of the
the
OXford
Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI, UK) and the Director
(OFl, UK) and Staff of
Director and the Centre
of the Centre
Technique Forestier (caTT, France),
Forestier Tropical (CTFT, France), which
which proved
proved invaluable.
invaluable. Within
Within
F1IO
FAO the study
study was coordinated by
WaR coordinated by J. B. Ball,
J. B. Ball, with
with inputs
inputs from
fran G.
G. S.
S. Child,
Child, W.
W.
M. Ciesla, S.
M.Ciesla, S. Darroze,
Darroze, K. Janz, C.Palmberg-Lerche,
K. Janz, C. PaJroberg-Lerche,W.W.A.A.Rodgers,
Rodgers,P.P.Vantornme
Vantame
and P. Wardle .
P . A. Wardle.

It is hoped that
that this
this study
study will
will be useful to
be useful to foresters
foresters and others
and others
involved in forestry developrent
development in the tropics
tropiCS and sub-tropics,
sub-tropiCS, to assist
assist
than to decide
themto decide on
on aa sound
sound technical
technical and econanic basis the species carp:lSition
and economic composition
of forest
forest plantations andand to put in
in proportion those dogmatic
dogmatic or
or emotional
EmOtional
statarents
statements in favour or or against single
single or
or multiple
Irn.lltiple species
species plantations.
plantations.

J. P.. Lanly
J.
Director
Forest Resources Division
Forestry Department
Forestry Depart:ment
 (iii)
CONTENTS
Page
1 INTRODUCTION

Background 1
Objectives of the study
study 2
2
Scope of the study 2
2
Importanoe of
Importance of management
management objectives
objectives 33
Good forestry practioe
practice 4
Definitions of
Definitions of "mixture"
"mixture" 55
Extent of
Extent of rronospecific plantations
monospecific plantations 6

2 roms!'
FOREST EXX>SYS':W!IS
ECOSYSTEMS 8
8

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
3 ElWIKHmITAL 11

33.1
.1 SOILS
SOILS 11

Soil characteristics 11
Evidenoe for
Evidence for second
seccnd rotation
rotation yield decline 13
13
Role of mixtures in
Role in soil
soil management 17
COnclusions soils
Conclusions on soils 18

3.2
3.2 CLIMATE AND POLLUTION
Klu.UrION 19

Clinate
Climate change 19
CO
CO2
2
reservoirs
reservoirs 21
Microclinate
Microclimate 21
21
Pollution 22
22

3.3 FIRE 23
23

33.4
. 4 CONSERVATION OF ANIMAL AND
AND PLANT GENErIC
GENETIC RESOURCES 23
23

General considerations 23
23
COnservation
Conservation of biodiversity 24
Wildlife management 26
26
Conclusions on conservation 29
29

33.5
.5 INSEcr8 AND DISEASES
INSECTS DISEASES 29

Stability of forest ecosystems

eccsystems 30
Same opposing views
Sane 31
31
Role of mixed planting
Role 34
Conclusions on insects
insects and
and diseases
diseases 36

33.6
.6 CONCLUSIONS
OONCLUSIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
IMPAcr 37

4 NON-INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 39

Non-commercial uses
Non-commercial uses 39
39
FUelwood and poles 40
Fodder 40
Rehabilitation of
of degraded
degraded sites
sites 40
Shelterbelts and windbreaks 41
Urban and periurban planting 42
Sane examples of non-industrial plantations
plantations 42
COnclusions
Conclusions on non-industrial products
products and
and services
servioes 44
 (iv)
(iv)
Page

5mE~OF~
5 THE MANAGEMENT OF MIXTURES 45

A classification of
A classification of mixtures 45
Silvicultural criteria for sucoessful
successful mixtures 49
of establishing
Methods of establishing mixtures 50
Management skills 51
51
sane experiences
Sane experienoes with
with mixtures
mixtures 52
52
Conclusions on the management of mixtures 55
55

6 YIEIDS
YIELDS 56

North AIrerica
America and temperate Asia 56
Europe 57
57
Tropics 59
59
Conclusions on yields 61

77 EXXH:IfiCS
ECONMICS 62

econanics of mixtures
The economics 63
Temperate experience
experienoe 63
Tropical experience
experienoe 64
Long term
tenn gains and losses
losses 65
Risk evaluation
evaluation 66
Conclusions on economics
Conclusions on econanics 67

8 MAIN CONCLUSIONS 68

Plantations in
in the
the tropics and
and sub-tropics
sub-tropics 68
Decline in
Decline in yields
yields of wood 68
Importanoe of site
Importance of site and
and objectives
objectives 69
Risk 69
Synergy 70
70
plantations
Types of plantations 70
70
Conservation of
of wildlife 71

9 RECOMMENDATIONS 72

Objectives of
of plantations
plantations 72
Matching species
Matching species and
and management practices
practices to
to site
site 72
Situations where mixtures
Situations mixtures are
are appropriate
appropriate 72
Growth monitoring 73
73
Research 73
73
Econanic
Economic analysis 74

APPElIDICES
APPENDICES

1 Annotated Bibliography 75
75

2
2 Soils 119
3
3 Species mixtures 129
4
4 Sandalwood 145

5
5 Photographs
Photographs 148
1. INTRODUCTION.

Background

The total area of forest plantations in the world was estjroated

estimated in
1980 to be about
About 100 million
million hectares
hectares of
of which
which about
About 35
35 million
million haha were
were in
countries; About
developing countries; about 10 million ha were in tropical =untries
countries which
were establishing new plantations at the rate of about 11.1 . 1 million ha
yearly (Lanly,
yearly (Lanly, 1982,
1982, FAO, 1988). While
F7\0, 1988). While this
this rate
rate of afforestation
afforestation and
and
reforestation was
was only aa small proportion
proportion of that
that in the
the sub-tropical
sub-tropical and
tarperate zones it seems
temperate likely to increase as many countries
searlS likely =untries seek to
CCIlp€IlSate for the loss of natural
compensate natural forests.
forests. Due to the high potential
fran plantations in the tropics (and
yields from (and sub-tropics)
sub-tropics) their contribution
contril:ution
to wood production should
should be proportionately
proportionately much
much greater
greater than their area.
than their area.
About 40% of the existing and planned plantations have been established for
fuelwood production and other non-industrial purposes
fuelwood (Lanly, 1982)
purposes (Lanly, 1982) rut
but the
the
production of
rest have been for the production of industrial
industrial roundwood.
roundwo:ld . These latter
are typically
plantations are typically simple
sirople in
in both
both structure
structure and species composition;
and species carposition;
it has been pointed
has been pointed out (Evans, 1982)
out (EVans, 1982) that
that pioneers
pioneers such
such as
as Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
species, pines and teak account for 85% of all forest
species, forest plantations
plantations in thethe
tropiCS.
tropics.

undoubted benefits
Despite the undoubted benefits ofof industrial
industrial roundwood
roundwo:ld plantations,
plantations,
such monospecific
monospecific plantations
plantations and
and especially
especially monocultures
monocultures -- the
the succession
succession
of one pure stand by another of the same species -- carry risks of of
catastrophes
catastrophes such
such as
as wind
wind blCM
blow and
and loss
loss fran
from pests and disease
pests and disease and
and the
the
likelihood of soil degradation and declinedecline in
in yields.
yields. With the
accelerating destruction
destruction ofof natural
natural forests
forests in the tropics
in the tropics there
there are
are
increased fears
fears that the forest
forest plantation
plantation programme
prograrrme may
may be
be contributing
=ntril:uting to to
the process
process ofof environrrental
environmental degradation.
degradation. Nevertheless
Nevertheless in the developing
in the developing
countries the heavy
countries the heavy invest:mant
investment inin forestry
forestry plantations
plantations that
that started
started inin the
the
parly years of the century and which increased dramatically in the nineteen
early
fifties has relied to
fifties has to aa large
large extent
extent on
on monospecific,
monospecific, short
short rotation
rotation
plantations. Although the
plantations. the investment
invest:mant has been large
large in
in relation
relation to
to
previous work,
previous work, in fact the total achieverent
achievement is small in ccnparison
comparison to the
predicted demand
predicted for industrial
danand for industrial roundwood.
roundwo:ld. Rotations are commonly
ccmronly 2020 to
to 30
30
years,
years, are seldon
seldom longer than 60 years
than 60 years and may
may be
be as
as short
short as or 66 years
as 5 or years
(for e:x:anple
example Eucalyptus globulus =ppice
EUcalyptus globllus Ethiopia; Albizia
coppice in Ethiopia; Albizia falcatarial
falcataria'
in Sabah,
Sabah, East
Fast Malaysia, Brazil). Second rotation
Malaysia, Eucalyptus species in Brazil).
plantations are
plantations are ccmron
common and on sane sites thirdthird rotation
rotation crops have been
established. As a result
result of advances in in tree breeding
breeding and in silvicultural
techniques the potential
potential exists
exists for
for increased yields;
yields; vegetative
vegetative
propagation techniques make a quidk quick consolidation
=nsolidation of of these
these gains
gains possible.
possible.
But if care
rare is not taken there
is not there is
is also aa risk that
that these
these techniques
techniques will
will
lead to aa reduction in the genetic diversity available for
diversity available for use
use and
and
iroproverent
improvement.. The question needs to be asked asked whether
whether these developments
developrents
tCMards
towards more
more intensive plantation operatiOns carry unacceptable
operations carry unacceptable risks.
risks.

, Previously
1 known as
Previously knCMn as Albizia fálcata and
Albizia falcata and as
as A. moluccana and nCM
A. moluccana now
known as Paraserianthes
knCMn falcataria. Since the name Albizia
Faraserianthes falcataria. is
falcataria is
Albizia fálcataria
better knCMn
known to foresters it has been used
used throughout
throughout this
this study.
study.
 2

~jectives
Objectives of the study
The objectives of this study
study are
are to:
to:

review and analyse the benefits and dl:awbacks

draWbacks of mixed
mixed and pure
plantations in
in the
the tropics
tropics and
and sub-tropics,
sub-tropics,
collate the
to collate the field
field experiences
experiences of
of mixed and pure
mixed and pure plantings,
plantings,
detennine, if possible,
to determine, foll~ in establishing
possible, principles to be followed
plantations,
suggest guidelines
to suggest guidelines for
for field
field foresters
foresters and decision-makers.
and decision-makers.

This study
study has been derived
derived fram
fran an
an extensive
extensive review
review of
of the
the
fran contacts with
literature and from with foresters
foresters worldwide.
worldwide. IlocI.mented
Documented
references to mixed
mixed plantings in the tropics, however, are
tropics, ~ver, are sparse
sparse and
and
uneven , both
uneven, roth in
in geographical
geographical distribution
distribution and
and in
in quality.
quality . Therefore where
experience in the te:rperate
temperate zones has appeared to be relevant it it has
has been
been
used.
used

This paper is directed primarily to those foresters who have the

responsibility for planning plantation
plantation projects
projects and to senior
and to senior field
field staff
staff
and decision-makers who are responsible
and responsible for prescribing the detailed
managenent of plantations.
management of plantations. Secondarily, directed to policy
Secondarily, it is directed policy makers
makers
who must also be aware of the limitations of pure plantations and the role
of mixed
mixed plantations.

Scope of the study

Scqle

The tropics are a fairly clearly

clearly defined
defined belt
belt spanning
spanning the the equator.
equator .
roundaries are set by latitude -- the tropics of Cancer and
Whether the boundaries
Capricorn -- or by
by the mean temperature
te:rperature of
of the
the coldest
coldest month
IlOl1th (1892),
(18Ce), or by by
the difference inin temperature
te:rperature between
between the
the coolest
coolest and
and warmest
warmest month
IlOl1th (5°C)
(5OC)
covered do
the countries covered not change
do not change much. The grcMing
growing conditions in those
countries can, however, be very variable -- humid
can, ~ver, humid rainforests,
rainforests, deserts,
deserts,
savannas and cool
cool montane
IlOl1tane climates.
climates. The scope of this study also includes
the sub-tropiCS,
sub-tropics, the definition of which is geographically
which is geographically muchmuch more
!lOre vague.
vague.
Experiences have been included fran from the Himalayas,
Himalayas, southern Africa
Africa and
and
Chile;
Chile; experiences in south Australia have been
Australia have discussed in
been discussed in some
sane detail,
detail,
because so much
much of
of the
the evidence
evidence for and against
for and against second rotation
rotation yield
yield
decline has been collected there.
been collected there. The literature fromfran northern Africa
Africa waswas
not examined in detail,
detail, nor WaS
was that from
fran the southern
southern United
United States,
states,
though sane
same data fran
from there have been
been noted where
where they filled
filled aa gapgap in
in the
the
tropical experience.
experience. Evidence franfrom te:rperate
temperate zones has also
zones has been used
also been used inin
order to supplenent
supplement deficiencies in the tropical data, data, where
where considered
considered
relevant . The selection of literature has been directed t~
relevant. towards developing
countries where possible;
possible; the availability of published
pdblished records
records has been aa
has been
major influence inin determining
detennining which
which countries
countries have
have been included .
been included.

limits have
Sane technical limits
Same have been set to
been set to the
the study.
study . Those tree crops
crops
fall
usually considered to fall within the agricultural sector,
sector, such as
as rubber
rdbber
gra.m under
or oil palm, and even those grown under the
the shade
shade of
of trees,
trees, such
such as
as tea,
tea,
coffee or cocoa, have
have been excluded . Mixtures involving
been excluded. involving the !lOre obviously
more obviously
agricultural crops such as occur
oc= in in agroforestry
agroforestry systems
systems have
have been
been
 33

excluded, because they

excluded, they are covered in the extensive agroforestry
literature.

study of forest plantations, therefore naturally

This is a study naturally
regenerated mixtures have not been considered,
considered, except in so far as
naturally regenerated indigenous species may
naturally contriblte to diversity in
may contribute
artificially established
artificially established stands.
stands . Enrichment planting is in concept a
technique for improving natural stands and as such would be excluded from
and as fran
study, but
this study, rut the distinction between enrichment planting and replacement
replac::arent
planting is
planting is often
often aa fine
fine one.
one. Enrichment planting is used to establish
favoured species in a matrix of naturally
naturally occurring
oc=ing trees;
trees; such plantings
can eventually
can eventually through
through selective felling of the natural stand be converted
to a pure plantation.
plantation . This technique has been to establish some
been used to SCIre of the
genera in
genera in the
the family
family Meliaceae.
Meliaceae. Enrichment planting is therefore discussed
briefly.

natural regeneration
The natural
The regeneration of herbs and
and shrubs
shrubs in
in tree plantations,
plantations,
whether of a single
whether single or
or several species, has been considered toto provide some
SCIre
of the benefits of aa mixture;
mixture; these same herbs and shrubs may
may be referred
"weeds", however,
to as "weeds", ~ver, when they interfere
when they interfere with
with the
the planted
planted trees,
trees,
especially during the establishment
especially during establishment phase.
phase.

IDportance of management:
Importance objectives
management objectives

The need for clear objectives for plantation establishment is

pararrount and
paramount and is
is stressed
stressed throughout
throughout this
this study.
study. The objectives will
will to aa
large extent detennine
determine the manner in which a plantation is established and
managed as
managed as well
well as
as the
the species
species used.
used . If the primary objective is to raise
a unifolJll product, as is usual for an industrial prooess,
uniform product, process, then the scope
plantations may
for mixed plantations may be
be limited.
limited. Conversely if the primary objective
is to protect
protect aa sensitive
sensitive site,
site, then
then mixtures
mixtures may
may be
be more
more appropriate,
appropriate, and
and
many of the
many the techniques suited
suited to industrial
industrial production may became
bec:are
unacceptable. Where the site is is not a limiting
limiting factor,
factor, the end product or
products and
products and the
the biology
biology of the species
species selected
selected will determine
detennine the
mixed or
appropriateness of mixed pure plantations.
or pure plantatiOns.

MOst
Mbst of the literature discusses mixtures in relation to to industrial
plantations. But in in the developing countries a high proportion of
plantations are for "non-industrial" purposes (primarily
(primarily fuelwood and
1988). In the Middle East all plantations have been described
(TIlO 1988).
poles) (FAO
non-industrial; in West Sahelian Africa over 80% are non-industrial;
as non-industrial; non-industrial; in
several regions,
regions, including East
East Africa,
Africa, Insular Africa
Africa (Madagascar and
and
islands), South East
other islands), Past Asia from
fran Myanmar to Vietnam,
Vietnam, more than 50% of
were non-industrial
plantations were non-industrial in
in 1980.
1980 .

Table 1:
Table 1: (' OOOha) of established
Areas ('000ha) established plantations, in 1980.
1980 .
Industrial Non industrial Total
Hardwoc:rls
Hardwoods Softwoods
Africa 642 (21%) 659 (22%)
(22%) (56%)
1686 (56%) 2987
Asia
Asia 2891 (55%)
(55%) 592 (11%)
(11%) (34%)
1759 (34%) 5242
(excl China)
S.l\Irerica
S.America 1085 (28%) (37%)
2322 (37%) (35%)
2170 (35%) 5877
Pacific Ocean 55 78 (89%)
(89%) 55 (( 6%) 88
88
Total 4623 (33%)
(33%) (26%)
3651 (26%) 5620 . (41%)
(41%) 13894

Source
Source:: TIlO 1988
FAO
 4

A large proportion of the forestry effort in the tropics and

A large
grcMing products,
subtropics is involved in growing products, such as fuelwood,
fuelwood, for which
unifonnity of size or technical properties is not of I!'ajor
uniformity iroportance and
major importance
mixtures may
therefore mixtures I!'ay be suitable.
be suitable.

p l antation projects
It is usual for plantation projects to
to have
have more
lOClre than one objective.
than one objective.
It is readily acknCMledged
adknowledged that in industrial plantation
plantation projects
projects anan
objective should
should be the I!'aintenance of site
maintenance of site fertility.
fertility . It is probably less
readily recognised that the I!'anagement
management ofof aa protection
protection forest
forest will
will also
yield forest products and aa financial
financial return and,
and, where
where there
there is
is pressure
pressure
on the land,
land, it is extremely difficult to protect
protect forests
forests unless
unless they can
be seen to be I!'anaged and to
managed and to be productive . Production,
be productive. subject to good
Production, stbject
forestry practice,
practice, is an essential part
paxt of active I!'anagement
management and can help
satisfy the requirements of villagers neighbouring the forest;
satisfy forest; furtheDOClre
furthermore
in I!'any
many developing
developing countries
countries revenue
revenue is
is required in order
order toto I!'aintain
maintain
protection .
protection.

Good Forestry
Good Forestry Practice

Reference has already been I!'ade

made to good forestry practice
practice and
and the
the
need for
need for it
it will
will be stressed throughout
be stressed throughout this
this study.
study. Good forestry practice
rreans the conduct of forestry operations in sudh
means such a way that not only is the
plantation I!'aintained
maintained in a vigorous and healthy condition, rut
hPalthy condition, but also that
site is
the fertility of the site is maintained
I!'aintained in
in future
future rotations.
rotations . Good forestry
practice is the tedhnical
technical contribution
contriWtion to to sustainable
sustainable forestry
forestry development;
developnent;
social and econanic
economic considerations are also
also of major
I!'ajor importance.
iroportance . The need
for good forestry practice
practice is
is particularly
particularly apparent
apparent atat four
four stages
stages in
in aa
rotation.

1. Species selection.

It is necessary to I!'atch
match species to site with particular reference
with particular reference to
to
cliI!'ate and soil;
climate soil; planting
planting aa species or provenance
provenance in conditions
conditions that
that are
are
different fran
fram those of its natural range,
range, that
that is
is "off-site",
"off-site", generally
generally
causes problems sooner
sooner or
or later.
later.

2. Site clearance and

and establishment.
establishment .

Site clearing and

and establishment techniques must
establishment tec,~iques be appropriate
must be appropriate to
to the
the
site with
with particular
particular reference
reference to
to the
the species
species asas well
well as
as soil
soil type,
type, slope
slope
and rainfall intensity. Any Any practice
practice that
that risks
risks serious
serious erosion or loss
loss of
fertility is not
not good
good forestry practice;
practice; the
the I!'aintenance
maintenance of ground cover
of ground cover
and the minimal
minimal use
use of
of fire
fire and of earth lOClving
of earth moving equipnent
equipment during
during site
site
preparati on is
preparation is indicated.
indicated .

3. maintenance
Maintenance and
and management.
I!'anagement.

During the establishment

establishment phase
phase it
it is
is iroportant to ensure
iwortant to ensure that
that the
the
good start.
crop gets a good start. This is usually done by enabling the crop to
daninate
dominate the site as quickly
quiCkly as possible and is achieved by weed control
by weed control
and ensuring that there are adequate nutrients
nutrients and lOClisture,
moisture, for
for exanple
example by
by
and by
adding fertiliser and lIUllching or
by mulching or maintaining
I!'aintaining ground
ground cover.
cover.

grCMth, at least
In later phases of growth, least for
for wood
wood production,
production, itit is
is
iroportant to prevent
important prevent stagnation.
stagnation . This is
is achieved
achieved by tiIooly thinning when
by timely
basal
basal area current annual increment falls off. Overstocking
OIrerstocking in older
 55

plantations is a common
ccmron feature of poorly managed plantations and results
in alIoclst
almost canplete lack of
complete ladk of an
an understorey
understorey and
and herb
herb layer.
layer.

44.. Protection
Protection..

PractiSing
Practising good forest hygiene to control potential sources of pests
pests
and diseases
diseases..

It is not always easy to reconcile the practices recammended;

recx:mrended; for
example forest hygiene or weed
weed control may best be achieved by aa hot
hot fire
fire
during site preparation,
preparation, but
rut that
that may
may promote
prarote erosion.
erosion. Decisions depend on
local circumstances and iif
local f there is aa conflict between the species proposed
proposed
and
and good
good forestry
forestry practice
practice then it
it may
may well indicate that
well indicate that the
the wrong
wrong species
species
is being raised.
raised .

Good forestry practices apply both to pure and mixed plantations,

plantations, rut
but
saneti:rres
sometimes the prarotion
promotion of mixed
mixed species plantations -- to obtain soil
coverage,
coverage, or to improve soil quality through influence on mi=fauna
microfauna and
flora -- is an essential part of good forestry practice,
practice, especially on
environmentally sensitive sites.
environmentally sensitive sites.

Definitions ''mixture''.
of Ionixture".
Definitions of

A
A classification is given in chapter 5 which considers mixtures first first
in tenns
in terms ofof whether
whether thethe mixture
mixture isis single
single layered,
layered, that
that is
is aa mixture
mixture of
of
daninants,
dominants, or whether it is two or IOOre layered; secondly whether
more layered; whether the
mixture
mixture is is temporary
tE!rq;lorary or
or permanent.
pennanent . This is a convenient classification for
describing silvicultural requirements.
describing silvicultural requirarents. It is also worth remembering
rem3llbering that
there isis a spectrum
spectrum of degrees of mixture fran one extrem;!
mixture from extreme of "purity"
"purity" to
IOOnoclonal plantations,
be found in a monoclonal plantatiOns, through
through polyclonal
polyclonal plantations,
plantations,
m:mospecific (single or IlIIlltiple
monospecific (single multiple provenances),
provenances), plantations of aa few species
9 = in blocks of one age and finally,
grown finally, at the other extrem;!,
extreme, to aa
all-age plantation.
polyspecific all-age plantation . This spectrum
spectrum also
also exists in in nature,
nature,
where natural forests may not necessarily be composed canposed of many,
many, or even
several, species.
species . A A pure plantation is generally
generally taken to be a
m:mospecific
monospecific crop which may consist of one or several provenances;provenances; in the
tropics a mixed industrial plantation
plantation isis usually
usually aa mixture
mixture ofof two species,
two species,
rut the manner of mixture may be quite varied -- for instance single or
but
IlIIllti-layered, coppice, temporary
multi-layered, coppice, tE!llpOrary or
or permanent.
pennanent. Mixtures are not always
the consequence of aa deliberate
deliberate planting
planting policy,
policy, . they may
may bebe created asas aa
result of the natural regeneration
regeneration of of understorey
understorey "weed" species in
"weed" species in
plantations maintained
plantations maintained at at aa relatively
relatively wide
wide spacing.
spacing . Polyspecific all-aged
industrial plantations are not carrron, common, though the Sundapola
Mahogany/Teak/Jak plantations in Sri Lanka (Tisseverasinghe
(Tisseverasinghe and
Satchithananthan 1957;1957; Mllttiah
MUttiah 1965,
1965, 1991)
1991) can be considered to be be aa small
scale example.
example. The very canplex
complex mixture
mixture approximating to aa natural
natural mixed
mixed
tropical forest described above might, might, hC1Never,
however, be appropriate to fuelwood
fuelwood
plantations and would certainly be appropriate to protection plantatiOns plantations on
sensitive sites .
sensitive sites.

The definitions of mixtures given above imply an intimate,

intimate, tree by
tree or line by line mixture or
by line or possibly
possibly mixtures
mixtures of
of small groups. But
small groups. But a
mixture, in
mixture, in the broad
broad sense,
sense, can also be obtained
obtained by
by planting adjacent
canpart:rrents or blocks with different
compartments different species and a mixture of aa different
different
achieved by
kind can also be achieved rotating species.
by rotating species. In this study all levels of
mixture are considered;
considered; lessons can be learned from
fran the techniques for
 6

achieving clonal mixtures

achieving mixtures as much as fran
IlUlch as frammixtures
mixturesof of species
species or genera.
genera.
In particular attention
attention is isdrawn
drawn toto the potential
potential for
for the
the use
use ofof aa "broad
"broad
sense" mixture of
sense" mixture of blocks
baocksrather
rather than
than aa "narrow sense"intlinate,
"na.rrow sense" intimate, tree
tree by
tree
tree mixture. Oneofofthe
mixture. One the objectives
objectives of of this
this study
studyisistoto
examine
examine haw heM the
desirable
desirable effects
effectsofof
mixtures
mixtures cancanbebe
achieved
achievedwith thethe
with minimum
minilln.lm complexity
carplexity
of management systems.. .
management systems

'l!Je extent of Imonospecific

The I I ' I sped fie plantat.iorls
plantations

A recent assesSllalt
A recent assessmentofofthe
theareas
aras ofof forest
forest plantations
plantations inin the tropics
tropics
shows that eucalypts,
shcMs that eucalypts, pines,
pines, teak
teak and
and acacias areare the
themost
most frequently
frequently
planted species. In
planted In Africa and
and in
in tropical
tropicalLatin
LatinAmerica,
America, Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus spp.
spp.
and
and pines comprise About50%
carprise about 50%and
and80%80% respectively
respectively ofof theplantation
the plantation area,
area,
whereas in tropical
whereas in tropical Asia
Asia there are
are aa large
largenumber of species, of
number of of which
which the
eucalypts, teak
teakand
andvarious
variousacacias
acaciascomprise
carprise32%
32% (Pandey,
(Pandey, 1992).
1992).

The extent
The extent to
to which pure plantations
which pure plantations have
have been
beenestablished
established in
in the
tropics isisnot
notknown, but is
kna-/Il, rut is indicated
indicated by
by the
the following
following relatively
relatively small
small
list of
list of thethe major plantation species of
!l'ajor plantation of the
thetropics
tropics(Evans
(Evans1987):
19B7):

Pines 34%
P.patu1a, P.caribaea,
P.patula, P. P.e11iottii, P.kesiya,
caribaea, P.elliottii, P.kesiya,
P..merkusii,
P.merJrusii, P.00cazpa
P.oocarpa & others
& others
Other conif ers
conifers 3%
3%
Araucaria curiningharaii,
Araucaria cunninghamii, A. A.angustifolia,
angustifolia, Cupressus
Cupressus
1usitanica &
lusitanica & others
Eucalypts 37%
E.grandis, E.cama1du1ensis, E.g1obulus, E.saligna,
E.camaldulensis, E.globulus, E.saligna,
E.deg1upta,
E.deglupta, E E.. te.reticorr2is,
tereticornis, E.robusta,
E.rol:.usta,
E.citriodora,
E.citriodora,E.urophy11a
E.urophylla & & others
others
Teak Tectona grandis
7ectooa grandis 14%
Other
Other hardwoods
llaJ:dwoods 12%
Acacia, ame1ina
Gnelina arborea, Meliaceaea,
Meliaceaea, Terminalia
TeIIlZinalia
spp., Albizia
spp. Albiziaspp . , Triplochiton
spp., Trip1ochiton scieroxy1on
scleroxylon &&
others
This list
This list narres
names 10
10 coniferous species, 99 eucalypt
coniferous speCies, eucalypt species and
and 7
7 other
hardwood families or
haJ:dwood families or genera. Giventhe
genera. Given therange
rangeofofsoils
soils and climates in
and cllinates in the
tropics this
thiswould appear to
would appear to imply
implythe
the likelihood
likelihood of of aa still
still more
rrore
restricted range
restricted range of
of species
species in
ina acountry
countryororinina relatively
a relativelyhomogenous
harogenous
location suchasasaadistrict.
location such district. However, someofofthese
Hcw=ver, sane thesespecies,
species, e.e.g.
g.
EUcalyptuscamaldulensis
Eucalyptus cama1du1ensis occur
oc= naturallyover
naturally overa avery
very large
large area and
and have
have a
number of different provenances.
number of different provenances.

Mixtures
Mixtures in in the
the narro» sense of
na.rrow sense of raising
raising more than one
rrore than one species
species in in a
compartmentare
c:anpart:nent arenot
not c:c:mOCm
commaim in in plantations. In the broader
industrialplantations.
industrial broader sense
sense
of establishing
establishing different
differentspecies
speciesininneighbouring
neighbouring compartments
c:anpart:nents itit is
is hard
hard
to estimate
estlinate from published records
fran published records the extent
extent totowhich
which mixing is taking
mixing is taking
place. In Nie New Zealand Pinusradiata
Zealand Pinus radiata accounts
accounts forfor 85%
85% ofofforest
forest plantations
(Burdon 1982),sosoclearly
(Burdon 1982), clearlythere
thereisis very
very little
little mixing
mixing there. In samesane of
the states
states ininAustralia
Australiathe theproportion
proportionisiseven
evenhigher
higher(Fergusson
(Fergusson1983).
1983).

Sameofofthe
Sare the pulp
pulp plantations
plantations inin southern
southern Africa
Africa may
!l'ay involve
involve large
blocks of
blocks of Pinus patu1a or
Pinus patula or of eucalypts.
eucalypts. TheThe Usutu
Usutuplantations
plantations in
Swaziland, whichcover
swaziland, which cover5252000
000ha,
ha, have
have predaninantly
predaminantlybeen
beenestablished
established to
to
Rratu1a as
P.patula as has
has the
theViphya
Viphya plateau in inMalawi and the
Malawi and the same
sameapplies
applies to
to the
 77

pulp planting schemes

schem:s in East Africa at Sao Hill in Tanzania and Turbo in
Kenya.

It used to be the practice in many of the forest districts

districts in the
highlands
highlands of East Africa to plant plant aa range of
of fast
fast grc1Ning
growing species
species such
such as
as
P.radiata, Cupressus lusitanica
P.radiata, P.patula, CUpressus and same
lusitanica and saoo _Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus species.
This range,
range, ~ver, has been
however, has steadily eroded.
been steadily eroded . The area of eucalypt
planted was reduced
reduced sharply
sharply when the railways
when the railways converted
converted to
to oil
oil burning,
ruming,
P . radiata ceased to be planted on any scale in the nineteen sixties
P.radiata sixties because
because
of Ibthistrana
Zuothistroma blight and new
blight and now C.lusitanica and other cupressaceae
C.lusitanica and Cupressaceae are
subject to severe attack by the aphid Cinara cup:ressicupressi which may
may preclude
preclude
fran future plantation
them from plantation programmes
progranrnes in
in East
East Africa.
Africa. In Kenya softwood
sof~
planting in the highlands
highlandR is newnow largely confined to one species,
species, Pinus
Pinus
patula .
patula.

It appears that monospecific industrial plantations are ccmnon,

common, rut
hit
there are reports of extensive plantations of mixed species (arcalyptus
(Eucalyptus
te:reticornis and Acacia auriculifbrmis)
tereticcrnis in Vietnam
auriculifo:cmis) in Vietnam (Cossalter
(Cossalter 1991)
1991) and
and
elsewhere , though it is not clear whether these are industrial plantations
elsewhere,
nor whether they
they have
have been successful in
been successful in meeting
meeting defined
defined objectives.
objectives .
 8

2. FOREST
2. FOREST ECOSYSTEMS,,
ECOSYSTEMS.

Natural forest
Natural forest ecosystems
ecosystems vary from great
vary from great complexity
complex ity to
comparative simplicity
comparative simplicity ofof species
species associations.
associations. Ecosys
Ecosystemtem
simplification is is associated with specialisation
specialisation andand tends
tends to to be
a response to extreme climatic, edaphic or other abiotic
conditions
conditions.. Thus forests with
Thus forests with simplified
simplified structures
structures and and a
reduced number
reduced number of specialised species
of specialised species areare more c ommon in the
more common the
harsher
harsher climate
climate of the colder
of the colder areas
areas ofof the
the world;
world; thethe birch
birch
forests
forests of
of the
the northern
northern boreal forests,
forests, Pinus mugo and P.cembra
P . cembra
at
at high elevations in Europe,
high elevations Europe, Cupressus sempervirens
sempervirens on south-south-
facing limestone slopes
facing limestone slopes in Crete,
Crete, Aln us glutinosa
Alnus glutinosa in in peaty
peaty
valleys in
valleys in Britain
Britain (Rackham 1990).
(Rackham 1990). In South
In South Australia
Australia the the
indigenous woodland
woodland isis characterized
characterized by near
near monospecific
monospecific stands
(Boardman 1990).
1990) .
Although
Although in in the
the humid
humid tropics
tropics rainforests
rainforests are are typically
typically
polyspecific and
polyspecific and many layered,
layered, stands having having reduced
reduced diversity
diversity
do occur;
occur; they include natural stands of Eucalyptus species and and
tropical pines,
pines, as well
well as
as mangrove
mangrove swamps and tree tree savannas with
low rainfall
low rainfall andand frequent
frequent fires,
fires, both
both of of which are are relatively
relatively
poor in tree species.
species. In Uganda
In Uganda stands
stands dominated
dominated by Cynometra
Cynometra
alexandri and
alexandri and by Parinari excelsa
by Parinari e xcelsa are two examples
are two e x amples of o f natural
n a tural
stands inin which the number of of species
species is is limited.
limited. Elsewhere in in
Africa pure stands of A cacia
Acacia tortilis, A.nilotica and
Colopbospermum
Colophospermum mopane are not not uncommon.
uncommon. In Latin American dry
In
zones
zones large
large areas
areas may be be covered by by aa single
single Prosopis
prosopis spp. spp. In
the
the Kemahang
Kemahang forest
forest inin the
the Malay peninsular
peninsular there was, before
there was,
exploitation
exploitation in in the nineteen sixties, a reduced
the nineteen number of
reduced number
dipterocarp species and of other othe r sspecies
p e cies in the families
Burseraceae, Lauraceae, Myristaceae, Myrtaceae Myrtac e ae and Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae and
which are believed
believed to have arisarisenen after
after aa freak storm storm of November
November
1888
1888 (Whitmore 198 4).
1984). species in
Agatbis species
Agathis in south
south Kalimantan
Kalimantan
occurred, logging, in
occurred, before logging, in stands
stands up up toto 5000
5000 · ha inin area
area inin
formed the main
which it foLmed main or
or sole
sole top-of-canopy
top-of-canopy species (Whitmore (Whitmore
1984).
1984). In
In many cases within
many cases with in polyspecific
poly specific standsstands there
there may be be
groups
groups ofof aa single
single species,
speCies, or even even clumps
clumps of of aa single
single clone.
clone.
Thus although, given conditions
Thus although, conditions of of adequate
adequate nutrient
nutrient supply,
supply ,
plenty
plenty ofof moisture
moisture and
and high
high solar
solar radiation,
radiation, complex
complex polyspecific
polyspecific
ecosystems are
ecosystems are normal,
normal, there
there is is nothing
nothing inherently
inherently unnatural
unnatural
about monospecific
monospecific stands;
stands; where natural mixtures occur, on the
mixtures occur,
hand, they
other hand, they are
are often
often temporary.
temporary.
All natural ecosystems characterised
ecosystems are dynamic and are characterised
by successional phases.
phases . Disturbance s occur at irregular
Disturbances irregular
intervals inin natural
natural forests,
forests, sometimes after
after centuries,
centuries, but on
some
some sites, for instance
sites, for instance savannas
savannas prone
prone to
to fire,
fire, at frequent
at frequent
intervals
intervals.. The stages of a secondary succession
succession after a
after
disturbance to aa forest
forest ecosystem are typically characterised by
an early
early invasion of of aa few
few light
light demanding,
demanding, aggressive
aggressive but short-
lived pioneer
lived pioneer species
species frequently
frequently occurring
occurring inin single
single species
species
stands, which areare followed
followed by colonisation
colonisation with successiv ely more
successively
shade tolerant
shade tolerant species
species which
which grow through the
grow up through the canopy ofof the
preceding seral stage eventually
preceding eventually to to become dominants. Ultimately
in
in some
some ecosystems
ecosystems in in the late successional
the late stage aa relatively
successional stage
constant
constant mix
mix ofof species
species is reached, which
is reached, which will last until
will last until the
the
 9

next disturbance (Whitehead 1982), although

disturbance (Whitehead although in
in others especially
especially
in the
the temperate
temperate zones but also in moist
moist high
high forest
forest systems (see
(see
the
the examples from Uganda mentioned
mentioned above)
above) the climax
climax forests may
be more oror less
less single
single species.
species.

After a a major disturbance to to the

the ecosystem
ecosystem initial
initial growth
growth
rates tend
rates tend to
to be
be high
high and for some pioneer species in the early
successional stages
stages can be very high;
high; these
these pioneer species are
better
better able
able to respond to site
to respond site fertility,
fertility, but
but are
are relatively
relatively
vulnerable toto stress.
stress. Subsequently
Subsequently in in the later successional
the later successional
stages as
as the
the biomass
biomass increases the
the pioneer
pioneer spec~es a~e replaced
species are
by more shade tolerant
more shade tolerant species,
species, which
which are slower growing,
are slower growing, but
resistant to
more resistant to harmful
harmful factors.
factors. Eventually
Eventually the
the situation
situation may
may
be reached
reached in late successional stages when biomass may be very
in late
high, but growth
high, growth rates
rates are
are negligible.
negligible.
Some
Some ecologists
ecologists have
have argued
argued that
that this
this final
final state
state is is the
the
ideal climax representing aa stable and self self sustaining
sustaining condition
-- although
although as
as noted above
above it may notnot be
be very
very diverse in terms
terms of
tree species. Others have pointed pointed outout that
that it
it is
is doubtful
doubtful ifif aa
true
true climax
climax is ever attained
is ever attained (Jones
(Jones 1945),
1945), because
because sooner
sooner or
later disturbances occur.occur . significant point is
The significant is that
stability
stability in an ecosystem
ecosystem is considered
considered to be attained
attained when there
is an
is an adequate diversity
diversity of of functions.
functions. But aa species
species can
can have
have
more than
more than one function and a function can be
one function be performed by more
than one species.
than one In industrial plantations stability
industrial plantations stability is
achieved when
when there
there are
are no major unprescribed
unprescribed changes
changes in yields
or production and site fertility fertility and and soil structure are
maintained. Even though
Even stability may
though stability may bebe dependent
dependent to to some
some
extent on species
species diversity,
diversity, it doesdoes not
not necessarily
necessarily follow that
the aim
aim in
in plantation
plantation forestry should be to have as many many species
as
as possible
possible in
in order
order toto achieve maximum stability or even even that
greater species diversity must
greater species must imply
imply greater
greater stability.
stability. The
essential for achieving stability
stability is is that there should
should be enough
species
species to
to achieve
achieve an
an adequate
adequate diversity
diversity of of functions
functions (Zwolinski
1990)
1990) and the
the number
number of of species
species required
required for for stability
stability inin
industrial
industrial plantations will dependdepend on on the
the site.
site.
The objective in growing plantations for commercial gain is
frequently
frequently to to take
take advantage
advantage ofof the
the high
high growth
growth rates
rates in
in the
early stages of
early stages succession; in
of succession; in the
the tropics
tropics and
and sub-tropics
sub-tropics
increments
increments in in plantations
plantations areare three
three to seven times
times those
those of
of the
merchantable
merchantable species
species inin the later successional
the later successional stages
stages ofof the
the
natural
natural forest (Evans 1990),
forest (Evans 1990), though
though this is a consequence
this is consequence of of
selection and tree breeding,
breeding, close spacing
spacing and management
management as well
as
as the
the utilization
utilization of initial
initial high
high growth
growth rates.
rates. The harvest is is
taken
taken when,
when, or or shortly after, growth starts
after, growth starts to
to slow
slow down.
down. The
act
act of harvesting causes
of harvesting causes aa major disturbance
disturbance to the the ecosystem
ecosystem
which allows
allows thethe cycle
cycle to be restarted in the fast growth phase
again. In commercial
In plantation forestry
commercial plantation forestry the objective
objective is is to
to
maintain
maintain the ecosystem in aa state
the ecosystem state of of controlled
controlled instability,
instability,
locked in
locked in aa given
given successional stage, but
successional stage, but experience has has shown
that
that sustainable yields can usually only be be maintained
maintained with some
artificial
artificial inputs
inputs such fertilizer, insecticides,
such as fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides
fungicides
etc.
etc. combined with sound forestry practice practice
 10
If, however,
If, however, the objective is protection
protection of the site without
without
consideration of
of commercial profit, required
profit, then the ecosystem required
is one that can provide this function, possibly but not
necessarily
necessarily by progress
progress to aa late
late successional
successional stage.
stage. The
objective
objective will
will be fully met
be fully met if can be made self-
if the ecosystem can self-
sustaining, possibly by retaining
sustaining, retaining aa wide
wide range
range of
of species.
species.

Management, aimed
Management, mainly the
aimed mainly the conservation
conservation of
of biological
biological
diversity, implies
implies the
the retention
retention of
of the
the maximum number of
maximum number of species
species
within-species diversity,
and within-species diversity, and furthermore it requires
and furthermore requires the
the
maintenance of all successional stages in the ecosystem.
Maintaining an ecosystem, however,
Maintaining an however, does
does not
not necessarily
necessarily mean
mean the
the
conservation of
of all its species,
all its species, and itit is
is possible to conserve
aa species
species and
and lose
lose genetically
genetically distinct
distinct populations
populations or genes
genes
which may be of value in
which in adaptation and future
adaptation and future improvement
improvement of
of the
the
species (Wilcox,
(Wilcox, 1982).
1982) .
In plantation forestry,particularly
In plantation forestry,particularly where rotations are
where rotations are
short,
short, some
some trade
trade offs have to be be made.
made. Gains
Gains in yields maymay be
be
offset by negative
offset factors such
negative factors removal of nutrients in
such as the removal in
logging,
logging, aa reduction
reduction inin nutrient
nutrient cycling ability,
ability, damage to the
soil
soil structure or aa possible
possible lowering of resistance to pests and
diseases, which have
diseases, which have toto be
be made
made good yields are
good if yields are to
to be
be
sustained
sustained.. Skill is required to determine how how to minimise these
minimise these
losses by matching
matching species to site and by good good forestry
forestry practices
and to
to determine
determine where,
where, how and when natural processes (such (such as
the
the regeneration
regeneration of of an
an understorey)
understorey) can and should
should be used and
to what
what extent they should
should be supplemented
supplemented artificially.
artificially. Mixed
planting does
planting does play
play aa role
role and
and should
should be based
based onon accurate
accurate
observation of locallocal succession,
succession, where this information is
where this
available
available.. But if short rotation forestryforestry isis an acceptable useuse
for
for aa site,
site, mixed
mixed planting
planting by itself cannot be a a panacea for the
commercial forestry.
problems associated with commercial forestry. The shorter the
the
rotation,
rotation, the the closer
closer the
the situation
situation approaches
approaches to to that
that of an
of an
agricultural crop and the greater becomes the importance of of soil
fertility (Lundgren
fertility (Lundgren 1980)
1980) and
and the more likely that fertilizers
more likely fertilizers
have to
will have to be
be added.
added.
 11

3.
3. ENVIROMENIAL
ElIVIKHmf.rALIMPACT.
IMPACT.

3.1 SOILS

the major
One of the major concerns
=cems expressed =ceming
concerning the
the risk
risk of creating
creating
llOIlospecific
monospecific plantations
plantations is
is that
that they
they cause
cause aa loss
loss of fertility and
of fertility and soil
soil
main features
The main
degradation. The features of
of soils on which afforestation
onwhich afforestation in
in the tropics
and subtropics IOClStly
and mcstly takes place and the interaction between
between tree crops and
soil is
the soil is discussed
discussed in
in detail
detail in
in Appendix II .
Appendix II.

Soil characteristics
Soil cbaracteristics
Soils available
available for
for afforestation in
in the tropics and sub-tropics
sub-tropics are
often intensely
often intensely weathered
weathered and frequently deficient
and frequently deficient in
in nutrients,
nutrients, bit
rut even
even when
when
they are less weathered
they they are
weathered they are liable
liable to loss of nutrients
nutrients through
through leaching.
In the ¥let
wet tropics these soils can support a heavy bianass virtue of the
biomass by virtue the
rapid dea:iuposition
decomposition ofof the mineralization of nutrients
and mineralization
the litter and nutrients In
in the
the
toprost layers
topmost layers of the
the soil.
soil. On clearing
clearing the
the vegetation
vegetation for
for agricultural
agricultural
crops or
or for establishing tree crops there is aa high risk of loss of organic
leaching and
matter, leaching the loss of this fertility.
and the fertility. It is ilIportant
important that these
sensitive sites are not cleared; on
sensitive sites on sites
sites that have
have became badly degraded
becane badly the
degraded the
first prioritymust
firstpriority llU.lSt be
be to
to re-establish
re-establish the
the organicmatter
organic mattercontent
=tentof of the
the soil.
soil.
In the arid and semi-arid
semi-arid zones the litter layer and organic content =tent of of the
the
soil may be further
maybe further depleted
depleted by fires and
by fires as aa result the
and as the natural climax tree
species tend to .be be fire reSistant,
resistant, rut
bit the
the sites only carry
sites only carry aa low stocking
stocking
because they
because they are
are infertile.
infertile.

The ability of trees take up

trees to take up nutrients
nutrients is is determined
determined not
not only
only by
by
their availability
availability inin the
the topsoil
topsoil rutbit also by soil moisture
by soil llOisture and
and the
the soil
soil
structure. The requira:rents for
The requirements for each nutrient vary
each nutrient vary with
with the stage of
the stage of
developrent
development of the
the stand;
stand; it
it tends
tends to
to be
be at
at a amaxilm.lm
maximumi1lInediately
imediately after crown
closure in plantations.
closure plantations For Safe
. phosphate in
sate nutrients, phosphate in particular, the
the rate
rate
of release fram
fran mineral
mineral soil is
is slaw.
slow. The quantity
quantity inin solution available at
anyone time
anyone time for
for use
use hythe
by thetrees
treesisisvery
verysmall
small in
in comparison
carparison with
with the
the annual
annual
require:rent of the trees and with
requirement of with the quantities locked up
quantities locked up in the tree bianass
biomass
and in the litter
and litter on
on the
the forest
forest floor.
floor. In these conditions healthy, vigorous
healthy, vigorous
growth is dependent
growth dependent on rapid
rapid decomposition
decanposition of the
the litter
litter to
to maintain
maintain the
the
nutrient cycle.
nutrient cycle.

The process
process of decanposition
decomposition is closely
closely associated
associated with
with the
the activities
of the flora. The function of soil microfauna
the soil microfauna and flora. microfauna and flora
have not been studied
not been studied inin the
the tropics
tropics and sub-tropics as
andsub-tropics as closely-as
closely as they
they have
in the temperate
been in
been temperate zones.
zones. ButBut it is clear that microfauna
microfauna fragment and in
sane instances (for
same instances (for example
exanple termites)
termites) mineralize
mineralize litter;
litter; the
the process
process is
CCIlpleted by fungiand
campletedbyfungi llOre particularlyby
and more particularly bybacteria.
bacteria. The mixture
mixture of
of species
canposing a stand, by influencing
composing influencing both
both the proportion
proportion of cellulose and protein
cellulose and protein
in the
the litter and the
litter and the soil
soil aCidity,
acidity, can be of of great
great significance affecting
significance in affecting
the populations
populations of the soil
soil microfauna
microfauna and flora and their perfonnance
performance and aa
change in the
the canposition
composition of of the
the leaf
leaf litter may favour
littermay favour one
one component
CCIlpOnent of the
the
microflora at
microflora at the
the expense
expense ofof another.
another .

Sane symbiotic fungi can not

not only
only exist in association with one species
with one species
in aa mixture,
mixture, rut
bit can also
also benefit
benefit other a::nponents
components of a stand;
stand; for example
exanple
Britain Suillus
in Britain Suillusvariega Pinussylvestris
tus on Pinus
variegatus sylvestriscan
can make available nutrients
which can
which can be
be used
used by PiC£Ja abies (Ryan and
by Picea and Alexander 1990). In SWaziland
Alexander 1990). Swaziland it
found that
has been found that at higher
higher altitudes
altitudes considerable
considerable quantities
quantities of needle
needle
 12

build up under Pinus patula maintained

litter can ruild at aa close spacing
maintained at spacing (Morris
(M:)rris
1986); in
1986); in these
these circumstances
circumstances the
the fom and numbers
formand numbers of
of mycorrhizae may change
(Robinson 1973).
(Robinson 1973). It is ol:servable
observable that the problem litter aCCUllRllation
problem of litter is
accumulation is
particularly
particularly acute in close canopy softwood
acute in softwood conifer
conifer stands
stands inin the tropics
tropics and
and
sub-tropics, but
rut is less problem in open stands having
less of aa problem having an understorey of
understorey of
broadleaf species; in
broadleaf species; effect the
in effect the mixture
mixture ofof species
species provided
provided by the
by the
understorey promotes the
the breakdown
breakdown ofof forest
forest floor
flcor litter.
litter.

Concern has been expressed at

at the effect on
on the
the soil of
of close
close planting
planting
of pure stands
of of teak.
stands of teak. The problem is that teak is
problem is is deciduous and the leaves,
and the leaves,
which
which do not readily
readily decanpose,
decompose, are highly inflanrnable; as
highly inflammable; as aa result
result fires
fires are
are
frequent in teak
frequent teak plantations
plantations on
on sites
sites having
having aa pronounoed dry season and in
pronounced dry
consequence the
the forest floor in
forest floor in plantations
plantations isis frequently bare at
frequently bare at the start
of the .rains. Additionallythe
rains. Additionally the leaves
leaves of
of teak
teak are
are large
large and
and the
the drip
drip from
fran the
the
leaves on the
leaves the tree
tree intensifies
intensifies the
the erosive
erosive effect.
effect. Planting teak at wider
spacing
spacing andand either
either planting
planting aa mixture
mixture of
of other species with
other species with more
more easily
decanposed
decomposed and less inflammable leaves or allowing
allowing shrub
shrUb or
or herb species to
a::rne in as
come as an understorey reduces
reduces the incidence of
the incidence of fire
fire and erosion (Bell
(Bell
1963)
1963)..

mcst of the nutrients in the topsoil are derived from

Though most fran minerals
in the
the subsoil
subsoil or fran
fram litter,
litter, saoo
sane nutrients accumulated in
nutrients are accumulated in the
the topsoil
topsail
fran the atmosphere.
from atmosphere. Nitrogen fixation fixation in the roots
roots of sare plants
of sane plants is an
example of
example of this
this process. This process
process. This process is
is chiefly
chiefly associated
associated with
with legumes,
legumes, but
rut
fixation of nitrogen
fixation nitrogen cancan oc=
occur in over 200 species from fran 20 genera (Bond
(Bond 1983),
of which casuarina
of Casuarina is is probably
probably the most
most significant
significant non-legume tropical
tropical tree.
tree .
Nitrogen fixation can operate as aa direct transfer from fran the root
root nodules to
the soil,
soil, rut
but the
the most common pathway
most CCIlII011 pathway appears
appears to bebe through the leaf litter
(Ewel 1986) . In Hawaii the nitrogen fixing effect of
(El 1986). Albizia falcataria
of Adbizia falcataria on on
soil nitrogen
soil levels was
nitrogen levels much greater
was much greater than that of
than that Acacia aelanoxylorn
of Acacia melanoxylon (DeBell
(DeBell
et al 1985),
1985), which may may be because A.falcataria has aa much smaller smaller and moremore
easily decanposed leaf.
easilydecomposed leaf . It should
should bebe noted,
noted, however,
however, that
that the
the very
very favourable
favourable
effects of
of mixing Albizia falcataria
mixingAlbizia falcataria with Eucalyptus saligna
with Eucalyptus saligna in
in Hawaii
Hawaii (DeBell
(DeBell
et al 1985;
1985; 1987;
1987; 1989)
1989) was achieved on old sugar cane fields, fields, where past
fertilizing reg:ilres
regimes andand the nutrient demands
demands of
of the sugar cane
the sugar cane crop
crop may
may have
have
resulted in unique soil nutrient conditions.

to make aa positive
For nitrogen fixing plants to positive contribution
contribJ.tion to
to stand
stand
grCMth the site conditions must
growth be suitable;
must be suitable; that is
is there
there must
must not only be
a deficiency
a deficiency of nitrogen but
of nitrogen rut other
other nutrients,
nutrients, especially
especially phosphate,
phosphate, and
and
(Sprent 1985)
moisture (Sprent 1985) must also
also not be limiting
not be . On
limiting. On sites where nitrogen
nitrogen is
not deficient admixture of
deficient it has been shown that an admixture of nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing trees
trees
growth of the main
does not enhance grCMth main species and maymay even inhibit it through
competition for light,
~tition light, moisture or other
moisture or other nutrients (Binkley 1983;
nutrients (Binkley 1983; 1984;
1984; 1990).
1990) .
It is
is possible that
that nitrcigen
nitrogen fixing
fixing trees are onlyonly effective when they are
daninants or codaninants
dominants (Binkley 1990),
codominants (Binkley 1990), soso there
there is
is doubt
doubt concerning the
the
effectiveness
effectiveness of
of nitrogen fixing species
nitrogen fixing species grown
grown asas an
an understorey.
understorey. It
It
therefore appears that there is aa carparatively narrow range of conditions
comparatively narrcm conditions in
fixing plants
which nitrogen fixing plants will
will enhance
enhance stand
stand growth.
growth . beneficial
The beneficial
effects
effects of
of mixtures
mixtures with nitrogen fixing
with nitrogen trees, such as acacias
fixing trees, in pine
acacias in pine
stands,
stands, are
are not
not always (TUrveyet
always apparent (Turvey 1984).
et al 1984).
 13

EVidencefar
EVidence forchanges
changesinin siteparameters
site paranetersreflected
reflected in
in second rotation yield
second rotation yield
decline

CXIIifXJSition of
The species composition of aa natural
natural stand or of aa plantation have have a
strong influence
strong influence on the the site,
site, and particularly
particularly onon soil
soil properties.
properties. A
A
plantation
plantation of a single species may alter the nutrient status or or the physical
physical
properties of aa soil fran
properties of from its original state under natural forest; this
original state change
this change
may reduce l:oth productivity
both the actual and potential productivity of the site as well as
as well
cx::rrposition of
the composition of the
the understorey
understorey or or undergrowth.
undergrc:Mth. the other hand aa
On the
plantation of a single species may
plantation may have a positive effect on the soil soil if
if it
it
is established
established where there was was no cover. If therefore there
no cover. there are changes in in
site properties these may
properties these may be expectedto
beexpected tobebereflected
reflectedinindifferences
differences in gr=th
ingrowth
and yield
yield in the second and sul:x3equent
second and subsequent generations
generations fran
fram the first
first -- although
although
such changes could
such changes oould be the
the result
result of
of different
different management
management practices
practices or
different seed
different seed as well as the
the result of
of aa change
dhange in
in species
species CXIIifXJSition
composition or or of
of
a shift to
to aa single
single species.
species .

The concern over the possibility of second (and sul:x3equent) rotation

(and subsequent)
decline is chiefly
decline chiefly based
based .on two experiences, that of spruce
on b;o sp=ce (Picea abies) in
(PiCEa abies)
Central
Central Europe specifically in Saxony,
Europe and specifically Saxony, starting
starting in the middle of the the
nineteenth century, and
nineteenthcentury, that of Rinus
and that Pinus radiata
radiata in South
South Australia
Australia in the middle
middle
of the twentieth
twentieth century. In addition detailed graoith
addition detailed gr=th records
records fran
fram Pennanent
Permanent
Sarrple Plots,
Sample Plots, which n= rotations, have been maintained in the
now span three rotations,
Usutu plantations inin Swaziland.
SWaziland. In order to understand
understand the
the phenamenon
phenaoonon of
of
second rotation
rotation decline
decline it
it is worth examining these experiences in same
these experiences sane
detail
detail..

(a)
(a) Sp=ce in
Spruce in Saxony.
Saxony.

Sp=ce was
Spruce was planted in central EuropeEurope on aa large scale scale in pure
pure blocks
fran the middle
from middle of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century partlypartly because decline
decline was
was thought
thought
detected in
been detected
to have been in the
the beech
beech and forests. Spruce
oak forests.
and oak Sp=ce hadhad always beenbeen
grown satisfactorily
graan as a pure crop
satisfactorily as crop on the
the higher
higher elevation
elevation podsols and and indeed
indeed
naturally in pure
occurs naturally pure stands,
stands, rutbit by the middle
bythe middle ofof the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century
in yields was observed
a decline in observed in in particular
particular on on the
the lowland
l=land clay
clay soils.
soils.
This decline in
in yield was attributed
attriJ::uted toto the
the repeated
repeated establishment
establishttent of pure
of pure
spruce stands. In the nineteen twenties
In twenties Wiedemann made extensive
investigations into the
investigations into the problem
problem in in Saxony (sUlllllarised in
Saxony (summarised in Jones
Jones 1965).
1965) . Partly
because the analytiC
analytic procedures
procedures available at the time were inadequate he was
never able
never able to
to pinpoint
pinpoint the
the cause
cause ofof the
the problem.
problem . . He He did note that not all
sp=ce
spruce plantations
plantations were
were affected,
affected, that in sane same the growth was
the gr=th chedked rut
was checked bit it
recovered and
later recovered that there
and that there was
was same
sane correlation
correlation with with dry S\lllll"ers. As aa
dry summers.
result of his and sul:x3equent
subsequent workwork sane
same of the confounding
confounding factors have been
identified and possible causes of of the
the problem
problem suggested.
suggested. These include

on clay soils the

the sp=ce
spruce is very
very shall= in the first rotation
shallua rooting; in rotation
it can often llI3ke
make use of old
old root
root lines,
lines, bit
rut by the second
by the second rotation
rotation
these have
have silted up
up and the sp=ce is rooted alrrost
the spruce almost entirely inin the
the
h1millS
humus layer which dries outout in droughts and
and may
may becane
became water-logged
water-logged in
winter.
winter.
IlUlch of the planting
much planting was
was on old arable land or cultivated plots in the
forest waldféldbau; sp=ce
forest -- waldfeldbau; spruce is notoriously susceptible to
notoriously susceptible to the root
root rot
 14
14

Ftznes annosus' in
Fans annosusl in these
these circumstances,
circumstances, rut takes up to aa rotation
hit it takes rotation
for the
for the effects
effects of the
the fungus
fungus to
to become apparent since
bea:Jne apparent since it
it enters
enters
through
through freshly-cut
freshly-cut stumps then through
and then
stumps and through root grafts to
root grafts to living
trees Hence what was in fact
trees.. Hence fact aa problem
problem of of the rotation was
the first rotation was only
only
manifested in the second
second rotation.
rotation.
the soils onon many
many of
of the
the sites had already
sites had beenimpoverished
alreadybeen before the
impoverishedbefore
spruce was
spruce established as
was established as aa result
result of of the
the prevailing
prevailing custam
custan of
collecting all the litter
litter beneath
beneath thethe previous
previous stands.
stands .
managanent
management practices
practices atat the
the t:iJre
time favoured
favoured very
very dense stands which
dense stands
tended . to
tended cause an accumulation
to cause aCClmUllation of litter
litter which in in turn
turn impaired
impaired
nitrogen mineralization
mineralization..

Thus there is a a range

range ofof possible explanations,
explanations, which
which taken together
could
could aCCO\IDt
account toto aa great
great extent
extent for
for the
the check
check inin growth.
growth. A point of
A point of
significance is that the problem was was lOOSt where spruce was planted
most apparent where planted
off its natural site
site onon the
the lowland
laYland clay
clay soils.
soils . Unfortunately
Unfortunately there
there has
tended to
tended an uncritical
to be an un=itical acceptance
acceptance of the the initial
initial explanation
explanation thatthat
attrib..lted the
attributed the phenomenon
phenanenon of
of spruce
spruce check to the
check to the use
use of lOClllOCUltures
monocultures.. In fact
this explanation connected unrelated events as cause and and effect
effect which has led
which has led
to pure spruce frequently
to being equated
frequently being equated to
to aa pure crop of
pure crop of any
any conifer
conifer and even
and even
to a pure crop of anyany species
species (Jones
(Jones 1965).
1965) .

More recentlyit
?re recently it has
has been cla:iJred that
been claimed that for
for middle
middle age
age classes
classes of
of Picea
Picea.
abies in Gennany,
Germany, despite the occurrence of needle loss loss and
and crown
crown decline,
decline ,
yields are 20% to 40% higher than anticipated;
anticipated; this has been attrib..lted
this has attributed toto
increased t~rature,
temperature, increased rainfall and and CO2
CO2 and higher mineralization
(Kenk 1990b).
.(Kenk

(b)
(b) in South
Pinus radiata in SOuth Australia.
Australia .

P.radiata had been planted

P.radiata planted on
on infertile
infertile sandy soils in
sandysoils in South
SOuth Australia.
Australia.
The rotation was felled at about 25 years of age
The first rotation age and
and produced
produced reasonable
reasonable
yields . When
yields. the second
When the second rotation was about
rotation was about ten
ten years old
old it became apparent
apparent
fran
fram the
the analysis
analysis of
of pennanent
permanent sarrple
sample plots
plots that
that the
the plantations
plantations had
had dropped
dropped
one or t= sometimes even
two and serret:iJres even three Q.Jality (SQ)
three Site Quality Classes (Keeves
(SQ) Classes (Keeves 1966).
1966).
class represented
Each quality class represented 140 m3 jha at
140 NO/ha at rotation
rotation age;
age; SQ SQ VII
VII had
had aa
standing volume
standing volume of
of about
about 55 000 ft 3/ac (350
000 ft3/ac m3 jha) and
(350 m3/ha) and SQ IV
N 1111 000
000 ft3/ac
ft'/ac (770
(770
m3 jha) . This was therefore
NO/ha). therefore aa serious loss . There was serre
serious loss. some indication that
yield
yield decline had not
decline had not occurred
occurred in stands where
in stands arising from
where slash arising fran clear
clear
felling had
felling had not been burnt
b..lrnt and
and natural
natural regeneration
regeneration had
hadtaken.
taken place.
place. Burning
replanting was normal
before replanting nonnal practice.
practice.

OVer the next

Overthe t= decades
next two decades research
research was directed tothe
was directedto the decline
decline in
in yield.
yield.
soils are coarse
The soils coarse sands
sands ofof poor
poor water
water holding
holding capacity,
capacity, fran
from which
nutrients are easily leached . It was
easily leached. was found that particular
particular attention needed
to be paid to
be paid to the
the interaction
interaction between
between water
water availability
availability and nutrient supply.
The Ill3.intenance
maintenance of the organic matter matter content of the topsoil was crucial to
this relationship (Sands 1983)
relationship (Sands . Not
1983). Not only
only did
did organic matter increase nitrogen
organicmatter nitrogen
availability and
availability and the
the cation
cation exchange
exchange capacity,
capacity, rut
hit it
it also reduced bulk
also reduced rulk
density and in=eased
increased thethe field capacity;
capacity; in
in the
the absence
absence of
of sufficient
sufficient water
water
the trees
trees were unable to
were unable make use
to make use of
of nutrients
nutrients even when they
even when they were
were available
available
(Boardman
(Boardman 1982). decline was
1982) . Second rotation yield decline was thus associated
associated with
with laYl.1

1 More heterobasidicn annosum

Mbre correctly Heterobasidion annasum rut
hit generally recognised by
foresters under
under its
its old
oldnarre.
name .
 15
15

nutrient status,
nutriett status, layq
1= lIOisture
moisture availability
availability and
and loss of organic
organic matter
matter fran the
from-the
soil as
as well
well as
as soil c:atq?action weed canpetition
compaction and weed competition (Turner
(TUrner 1983;
1983; Squire
1983)
1983)..

The solution to the

The the problem
problem lay
lay in
in good
good forestry practice, that is,
forestrypractice, is, the
preparation
preparation of of the
the site
site with more
IIOre care,
care, the
the elimination
elimination of burning,
I:::uming, the
the
retention
retention of of branches
branches as as aa mulch
mulch after
after felling
felling and thethe reduction
reduction of of
canpetition fran other
competition from other species.
species. The phased application of fertilizer
fertilizer was
introduced in order to overa::ma
overcome the tendency to leaching in the sandy sandy soils
order to
and in order to maintain
maintain the supply
supply of nutrients at times of peak demand; this
was found to be
found to well suited
be well suited toto the
the P..radiata
P.radiata rocting
rooting habit (Boardman
(BoaIdrran 1982).
1982).
These practices cx:mbined with genetic selection
practises coMbined selection for vigour
vigour have resulted
resulted in
in
aa general second
second rotation
rotation gain
gain inin yields.
yields.
cl.ainEd that no studies
It is claimed studies have shown that that nutrient
nutrient removals
rem:>vals inin
logging or
logging conversion to
or conversion to pine
pine have
have led toto productivity
productivity declinedecline in South
South
Australia (TUrner
Australia (Turner 1983).
1983). The problem
problem of second
second rotation decline in Australia Australia
is confined to soils of low 1= nutrient
nutrient status.
status. On heavy heavy relatively
relatively fertile
fertile
clays in
ínNew New South
South Wales
Wales P.radiata
P.radiata was thought to
was thought to have inproved
improved thethe site
site index
index
fran H
from Hcbn(20) of 60m
cizrn(20) .
60 in
In in the
the first
first rotation
rotation to HHumM
cbn
of
(20)of 70
70 or
or 80
80 m in
In in the second
rotation tM..!ir
rotation 1970).
MUir 1970).

The points
points of
of significance
significance appear
appear to
to be that:
be that:

the problem
problem was noticed
noticed as a result of measurements Pennanent Sample
measurements of Permanent Sarrple
Plots, which were first established in 1935 (Boardman
Plots, (BoaIdrran 1988);

the problem occurs on difficult soils with

with 1=
low initial nutrient
nutrient status
and law
and 1= water
water holding
holding capacity;
capacity;

there were adequate

there adequate resources
resources to research
research the prbblem
problem and find
find an
an
answer;

for second
the potential for second rotation
rotation decline
decline on
on infertile
infertile soils
soils exists;
exists;
the solution consists largely
largely in
in good forestry practice conserve the
practice to conserve the
soil rroisture
moisture content and to maintain the organic content
content of the soil
up by
backed up
backed by repeated
repeated applicatiOns of fertilizer
applications of fertilizer adjusted
adjusted to
to the
the crop's
crop's
requirarents each stage
requirements at each stage of
of development.
develoJm2l1t.

(c)
(c) Usutu plantations, Swaziland.
swaziland.

M:mitoring of
Monitoring of the Usutu plantations,
the Usutu plantations, which
which have
have primarily
primarily been been
established to Pinus patula,with
establishedtoPinuspatula, withsome
saneP.P.elliottii and P. taeda, started
elliottii andP.taeda, started inin the
late nineteen
nineteen sixties. Early in
sixties Early in the
the second
second rotation
rotation Permanent
Pennanent Sample
Sarrple Plots
which have been
were established which llOnitored ever
been monitored ever since.
since. Sane
scme sites
sites are
are nCM
ni
carrying theirthird
carryingtheir rotation of
thil:d rotation of pine
pine (Evans 1975,1988). In 1983 an
(Evans 1975,1988). an intensive
intensive
soil survey
soil survey was undertaken (M::lrris 1986).
undertaken (Murris 1986).

The findings of the soil survey

survey are discussed
discussed in rrore
more detail
detail in Appendix
Appendix
2.
2. Of particular note
note is the
the fact
fact that whereas rrost
most of
of the area overlies
overlies
granites, 15%
granites, 15% of the plantation
of the plantation area is on
area is on the
the Usushwana
Usushwana complex
ccmplex soils
soils
overlying gabbro,
overlying and these soils
gabbro, and soils are
are seriously
seriously deficient
deficient in
in phosphates.
phosphates.
Unless corrective measures are taken yield declines are highly likely on the
Usushwana soils.
Usushwana soils.
 16
16

The Usutu plantations

The plantations lie between about
lie between about 1000
1000 rn 1450 mrn altitude;
m and 1450 altitude;
above
above about
about 1350 rn m there
there is aa problem
problem of litter
litter accumulating
accumulating on on the
the forest
forest
floor
floor on both granite soils and on soils
and on soils of
of the
the Usushwana
Usushwana complex.
canplex. The
ilmobilisation of nutrients
immobilisation nutrients in the litter layer
layer CCIlIbined
caMbined with their loss
with their loss at
at
harvesting might
might result in aa deficiency
deficiency ofof nutrients,
nutrients, especially
especially nitrogen,
nitrogen,
phosphate and
and potassium. At At one
one time it was
time it the practice
was the practice to to burn
I:m:n branches,
branches,
tops
tops and alsoalso needle
needle litter
litter after
after clear
clear felling,
felling, but rut this
this hashas been
discontinued since 1973, because
discontinued since because itit was associated
associated with
with subsequent attacks of
subsequent attacks of
Rtizina undulata.
the pathogen Rhizina undulata. But therethere is,
is, however,
hcMever, evidence that when
I:m:ning
burning isis not practised the accumulation
accumulation of litter under second second rotation
rotation
crops is
crops greater, though
is much greater, though the loss of nitrogen
the loss nitrogen and sulphur to
and sulphur the
to the
atmosphere is is reduced.
reduced. Analysis
Analysis of the growth records and the Permanent
grcMth records Pennanent
Sarrple
Sample Plots
Plots atat Usutu confirmed that
has confinrvad
Usutu has that on
on the
the Usushwana
Usushwana canplex
complex soils
soils aa
yield .d ecline occurs
decline occurs inin the
the third rotation,
rotation, of of about 30%, but
about 30%, rut trials have
indicated
indicated that
that plantations
plantations on on these sites will
these sites respond to
will respond to P fertilizer, which
P fertilizer, which
may
may resolve thethe problem
problem ..

The analysis
analysis of growth records
of grcMth fran the
records from the plantations
plantations onon soils
soils derived
fran
from granites
granites has proved
proved toto be IOClre (arly figures
canplicated. The early
more complicated. figures for second
rotation grcMth
growth indicated aa faster
faster rate in thethe first two years
first two years in
in canparison
comparison
to the
the first rotation
rotation and
and then a a slower
slower rate
rate over
over the
the next
next four years or
four years or so.
so.
This was explained by two
explained by facts. First, in
two facts. in the
the second rotation the
second rotation trees were
the trees were
established onto
onto weed free sites . Second,
free sites. Second, there had been series of
been a series years
of years
with l~
low rainfall
rainfall at planting
planting time in thethe second
second rotation;
rotation; Usutu receives only
only
just enough
just enough rain to support .P.patula and therefore
support P.patula drought years
therefore drought years have
have a
critical effect on yields (Evans
(Evans 1975).

Results are
are na0.7
n~ available
availablefor forsecond
secondrotation
rotation crops
crops at twelve years
at twelve years of
for up to six years in the third
age and for third rotation.
rotation. In the second rotation
plots there were
were non-significant declines of 8% on the Usushwana Usushwana canplex
complex and
4% on granites. Second rotation P.elliottii showed
rotation P.elliottii shoNed a non-significant drop in
non-significant drop
height of .36m
.36 rn (fram
(fran 15.57
15.57 n)
rn) at
at age
age twelve.
twelve. In the third rotation,
rotation, although
although
there has
has been the marked decline in in yields onon the
the Usushwana
Usushwana complex
canplex soils
soils
noted above,
above, on one set of of plots
plots on
on aa small
small area
area over
over granite
granite there
there has
has been
been
a significant
significant gain of 21% over second second rotation
rotation yields,
yields, while on on the
the larger
larger
area there was
WaS a non-significant gain gain ofof 4%.
4%. The general
general conclusion is is that
that
the granite
on the granite soils,
soils, even
even after
after allowance
all~ce is is made
made for
for yield
yield increases
increases
attrirutable to improved
attributable improved genetic
genetiC materials
materials and improved
improved establishment
techniques, no yield
techniques, yield decline
decline has detected (Evans
been detected
has been 1988).
(Evans 1988).

importance appear
The points of importance appear to
to be:
be:

that aa system of Pennanent

Permanent Sarrple
Sample Plots has been
been set up so that it is
possible to
possible to monitor
monitor growth with precision;
grcMth with precision;

that, whereas
that, whereas it has been
it has indicated that
been indicated that there
there should be aa general
should be general
reduction of nutrients with
reduction with time and in consequence
and in consequence a decline in
in yields
(Morris
(Morris 1986),
1986), it has not been possible
it has possible to detect this
this from ~h
fran growth
records, except on one
records, one difficult
difficult site;
site;

the prOblem
the problem of
of litter accumulation
aCCUllUllation at
at higher altitudes
altitudes remains
ranains
unresolved and
unresolved and could be aa cause
could be cause of nutrient depletion
of nutrient in P.patula
depletion in Rpatula
stands.
stands.
 17
17

(d)
(d) second rotation
Conclusion on second rotation yield
yield decline.
decline.

There is aa role for

for mixtures
mixtures in soil
soil managemant,
management, rut
bit insofar
insofar as as second
second
rotation
rotation yield
yield decline reflects changes
decline reflects changes in site
site properties,
properties, the the evidence
evidence
suggests that
that it is aa potential
potential problem
problem on infertile
infertile soils and on on sare
same other
other
sites, rut
sites, but that
that on these
these sites
sites yield
yield decline
decline can
can bebe controlled
oontrolled by good
by good
forestry practice,
forestry practice, inin particular
particular thethe matching
matching of of species
species to to site,
site, and the
application
application ofof fertilizer toto correct
correct nutrient
nutrient deficiencies.
deficiencies. Although on on
fertile sites it may
may not
not yet
yet be
be possible
possible toto obtain
obtain statistically
statistically significant
significant
evidence of yield
yield decline,
decline, soil scientists
scientists have
have provided
provided sufficient
sufficient evidence
evidence
of the likelihood of aa loss of nutrients (Lundgren
(Lundgren 1980; Morris
M::>=is 1986; Young
1976) that
1976) foresters cannot afford
that foresters afford to be be complacent.
carplacent. The The need for soil soil
conservation isis evident,
evident, especially through the avoidance
avoidance of compaction
carpaction by by
heavy machinery or
heavymachinery or exposure
exposure of the
the soil
soil by J::urning. These
byburning. These are
are not
not necessarily
problems of growing
problems grcMing plantations
plantations asas single
single species
species oror in
in mixtures
mixtures of of species.
species.

The importance
inportance ofof Permanent
Permanent Sarrple
Sample Plots
Plots as
as aa tool to help in in the
the
detection of yield Changes
detection of changes has
has been stressed in
been stressed in this
this study.
study. But declines
declines inin
yields
yields may
may not
not be detected until well into the the rotation
rotation or even intointo the
the
following rotation because of problems in sarrpling interpretation (Ryan
sampling and interpretation (Ryan
1985). Silvicultural
1985). Silvicultural practices
practices which
which are
are likely
likely toto deplete
deplete the topsoil of
the topsoil
nutrients,
nutrients, llOisture or organic
moisture or organic matter
matter must
must be
be avoided
avoided on
on all
all sites.
sites.

The role of mixtures in

i'be in soil
soil management.

The situations in
in which mixtures might be recommended
rec::cmrended appear to
to be
be as
as
follows.
follows.

(a)
(a) Ground cover.
Ground cover.

introduction of
The introduction of a matrix
matrix of trees or shrubs
shrubs that will provide
provide quidk
quick
ground cover
ground oover is often
often desirable on sites
desirable on sites where
where it
it is
is important
inportant that
that soils
soils are
are
not left
left exposed for long periods, in the plantation
periods, in plantation establishm=nt phase, due
establishment phase, due
to the risks of
to of erosion.
erosion. But often the same
sane effect
effect can be obtained with
with non-
non-
woody legumes,
woody legumes, sudh
such as lupins,
lupins, or by allowing suitable
by allowing suitable herbs or shrubs
shrubs to
colonize the
the site
site tetrp:Jrarily.
temporarily. AA situation
situation in
in which it is inportant
important that
that the
the
soil
soil is exposed is
is not exposed is most
IlOSt likely
likely to oc= on
to occur on rainforest
rainforest sites.
sites. If
protection conservation of
and conservation
protection and of the
the soil
soil is
is of
of critical
critical importance,
inportance, then it is
then it is
probable
probable that the site is unsuitable for clearing
unsuitable for clearing and
and consideration
consideration should
should be
be
enrichm=nt planting.
given to enrichment planting. On sane
sare sites,
sites, sudh
such as coarse
coarse sands,
sands, ground
cover may
may be
be better
better achieved using Imllches
mulches of plant
plant residues after clearing
the site
the site or
or after
after clear-felling; the balancing
clear-felling; the balancing of
of the
the need to protect
need to protect the
the soil
soil
encouraging ground
by encouraging ground cover
cover on
on the
the one
one hand
hand and reduce carpetition
and to reduce competition by by
weeding other requires
weeding on the other requires knowledge
knowledge of
of the
the site.
site.

Irrespective
Irrespective of species composition,
of species carposition, sanesare management
managemant regimes,
regimes, which
involve the
the destruction
destruction or reroval
removal of
of litter,
litter, for ex.arrple
example as aa result
result of
of the
the
use of rulldozers
bulldozers to clear
clear the site,
site, or asas aa consequence of J::urning
burning slash or
through collection
collection of of litter for
for livestock
livestodk J:x:dding
bedding oror as
as fuel,
fuel, are
are likely to
to
cause
cause aa marked reduction
reduction of organic
organic matter in in the
the topsoil.
topsoil. This
This has anan
adverse
adverse effect
effect on exchange capacity,
on cation exchange capacity, water availability
availability and soil
and soil
structure
structure with
with a consequent risk of of erosion.
erosion. Teak plantations
plantatiOns inin India,
India,
Indonesia
Indonesia and Trinidad
Trinidad or eucalypt
eucalypt plantations
plantations onon steep
steep slopes
slopes in
in Ethiopia are
Ethiopia are
sare
some ex.arrples. These problems
examples. These problems are
are prirnaril
primarilyy of administration
administration and protection
protection
than species selection or or composition.
carposition.
 18

(b)
(b) Promotion of
Promotion of litter
litter breakdown.
breakdown.

On sites where
On where there is a risk of aa litter b..lild there is
build up there is aa case
case for
for
introducing
introducingan an admixture
admixture ofof tree species whose
tree species whose leaves
leaves are knCMIl
known to
to be
be favoured
favoured
soil biological
by soil biological agents
agents and which will will therefore
therefore promote
promote quiCker
quicker litter
litter
breakdown and
breakdown and nutrient
nutrient mineralization.
mineralization . Co:cdia alliodbla leaves
Cordia alliodora leaves decarposed
decomposed
rrore quickly
more the trees
whenthe
quicklywhen trees were
were grown in mixture
grCMIl in mixture with
with other
other tree species thanthan
as aa pure crop (Babbar
(Rabrer and
and Ewel
Ewel 1989).
1989). TheThe same
sarre effect
effect can
can also be achieved
by alternating
by alternating rotations species tending
rotations of species tending towards litter accumulation
tooards litter aCCllllUllation (e.g.
(e .g.
conifers on sema
sane sites) withwith those that promote
pramote its deCCllpOSition (e.g. sema
decomposition (e.g. sane
species).
broadleaf species). sanet:ines
Sometimes aa reduction
reduction in stocking will
in stodking will promote the
natural regeneration of a beneficial understorey of small trees, trees, shrubs
shrubs and
and
herbs, which will achieve
which will achieve the
the same
sarre objective.
objective.

Nitrogen fixing.
Nitrogen fixing.

The introduction of nitrogen fixing species can benefit overall yield

yield
on nitrogen deficient sites
sites. Increases
IncrPases in soil nitrogen have been noted
noted in
in
Hawaii (DeBell
Hawaii (DeBell et al.
al. 1985),
1985), India (Samraj
(Samraj et al 1977),
1977), rut
but whether
whether nitrogen
fixers grCMIl
fixers in semi-shade
grown in sani-shade as an
an understorey
understorey species
species actually
actually fix
fix much
much
nitrogen is uncertain.

Ccmcins;cmsononso_i_Ls
Conclusions soils .

1. Many
Mary of the soils
soils available
available for forestry
forestry plantations
plantations in
in the
the tropics
tropics and
and
sub-tropiCS
sub-tropics are inherently
inherently infertile
infertile and
and are
are easily
easily degraded.
degraded .

2. sane
Sane of
of the
the methods
methods used
used for
for clearing
clearing sites
sites for
for planting
planting are
are excessively
excessively
destructive
destructive of of the
the soils.
soils. These
These include
include the
the use
use of heavy rrachinery
of heavy machinery and
and
indiscriminate use of
indiscriminate use of fire which
which result in the rE!lOval
removal and exposure
exposure of the top
soil. Soils under
soil. under rainforests will
will be darraged
damaged if these techniques are used.
used.
It
It should
should be noted, however,
be noted, InoIever, that
that rrany
many of forest plantations
of the forest plantations inin the
the
rainforest
rainforest zone
zone are
are being
being established
established on on sites
sites that
that have already been
have already
degraded, and
and in fact afforestation
afforestation inin the
the tropics
tropics is rrore
more usual in grasSland,
grassland,
scrub,
scrUb, savanna woodland or disturbed vegetation than in dense
savanna ~and dense polyspecific
polyspecific
(Wood && Dawkins
forests (Wood Dawkins 1971).
1971).

3. The rraintenance
maintenance of the
the topsoil
topsoil organic content
content and
and the
the rapid
rapid recycling
recycling
of nutrients by the deCCllpOSition the litter
decomposition of the litter layer
layer on the
the forest floor are
are
contriWtors to
important contributors to the maintenance
rraintenance of soil fertility.
of soil fertility.

4. Losses of nutrients franfrom exploited

exploited plantations
plantations are
are inevitable
inevitable (through
rE!lOvalof
removal of biomass
biomass at
at harvesting),
harvesting), rut but second rotation
rotation yield
yield decline should
only be expected on nutrient deficient sites and can be corrected. corrected. Second
rotation decline
decline is not
not an
an inevitable
inevitable consequence
consequence of
of rronospecific
monospecific plantations
plantations..
Many of
of the
the fertility
fertility problems
problems associated
associated with
with monospecific
IOCll1ospecific plantation
plantation
forestry can be overccma,
overcame, or at at least greatly ameliorated,
arreliorated, by good forestry
practice; such
practice, such as care inin the use ofof clearing particularly in
clearing techniques, particularly in the
the
use of
of heavy rrachinery
machinery and fire, rraintenance of a balance
fire, the maintenance balance between
between soil
soil
exposure and control
expasureand control of
of competition
carpatitionfrom
fran other
other species,
species, the
the avoidance
avoidance of
of over-
over-
stocking (so that
stocking (so small tree,
that small tree, shrub
shrUb and herb strata can can develop)
develop) and the
the
addition of supplE!llS1tary fertilizers.
supplementary fertilizers. These practices are equally
appropriate whether the plantations
plantatiOns areare mixed pure.
or pure.
mixed or

5. plantations can make a contribution

Mixed plantations contriWtion to the
the management
managE!llS1t of soil
of soil
in same
fertility in scma circumstances:
circumstances:
 19

to provide heterogeneity
heterogeneity of
of leaf
leaf litter to help in promoting
praroting litter
litter
dea:J:[ifXJSition
decomposition and thereby to to prevent
prevent the aCCllllUllation
accumulation of of litter
litter on
on the
the
forest floor and so to to maintain
maintain the organic
organic matter
matter =tent
content of topsoils;

to provide ground cover in order

provide ground order to reduce the
the risk of
of erosion by wind
erosion by wind
or rain and also prevent insolation of the topsoil and the consequent
damage soil microfauna
damage to soil microfauna and microflora; this is
and microflora; of particular
is of particular
inportance
importance in the establishllent
establishment phase.

two effects can

These tvlo can often
often be achieved by encouraging
achieved by and =trolling
encouraging and controlling
the grcMth natural vegetation
growth of natural vegetation under
under pure plantations:
pure plantations:

the admixture of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrul::s,

shrubs, although these are
likely to be beneficial on sites onon which
which only
only nitrogen
nitrogen is
is deficient,
defiCient,
while other nutrients and II'Oisture previously
moisture are not limiting and as previously
stated, these species
stated, these species may be effective
may not be effective growing
growing as
as understorey
understorey
species. The number
nl.mlber of
of suitable
suitable sites
sites is
is likely
likely to
to be
be limited;
limited;

other potential advantages

advantages to soil managetreIlt
management of
of mixing species, such
mixing species,
as "nutrient pump
as the "nutrient ptlllp effect", in which deep
deep rooting
rooting species
species tap
tap
nutrients in the subsoil
nutrients subsoil and deposit
deposit them at the
than at the surf
surface
ace in their
litter,
litter, and beneficial interactions with
with rnycorrhizae,
mycorrhizae, are
are unproven in
the tropics.
tropiCS.

3.2 CLIMATE FOLUJTI(B.

AND POLLUTICK.
CLDIM.'E AND

Climate change
change

The changes
Changes in the climate
climate that
that are predicted
predicted in the short-
in the short- to
to m=dium-
medium-
teIIll
term may have
have beneficial
beneficial or haIIIlful effects
or harmful effects on
on the grcMth of trees
the growth trees and
and
forests. The increase
forests. The increase in
in CO,levels
O)~ levels and
and the
the rise in tatperatures
temperatures may
may increase
increase
growth rates,
grcMth rates, rut
hit decreasea insolation and drought may
decreased insolation may reduce
reduce them.
than. Sate
Same
climates
climates may become II'Ore variable.
becctte more variable. The present ranges
The present ranges of species or
of species
provenances
provenances that are not
not sufficiently
sufficiently b.lffered against environmental
buffered against changes,
environmental changes,
such as climate change,
change, will
will be
be reduced and sane
some species or provenances may
becare extinct. This section
become extinct. discusses the
section discusses likely reaction
the likely reaction of single
single or
or
multi-species plantations
plantations toto climatic
climatic change.
change.

It is kn=known that the concentrations

=centrations of of certain
certain gases,
gases, such
such as
as carbon
carbon
dioxide (CO2),
(0)2)' methane
methane (CH.) and nitrous oxide
(CEO and (NOi1~ have
oxide (NO2) have increased
increased since
since the
the
start of the
t.lie Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century century and and itit has
has been
been
predicted
predicted that this will lead to global warming
will lead wanning (the
(the greenhouse
greenhouse effect).
effect). One
estimate isis that since 1765 levelslevels of
of CO, increased by
0) have increased 25%, of
by 25%, of CH,
CH byby
100% and
100% and ofof Np by 10% (Jones
N20 by (Jones &
84 Wigley 1990); another
Wigley 1990.); another estimate
estimate is is of
of 26%,
26%, 143%
143%
respectively since
and 17% respectively since 1850
1850 (Andrasko 1990).
(Andrasko 1990). 0)..2 concentrations have
CO,
varied throughout geological
varied throughout geological time,
time, but
rut present
present day
day levels
leveLS areare as
as high
high as
as they
they
have ever in the last 160,000 years
been in
everbeen (Andrasko 1990).
years (Andrasko 1990). Estimates of annual annual
inCretrents
increments of of O)z
CO, are
are irrprecise;
imprecise; one source alone gives a range range from
fran .25%
.25% to
to
.7% (Andrasko
.7% 1~90), implying
(Andrasko 1g90), irrplying that
that aa doUbling
doublingofofCO2 0)2framfranpre-
pre-Industrial
Industrial
Revolution levels
Revolution levels could
could occur
occur as
as early-as
early as the
the middle
middle ofof the 21st century
the 21' century or or as
as
late as the
late as 23~ century.
the 23"1 century.

general concensus
There is a general =census that
that global
global temperatures
tatperatures have risen
risen by
by
0.5OC
0.5°C over
over the
the last 1990, Jones and
(Andrasko 1990,
last century (Andrasko Wigley 1990).
and Wigley 1990). The
 20

increase in temperature, ~ver,

in tanperature, however, cannot bebe directly related to
directly related to the
the increase
increase
in CO
CO.
2
• There are
are other factors
factors which
which cause a rise
rise in
in tanperature
temperature such as as
volcanic
volcanic eruptions,
eruptions, solar
solar flares
flares and
and the
the !lOvemant
movement ofof ocean
ocean currents,
currents, which
which
=
tend to occur eLLdtically.
erratically. The effect of CO2 CO2 =uld
could ac=unt
account for
for aa rise in
tanperature
temperature overover the
the last high as 0.8°C
last century as high O. 8"C or
or as little as 0.2°C
as little 0 . 2"C
(Jones and Wigley
(Jones and 1990).
Wigley 1990).

If the concentration of
If of atmospheric
atllOspheric CO2 doubles, then
CO2 doUbles, global
tanperatures may
temperatures may increase
increase by 3"C to 5°C
by 3°C and regional
5°C and regional averages could vary
averages =uld vary by
by
-3"C to
-3°C to +10"C;
+10°C; global
global precipitation
precipitation might
might increase by 7%
increase by 7% to
to 15% and regional
15% and regional
averages vary by
averages vary -20% to
by -20% to +20%; regional
regional soil
soil!lOisture vary by
may vary
moisture may -30% to
by -30% to +30%
+30%
(Andrasko 1990). Sane calculations have
Serna been made
have been made for
for South East Asia
Asia and
West Africa which predict that that for
for a doUbling
doubling ofof atmospheric
atllOspheric CO,
CO there will
z of 4.5°C
be a general increase
be increase inin temperature
tanperature of of 3°C
3"C in
in South
South Fast
East Asia ana of
Asia and 4. 5"C in
in
West Africa;
Africa; rainfall changes include
rainfall changes include significantly
significantly increased
increased seasonal
seasonal
variation -- !lOre
variation more rain the IOCll1SOOllS
rain in the less in the
mcnsoons and less the inter m::msoon dry
inter monsoon
seasons -- for South
South East Asia and
and a slight gain
gain (0.1
(0 . 1 mm/day)
nmjday) in
in West
West Africa.
Africa .

tanperature and rainfall

The effect of temperature rainfall changes
Changes on vegetation
vegetation isis even
!lOre difficult
more difficult to to predict
predict than
than the
the changes
changes themselves.
thanselves. While temperate
tanperate and
sub-tropical forests
sub-tropical forests maymay spread towards the poles,
spread tcWcirds sub-tropical !lOist
poles, the sub-tropical moist
forests may
forests replaced by
may be replaced tropical dry
by tropical dry forests
forests and
and grassland,
grassland, savanna
woodland and deserts may
YKlOdland may expand
expand (Andrasko 1990, Calabri
(Andrasko 1990, calabri 1991).
1991) . There may be
an increase in the frequency and severity of forest fires and
severity-of and pest
pest outbreaks
outbreaks
as aa result
result of
of the
the aCCUllUllation
accumulation ofof litter
litter and
and dead arising from
wo::d arising
deadwood fran increased
increased
vegetative grcMth due
vegetative growth due to
to CO2 enrichment .
CO2 enrichment.

It is
is possible
possible that
that one of the effects
effects of warning
warming will be a general
general
extension of dry zones
extension of dry zones away fran the equator.
from the equator. But the warming and drying
drying
effect will
effect will not uniform over
not be uniform over the whole world;
the whole world; in sane localities
in sane localities
temperatures may drop or rainfall increase and in many
tanperatures may areas rainfall
many areas rainfall will
will
becane !lOre
become erratic. At the extremes of the Intertropical Convergence
more erratic. Convergence Zone
ZOne
in Africa
Africa rainfall is already erratic
rainfall is erratic and
and it
it can be expected to bea:m=
can be become !lOre
more
so.
so.

The first
first effect
effect on tree =ps
on tree crops is likely to be that
is likely that more
!lOre frequent
frequent
failures of the
the rains
rains at
at planting
planting time will
will rrake
make regeneration
regeneration !lOre
more difficult.
If such
If such an effect occurs
an effect then !lOre
occurs then more drought
drought resistant species
species will
will need
need to
to be
be
selected for planting. Those species considered
selected =nsidered to to be at the limit of their
range
range will
will have
have to be replaced
to be replaced byby !lOre
more drought
drought hardy
hardy species
species or be proven
or be proven to
to
be capable of maintaining
maintaining their growth. Drought induced induced !lOrtality
mortality of mature
trees may take longer
trees longer toto became apparent;
bea:m= apparent; rut these trees
but trees will
will be under
be under
stress and therefore
stress and the incidence
therefore the incidence of of pests and diseases
pests and diseases can be expected to
increase and the fire hazard can can became
bea:m= worse. Climatic change can also be
expected to
expected to cause pests· and
cause pests diseases to
and diseases to change
change their
their range.
range . The fungus
fungus
Guignardiaaesculi
Guignardia aesculi on horse-chestnut (Aesculushippccastaneum)
(AeSClllus hippocastaneum) has, recent
in recent
has, in
years,
years, !lOved
moved north
north ofof the
the Alps
Alps and
and is nownew to bebe found
found even
even inin southern
southern
Scandinavia; Ceratogystisfimbriata,
Ceratcx::ystis fimbriata,a adise_ase
disease of plane trees (Platanus spp),
of plane
and its insect vector are !lOving north flum
moving north fran the
the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. Although no
=nnection
connection with
with warming
warning of
of the climate has been been proved,
proved, these exarrples
examples give
an indication of trends which may develop
which may develop (Donnabauer
(Donnabauer 1991).
1991).

A policy
A policy ofof mixed planting will be
mixed planting justified on
be justified on sites
sites where
where present
present
rainfall is
rainfall is adequate rut
but variable
variable and it isis hoped to
to establish
establish aa medium
rredium to
to
long rotation
rotation valuable
valuable species that is lacking drought hardiness. In such
lacking in drought
instances aa mixture
mixture of
of less valuable,
valuable, rut
but !lOre
more drought hardy
hardy species
species will
will act
act
 21

as an insurance against total biological failure.

failure. There is no evidence that
mixtures will
mixtures will enhance
enhance the
the survival
survival of
of less
less hardy
haJ:dy species.
species .

Bruenig (1991) considers that climate change

Bruenig (1991) change is happening
happening and
and points
points out
out
that "" ... this change
...this chanae will
will affect
af fectthe
thefunctions
functions ofof forests and consequently
forests and consequently
their role in
their in the
the biosphere and their
biosphere and their utility
utility to
to hl.mlaIlity."
humanity." He points to the
foresters to structure
need for foresters structure man-made forests
forests to be more
IIDre resilient
resilient to
to
climatic changes and
and extremas,
extremes, to maintain high levels
maintain high levels of biodiversity to
and to
biodiversity and
choose species and design
design species mixtures that will adapt
mixtures that adapt not
not only
only to future
changes in climate
climate rut
bit also
also to
to changes
changes in the
the econanic
economic and
and social
social envirorment.
environment .

Techniques are nON

now available for selecting and breeding trees adapted
to specific sites and
and conditions. There isis therefore
therefore potential
potential to
to establish
establish
plantations relatively resilient to aa Changed
changed climate,
climate, rut for this
bit for to have
this to
a positive effect the
a the changes
changes should
should be predicted accurately.
be predicted accurately. less
The less
variation there
variation there is
is the
the greater
greater the
the risk
risk and largest risk
and the largest risk will
will bebe in
IIDnoclonal plantations.
monoclonal plantations . Mixed plantations could be part of the the strategy.
strategy.
Hi::W:::!ver,
However, provenances
provenances andand clones
clones that
that are highly specific
are highly specific to a site
to a site are
are
acceptable in short rotation projects,
projects, providing there is aa pool
poel of genetic
material adapted
material adapted to
to different
different climatic
climatic conditions
conditions which
which can
can be
be used to replace
used to replace
unsuitable genetic
unsuitable genetic materials
materials atat short
short notice.
notice. "Insurance"
"Insurance" can be taken out
taken out
in
in the
the form of of more
IIDre intensive
intensive research
research into
into genetic
genetiC variation
variation or in in the
the
mixture of
mixture of species
species in
in aa plantation.
plantation . This
This is
is discussed
discussed further
further in
in chapter
chapter 7.
7.
choice depends very much on the
The Choice the objectives
objectives of
of management
managarent and financial
and financial
resources.

CO2 reservoirs
CO2 reservoirs

GrOiling
Growing trees rarove
remove OJ CO22
fran
from the
the at:rrosphere
atmosphere and store it in the form
of cellulose
cellulose.. When
When the plantings are used (for (for instance
instance for firewood) or or when
when
they reach
reach maturity,
maturity, however,
hOilever, the death of
the death of individuals
individuals and the the natural
natural
processes of decay
processes decay return
return OJ CO22
to
to the
the at:rrosphere
atmosphere at at the
the sane
same rate
rate as
as it is
raroved
removed so that there is is no net increase
increase inin storage.
storage. The use of plantations
plantations
to sequester OJ CO2
2
will
will be be IIDSt
most effective when they are used as
effective when as aa short-term
short-term
solution or when the final
or when final product
product is is timber
timber which
which isis converted
converted intointo durable
durable
products. This immobilizes
products.This ilrm:Jbilizes CO2as
OJ2 ascellulose
cellulosefor forlong
longperiods
periods after
after harvesting.
harvesting.
Fuelwood
Fuelwood plantations make a contriWtion
plantations make while the
contribution while the trees
trees are
are grONing
grawing and could
help reduce the
help reduce the rate
rate of of increase
increase of of atmospheric
atIIDSpheric CO2, especially if
OJ2 , especially the
if the
fuelwood is sUbsequently
subsequently used used efficiently.
efficiently. Fast growing,grONing, light
light demanding
demanding
species wouldgive
specieswould give an
an early-effect,
early effect, bit rut if
if an
an admixture
admixture of of shade
shade bearing
bearing tree,
shrub
shrtb or herb species
species cancan improve
improve the the total yield of
total yield of aa site
site then
then aa mixture
mixture
be aa more
will be IIDre effective
effective CO2 reservoir.
OJ2 reservoir.

Microclimate.

Forests ~liorate
Forests ameliorate the local
local climate, 10Nering tarp=ratures and
lowering temperatures
increasinghumidity.
incrpsing humidity. Mixed plantations which
Mixedplantations which produce
produce multilayered
multilayered forests are
are
IIDre effective
more effective in
in achieving
achieving this.
this . The contrast
contrast between the more
between the IIDre uniform,
uniform,
microclimates to
microclimates to be found in
be found in the
the mixed
mixed (and
(and all
all aged)
aged) mahogany/teak/jak
mahogany/teak/jak
plantations and the
the relatively IIDre extreme
relativelymore extrare climatic
climatic fluctuations
fluctuations to
to be found
in the pure teak plantations at
at Sundapola,
Sundapola, Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka isis marked
marked (Ng
(Ng 1991).
1991).

A windbreak
A windbreak moderates the microclimate for up
microclimate for up to
to twenty
twenty or
or more
IIDre times
tines
its
its height
height to
to leewaId.
leeward. AA windbreak
windbreak is
is most
IIDSt effective
effective if,
if, rather than acting
as aa wall which causes
causes turbulence
turrulence damwind,
dcwnwind, it filters
filters the
the wind
wind and has aa
and has
profile that allCMS
profile allows the wind to
the wind topass
passsrroothly
smoothlyover
overthe
thewindbreak.
windbreak. AAwindbreak
windbreak
 22
22

having tall trees

havingtall trees at
at the
the centre
centre and shorter ones
and shorter ones at
at the
the outsidP
outside will reproduce
will reproduce
this profile. This
This can be achieved
achieved by using a mixture of tall
tall and short
and short
species.

Pollution
Po_Uut 'ion

Forest damage
damage caused by air pollution
by air pollutionarising
arising fran anthropogenic sources
frananthropogenic sources
(such
(such as as sulphur
sulphur dioxide,
dioxide, acid
acid rain or heavy
rain or heavy rretals)
metals) is is primarily
primarily aa problan
problem
in
in countries
countries where
where there heavy industries,
there are heavy industries, electric
electric power
power generating
generating
plants and large numbers of motor motor vehicles, all all burning
b..!rning fossil
fossil fuels.
fuels. While
these
these problans
prdblems areare acute developed countries,
acute in developed countries, however,
~ver , sane tropical
some tropical
countries,
countries, such such asas India and Brazil,
India and have heavy
Brazil, have heavy industries
industries and and there
there isis
potential
potential for for damage,
damage, although
although no no records
records of this have
of this been noted.
have been noted. It is is
likely that in developing
developing countries
countries strong
strong econanic
economic pressures a::mbined
coMbined with
weak social and political pressurespressures on industries
industries will will cause
cause pollution to
continue andand even get worse. Sare Same species are better
better adapted
adapted to withstanding
withstanding
pollution than others;
others; for
for example
example in thethe carpathian
Carpathian foothills
foothills of the USSR, USSR,
an oak/silver fir fir mixture
mixture was
was found to be be more
more resistant
resistant to to kainite
kainite dust,
dust,
hydrochloric acid and organic fats
acid and fats fran
from aa potash
potash factory than either
factory than either species
species
alone oror any other
other species. A young oak/alder
Ayoung oak/alder plantation
plantation withstood soot soot and
and
carbon monoxide
carl:Jon monoxide fran
from an
an activated carbon factory better than other other species
species
(Voron
(Vbron 1979). In hills around
In the hills around Mexico
Mexico City,
City, oneone of the heavily
the most heavily
polluted cities in the the world,
world, natural forests
forests of of pure
pure Aboies religiosa have
Abies religiosa have
been almost
almost cc:rrpletely killed as a result
completely killed result of high
high levels
levels ofof ozone
ozone pollution,
pollution,
while
while other species have survivedsurvived (Ciesla
(Ciesla and Macias 1987,
and Macias 1987, Whitmore
Whitmore 1991)
1991)
including
including Pinus hartwegii growing
Pinus hartl.egii growing at at higher
higher elevations.
elevations. In the San
In the San
Bernardino M:Juntains
Mountains of california
California Pinus jeffreyi and and P. ponderosa have
P. ponderosa have been
been
adversely
adversely affected
affected by air air pollution,
pollution, while
while Calocedrus
Calocedrus decurrens (incense
decurrens (incense
cedar)
cedar) andand Abies
Abies cmcolor (white fir)
cor2color(wbite fir) have been relatively
have been relatively unaffected (Miller
unaffected (Miller
and Elderman 1977). These references
references illustrate that that individual species may may
be tolerant of various fonns forms of pollution rut but there is no evidence that the
examples of mixtures of species proving more resistant to pollution were in in
fact more successful
fact successful thanthan thethe sama
same species grown. in
species grown in pure
. pureassociation.
association.
Presumably aa mixture
mixture of resistant to different
of species resistant different types
types of pollution
would be an "insurance"
"insurance" against complete
cc:rrplete failure situation where the
failure in a situation
level or the type of pollution were were expected
expected to to change
change with
with time.
tiIne.

The use ofof municipal

rrrunicipal waste
waste waters
waters toto irrigate
i=igate plantations
plantations on on sewage
sewage
fanns becaning more
farms is becoming more common
canron inin the
the tropics.
tropiCS. In South Australia a mixture
of Casuarina
Casuarina glauca and Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus occidentalis
occidentalis has been found to be effective
has been effective
in using
using saline
saline effluent;
effluent; in in less
less saline
saline conditions C.cunninghamiana can be
conditions C.cunninghamiana
the mixture.
used in the E. camaldulensis and E.occidentalis
mixture. E.camaldulensis E. occidentalis mixtures
mixtures are also
likely
likelytoto tolerate
tolerate conditions of of flcxxl.ing and salinity.
flooding and salinity. AAtwo
two tier plantation
plantation
disposal system
systan is
is being developed in
being.developed in which
which aa vigorous potentially high value
potentially high value
species is
species is established
established and irrigation
i=igation fromfran municipal
rrrunicipal reclaimed
reclaiIred water
water is
is
matched tosaturation
matchedto saturationdeficiency;
deficiency;otherotherspecies
speciesare grown.on
aregrown on aa site
site simulating
sirmllating
a winter-spring flood plain
plain system
systan during
during the
the rainy
rainy season.
season. It is intended
to use mixtures of of two
two oror three species (Boardman
three species 1990). These examples
(BoaIdman 1990). examples
offer, ~ver,
offer, however, no c:x:nparison
comparison with the performance of aa single single species
species not
not
grown. in
grown in mixture.
mixture.
 23
23

3.3 FIRE

Global statistics on forest

statistics on forest fire incidence
incidence and
and area b.lmed are lacking,
burned are lacking,
but, between
but, be~ 1980 and and 1988,
1988, Europe (excluding
(excluding the USSR)
USSR) and North Amarica
America
suffered an average of
suffered of about
about 20
20 000
000 forest
forest fires
fires yearly,
yearly, most
IOOSt of
of which
which arose
arose
fran hlmIan
fluri humancauses
causes such
such as
asnegligence
negligence and
and arson.
arson. The area b.lmed
The area each year
burned each year was
about million ha,
about 4 million causing enormous
ha, causing enontOUS but but unquantified
unquantified losses
losses ofof timber,
timber,
environmental benefits, amenity, cultural values and
benefits, amenity, and even property and and human
human
lives (Calabri
(calabri 1991).
1991) . Howmany
Jb.I manyofof those
those fires
fires occurred in plantations
occurred in plantations is is not
not
reco:rded but
recorded but in Brazil
Brazil over 200 000 ha ha of
of plantations
plantations YJere
were b.lmed
burned be~ 1983
between 1983
and 1988,
and 1988, out
out of
of aa total
total plantation
plantation areaarea of
of 66million
million ha.
ha. This maymay appear a
very small proportion of the total area but the monetary cost to the nation
was estimated
WaS estimated toto be $US 199.6
be $US 199.6 million
million (Soares
(soares 1991).
1991).

The reduction of of fire hazard

hazard may
may be achieved through
be achieved through various
various
interventions,
interventions, forfor exarrple,
example, rrechani.cal
mechanical rreans
means such
sudh as firebreaks or roads
as firebreaks roads
(which
(which are
are costly
costly and
and may loss of amenity),
may lead to loss amenity), the use of
the use of herbicides
herbicides
(which is
is both
both costly
costly and
and envirormwantally
environmentally damaging)
damaging) and
and biological
biological rreans,
means, such
such
as grazing within wood,lands,
as woodlands, which is is difficult to to control
control and
and to
to reconcile
reconcile
with forest
with forest and
and soil
soil conservation.
conservation. Prescribed
Prescribed burning
b.lming has proposed but
been proposed
has been but
carries the risk that the fire may spread and in
risk that in Europe and
and North
North America
America itsits
use may
use not be acceptable
may not acceptable to to the
the public
public in
in some
sare places
places (Calabri
(calabri 1991).
1991).

incidence of
The incidence of fires
fires in
in forests
forests (including
(including plantations),
plantations), is is growing
grcMing
rapidly around the
rapidly around the VlOrld,
world, but there are
but there are difficulties
difficulties of canbatting or
of caMbatting
preventing .forest
preventing fires in
forest fires in ways
ways that
that are
are environmentally
envirormwantally and and socially
socially
acceptable . It is
acceptable. is therefore
therefore surprising
surprising that thethe effect
effect of of mixed species
mixed species
plantations
plantations on on severity of fire fire damage has not been
has not m::>re widely
been more widely tested.
tested.
Velez (1991) has attention to the
drawn attention
has drawn the need
need for
for discontinuities
discontinuities in in
plantations
plantations andand the m::>dification of inflammability
themodification inflarrmability m::>dels
models (which
(whichareare related
related
to the m::>isture
moisture content of the fuel fuel and the structure of the vegetation)
vegetation) to
slow
slaw the
the spread of fire. fire . The incorporation of other
The incorporation other species,
species, especially
especially
hardwoods, in
haJ:dwoods, in intimate
intimate or or discrete
discrete mixtures
mixtures would
would meet these aims.
net these aims.

3.4 CONSERVATION OF ANIMAL AND PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

General mnsi
General considerati.ons
deraticns

Plantations
Plantations are speCialised but generally
are specialised generally simplified
silrplified ecosystems,
ecosystans, in in
which
which plant
plant diversity
diversity has been reduced
has been reduced in order to
in order allow the
to allow the maximum
maximum
production
production ofof aa single valuable
valuable c:x:rrp:nent
component. . The
The IOOSt valuable component
most valuable c:x:rrp:nent is
usually the
the VJOOdy stan of the
woody stem the planted
planted tree
tree species.
species. When indigenous
indigenous plant
ccmmmities
communities (forest,
(forest, VJOOdland
woodland or
or grassland)
grassland) areare converted
converted toto monospecific
monospecific oror
polyspecific plantations of native or exotic species,species, with the main
main purpose
of
of VJOOd
wood production,
production, generally there
there will be aa reduction in both habitat and
will be
species diversity
diversity at that site.
site. This
This may
may affect
affect wildlife
wildlife requirarents
requirements for food
focd
or shelter,
shelter, or both.

biological diversity
The biological diversity at
at aa site
site is
is associated
associated firstly
firstly with
with the
the
diversity of
diversity habitats or cammunities
of habitats ccmmmities at that sitesite in
in terms
tenns of
of structural
structural
(forest, grassland habitats,
variation (forest, habitats, etc.);
etc.) i and
and secondly
secondly the diversity
diversity of
species within
within each habitat or ccmmmity.
community. Habitat diversity varies at
diversity varies at several
several
levels -- fran
from individual
individual trees to block
block sizes of several
several hectares (e.g.
(e.g. Clout
Clout
1985,
1985, Gepp
Gepp 1985,
1985, discussing
discussing bird diversities in
birddiversities in plantations
plantations in
in New
New Zealand
Zealand and
and
 24
24

AUstralia respectively). A
Australia respectively). growing literature
A growing in "conservation
literature in "conservation biology"
biology"
addresses the
the issue
issue of
of diversity
diversity (e.g.
(e.g. Wilson
Wilson 1988,
1988, Soule
SOule 1986).
1986).

Diversity in the plantation

Diversity-in plantation tree
tree layer
layer can
can thus
thus arise in several
arise in several ways:
ways:

fram multi-species plantings;

from
fram mixed
from mixed age plantings in mixtures
plantings in mixtures or in adjacent
or in adjacent small
small blocks;
blocks;
fram retaining
flout retaining sane
same level
level of
of natural
natural vegetation
vegetation as
as patches as
patches or as
individual trees or shrubs within
within the
the plantation.

The max:imization
maximization of cost
cost effective
effective tllnber
tiMber yie ld per
yield per unit
unit area
area is
is likely
likely
to be
to be inc:arpa.tible
incompatible with maintaining either
with maintaining either high
high levels
levels of of "natural"
biodiversity or
biodiversity or high
high densities of favoured
densities of favoured wildlife species. But
wildlife species. But this
this does not
does not
nean that plantation forestry
mean that forestry is
is necessarily always detrimental
detrinaltal toto wildlife
wildlife
interests. Plantations have a major
Plantations have major role to play in wildlife
role to conservation and
wildlife conservation and
managanent
management at both the national
national and local level.
level. This role may
may be direct -- in
be direct in
providing aa habitat
providing habitat for
for target species;
species; or
or indirect
indirect - in relieving
- in relieving pressure
pressure
on other
on other wildlife
wildlife habitats.
habitats.

Any fonn
Arry formof
offorest
forestmanaganent,
management, including the planting
including the planting ofof trees,
trees, is
is going
going
to change
dhange not only the pattern
only-the pattern of
of biodiversity,
bindiversity, rut
but also
also wildlife
wildlife paraIOOters
parameters
such as bianass
biamass and species densities.
densities. Whilst the replacement
replacanent of a degraded
scrubland by
scrUbland by aa productive
productive multispecies
multispecies plantation
plantation may greatly
greatly increase
increase
wildlife species richness andbianass,
and bianass, this
this maybe seen as
maybe seen as aa negative
negative change
change
if the original scrubland and flora
scrUbland fauna and flora is
is globally
globally at
at risk.
risk.

Rehmani (1989) describes the

(1989) describes the loss of the
loss of natural dry
the natural grassland
dry grassland
camnmities of
communities of central
central India
India with the endangerment
with the endangenrent of
of the
the associated
associated fauna
fauna of
of
bustard, gazelle and ~lf.
J::ustarii, wolf. Its
Its replacanent
replacement with
with eucalypt
eucalypt plantation
plantation which
which may
may
have higher densities of Axis deer is not a conservation gain if the aim aim is
is
conserve the
to conserve the maximum number of
maximum number of wildlife
wildlife species.
species .

This change
Change in natural
natural biodiversity two irrplications
has ~
biodiversity has implications in
in tenus
terms of
of
designing and managing plantations conservation and managanent
plantations for the conservation management of
natural resources.
natural resources. These
These are:
are :

the conservation of overall biodiversity

biodiversity -- the total range
the total range of
of genetic,
genetiC,
species and camnmity
carmunity diversity
diversity of all plants and animals at that site;
site;

the managanent
management of the
the plantation
plantation habitat to produce
produce wildlife species of
wildlife species
potential positive
potential positive benefit
benefit (i.
(Lee.. deer
deer for
for hunting)
hunting) or
or to
to reduce
reduce species
species
of potential
potential negative
negative benefit
benefit (e .g. pest
(e.g. pest species
species which decrease wood
which decrease wood
production) .
production).

These ~
two objectives
Objectives and ensuing managanent
management activities are so different
activities are
as to warrant separate
separate discussion.
discussion.

CLDservation
Conservation of biodiversity
biodiversity

Background

The necessity
The necessity for slowing the
for slowing rate of
the rate of loss
loss of total
total biological
biological
diversity, especially that contained in tropical forest
diversity, forest ecosystans,
ecosystems, is well
described in recent
describedin recent literature
literature and plantation forestryhas
and plantation forestry has aa significant
significant role
role
to conservation planning
to play in conservation planning and
and managanent
management (Pocre
(Poore && Sayer
Sayer 1987
1987 for
for
example).
example). Three activities are of importance:
irrportance :
 25
25

Developing
Developing forest cover, through afforestation
forest cover, afforestation oror reforestation,
reforestation, to
increase the effective size of the forest
effective size forest or protected
protected area. This could
area. This could be in
in
general, to raise
raise populations
populations of
of key
key wildlife
wildlife species
species above
above minimum levels for
minim= levels for
viability
viability by creating
creating a larger
larger area,
area, or,
or, IlOre
more specifically,
specifically, by providing
providing cover
cover
along dispersal routes or
or "corridors"
"corridors" used
used by
by these
these species.
species.

Developing
Developing peripheral plantations to act as aa J::uffer
buffer zone
zone for
for resource
resource
use around
around forested
forested areas
areas that
that are
are threatened
threatened by
by intense
intense exploitation
exploitation pressure
pressure
without due management.
management .

Developing multiple-use resource plantations for rural communities

CCIlI!D.lIlities so
reduce their need
as to reduce need to
to exploit
exploit nearby
nearby protected
protected areas of
of conservation
conservation
importance
importance.. These plantations need
need not
not be
be adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the protected
protected area.
area .

The first
first category
category of plantation
plantation and and to aa lesser
lesser extent
extent the second would
the second would
better fulfil
fulfil their conservation function if if their structure and and CCIIpJSition
composition
resanbled the natural
resembled natural forest CCIlI!D.lIlity.
cannunity. Multi-species plantations which
Multi-species plantations which allow
allow
understorey and
an understorey have aa structural
and have structural diversity
diversity through
through multi-age
multi-age block
block
planting and the maintenance
planting and maintenance ofof gaps, etcetc are thus
thus of greater importance than
greater importance than
structurally
stn.icturallyhaoogenous
homogenous IIalospecific
monospecific blocks.
blocks. There
There is
is anan extensive
extensive literature
literature
the design
on the design ofof man-made
man-made (and managed) forests
(and managed) forests forfor joint
joint conservation/
conservation/
production objectives frcrt
production objectives fran the
the United
United states (e.g. Thanas
States (e.g. Thomas 1979, 1984,
1979, Harris 1984,
Hoover Wills 1987,
Hoover&& Wills 1987, McTaggart-Cowan
McTaggart-Cowan 1985,
1985, Salwasser
Salwasser 1985,
1985, 1990)
1990) and elsewhere
and elsewhere
(Ratcliffe && Petty
Petty 1988;
1988; Hobbs , Saunders & Hussey
Hobbs, Hussey 1990; and generally, Poore Poore
& Sayer 1987;
1987 ; Kemp, 1992) .
Karp, 1992).

Fbr conservation purposes,

For conservation purposes, species
species mixtures
mixtures have provide real
have to provide real
ecological differences; two different
two dif ferent conifers
conifers would
would not necessarily
necessarily provide
provide
benefit over aa single
single species. Mixtures of
species. Mixtures of aa deciduous and evergreen
eveigreen species
species
or the addition of
the addition edible fruit
of edible fruit or fodder
fodder species
species to a principal
principal timber
timber
species can
can provide real differences
provide real differences in niche
niche availability
availability and
and hence
hence habitat
habitat
diversity. In
diversity. In Indian
Indian plantation
pdantation forestry
forestry practice
practice species
speciesmixtures
mixturesare
arenow
ni
being considered, where
where same
scm= 10
10 -- 20%
20% of
of trees
trees are
are included
includedbeca.use
because of their
their
value
value to local
local people
people or wildlife
wildlife (Wildlife
(Wildlife Institute
Institute ofof India
India -- forest
forest
guidelines) . Note that m::Jdem
management guidelines). modern conservation sees a strongstrong linkaae
linkage
between satisfying resource requirements of people ensuring sustainable
people and ensuring sustainable
conservation
conservation..

Species
Species mixtures
mixtures can include mixing
can include mixing the
the main plantation
plantation species
species with
with
species already
already in situ . This can be in blocks or strips of
in situ. of natural growth
growth
or by the
orby the retention
retention of
of individual
individual tree
tree species
species e.g.
e .g. figs
figs or
or overemature
over-mature "snag"
"snag"
trees which
which provide
provide nesting sites
sites or insects as
as food
food (Rodgers
(Rodgers 1992) . Natural
1992). Natural
openings such as rocky
roCky areas,
areas, marshy should be
marshy areas should be retained.
retained.

Plantation management as well as the initial design is of of importance.

importance.
Plantation thinning and
Plantation thinning felling practice
and felling can be designed
practice can benefit diversity
designed to benefit diversity
of plant and animal species. SCIre
animal species. Sane old
old growth can be be retained and
and scm=
some fallen
fallen
logs left in situ
situ for example. Specific management
for ~le. practices will
management practices will follow
follow fram
fran
the Objectives
the objectives of
of the
the plantation
plantation as whole and
as a whole the objectives
and the objectives ofof each
each
particular zone
particular zone in the plantation.
in the plantation. MUlti-purpose
Multi-purpose plantations
plantations are best
are best
considered through
considered through internal
internal zonation,
zonation, where
where different
different priorities
priorities can
can be
be given
given
to different objectives within
within each
each zone.
zone .

Where plantations
plantations are to be developed adjacent to natural forest
forest of
of
biological importance,
importance, it is essential to ensure
ensure that plantation
plantation mixtures
mixtures do
not include invasive species . The development
invasive species. developnent of carmercial
commercial hardwood
 26
26

plantations in the
plantations in the East Usambara
Usambara M:>untains of Tanzania
Mountains of Tanzania used
used the locally
locally exotic
exotic
Maesopsis eninii
Maescpsis nurse crop
eminii as a nurse =p for
for the
the valuable
valuable endemic
endemicCephalospha
Cephalosphaera
era
usarnbarensis.
usambarensis. The fonrer
f ormer is
isnCM
naaconsidered
considered aamajor
majorpest
pest species,
species, aggressively
aggressively
invading
invading natural forest in carq:>etition
competition with
with local species (Hamilton & Bensted-
Bensted-
Smith 1990)
Smith 1990). .

M:asures
Il asures to
to increase
increase species
species diversity
diversity in plantations

It is possible to give same general guidelines

guidelines for increasing
increasing total
total
plantations, assuming that plantation
diversity in plantations, plantation objectives
objectives indicate
indicate the
to consider
need to consider the
the conservation
conservation of the
the fullest
fullest range
range possible of
of native
native
plant and
plant animal species.
and animal species . The guidelines
guidelines are
are as
as follows:
follCMS :

maintenance of
maintenance of areas
areas of
of natural
natural habitat
habitat within
within or or close
close to the
to the
plantation area;
area; there
there is doUbt whether these patches
same doubt
is Sate patches should be
large or whether groups ofof smaller
smaller areas
areas are
are to
to be preferred
be prefer_ (Clout
ed (Clout
1985); this will depend on the exact objectives,
1985); objectives, such as, as, for example
exanple
conservation of intraspecific variation of plants,
plants, when would
when patches would
be appropriate,
appropriate, or the
the conservation of large rnarn:nals, when large areas
mammals, when areas
are required.
are required. In QJeensland
Queensland 500 ha of
of native
native forest
forest types
types are
are usually
usually
retained for every 4000 ha
retained ha of
of plantations
plantations established;
established; at least
least 200 ha
ha
of the reserved forest is in aa single
single block. These areas
arPas are additional
additional
to those excluded as not suitable for planting,
planting, because of steepness,
rockiness,
rockiness, salinity, etc. (Francis
salinity, etc. (Francis and
and Shea
shea 1987);
1987);

retention of indigenous forest strips, especially

especially along
along water
water courses,
courses,
linking larger
linking larger natural
natural reserves
reserves for
for which they form
which they fonn corridors
corridors for
for
movement of
movement of wildlife;

aa planting plan that,

that, as
as far as possible,
possible, juxtaposes
juxtaposes ~ts
compartments of
of
different species and
and of different
different ages;
ages;

retention of indigenous
the retention indigenous trees oror shrubs
shrubs within
within the
the plantations,
plantations,
which may be justifiable
justifiable for
for the
the encouragement
encouragement of specific
specific wildlife
wildlife
species e.g.
e.g. the retention
retention of
of flCMering
flowering trees to attract
attract nectar feeding
feeding
or insectivorous
insectivorous birds,
birds, fruit
fruit trees
trees for
for bats leaf fodder
bats or leaf fodder for
for
etc.;
primates, etc.;

care planning the felling

care in planning felling operations
operations to allow
allCM escape cover and
reduce the period of disturbance
disturbance to
to aa minimum.
minimum.

Wildlife ~~'eit
monagenent
J

Wildlife for utilisation

For many plantation areas there will not be an overriding

overriding requirement
requiratent
to maintain or support
support the
the natural
natural level of total diversity of plants and
animals. Plantation design
Plantation design could then maximize e.g.
then maximize e. g . timber
timber production.
production.
f!cJNever
However other
other plantation
plantation products
products could be of
could be sul:Eidiary :ilrp:lrtance,
of subsidiary importance, forfor
exanple species
example species of secondary ccmrercial value
secondary commercial value suCh
such as
as bamboo
bamboo oror rattan,
rattan, or or of
of
subsistence values
subsistence values such
such as
as fruit
fruit or leaf
leaf fodder.
fodder. Wild animal products fit
within both categories.
categories. For exanple ccmrercial level,
example at a commercial level, sport
sport hunting
hunting ofof
species, and the cropping of populations
tigers and other species, p:>pUlations such
such as
as muskdeer,
llIllSkdeer,
rutterflies etc. At
butterflies At subsistence
subsistence level,
level, the
the managed
managed hunting
trunting of
of neat animals and
meat animals and
other food
food species
species can be of
can be of great value to rural people and often create
support for plantation
plantation inputs
inputs atat local
local level.
level.
 27

This section describes factors affecting the design and management

This managarent of
aa plantation for
plantation for increasing such
such wildlife products. The planning stage
wildlife prcxiucts. The plarming is of
stage is
great importance and should involve identification
great importance and should involve identification of products of products seen as
as
important by
by local
local camrunities
caTmunities. Large
Iarge plantation
plantation blocks
blocks VlOUld
would probably
probably involve
involve
several zones giving
giving different
different levels
levels of
of priority
priority to
to different
different objectives
objectives and
and
products
products..

Plantations as wildlife habitat

Plantations may provideideal

Plantationsmayprovide idealhabitat
habitatconditions
conditions for
for certain
certain generalist
generalist
species at sane particular
at SCIre particular stage of the plantation cycle . This
plantation cycle. could be
This could be at
at the
the
more grassy
IlOre gTassy post-clearing and and seedling stages
stages for
for grazers
grazers,, or
or at
at the
the older
IlOremature
more mature crop
crop stage,
stage, especially
especially iiff there
there is
is an
an understorey
understorey vegetation
vegetation layer
layer
for
for forest
forest dwelling
dwelling broYSers. This rreans
browsers. This means that
that the
the pattern of wildlife use
resulting
resulting fran
fram the
the establishment
establishment of of plantations
plantations is is not
not simply to to cause an
exodus
exodus ofof wildlife
wildlife fran
fran the
the area , as
anea, as sare
some generalist
generalist species
species will remain, and
will ranain, and
plantations
pla.ntationsmay may attract
attractoror support
support different
different species
species fran
fron those
those that
that existed
existed
in the
the previous
previous state
state.. The
The pattern
pattern of species use willwill change through the life
through the life
of plantati on . Intrcxiuction
of the plantation. Introduction of desired species
of desired species may be necessary
necessary or or
beneficial at at different
different"stages.
stages .

Iarge
Large blocks
blocks ofof pole stage exotic pine plantations were found to be be
particularlypoor
particularlypoor in wildlife in New
in wildlife NOW Zealand
Zealand - - for
for exarrple
example bi rd species
bird (Clout
species (Clout
1985)
1985)-- but
rut taking
taking all
all plantation
plantation ageage classes into consideration,
consideration, it was was found
found
that the
the number
number of species
species in the the plantation was was alI!Ost the same
almost the same as
as inin the
the
native
native vegetation
vegetation in South Australia
in South Australia (Gepp 1976). Higher
(Gepp 1976). densities of
Higher densities of
insectivores
insectivores,, macropods sane seed-eaters
macrppods and SCIre seed-eaters maymay occur
occur inin plantations than in
plantations than in
natural camrunities (Gepp , 1985)
cammunities (Gepp, 1985).. In Knysna
Knysna,, South
South Africa,
Africa, although the total
although the total
requirarents of bushbuck
requirements (ndgelaphus scriptus)
J::ushl::uck (Tragelaphus s=iptus) were were best
best netmet by the the
indigenous broadleaved evergreen forest, the clearfelled
everyleen forest, clearfelled areas were were used
used atat
night, Pinusradiata
night, and dense Pinus radiata and
and P. elliottii plantations (Odendaal
plantations by day (Odendaal
and Bigalke 1979).
and 1979) . P.P . radiata plantations on on the
the Kikuyu Esca.Ipllent in
KikuyuEscarpment Kenya
in Kenya
were less
were less favourable
favourable to to bird
bird species
species with
with specialised
specialised habitat
habitat requirements,
requirarents,
rut
but several generalist
generalist species
species with
with broader
broader habitat
habitat requirarents
requirements adapted well
adaptedwell
to than,
to them, and palaearctic migrants made
palaearctic rnigrants made greater
greater use
use of
of plantations than natural
plantations than natural
(carlson 1986).
forest (Carlson 1986) .

The creation
The creation of a mixed stand may
mixed stand even be deleterious
may even for some
deleterious for wildlife
SCIre wildlife
species . In
species. In Britain
Britain the admixture of
the admixture of oak intoaa pine
oakinto pinecannunity
camrunityisisknuoln
knoon toto be
be
fatal for red squirrels
fatal squirrels,, because grey squirrels are
because grey-squirrels are far
far more
IlOre successful
successful inin the
the
conifer/broadleaved mixture
conifer/broadleaved mixture and
and the
the indigenous
indigenous red
red cannot coexist
coexist with
with the
the
grey squirrel
exotic grey squirrel (Kenward
(Kenward 1990).
1990).
The
The boundary
boundary between
between two
two habitats, whether
whether between
between forest
forest and
agricultural areas
agricultural areas or
or between
between two structural forest
two structural forest or
or plantation often
plantation types, often
has a higher number of species
species and bianass than
and biomass anyone
than any one of of the
the communities
camrunities
(M:lss
(Moss 1979 ; Friend
1979; Friend 1980).
1980). This
This is
is the well known
knoon "edge effect"
effect" of
of wildlife
wildlife
biology . Greater levels of
biology. of "edge" can increase numbers of several generalist
herbivores, deer being the prime
deer being prine example.
exarrple . Edges
Edges are
are not
not beneficial,
beneficial, however,
tJa.Jever,
when the conservation
when the conservation goal
goal is to foster
is to foster aa habitat
habitat specialist
specialist which is is
dependent on large areas of forest
forest.. There is increasing debate on the values
of edges in conservation biology
in conservation biology (Reese
(Reese and Ratti 1988).
and Ratti 1988) .

Iarge marnral
Large mammal use plantations is much
use of plantations IlDlch greater
greater when there
there is anan
understoreyof
understorey of native plants which
which provides shelter
shelter and food (Gepp
(Gepp 1985)
1985).. If
If
such wildlife
wildlife prcxiuction
production is
is aa required output, plantation canopy
output, then the plantation
 28
should not
should not be all~
allowed to l::lecarE
became tootoo dense. In
In South
SOuth India
India in aa teak plantation
plantation
within aa wildlife
within area the
wildlife area the thinning
thinning operations
operations were
were carnbined
canbined with
with tending
tending and
and
',oIeeding
weeding activities which resulted in aa harogenous
hamogenous grass
grass layer. This attracted
layer. This attracted
the
the generalist Axis deer.
generalist Axis deer. But
But densities
densities ofof elephant,
elephant, sambar
saMbar deer (Cervus
deer (Cervus
and sloth
unicolor) and declined as
bear declined
slothbear as they
they are
are all
all dependent
dependent on
on aa denser
denser forest
forest
and shrub
shrUb cover.
cover. ManagE!leIlt
Management was
was advised
advised to consider
consider leaving tvlo
two out
out of
of every
every
ten rows untended (Rodgers
(Rodgers 1992).

In swaziland
In Swaziland the establishrrent
establishment ofof well
well protected
protected exotic
exotic pine
pine plantations
plantations
on highveld
highveld grassland
grassland which
which had been used for sheep farming
had been fanning and had been been
regularly hunted,
regularly hunted, has resulted in an increase
has resulted increase in in some
sare wildlife
wildlife species.
species .
Bushbudk and leopard and many
Bushl::uck many other species of of rnarrrnals
mammals are now now c::arm::m
common (Evans
1988).
1988). In this
this example the increase
increase in wildlife in part
has in
wildlife has been due to the
part been
protection
protection that could be
that could be afforded
afforded in in the
the plantations,
plantations, rut which was
but which was
inpracticalon
impractical on the open open grassland, rut it also
but it also reflects
reflects an an increase
increase in species
resulting fran
from the
the creation
creation of
of new habitats and
ni habitats to the
and to the favourable conditions
created at at the
the boundaries
boundaries ofof plantations
plantations andand grasslands
grasslands or or rides.
rides. Generalist
Generalist
wildlife species are at far higher densities in the plantation areas areas of Bori
Reserved Fbrest
Forest in central India than in the the adjacent
adjacent neighbouring
neighbouring natural
natural
llOist deciduous
moist teak community.
deciduous teak ccmnunity. The plantation area
The plantation area is
is aa mixture
mixture ofof pure
pure teak,
teak,
failed teak turned into bamboo plantation,
plantation, grassy clearings
clearings and patches of of
natural forest.
natural forest. This is nownaa the
the preferred
preferred tourist
tourist area
area with
with high
high probabilities
probabilities
of sighting tigers and several large herbivores (Rodgers (Rodgers 1992). Thirty year
1992). Thirty
oldinixed plantations of indigenous Dalbergia
old mixed plantations Dalbergia sissoo, acacias,
acaCias, andand Bombax sp.
Banbax sp.
on the grassland
grassland areas
are of Dudhwa
Dudhwa National
National Park in North India are aa Irajor
Park in major food
resource for large rnarrrnals
and shelter resource contriWte to overall wildlife
mammals and contribute
value. This contrasts with nearby stands of non-palatable teak and
value. and eucalypt
which are little
whidh little used
used by
by wildlife
wildlife species
species (Rodgers
(Rodgers 1992).
1992).

This pattern
This increased wildlife
pattern of increased ahmdance may
wildlife abundance Iray have its disadvantages
disadvantages
since sare
same foDllS
forms of life,
life, whether insects
insects oror mammals
rnarrrnals such
such as elephant,
elephant, deer,
deer,
pig or rronkey,
pig mcnkey, can cause considerable daIrage damage in plantations
plantations.. Such daIrage
damage can
saretimes
sametims bebe reduced
reducedbyby planting
planting unpalatable
unpalatable species
species at at the boundaries between
boundaries between
plantations
plantations and indigenous forests.
and indigenous forests. InIn Sabah it was
Sabah it was noted
noted that
that deer
deer damage
daIrage to
to
GMelinaar.borea
GneliIJa arborea plantations declined to negligible
negligible proportions 1 kIn km fran
fram the
indigenous
indigenous forest (Duff et
forest (Duff et al.
al. 1984).
1984). It is is possible
possible that a "barrier"
"barrier" of
unpalatable speCies, such as Acacia rnangium, established next to the
unpalatable species, such as Acacia mangium, established next to the boundary
boundary
with the natural forest will reduce daIrage damage by rnarrrnals.
browsing mammals.
M:lrphologically different species,
Mbrphologically species, such as are contained in in the understorey
of aa forest
forest plantation,
plantation, can alsoalso be a natural
a natural barrier. On the other
the sane
other hand some
insectivorous birds
insectivorous birds are beneficial
beneficial in helping to control control insect attacks in in
plantations and can be encouraged
encouraged byby retaining strips
strips andand rrosaics
mosaics ofof natural
natural
forest
forest (Aracruz
(Aracruz 1988).
1988). Natural
Natural forest
forest strips
strips will also harbour
will also greater
harbour greater
arthropod diversities
arthropod diversities whichwhich will
will be advantageous in
be advantageous in dealing
dealing with pestspests
(through parasitic
parasitic andand predatory Hymenoptera for example).
predatory Hymencpteza example). Action
Action that can be
taken before
taken before plantation
plantation establishrrent
establishment and and during plantation
plantation IranagE!leIlt
management to to
increase the bianass desired species of
biamass of desired of wildlife
wildlife includes:
includes:

the retention of strips of

of natural cover especially along streams and
along streams
drainage lines;
lines;

a planting plan that, far as

that, as far as possible,
possible, juxtaposes
juxtaposes compartments
a::npart:ments of
of
different
different species and of
species and of different
different ages,
ages, and
and of
of grassy
grassy clearings
clearings and
and
other natural
natural vegetation;
vegetation;
 29
29

extrema care in the use of fire which can

extreme can have positive and negative
inpacts. grazers benefit
impacts. Many grazers benefit frcrn
from anan occasional burn. Forest rum.
specialists will
specialists will not;
not;

a policy
policy of heavy thinning in the middle
middle and late stages
stages of
of plantation
developrent, which will
development,which will encourage
encourage the
the indigenous
indigenous understorey
understorey and ground
cover in
in the
the plantations;
plantations;

of indigenous
the retention of indigenous trees
trees and shrubs within
and shrubs within the
the plantations,
plantations,
may be
which may be justifiable
justifiable for
for the
the encouragement
encouragE!lalt of
of specific
specific wildlife
wildlife
. g. the retention of flowering trees to
species ee.g. to attract
attract nectar feeding
nectar feeding
or insectivorous trees for bats or leaves for orang-utans.
insectivorous birds, fruit trees

Conclusions on
Conclusions an the
the conservation
omservatian of animal and resoorces
and plant genetic resources

Any natural
Any natural change
change oror man-induced
man-induced intervention
intervention in in anan ecosystem
ecosystem will
will
affect the wildlife
wildlife population;
population; the sillq:Jlification
simplification and and specialisation of of the
tree
tree layer
layer in in the
the ecosystem
ecosystem will
will result
result inin aa reduction
reduction inin wildlife
wildlife diversity
diversity
a::rnparison to a natural
in comparison natural community,
CCIlIlDJIlity, but
rut the
the impoverishment
illq:Joverishm=nt will not be be
unifoDn . To stigmatise
uniform. stigIll3.tise moncspecific
lOClIlospecific plantations
plantatiOns as as "biological
"biological deserts"
deserts"
(quotation
(quotationnotednoted in
in Friend
Friend 1980)
1980) is
is more
more anan expression
expression of emotional
emotional ccmnitment
commitment
than aa rational analysis of of the problem.
problem. Plantation management can go
Plantation managE!lalt go aa long
way to improving
way to illq:Jroving both
both natural
natural diversity
diversity levels
levels and to to increasing
increasing wildlife
wildlife
amenity values .
amenity values.

Good planning, starting with

planning, starting with aa statE!lalt
statement ofof what
what priority and specific
priority and specific
airos
aims the conservation of biodiversity
biodiversity or or the
the production
production of wildlife
wildlife should
should
have, is essential.
have, essential . Various available, including
Various strategies are available, including the broad
sense
sense mixing
mixing of species in neighbouring compartments,
c::crrpartments, which will encourage
encourage
wildlife in industrial plantations without the the creation ofof mixtures in
in the
the
narrow sense of
narrcM of polyspecific
polyspecific compartments.
c::crrpartments. Where mixed plantatiOns are
mixed plantations are
appropriate
appropriate,, whether
whether for specific products
products or for rehabilitation,
rehabilitation , diversity
of
of structure
structure and age
age is
is as illq:Jortant as diversity of species
as important species to encourage
wildlife.

3.5 DlSEC'l'S
INSECTS AND
AND DISEASES
DISEASES

There are few references in the forestry literature which a::rnpare the
which compare
effects
effects of mixtures
mixtures in artificial stands on the the incidence
incidence of insects
insects and
diseases or of the effects of insects or or diseases on mixed
mixed stands. This makes
makes
a a::rnparison
canparison ofof pure andmixed stands
pure andmixed stands difficult.
difficult. Extrapolation of infonnation
information
frcrn
fram agrosystems
agrosystems is is not
not always
always sound because of
sound because the longer
of the longer time
tine scales
scales
involved inin forestry,
forestry, although
although the
the tendencytCMards short rotation
tendencytaaards short rotation tree
tree crops,
for
for exarrple
example Albizia falcataria with
Adbizia falcataria with aa rotation
rotation of five to eight years
of five years inin
Malaysia
Malaysia or or Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus species
species with
with aa rotation
rotation as short five years in
short as five in
Brazil, makes the
Brazil, the comparison
a::rnparison more
more valid.
valid . The tendency
tendency has been a::rnpare
been to compare
pure artificial stands with
artificial stands mixed natural
with mixed stands and
natural stands and in consequence other site
consequence other site
and enviromental confounded the
environmental factors have confounded the comparisons.
a::rnparisons.
 30

stahl 1 j ty of forest ecosystems

Stability

One ofof the

the primary
primary factors
factors which
which regulate
regulate pest
pest pppulations
populations is is the
the
availability of suitable
Suitable host
host material.
material. Natural forests which
Natural forests =tain a
which contain a
mixture of species achieve a state of complexity a::nplexity in which
which the
the vegetation
vegetation isis
broadly in balance
broadly with pests
balance with pests and diseases. These ecosystems include a wide
and disposes. wide
of insects,
range of insects , fungi
filllgi and bacteria living-
and bacteria living on the trees trees and
and herbaceous
herbaceous
vegetation . An
vegetation. increase in the proportion
An increase proportion of of any
any host plant
plant in an ecosystem
ecosystem
tends to be followed
tends corresponding increase
foll~ by a corresponding increase in in the
the pest
pest or pathogen
pathogen
population whose activities
population activities eventually
eventually reduce
reduce the
the host
host population
population baCk to aa
back to
low level.
law level . Insects
Insects and diseases help
and diseases help to control
=trol the the size
size ofof individual
individual
species
species populations
populations and and thereby
thereby maintain
maintain the species diversity
the species diversity in in that
that
ecosystem;
ecosystem; subs9:Illently
subsequently the the populations
populations of organisms are themselves
of these organisms themselves
=trolled by the
controlledby the reduction
reduction in in available food and the activities
by the
andby activities of natural
natural
enemies
enemies.. Way(1977)
Way (1977) has described thesprucebudvaorm
has describedthe spruce bJdwonn Choristoneura
CiJoristoneura lumiterana
lumiferana
in eastern
eastern North
North AIrerica
America as as an example
exanple of this species-destabilizing,
species-destabilizing, but
camumity-stabilizing activity.
carrnunity-stabilizing activity. The tendency is, then, for
is, then, for the
the insects andand
diseases to prevent anyone
any one plant component
a::nponent of the ecosystem dominating
daninating it.
it .
Therefore the siIrplification
Therefore simplification of of an ecosystem to
an ecosystem to one
one tree
tree species,
species, asas in a
monospecific plantation
monospecific plantation,, would a~ to
would appear to increase the risk of of aa serious
serious attack
attadk
insect or disease
by an insect
by di sease illlless
unless other habitat ~irem=nts
requirements of of the
the attacking
attadking
organism can also be managed
managed (Way(Way 1977).
1977) .

Diversity is greatest at the interface

interface between
between two types of
~ types of habitat.
habitat .
This can lead to problems
problems with
with pest species which ~ire
species which require elarents
elements ofof each
each
habitat for their survival. The problems of raising sorghum s orghum inin Sudan are an
exanple of
example of this
this;; many of thethe pests,
pests, such as QJelea finch, grasshoppers
elea finch, grasshoppers etc.
etc .
live natural bush.
live in the natural bush . In Bangladesh
Bangladesh the invasion of GWelina
the invasion arrorea
Gnelina artcrea
plantations by
plantations the mistletoe
by the Ioranthus perasitica,
mistletoe Lcranthus parasitica, which invades invades fram
fran
neighbouring natural
neighbouring natural forest,
forest, isis another
another example
exanple onon aa smaller
smaller scale
scale (Gibson
(Gibson and
and
Jones 1977).
1977) . One solution to this problem is to continue the simplificationsiIrplification
process ruthlessly-so
ruthlessly so that
that there
there is
is only
only one
one crop
crop over
over aa wide
wide area (Way
(Way 1977)
1977)..
The agricultural
agricultural practice
practice ofof large scale monocropping,
monocropping, such as as wheat
wheat fanning
farming
in the
the prairies, has the
prairies, has the incidental
incidental effect
effect of
of eliminating
eliminating interface
interface zones,
zones, but
bit
this is aa solution that,
that, even if it waswas appropriate, should
should not
not be applied in
be applied in
the marginal and highly variable
the sites usually
variable sites usually made available for
made available for large
large scale
scale
forestry
forestry, , where
where the
the first priority is is to
to match
match species
species to to site.
site . There are
are
numerous exanples
examples in both agriculture and forestry where interfaces interfaces between
~ ecosystems provide
two ecosystems provide habitat
habitat r9:Illirem=nts
requirements for for natural
natural enemies
enemies ofof pest
pest
species.

It might
It be thought
might be thought that natural carmunities
camrunities,, especially
especially where
where they are
are
diverse, though capable
capable ofof harbouring
harbouring pest species,
species, should be less
should be less susceptible
susceptible
than monospecific
than crops to
monospecif ic crops to catastrophic
catastrophic attacks.
attacks . But diversity
But diversity in itself does
not prevent catastrophes especially in
catastrophes especially in the
the rase
case of
of introduced
introduoedpests
pests.. SCIre
Sane of
the catastrophic losses
losses caused
caused byby introduoed diseases in
introduced diseases in both Europe
Europe andand North
AIrerica
America -- Dutch
Dutch ElmElm disease,
disease, Ophicstrana
ct>hiostrana (=Ceratocystis)
{=Ceratocystis} ulmi, Chestnut
ulmi, Chestnut
Blight, Endothia parasitica
Blight Endothia
, parasitica and and White Pine Blister
White Pine Rust , Cronartium
Blister Rust , ribicola --
Cronartium ribicala
have occurred
have occurred inin natural
natural polyspecif
polyspecific camrunities . The balance achieved
ic carrnunities . achieved over
over
many years in natural
many years natural forests is is disrupted when new pests
disrupted when pests are introduoed
introduced which
which
have not
not co-evolved
co-evolved with
with their
their new host,
host , are
are introduoed
introduced into ecosystems
ecosystems which
lack natural
lack natural enemies or or when new tree
when new tree species
species areare established
established inin anan ecosystem.
ecosystem.
In the
the last case the the relative
relative advantage
advantage of exotic crop is
of an exotic f~ently
is frequently
attributable
attributable to aa lad(
lack of pests
pests in its new new surroundings.
surroundings This advantage will
This adv-antage
. will
diminish
diminish asas local
local pests and diseases
pests and adapt to
disposes adapt to the
the new host and will will be
be
eliminated
eliminated if anan exotic
exotic pest or disease
disease is introduoed
introduced (Gibson and Jones 1977).
1977) .
 31

Large areas of pure plantations have been established

established and though
though there
there have
have
epidanics and
been epidemics failures, the majority
and failures, majority of the plantations areare reasonably
reasonably
successful. An outstanding example is that of rUbber (hreveabrasiliensis)
rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
which has been grown
has heen grown as an exotic pure stands
exotic in pure stands in
in Malaysia
Malaysia for over a
century
century with
with remarkably
remarkably few problems from
fi problems fran pests
pests and
and diseases
diseases (Ng 1991).
(Ng 1991).
Outbreaks of pests and diseases in plantations, whether pure
plantations, whether pure or mixed,
mixed, are
frequently aa secondary
secandary problem due
due to failure to
to match
match species to
to site,
site, poor
poor
managemant or
management or other
other forms
foDllS of
of stress.
stress .

The mechanisms and stratagems

stratagems by by which
which insects
insects find
find aa host
host tree
tree and the
andthe
rrechanisms by which the enemies of those insects find their hosts are varied
mechanisms
and ccmplex.
and camplex. Increased species
species diversity
diversity in plantations can
inplantations can bebe of assistance
in preventing
preventing attacks on on trees by providing camouflage
by providing camouflage forfor the crop at
the crop at risk,
risk,
by creatingbarriers
hydreating barriers ororby providing food
by providing food and refuge for
and refuge for the natural enemies
the natural enemies
of foraging insects.
insects. In Poland the cmplexes system has
the use of the places carplexes
been developed (Birot 1991),
been 1991), inin which
which m:xlospecific
monospecific stands
stands ofof Pinus sylvestris
Pinussylvestris
are broken up with small blocks
with small blocks of a few few hectares
hectares of of highly
highly poly-specific
poly-specific
plantation in order to diversify the the wildlife habitat
habitat and to encourage
encourage the
presence of
presence particular, with the aim
of birds in particular, aim ofof controlling
controlling pest-insect
pest-insect
populations (an
populations (an example of the
exampleof beneficial effects
the beneficial effects of interface zoneszones discussed
discussed
in the section on on Conservation). The possibility that aa mixture of species
may provide alternate hosts
may hosts may be harmful
maybe haDnful ifif the
the alternate
alternate host is is essential
to the
the life cycle of of the
the pest,
pest, oror beneficial
beneficial ifif the alternate
alternate host
host distracts
distracts
the pest
pest fran
from a rrore
more valuable
valuable species. On the other hand decreased decreased diversity
diversity
can dislocate
dislocate the pest's life life cycle in several
several ways,
ways, such as by by depriving
depriving it
of alternate food sources if are needed, by
i f they are reducing the
by reducing the diversity
diversity ofof
contiguous habitats in which many many pests thrive,
thrive, or by diluting the the effect
effect of
the pest
pest by volume of
the volume
hythe of the material
material produced.
produced. Many pest species
Marqpest species have
have a high
reproductive potential,
reproductive potential, hcMever,
however, and and are
are able to expand nlnnbers in
expand their numbers in
response to aa high
response high proportion
proportion of suitable
suitable host material. Decreased
Decreased diversity
diversity
can also
also aid
aid enemies
enemies of
of pests
pests by decreasing the
hydecreasing occurrence of their enemies.
the occurrence enemies.
Little, hcMever,
Little, however, is known about the nature of spatial diversity diversity that
that harrpers
hampers
pests (Way
(Way 1977).
1977).

Salle
Sane q:p>S; ng views.
opposing vi.

There are sharply

There sharply divided
divided views on the desirability pure plantations
desirability of pure plantations
with regard
with to the
regard to the abundance
ab..mdance of
of pests.
pests. Boyce (1954)
( 1954) expressed many
many of
of the
views of the proponents ofinixed
of mixed forests.
forests. He advocated
advocated indigenous
indigenous species
species
rather exotic, natural regeneration rather than
than exotic,
ratherthan than planting and mixed
plantingand mixed rather
rather
than pure
pure plantations. He clairred that
He claimed pure stand
that aa pure stand isis ideal
ideal for a pathogen
pathogen
to ruild up
to huid up totoepidemic
epidemic proportions
proportions and cited the
and cited the failure
failure of
of rubber
rubber
plantations in
plantations in South
South America
America asas aa result
result of
of severe
severe infestation
infestation of South
South
American Leaf Blight
Blight (SALE).
(SALE). Rubber
Rubber occurs
occurs naturally
naturally asas aa scattered tree
tree in
in
South American
American forests
forests where
where the pathogen is also present.
present. It doesdoes little
harm to the wild
hann wild rubber
rUbber tree,
tree, rut
but pure
pure plantations were attadked
attacked and failed
and so
so it
it has been argued
has been argued that
that pure
pure plantations,
plantations, which
which provided
provided a large volume
of host material,
material, were a causal factorfactor leading
leading to
to the
the failure.
failure. It hashas been
noted, however,
noted, hcMever, that the plantations
plantations in question were in fact fact established
established
using seedlings reintrcrluced from
seedlings reintroduced fran Malaysia.
Malaysia. SALE does
SALB does not occur
occur yet inin
furthennore all
Malaysia and furthermore rubber trees there originate
all rUbber originate fran initial
from an initial
introduction of 22 seedlings (Chou
introduction (Chou 1981). It is not surprising that planting
planting
material having
having such
such aa ~
narrow genetic
genetic base and which
which had been bred in the the
absence of any selective pressure for resistance to to SALE
SALE should
should fail.
fail.
 32
32

Perry and Maghanbe (1989) in

Maghembe (1989) in their
their appraisal
appraisal of of plantation
plantation forestry
forestry and
and
ecosystem
ecosystem concepts
concepts noted
noted that
that diversity is an importantiItp:lrtant defence
defence mechanism
against pests and diseases.
diseases. The statement
statenent that "the chances Chances that aa genetic
m::moculture
monoculture willwill J:e
be ral:ust
rObust against pests pests and diseases
diseases over
over the t:ime
time period
required
required to reach maturity
maturity seems small.
small..,.. the evolutionary capacity of
evolutionary capacity of short-
short-
lived pests and pathogens
lived pathogens is is enonnous",
enormous" correctly
, attention to
draws attention
correctly draws to the
the risks
risks
of epidemics in m::moclonal
monoclonal plantations
plantations and to the fact that pests pests often pass
through several generations of breeding and natural selection in aa year (as
year (as
carpared to several
canpared years or
several years or even
even decades
decades in IOOSt tree species), and that
inmost that they
they
therefore relatively easilyeasily-cancan overcare
overcome various
various types of disease
disease resistance
originally found in the host host species.
species. Risks
Risks can can be
J:e minimized
minimized through
through short
short
rotations (taking calculated
rotations calculated risks),
risks), rotation
rotationof of clones
clones inin space and t:ime,
time, and
and
alternative end
alternative end use options
options in the case case of
of disease,
disease, based
based on
on early
early harvesting
harvesting
and replacement of diseased clones
and clones. Large-scale clonal plantations, such such as
as
t.ho!>e
those in Congo (see (see e.g Delwaulle 1989) 1989) and
and Brazil
Brazil (Burley
(Burley and
and Ikemori
Ikemori 1988;
1988;
Campinhcs and Ikemori 1986),
Canpinhos 1986), have J:eenbeen established
established with with these
these considerations
considerations
in mind
mind and,
and, although
although not
not without
without problems
problems, , generally
generally havehave avoided
avoided large-scale
large-scale
attack. Thus,
pest attack. Thus, provided
provided that that aa broad genetic
genetiC base maintained in
base is maintained in
separate base
separate base populations,
populations, to to J:e
be used as "back-ups" for
"badk-ups" for narrowly-based
na.rrowly-based
plantations or
plantations or plantations
plantations established
established using single clone
using single clone blocks;
blocks; and
provided adequate
adequate attention
attention is given to the continuing
is given continuing developrent
development of new
high-yielding clones for intensive tree farming faIming activities,
activities, the use even even of
of
m::moclonal plantations
monoclonal plantations cancan be
J:e biologically
biologically-as as \0911
well asas econcrnically
economically feasible
feasible..

Perry and Maghanbe (1988) also cite the failure

Maghembe (1988) failure of Rinus
Pinus radiata in
radiata in
the introduction
Africa after the introduction of of ropthistrama
Dothistrcma blight, blight, attacks
attacks by native
by the native
cerarnbycid borer
cerambycid borer Chemida gahani on
canida gahani on CUpzessus lusitanica in East
Cupressus lusitanica East Africa
Africa and the
fact that
that several
several pines
pines in Southern
Southern Africa
Africa suffer severelyseverely fran Diplodia
Diplodia pinea
pinea
as arguments against the planting
planting of pure stands.
of pure stands. But it is is by nono means
means
certain that pure
pure stands are the prime pr:ime cause
cause of of these
these problems.
problems. Isolated
P.radiata are just as susceptible to Dothistrcma
Bothistrcma blight as pure plantations
(Gibson and
and Jones
Jones 1977). Dothistroma blight is
1977). Dothistrcma is of little significance
significance in in the
the
south of Australia.
Australia. On the other
On the other hand it has
hand it has been devastating in
J:een devastating in Africa
Africa where
where
P.radiata J:een planted off-site
P.zadiata has been off-site inin summer
sl.lllll'er rainfall
rainfall zones.
zones. Cemida
canida gahani
gains
gains entry
entry through wounds such
through wounds such as
as pruning scars, scars, butbit hashas been largely
J:een largely
controlled
controlled byby J:etter
better forest hygiene to
forest hygiene to remove
remove breeding
breeding sites
sites in slash and
debris (Gibson
(Gibson and Jones
Jones 1977).
1977). ailcdcdia
Diplodia pinea rdnea isis as
as serious
serious a disease on on
isolated trees as in plantations
isolatedtrees plantations and
and isis prevalent
prevalmtwhere where pines
pines are
are planted
planted off-
site in Southern Africa (Barnes and Mullin
Africa (Barnes MUllin 1976).1976).

There are other exanples

examples of of pest and
and diseases
diseases that cause
cause severe
severe damage
damage
in plantations, rut the
plantations, but the prime
pr:ime cause
cause cannot
cannot be
J:e attribilted
attrib.lted to
to the
the fact
fact that
that the
plantations are m::mospecific.
monospecific. TheThe root
root decay
decay fungus
fungus fieterobasidice (=Fbmes)
Heterobisidion (=Fares)
annosus is aa wood
annosus wood destroying
(iPstroyingbasidianycete
basidianycete that
that colonizes
colonizes woody
woody residues,
residues, such
such
as stumps left in the ground in aa clearing operation or
the ground or as
as a consequence of
thinning
thinning operations. It can occur
oc= in in either
either pure
pure or
or mixed plantations but
mixed plantations rut
since it is transmitted by root grafts,
is transmitted pure plantations
grafts, pure favour the
plantations favour the spread
spread of
of
the disease. H. is, ha-lever,
H. annosus is, thought to J:e
however, also thought be favoured by by sites
sites
fran which other antagonistic fungi
from fungi have been eliminated; this occurs
J:een eliminated; occurs when
when
plantations
plantations are
are established on abandoned farmland
fannland (Gibson
(Gibson and
and Jones
Jones 1977).
1977).
Fbr this reason the disease may J:e
For this regarded as aa consequence
be regarded consequence of of failing
failing to
to
match species to site as well\0911 as
as aa disease
disease ofof monospecific
monospecific crops.
crops.

Rhizina undulata infection of pines is associated with with the use

use of
of fire
fire
and so is another exanple disease owing
example of a disease owing more
IOC>re to
to the
the prehistory
prehistory of
of the
the
site than
than to
to the
the fact
fact that
that the
the crop
crop is
isrronospecific.
monospecific. Because R.undulata causes
Because/R.undu/ata
 33

so many problems,
problE!llS, the practice of burning
l:un1ing plantation residues
residues after clear
clear
felling has
felling abandoned for sites
has largely been abandoned sites planted to pine
pine in
in southern
southern
Africa as well as inin northern
northern EUrope.
Europe.

In Ghana the scolytid beetles Xyleborus

scolytid beetles Xyleborus mascarensis,
mascarensis, X. X. sha.rpae
shaIpae and X.
and X.
sffiliopacus caused extensive damage and death in line planted
semiopacus Khayai ivorensis
planted Khaya vorensis
and Aucoumea _klaineana. The
Aucomnea klaineana. The problem was attributed
problem was attriJ::uted to
to the
the creation
creation of
of aa large
large
aIOClunt of WXldy
amount as aa result
woody debris as result of
of ref
refining
ining operations
operations to
to open
open up the
forest for
forest for line
line planting. This
This debris formed
fornwed an ideal breeding
breeding ground for the
insects and when
when it became
became depleted they turned
depleted they turned to
to the
the -transplants
transplants (Gibson and
Jones 1977)
Jones 1977)..

Plneus
Pineus pini is an introduced aphid aphid in
in Africa and is
Africa and is an
an exarrple
example of
of an
insect that has found
that has found natural
natural polyspecific
polyspecific stands
stands and llOIlospecific plantations
andmonospecific plantations
equally attractive. P.pini has been
equally been observed attacking P.patula as
attacking isolated P.patula
severely as plantations (Gibson
(Gibson and
and Jones
Jones 1977).
1977).

View, that large

The opposite view, large scale establishment ofof even-aged
even-aged stands
stands
does not increase the risk of
of pests and
and diseases, been propounded
diseases, has been propounded by
by Chou
Chou
(1981) . Chou was
(1981). planting of .P.radiata
uas defending the planting P. radiata in New
New Zealand
zealand where
llOIlospecific
monospecific planting been highly
has been
planting has successful on
highly successful limited range
on a limited range of
of
enviroorrental conditions.
environmental conditions . Briefly that he
Briefly the points that he has
has made are:
made are:

there is no such thing as aa generalised or typical

typical epidemic,
epidemic, therefore
there is
is no reason
reason to believe that
that aa generalised
generalised prescription
prescription recommending
reommending
mixed plantations will be effective in preventing epidemics;
epidemics;

in certain
certain circumstances
circumstances indiscriminate mixtures can
indiscriminate mixtures increase risk,
can increase risk, for
for
exarrple if
example if alternate hosts for
alternate hosts for pests
pests oror diseases are introduced
diseases are introduced or
or if
if aa mildly
mildly
susceptible species
species is
is mixed with aa very
mixadwith very susceptible
susceptible species.
species. This point is
also made by Perry and
by Perry Maghanbe (1989);
and Maghembe (1989);

sare
sane pathogens attack aa wide
pathogens attack wide range
range of
of hosts. Thytophthora cinnamorni
hosts . Phytophthora is
cinnartr:mi is
kna.m to affect
known affect 444 species
species in 131
131 genera and 48 48 families
families including
including both
both
angiospenns and
angiosperms and gymnospenns Annillaria spp.
gymnosperms.. AImillaria contain a large number
spp.contain number of
of strains
strains
that are
that relatively host-specific
are relatively host-specific butbut with
with aa host list
list that
that includes
includes 677677
species
species in 276 genera
in 276 genera it
it isis unlikely
unlikely that
that mixtures
mixtures 14111
will be
be completely
carpletely
effective as
as aa barrier to
to the spread of
of these
these pathogens
pathogens unless there
there is
is good
data available on the relative susceptibility of the species to be included
included
in the mixture;

diversification
diversification ofof species :irrq?lies diversification
species implies diversification of the effort to to
control diseases
diseases and pests and a dilution of of the effort
effort applied
applied toto any
anyone
one
species and therefore
species therefore an
an increase
increase in
in the
the risk
risk for
for that
that species.
species. Where,
Where, as a
result of aa diversification
result policy, planting
diversification policy, material has
planting material to be
has to be :irrq?orted, that
imported, that
in itself represents a risk of introducing
introducing disease
disease and pests;
and pests;

pure even-aged stands facilitate human intervention

intervention for the control of
pests and
pests and diseases
diseases.. On
On the other hand in in mixed
mixed stands,
stands, particularly all-aged
stands, where
where selective felling is
selective felling is aa managemant tool, the
management tool, the lik.elihood
likelihood of
of damage
damage
standing trees
to standing trees and subsequent risk of entry
and the subsequent entry by pathogens may
by pathogens may be
be
increased .
increased.
 34

Rae
Role of mixed
ccf mixed plant.ing.
planting.

Although diversity of species may contribute

contrib..!te to stability in natural
stands, it cannot be assurood
assumed that species diversity Il\USt
must necessarily
necessarily provide
stability
stability in all
all artificial
artificial stands.
stands. AA legitimate
legitimate Objective
objective of the managarent
management
of plantations,
plantations, whether industrial or or non-industrial,
non-industrial, is the maximization
maximization of
gro.-Ith, or the production
growth, production of other specified outputs,
outputs, onto the IOClSt
mcst valuable
species for the
the Objectives
objectives specified.
specified. This,
This, for
for aa variety of econanic
economic and
industrial reasons,
reasons, reduces the number of of species
species considered
considered forfor planting.
planting.
What isis generally
generally agreed
agreed is
is that though
though a reduction
reduction in in diversity can result
diversity can result
in an
an increased
increased risk ofof pest and pathogen
pest and pathogen damage,
damage, not
not nearly
nearly enough
enough is
is known
known
nechanisms by which diversity
about the mechanisms diversity does
does create
create stability
stability (Boyce
(Boyce 1954;
1954;
Perry and
1981; Perry
Chou 1981; and Maghembe 1989) . There is
Maghanbe 1989). is as
as aa consequence
consequence a lack
lack of
of
knowledge on what species mixtures are desirable for controlling attacks
knCXolledge attacks byby
pests and particularly in
and pathogens, particularly in exotic
exotic plantations.
plantations.

It is
is worth noting sore
worth noting some of
of the
the situations
situations in which
which mixtures
mixtures have proved
beneficial
beneficial in controlling attacks by
controlling attacks by pests and
and diseases. The
The cerarnbycid
cerambycid borer
borer
PhIyneta leprosa attacks
Phryneta leprosa attacks Milicia
Milicia (=Chlorophora)
(=Chlorophora) excelsa
excelsa through
through blisters
blisters
resulting fram
resulting fran sun
sun scordh
scorch in even
even aged
aged plantations.
plantations . It has caused losses in
trial plots
plots in Tanzania
Tanzania and very severe and and widespread losses in
widespread losses in Zaire (Gibson
(Gi.I::5on
Jones 1977).
and Jones
and 1977). Shading will control sun scorch and an admixture
admixture of other
other
species will
will provide shade when the AL M. excelsa
excelsa plantations are established.
plantations are established.

Phytolyma lata causes leaf gall

Itytolyma lata on M.
gall on AL excelsa and can be very damaging,
rut the insect
but insect has aa limited
limited range
range of
of dispersal.
dispersal. However,
lbYever, control of the
insect is
is only achieved when
when the
the host
host tree isis dispersed
dispersed in aa matrix
matrix of
of other
other
species to such
such an
an extent
extent that
that one is bound
one is bound to
to consider
consider the
the proposition
proposition stated
stated
the 1939 Dehra
in the Dun conference:
Dehra Dun conference: ifif the nurse
nurse species has to form
species has form the
the major
major
portion
portion of
of the crop and is of
the crop of law
lCXol value,
value, then
then another
another crop
crop should
should be
considered; if the nurse
nurse species
species is of equal
equal value
value to thernain
the main species, there
there
is little point inin planting
planting the
the main
main species
species (Indian
(Indian Forest
Forest Service
Service 1939).
1939).

The stem
stem borers
borers Hypsipyla
Hyp,sipyla grandElla
grandella (in
(in the
theNewWorld) and H.
NewWorld) and rol:usta (in
H.robusta
the Old World)
World) are notorious for the damage
damage that they
they cause to
to the
the leading
leading
shoots of young trees in the sub-family
shoots sub-family SWietenioideae M::!liaceae, most
Swietenioideae of the 141iaceae, IOClSt
of which valuable timber
which are valuable timber trees.
trees.

Table 22 Host Genera of the stem

stem Borers
Borers lipsipyla ~
HypsipYla spp.
Africa Asia south
South America
Lovre
Lovca To::n3
Tbona SWietenia
Maya
Khaya Chukrasia Cedrela
Entandrophragma
Entandrqphragma Soymida
Scymdcla Carapa
Cdrapa
Cdrapa
Carepe
Pseudocedrela
10eudocedrela
(attackrecorded
Guarea (attadk
GUarea recorded though
though in M::!lioideae,
in IN.I lioideae, Styles 1991) .
Styles 1991).

Xylocarpus spp
Ayloaarpus which are
sppwhich in the
are in the sub-family
sub-family Swietenioideae
SWietenioideae have not beenbeen
reported
reported asas being
being attacked (Styles 1991)
attacked (Styles 1991) and in in South
SOUth America
America Glared is
Guarea is
reputedly not attadked
attacked (Wnibmore
(Whitrrore 1976). sare extent the two Hypsipyla
1976) . To same
species
species are specific
specific toto the tree species
species of
of their
their own
own zones.
zones . For
For example,
example,
To::n3 ciliata, which is
Tocna ciliata, which is heavily attacked
attacked by H.rol:usta
H.rabusta in Australia, is not
Australia,
attacked,
attadked, or is only
only lightly attacked, by
lightly-attacked, by H.grandella
H.grandella in Costa Rica, where the
native Cedrela cdorata,
cdorata, on
on the
the other hand, is
other hand, is heavily
heavily attacked by H. grandella
attackadby.H. grandella
(Grijpna and Ramallo
(GrijErna and 1973). H.
Ramallo 1973). rol:usta attacks
11.robusta attacks SWietenia macrophylla in
Swieteniamacrophylla in India
 35
35

and Sri Lanka

lanka and H. grandella attacks
and H.grandella Rhaya senegalensis in Martinique
attacks Khaya M3.rtinique
(Grijpn3.
(Grijpma 1973).

Shade is effective in reducing,

reducing, rut
but does
does not
not fully control,
control, attack by
(Whltnore 1976).
Hypsipyla (Whitmore 1976). nOllll3.lly provided by other species
Shade is normally species
either planted concurrently
concurrently with
with the
the M:liaceae
Meliaceae or or in the form
fom of residual
residual
stands into which
which the
the M:liaceae
Meliaceae areare line
line planted. Suitable mixtures
planted. Suitable mixtures have
have been
been
investigated extensively
investigated extensively in in West Africa (Dupuy
(Dupuy and Mille 1991);
and Mille 1991); this is is
discussed m::>re fully
discussed more fully under
under Management
M:magarent inin Chapter
Chapter 5. 5. But another
another species
species is
is
not always required
not required to produce shade; S.
produce the shade; S. macrophylla
gacrpphylia is is being
being regenerated
regenerated
successfully at Sundapola
successfully-at SUndapola inin Sri
Sri Lanka under the
lanka under the shade
shade of
of mature trees mostly
mature trees lOClStly
of the same species
species (Mattiah 1991).
(M..lttiah 1991).

establisl"lnent of
The establishment of Meliaceae
M:liaceae susceptible
susceptible to Hypsipyla under
to h7rpsipyla under aa nurse
crop to provide
crop provide shade
shade is obvious exanple
is an obvious example of the use
of the use of
of mixtures
mixtures inin
industrial plantations,
industrial plantations, rutbut it has to
it has to be noted that
that in
in francophone
francophone West
where most
Africa, where lOClSt recent
recent work
work on
on the
the silvicultural
silvicultural management
managarent of
of Meliaceae
M:liaceae
out, the decision has
has been carried out, been taken
has been not to
taken not to plant
plant Meliaceae
M:liaceae
(Cossalter 1991). Ckl
(Cossalter 1991). the other hand
On the hand the
the Sundapola mahogany
mahogany plantations
plantations were
were
established very successfully
successfully in
in mixture and in the Solomon
mixture and Islands it is
801aron Islands
proposed establish S.
proposed to establish macrophylla in
S. macrophylla matrix of
in a matrix Securinega flexuosa
of Securinega flexuasa
(801aron Islands 1988
(Solomon 1988 aa and b).
and b).

In Kenya a a canker
canker on
on Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa),
Cypress (CUpressus macrocarpa) , is caused by
is caused by
Seridium unicornis (the :inperfect
imperfect state of RhynchospiJaeria cupressi). This
Rhynchosphaeria cupressi).
fungus gains
gains entry wounds and
entry through wounds and pruning scars,
scars, rut has aa limited
but has limited range
range
of effective dispersal and it it would
would therefore
therefore appear that
that the
the proximity
proximity of of
trees in a pure
trees plantation must
pure plantation llUlSt contribute
contrib.lte to the
the spread
spread ofof the disease.
the disease
Mixed planting Cupressus macr0ca.zp3
planting of CUpressus macrocarpa and Gtevillea rorusta has been
Grevillea robusta tried
been tried
(Graham 1945
in Kenya (Graham 1945 and 1949),
1949), but rut the
the management
managarent of of such
such mixtures has has
proved difficult
proved difficult resulting
resulting in
in poor
poor form
fom (butt
(rutt sweep
sweep and lean) of
and lean) of trees
trees of
of both
both
species. There was little evidence that the mixture mixture controlled
controlled the disease.
disease
Eventually the
Eventually the decision was made
decision was replace C.
made to replace C. macr0ca.zp3 with C.
macrocarpa with lusitanica,
C. lusitanica,
a less
less vigorous
vigorous species,
species, rut which is
but which is less
less susceptible toto cypress canker
canker and
and
which has
which has aa better
better form.
fom.

. In India
India and Pakistan Hoplocerambyx spinicorr2is
insect Hoplocerambyx
Pakistan the insect spinicomis has
has changed
fran being
frcm being an inhabitant ofof felled logs and
and m::>rib.lnd
moribund trees of of Shorea rorusta
Shorea robusta
in natural
natural forests
forests to
to attacking
attadking healthy mature trees when that species was
extensively established
established in pure
pure plantations;
plantations; the change in in habits has been
has been
attrib.lted
attributed to the improved
to the iIrproved opportunities
opportunities for
for reproduction
reproduction provided
provided in
plantations (Gibson
plantations (Gibson and Jones 1977)
and Jones 1977) and
and may owe something
may owe sarething to
to incre,9sed
increased food
supplies
supplies and even to stress
stress arising fran planting
arising from planting the species on an unsuitable
unsuitable
site. In Nigeria Heoqphora testator,
hecqphora testa tor, an
an insignificant
insignificant pest of thethe natural
natural
forest, diderrichii
forest, caused widespread damage to pure plantations of Nauclea diderrichii
(Gibson
(Gibson and Jones 1977).
and Jones Mixtures
Mixtures of Nauclea diderichii
of Nauclea diderichii with Lovoo
with Lovoa
trichilioides and
and Entandrophragma utile have,
EntandraThragma utile have, tJa..lever, been successful (Lamb
however, been (Lamb
Lowe 1991).
1991; Lowe 1991).

In Africa,
Africa, at
at least,
least, the lOClSt
most iIrq:lortant largest number
important and largest number ofof examples
exanples
of insect pests attrib.ltable
attributable to the establisl"lnent
establishment of IOC>nospecific plantations
monospecific plantations
defoliators, and
are defoliators, and to lesser extent
to a lesser extent borers
borers (Gibson
(Gibson and Jones 1977).
and Jones 1977 ) .
Nudaurelia cytherea, Orgya
Nudaureliacytherea, Orgya mixta and Pachypasa
mixta and capensis were
Pachypasa capensis were noted
noted as exanples
examples
of defoliators of Brachystegia
defoliators of woodland, which
Btachystegia woodland, which have over a period
period of years
years
adapted to
to and cause
cause extensive damage pine plantations; BUzura is
edwardsi is
Buzura edWardsi
another
another exanple.
example. But there
there is no indication
indication that mixed
mixed plantings will reduce
 36
36

the
the attacks.
attacks. InIn Malawi
Malawi an attack of Plagiotriptus
attack of pinivora caused
Plagiotriptuspinivora caused sufficient
sufficient
damage to pine plantations to
to pine to justify control by
justify-control by aerial
aerial spraying
spraying (Gibson
(Gibson and
and
Jones 1977).
Jones 1977).

Conclusions on insects
Cax:1nS;('I"IS on and diseases.
insects and diseases.

The evidence of serious losses due to to pests

pests or diseases
diseases resulting
resulting fran
from
nonospecific plantations is
monospecific plantations is confusing.
confusing. Gibson
Gibson and
and Jones (1977),
(1977), while
while stating
stating
on the
the one hand that
that the roost
most pessimistic forecasts of
pessimistic forecasts of traditional
traditional foresters
foresters
on the
the dangers
dangers arising
arising fran
from forest rronocultures have
forestmonocultures have been fully vindicated,
been fully vindicated,
were also able to
were to give
give asas their
their opinion
opinion that
that pest
pest and disease prOblems
and disease problems
engendered
engendered byby forest nonocultures have seldom
monocultures have seldon reached
reached the
the catastrophic levels
catastrophic levels
of certain pests and diseases of natural
pests and forests or
natural forests or tree
tree crops gr= for
crops grown for non-
non-
ccmrercial situation may
ends . This situation
commercial ends. may be dhanging
changing as rrore species are
more pest species
introduced;
introduced; for for example
example three introduced species
three introduced conifer aphids
species of conifer aphids have
have
devastated
devastated Pines Cypresses in eastern
Pines and Cypresses eastern and southern Africa.
and southern Africa. The pinepine
woolly
woollyaphid Pineus piniand
aphid Pineuspini thepine
andthe pine needle
needle aphid Eulachnus rileyi
aphid Eulachnus rileyi were
were first
first
cypress aphid Cinara
noticed in 1968 while the cypress cupressi was discovered in
Cinara cupressi
1986.
1986. They IlCM constitute aa major
ni constitute major threat
threat to
to the
the future
future of of conifers
conifers in the
plantation progranmes
programmes of the region,
region, and the cypress aphid is is also
also attacking
attadking
the
the native
native conifers Jnniperus procera
conifers Juniperus and Widdringtooia
procera and Widdringtonia nodiflora (Ciesla
mdiflora (Ciesla
1991; F1IO 1991a).
1991; FAO

It is
It is toto bebe noted
noted that
that though
though most
roost work
work onon forest
forest pathology
pathology and
entarology related to
entomology is related to intensively managedstands
intensivelymanaged standsand little is
andlittle known of
is known of the
the
role of pests and pathogens
role pathagens in in the
the ecosystems
ecosystems ofof most
roost natural
natural forests
forests in
in the
the
tropics, yet
tropics, knowledge on forest
yet the knowledge forest plantations
plantations still
still lagslags behind
behind the
the
knowledge of these
knowledge problems in agrisystems
these prbblems agrisystems (Gibson
(Gibson and Jones Jones 1977 ).
1977).
Managemmt
Management that is based on aa policypolicy-ofof "high input/high output"
output" will
will insist
insist
on answers
answers being found
found which do not
which do not greatly l~r outputs
greatly-lower outputs and willwill ensure
ensure that
that
finances are made available
available to to find
find solutions.
solutions. These solutions are likely-to
likely to
be either in the fonnform ofof biological
biological or or chemical control or or tree breeding to
develop
develop resistant
resistant strains
strains oror through
through a change in in the
the species.
species . It
It is
is of
interest that
that Peace
Peace (1957)
(1957) discounted
discounted the possibility spraying forests
possibility of spraying forests toto
control diseases,
diseases, rutbut less than
than thirty years later aerial spraying
thirty-years spraying to control
Drothistram blight
Dothistrana. blight was standard
standard practice
practice inin many young P P.. radiata
radiata plantatiOns
plantations
in New Zealand(Chou
inNewZealand 1981) . It is
(Chou 1981). is also
also to be noted
noted that
that the "low"law technology"
solution
solution of planting to control Hypsipyla damage in francophone
mixed planting
of mixed francophone West
apparently been
Africa has apparently abandoned.
been abandoned.

Where unifonnity
Where uniformity of product
product is not
not so
so irrportant
important and where less
andwhere less intensive
intensive
managemmt is
management is practised,
practised, as in many
as in many fuelwood
fuelwood plantations,
plantatiOns, .then
then aa "law
"low
input/low
input/law output"
output" managemmt
management policy
poliqy will
will be
be rrore appropriate and
more appropriate and mixed
plantings are one of the possible solutions. In this case the establishrrent
establishment
of mixed
mixed plantings
plantings may be used
maybe for "insurance" purposes,
used for purposes, while
while roost
most knowledge
knowledge
is likely
likely to
to be
be available ·on appropriate mixtures of indigenous
available.on indigenous species.
species. In
the low technology
technology situation where
where maintenance of ground
maintenance of ground cover
cover is
is of
of as
as great
great
or greater
greater irrportance than econanic
importance than economic return
return mixtures
mixtures may
may be
be considered as
as an
an
insurance against complete
canplete failure.
failure.

It recognized that
It is recognized that until
until rrore
more is is known
known about
about the
the mechanisms and
mechanisms and
strategies
strategies ofof pests and diseases
pests and and of
diseases and of their
their predators
predators in the
the natural forest
there may be
theremay be few,
few, if
if any-benefits to be
any benefits to be derived
derived from
fran the
the use
use of
of mixed species
mixed species
plantations toto prevent
prevent or
or control
control the
the spread
spreadofof insects or diseases, and
insects or there
and there
may even be disadvantages,
disadvantages, for example,by
exarrple,by providing alternative
alternative hosts
hosts or
or
possibly acting as barriers to predators
possibly acting (Chou 1981; Perry
predators (Chou and Maghembe
Perry and Maghembe 1989).
1989).
 37
37

A major
A major problem
problem isis the
the fact
fact that
that modern camrunications facilitate
roodem communications facilitate the
the
transfer of pests
transferof pests and diseases round the world.
and disPases Protective systems which have
world. Protective
evolved in
been evolved
been natural forests are very
in natural very vulnerable to exotic organisms.
organisms. It
is unlikely
unlikely that mixtures
mixtures will bebe effective
effective in controlling
controlling epidemics of exotic
epidemics of exotic
origins,
origins, therefore the best hope of control is the introduction of natural
enemies,
enemies, breeding for resistance or chemical control control -- or
or aa coMbination
canbination of
of
these. Chemicals
these. Chanicals are m:>re
more easily
Pasily applied inin pure plantations
plantations rut
bit the need
need to
protect the
protect the environment
environment frail
fran pollution and the
pollution and the high
high cost
cost makes
makes this
this tactic
tactic aa
rreasure of
measure of last
last resort.
resort.

3.6 CONCLUSIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Environmental inpact has been considered under the separate

impact has heads of
separate heads
soil, climate, fire,
soil, fire, Wildlife, pests and
wildlife, pests and diseases.
diseases. These
These factors, and others,
and others,
interact to fom
form the forest ecosystem and it should bebe the objective of the
forester to ensure that it is resistant to agents of change rut that at
but that at the
the
time the
sarna time
sane the site
site retains
retains its
its productive
productive potential.
potential. occurrence of
The occurrence of
devastating
devastating attacks by 'pests
attacks by and diseases
pests and diseases are
are often
often aa symptom
synptan of poor
poor
managem:nt decisions, such
management as species
such as species selection
selection or
or delayed
delayed thinning,
thinning, and the
solution lies in
solution good forestry
in good forestry practice.
practice. In these circumstances wherewhere basic
managem:nt errors
management e=rs have
have been made it is
been made is unlikely that a mixture
unlikely that mixture will be of
of any
any
help in controlling
controlling an
an attack. plantations are
Mixed plantations
attadk. Mixed are likely
likely to be
be beneficial
in projects
projects managed
managed extensively and where
extensively-and where there
there may be unpredictable
may be unpredictable pest
pest or
or
disease attacks or
or climatic
climatic events.
events . Mixed plantings are then an insurance
insurance
against complete
against canplete failure
failure and theythey may be be effective in reducing the
reducing the
vulnerability of
vulnerability of an indigenous
indigenous species
species to an indigenous
indigenous pest or or disease,
disease,
providing that
providing that it
it has been properly
properly managed - see above
- see alxlve -- rut the degree
but the of
degree of
dispersal required
dispersal required may
may call question the
in question
call in the fPasibility
feasibility of managing
managing that
that
species intensively.
species intensively.

The possible deterioration in

possible deterioration in site fertility is
site fertility is in some
sane ways a more
m:>re
insidious problem
insidious in that
problem in that without
without aa well
well maintained
maintained network
network of
of Permanent
Pennanent
sample
Sample Plots
Plots the
the problem may go
problemmay go unnoticed
unnoticed until
until fertility
fertility has been seriously
seriously
inpaired.
impaired. Even with a good
Even good monitoring
m:>nitoring system
system itit is
is unlikely
unlikely that
that site
site
deterioration caused
deterioration by aa particular
caused by particular type
type of plantation, as
of plantation, as indicated
indicated byby
changes in yield, will be detected
Changes detected until
until the
the following
follCMing rotation.
rotation. Though
Though the
detailed functioning
detailed functioning of of soil micro-flora and
soil micro-flora micro-fauna is
and micro-fauna not well
is not well
understood in the tropiCS,
understood in tropics, provided fertility problems
provided fertility problems are
are recognised in time
recognised in time
the action needed
needed to prevent
prevent loss
loss in fertility are
in fertility are well
well known:
knCMn:

retention of topsoil and organic matter when establishing plantations;

establishing plantations;

replacement
replacement of
of nutrients and restoration
nutrients and restoration of
of physical
physical condition
condition after
after
harvesting,
harvesting, and

ensuring
ensuring that
that crop
crpp nutrient
nutrient requirem=nts
requirements dodo not exceed the
not exceed site
the site
capacity by,
by, for exarrple,
example, overstocking or as aa result of litter build
ruild
up.
up.

plantations are
Mixed plantations
Mixed are aa management
managem:nt tool
tool for
for influencing
influencing soil
soil conditions
conditions
by providing
by providing ground cover to protect
ground cover against soil
protect against soil erosion
erosion and m:>isture stress
and moisture stress
or to
or to arreliorate
ameliorate topsoil
topsoil conditions to favour
conditions to favou_rbeneficial
beneficialmicro-organisms. The
micro-organisms. The
mixture may
mixture may be achieved by
be achieved planting or
by planting or by allCMing a,a natural
by allowing natural understorey
understorey to
to
invade
invade under open canopy.
under an open canopy. Plantation management,
managem:nt, based on clear
on clear
 38
38

objectives, can also pramote

objectives, prarote the conservation
CXlI1SE!:rvation of
of animal
animal and other
other genetic
genetic
resources.
resources.

Fire is
Fire serious and
is a serious and increasing
increasing hazard to plantations,
plantations, with
with heavy
direct and indirect costs.
costs. Investigations intointo the potential of mixtures
mixtures of
species to reduce the incidence of fires or to
fires or to sl~ ~ their
slowdown spread have
their spread have not
not
been documented rut would
documented bit w::>uld appear to be
appear to be worth further study.
worth further study.

Because of the unpredictable

Because unpredictable nature of epidemics
epidemics and climatic
climatic change the
maintenance of genetic
maintenance genetiC diversity in a plantatien
plantation is essential.
essential. Diversity may
occur at different levels; there is J::oth
occur both diversity ben-m species
diversity between species and
and within
within
species. Total diversity
diversity gives the stand
stand a better chance to to evolve
evolve to cope
to cope
ccnditions and also
with new conditions also gives
gives same
sane insurance
insurance against
against complete
a::rrplete loss.
loss.
Diversity, ~ver,
Diversity, however, can also be
can also be achieved
achieved in
in the
the broad
broad sense by having
sense by having aa
mixture of blocks
mixture or compartments
baocks or c:arpartnents rather
rather than
than aa mixture
mixture in
in the ~ sense.
the narrow sense.
The decisien whether to
decision whether to have mixed plantations
have mixed plantations in the ~
in the sense must
narra sense Il1llSt depend
depend
en the objectives of management.
on the managarent. Intensive managerrent
managarent of industrial
plantations
plantations will
will probably indicate pure
probably indicate plantations, while
pure plantations, while IOOre
more extensive
managarent of,
management of, for
for example,
exanple, fuelwood
fuelwood plantations
plantationsmay
maybenefit
benefitfrail
fran mixtures
mixtures and
and
f the
iif the prime
prime objective
objective is
is rehabilitatien
rehabilitation then mixed planting
then mixed planting will
will frequently
frequently
called for.
be called for . But itit must
Il1llSt never
never be
be forgotten
forgotten that
that management
managarent objectives
objectives
should cnly
anly be
be set
set after
after due
due consideratien
consideration of of the potential and limitations
of the
the site
site and
and that
that objectives
objectives may
may have
have to
to be
be further
further nodified
mcdified in
in the
the light
light
of species available for the site.
for the site. maintenance of
The maintenance of long tenn
long term
sustainabilityand site fertility
sustainabilityand site fertility is
is all
all too
too often
often given
given insufficient arphasis
emphasis
in plantatien schemes (Lundgren 1980).
plantation schanes
 39
39

4. NON-INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

Mixtures
Mixtures have historically been
have not historically been used plantations for
used in plantations the
for the
production of industrial
production of industrial wood
VIOOd products, but
rut have
have generally
generally been thought of
been thought of as
as
rrore
more suitable for non-industrial products or the provision
provision of
of environmental
envirormental
services. special case
The special case ofof non-industrial
non-industrial products
products and services is
and services is
therefore considered
therefore considered in
in this chapter.
this chapter.

Nan-connercial uses

It is naY
now widely
widely acknaYledged
acknowledged that forests provideprovide a wealth
wealth of products
which are used
which are used by local communities
by local carmunities living
living inin or
or near
near them. Though some
than. Though sane of
products arise
the products arise fromfran sources
sources outside
outside the
the forest
forest -- in in compound fanns,
carqJOUIJd farms,
outlying
out lying fanns
farms or or as
as fodder
fodder trees
trees on farra
fann boundaries
boundaries -- rranyare
many are collected
collected as as
a "free gcxxi" fran the
good" from the forest.
forest . It is is evident that farmers
fanners have
have knaYledge
knowledge of
the site and
and silvicultural
silvicultural requirarents
requirements of of the species gravn
the species grown in compounds and
in carqJOUIJds and
outlying fanns. But these species
outlying farms. species are
are usually raised
raised in in small
small plots
plots in
in anan
agroforestry environment
environment and have been excluded excluded from
fran consideration
consideration in in this
this
study.
study. In Nigeria
Nigeria (and (and .prdbably
probably most
rrost of
of the
the African
African humid
humid tropics)
tropics) the the
knaYledge of
knowledge of the silvicultural requirements
the silvicultural requirements of of the species collected
the species collected fromfran the
the
forest
forest is often
often laCking
lacking (Okafor
(Okaior 1977).
1977). reference was
No reference found to the
was found the
establishnent
establishment of mixed forest
of mixed forest plantations
plantations in in the
the humid
humid tropics
tropics by locallocal
carmunities
communities for the provision of the range of goods used by than them oror of
of their
their
deliberate
deliberate rranagemant
management of of natural
natural forests.
forests. ThisThis should not be taken to imply
that there has been aa complete ccrrplete absence
absence of traditional
traditional rranagemant
management by local
carmunities
communities in in tropical
tropical forests.
forests. SuCh Such rranagemant systems have existed but
management systems rut
have not been recorded. In countries that have passed through a period of
been recorded. of
colonialism
colonialism traditional
traditional rranagemant
management systems have often been made made unworkable
unworkable by by
foresters and
and administrators, for for instance:by-the
instance by the creation
creation of forest
forest reserves
reserves
imposition of forest
and the imposition forest rules
rules which
which have
have ignored
ignored local
local management
rranagemant
systems
systems.. Traditional
Traditional management
rranagemant of of natural
natural forests
forests has tended to concentrate
concentrate
on the organisation of the the distril:lltion
distribution of an available resourceresource rather
rather than
than
on the
the manipulation
rranipulation of ecosystem in order
of the ecosystem order toto benefit
benefit any
any particular
particular
ccrrponent species. Where
component Where human
human population
population has created increased
has created increased pressure
pressure on on
the forest then traditional rranagemant management systems tend tend to break
break down.
davn. In the
countries in the
countries the sub-tropiCS,
sub-tropics, such such asas Nepal,
Nepal, there
there is is a better history of
controlled exploitation
controlled exploitation of of forests
forests by local communities,
by local carmunities , butrut again
again management
rranagemant
has not
not really
really involved
involved the rranipulation
manipulation ofof the
the forest to produce specific end
specific end
products .
products.

An added problem is that in many

rrany societies
societies in the
the tropics
tropics there
there is
little respect for the natural forest,
forest , because
because the
the first
first requirement
requirement isis to
to
have land for
for cultivation and
and because
because forest
forest products
products are
are regarded as aa free
regardedas free
gcxxi
good.. Although the forest's
forest's worth may be be appreciated,
appreciated, there
there is
is little
little
feeling of individual
feeling individual responsibility
responsibility for protecting
protecting the
the forest
forest because
because
benefits tend to
benefits to be so
so widespread
widespread.. Artificially established plantations
Artificially-established plantations are
are
often treated with rrore
more respect than natural
respect than natural forest
forest even when it is
even when is under
rranagemant
management..

It is generally
generally recognized that
that the loss of
of natural
natural forest
forest in
in the
the humid
humid
tropics deprives
tropics local com-nunities
deprives local carmunities of
of rrany
marw products,
products, rut
but there
there is
is insufficient
insufficient
knaYledge to establish and maintain the plantations provide
knowledge provide those
those products.
products.
FOrestry projects
Forestry projects have criticized for
have been criticized for replacing
replacing polyspecific
polyspecific natural
natural
forests with
forests with rronospecific
mcnospecific plantations
plantations that do not
that do not produce
produce the
the rrany
many other
other
products to
products to be
be found
found in
in the natural forests . But
natural forests. But if there is any pressure
pressure for
agricultural land,
agricultural land, the solution of
the solution of protection
protection and laY intensity
and low intensity management
rranagemant of
of
 40

the natural
natural forest
forest is isusually impossible. Since
usuallyimpossible. Since there is currently
currently inadequate
inadequate
kncwledge to establish mixed forest plantations to meet the requirements
knowledge requirements of of
local CXIlIlIllIlities,
communities, the only possibility-left
possibility left is
is to protect
protect and
and l!\3Ilage
manage an an area
area
of natural forest in in coMbination
canbination with aa commercial,
a::mnercial, possibly
possibly monospecific,
IlOnospecific,
plantation requirements for fuel and poles can then
plantation project. The heavy requirements then be
be met
met
fran the
frcm the plantations,
plantations, while the the natural forest provides
natural forest other products.
provides other products. Much Mich
IlOre needs
more needs to be be known about the
knc:wn about the silvicultural
silvicultural requirements
requirements of of the
the large
large
numbers fruit trees,
numbers of fruit trees, medicinal trees and
medicinal trees herbs etc that the local CXIlIlIllIlity
and herbs community
use, rut
use, hit which may be only only locally
locally valued,
valued, before it will be be possible
possible to to
mixed plantations
establish mixed which can also be used
plantations which for the
used for the satisfaction
satisfaction of of
such needs.
such needs.

FUel.wood and
Fuelwood poles..
andpoles

By 1980 sare
. By same 39% of
of plantations
plantations in Africa, Asia, South Anerica
Africa, Asia, America and
and the
Pacific Islands l were
Pacific Islands1 classified as non-industrial
were classified non-industrial (FAO
(F7IO 1988).
1988). In the
In the
estimate of the area to 1985 the proportion
area planted between 1981 to increased to
proportion increased to
(F7IO 1988).
46% (FAO 1988).

MOst non-industrial plantations are established with the objective

Mbst objective of
of
producing poles or
prcducingpoles or fuelwood.
fuelwood. Usually
Usuallythe
theproduction
productionis for aa local
is for local market and
a mininrum of
aminimum of processing
processing will be involved
involved.. There
There is,
is, therefore,
therefore, less incentive
incentive
use highly
to use highly mechanized
mechanized harvesting
harvesting techniques
techniques andand as
as aa consequence
consequence
plantations can be established on steeper and rockier
rodkier sites,
sites, unsuitable for
industrial plantations. Mixed
Mixed plantations may
may thus be very suitable for the
production of fuelwood
production fuelwood and poles, provided suitable species
provided suitable species are selected
selected both
both
for the
the site and to
to meet
meet the user's
user's requirements, hit
rut unfortunately the less
unfortunately the less
fertile
fertile sites
sites that
that are
are often
often available
available may
may limit
limit the
the choice
choice to
to aa single
single
species.
species. The
The experience
experience in
in Nepal is described in IlOre later in
more detail later in this
this
chapter.
chapter.

Fodder.
Fodder

and fodder for livestock

Brc:wse and
Braase livestodk are at aa premium
premium in any
any climate
climate that
that has
has
a long woodland can be grazed and
long dry season. Grass in woodland and forests,
forests, particularly
particularly
on the hills with rainfall, can be reserved for dry season fodder;
with aa higher rainfall, fodder;
grass can also
also be cut and
and carried to the
carried to the livestock.
livestock. Grass, ~ver,
however, dries up
and dies
dies early
early in
in the dry season,
the dry while tree
sPson, while tree foliage and
and fruits,
fruits, for exarrple
example
can remain
Acacia pods, can
AcacIaFcds, remain palatable
palatable and
and nutritious much longer.
nutritiousmuch longer . But the ability
ability
of aa tree to retain its leaves species, therefore to
pods varies with the species,
1PAves or pods
ensure aa supply of
of fodder
fodder throughout
throughout the dry season aa mixture
the dry mixture of species is
essential in order to havehave aa sequence
sequence of
of species
species fran those that shed their
from those
leaves
leaves early
early in
in the dry season
the dry season to evergreens,
evergreens, such as sare
such as sane of
of the oaks
(Cuercus semecarpifOlia
(Q:1ercus instance) and Ilex
stmeCaIpifolia for instance) Ilex spp
spp inin the Himalayas.
Himalayas .
Relatively little has been published
Relatively-little on the
published on the l!\3Ilagement
management ofof tree
tree fodder
fodder crops,
crops,
rut
hit sare
same work
work is
is being
being doile
done inin Nepal (Gilmour et
Nepal (GilIrour et al
al 1989;1990;
1989;1990; Applegate
Applegate and
and
GilIrour 1987; Mohns
Gilmour et al.
M:>hns et al. 1988).
1988).

of degraded
Rehabilitation of
Rehabilitation sites.
degJ:aded sites.

The afforestation
af forestation of degraded sites
of degraded sites in
in order
order to
to revegetate
revegetate the
the area
area and
and
to regain
regain aa good
gocd soil
soil structure
structure is increasingly being recognized
increasingly being recognized as
as aa fforestry
orestry

11 Excluding
Excluding South
South Africa and also
Africa and China and
also China and Argentina
Argentina for
for which
which there
are no detailed
detailed data.
data.
 41

objective in itself.
itself . In these
these circumstances 1= growing trees and shrubs,
law groNing shrubs ,
which can provide ground rover,
provide ground cover, rray
may playas :inportant aa role
playas important role asas large
large trees.
trees .
Nevertheless
Nevertheless it it is
is often difficult to
often difficult protect and
to protect and manage
rranage such
such sites,
sites,
particularly if there is any pressure
particularly-if pressure for alternative
alternative (even if i f unsustainable)
use for the
the land,
land, unless
unless it
it is
is possible
possible for
for local communities to
local carmunities to benefit
benefit fran
from
tree products site . Therefore
products on the site. Therefore aa mixture of ground cover rover and
and soil
soil
fonning
forming species with fodder, pole and
fodder, fuelwood, pole and tiMber
t:irober species
species isis desirable.
desirable .

In Brazil
In Brazil experimantal
experimental work
work has been done
has been done on
on rehabilitating
rehabilitating degIaded
degraded
sites
sites paying
paying particular attention to the
particular attention the ecological
erological requirements
requirarents of each
each
species and the position
position in the
the erological
ecological succession (Nogueira 1977;
succession (Nogueira 1977; Durigan
Durigan
and Nogueira 1990).
1990) . Results
Results have generally good
have been generally but an analysis
good bit analysis of
sul::sequent
subsequent natural
natural regeneration indicates that there will wi ll be aa progressive
progressive
tendency to aa reduction inin species diversity (whether natural or
diversity (ahether induced) by
or induced) by
succeeding generations.
in succeeding generations .

In India
In India afforestation
afforestation of of dolanite
dolomite mine
mine overburden
overburden (Ram(Ram Prasad
Prasad and
and
camire 1988) has
Camire 1988) has been Acacia auriculifOrmis,
reported. Acacia
been reported. auriculifo:rmis, A.A . carrpylacantha,
caqpylacantha,
GMelina a.r.ro.rna
GrJelina aztorea and Ibngamia pinnata
and Poogamia pinnata showed slightly better
showed slightly better height
height and
and
diarreter grCMth when mixed with bamboo ;
diameter growth when rnixed with bamboo; the growth the grCMth of Albizia p:roceza
prooera waswas
somewhat retarded by
saoowhat bamboo . In
by bamboo. Madhya Pradesh aa bauxite
In Madhya bauxite mine
mine site
site has
has been
been
revegetated withShorea
revegetatedwith rol:xlsta in
Sbo.rna robusta mixture with
in mixture GIevillea rol:xlsta,
with Gtevillea robusta, Eucalyptus
EUcalyptus
camaldulensis, Tbona ciliata and
camaldulensis, 7boI1a and Pinus
linus kesiya
kesiya (Ram Prasad
Prasad 1988);
1988); the reason
for selecting this very diverse mix
diverse mix of trees is not
trees is not clear and
and nono inforrration
information
was given on the success of of the
the mixtures.

The shrub Hippophae rhamnoides (sea

Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn) is frequently planted
is frequently planted in
in
mixture with forest trees
trees in China . It is
in China. resistant to drought and
is resistant and rold
cold and
is valued
is valued for soil ronservation and improvement due to its
soil conservation its nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing
ability asas well
well asas for its fruits (which are rich in
fruits (which in vitamin
vitamin C)C) and other
products such as fuelwood, fodder,
products such fodder, medicines
roodicines and
andoil.
oil. The
Theshrtb
shrubisisraixed
mixed with
with
Populus spp
lbpulus spp.. in soil ronservation
conservation works and in shelterbelts,
shelterbelts, but although
60 000 ha ofof the
the species
species are
are planted
planted yearly
yearly there is no estirrate
estimate of the arrount
amount
planted in mixture,
mixture, nor of the possible relative
relative advantages
advantages such mixtures
might have over
might have pure plantations.
over pure plantations . The tree Robinia pseudoacacia
tree Robinia pseudoacacia (false
(false
locust) is also used in in mixture
mixture with
with poplar
poplar in
in China. neither case
China. In neither case have
reroros been found of improvements in the grCMth
records growth of the main tree crop, nor
rrain tree nor
of increased production fran site, when
fram the site, a::nprred with
when compared with the
the poplar grown
poplar grown
alone .
alone.

Sbelterhelts and
Shelterbelts and windbreaks.
windbreaks.

This function has been mentioned

rrentioned in the
the section
section on
on climate.
clirrate. Because
Because
windbreaks areare usually planted to protect crops, they they need
need toto be
be narrow in
narrc:M in
order to minimize
order minimize the areaarea of land taken
taken out
out of
of agricultural
agricultural production,
production, butbit
order to reduce
in order reduce turbulence
turbulence aa windbreak should be triangular
triangular in cross
cross
section rather than a tall
section tall straight
straight sided
sided barrier.
barrier . AA mixture
mixture ofof species
species of
varying heights at rraturity
maturity willwill achieve the desired
desired cross section shape and
are also likely to filter the wind better than a dense planting paanting of of aa single
single
species . In Kana,
species. Kano, Nigeria,
Nigeria, shelterbelts were were planted
planted with
with eight
eight central
central rCMS
rows
of Eucalyptus camaldulensis
camaldulensis and and four
four rows of another
rCMS of another species
species onon either
either side.
side .
species included Acacia spp,
The other species Azadirachta indica
spp, Azadirachta indica and Anacardium
Anacaz:dium
occidentale (suited to the more
occidentale (suited more humid
humid sites), the
the intention to fell half
being to
intention being
the width
the widthatat age
age eight
eight and then alternative
and then alternative halves
halves every
every four years to
four years to produce
produce
poles and
poles and firewood
firEMJOd (Lowe 1991) .
(lave 1991).
 42

Urban and periurban

Urban and periurban planting.
planting.

Trees in cities
cities improve
:ilrprove the
the microclimate
microclimate and and cut
cut noise
noise transmission.
transmission.
Periurban plantingis
Periarbanplanting is not
not only
only an
an ipportant
iIrp:>rtant amenity,
amenity, rut
but in arid
arid and
and semi -arid
semi-arid
areas can
areas reduce wind
can reduce wind and
and dust
dust inin the
the city.
city. Both
Both urban periurban
urban and periurban
plantings are at risk risk from
fran thethe unpredictable
unpredictable effects
effects ofof air pollution. A
air pollution.
mixture
mixture of species is desirable
species is desirable both
roth from
fran the
the arrenity
amenity point
point of
of view,
view, toto avoid
avoid
the appearance
appearance ofof uniformity,
unifonnity, and and in
in order to increase
order to increase the
the chance
chance of
of survival
survival
same tree
of same tree cover
cover inin the
the event
event ofof biotic
biotic oror abiotic
abiotiC damage.
damage. The severe
:ilrpact
impact of ozone pollution on
ozone pollution on natural
natural forests
forests of
of AJoies
Abies religiosa in the hills hills
round Mexico
round Mexico city been noted
has been
city has noted earlier
earlier as has the
as has the damage done to
damage done to Pinus
Pinus
jeffreyi
jeffreyi in the the San Bernardino M:>untains
Mountains of California
california where incense cedar
where incense
(Calocedrus
((7-97ocedrus deourrens)and
decurrens) andwhite
whitefirfir(Abies amabilis) have
(Abiesamabilis) have survived
survived largely
largely
unscathed.

Salle exanpl
Same es of nco-:i.Jd.Jstrial
examples non-industrial plantatiorls
plantations

Ccrmrunity forestry in
Cammunity forestry in Nepal
Nepal

There has been tradition of

been a tradition of controlled
controlled exploitation
exploitation by local
by the local
carmunities
ccurnunities in in the
thehills
hills of
ofNepal,
Nepal, rut
but controls
controls have
have broken dawn and
broken CbIn and excessive
excessive
exploitation has
exploitation reduced many
has reduced hillside forests
many hillside forests toto over-grazed
over-grazed grassland
grassland
carrying aa few
carrying few heavily
heavily lopped
loppedsturrqlS
stumps.. AA reforestation
reforestation prog:ranne
programme waswas initiated
initiated
in the nineteen seventies;
seventies; IlUlch
much of thethe early
early planting
planting was withwith native
native chir
chir
pine (Pinus
pine IOXWrghii). It was
(Pinus roxburghli). was found that once aa site site was
was closed
closed to
to grazing
grazing
there was
was aa good regeneration
regeneration of hardwccds such as
of hardwoods wallichii fran
Schima wallichii
as SChima from old
old
sturrqlS, from
stumps, fran suckers and later later from
fran seed.
seed. These hardwoods
hardwoods have very much IlUlch
higher value to
highervalue to the
the local
local communities
carmunities forfor fodder,
fodder, firewood
firewood and
and fam
farm :ilrplements
implements
pine has.
than pine has. Since 1979 the Nepal/Australian Forestry Project has been been
running
running experiments
experiments to to see haw pine~
see heM pine/hardwood mixtures
mixtures can be managed
can be managed to
produce different end products and to determine detennine their
their yields.
yields. The options
optiOns
tested
tested have been to
have been to thin to favour the pines or or the
the hardwoods
hardwoods in in various
various
proportions or to coppice the hardwoods (Gilmour (Gillrour et al.
al. 1989,1990;
1989,1990; Applegate
Applegate
and Gilmour
Gilm::>ur 1987; 1988; MOhns
1987; 1988; M:>hns et alal 1988).
1988). Enrichment
Enrichrent planting
planting hashas been
included andand the
the whole
whole operation is IOOremore aa matter
matter of enrichrent
enrichment planting into
planting into
grossly over-exploited natural
grossly over-exploited woodland than establishment of mixed
natural woodland
plantations
plantations.. It Itis earlyto
teo early
is too to draw
draw defini-te
definite conclusions, rut there
conclusions, but there are same
general lessons to
general lessons to be learned fran
from this experience which can
experience which can be applied to
be applied to the
the
carmunity forestry elsewhere and in particular to assisting local people in
community
making the choice
choice between or pure
mixed or
bebYeen mixed pure plantations:
plantations:

it is essential to include
is essential include the
the local carmunities
communities in the
the management
management and
and
planning of the established
established woodlots;

if the community
if carmunity is · to make
is.to an informed
make an infonned contribution
contril::ution to management
management
planning it
it IlUlSt
must have a clear idea
idea of
of the
the options,
options, therefore
therefore demonstration
daoonstration
plots are required;
required;

prescriptions
prescriptions IlUlSt be s:ilrple,
must be simple, rut there is no particular problem
but there problem in
in
manipulating the species mixtures to the extent
extent of
of varying the
the proportion
proportion of
of
pines and
and broadleaf
broadleaf species.
species.
 43
43

Rattan.

Rattans, which
Rattans, which are aa family of cliMbing
climbing palms, both to
palms, are exploited roth
satisfy the
satisfy the needs
needs of local c:cmmmities
of local and as
communities and as aa major
major export crop fram
export crop fran
Indonesia and
Indonesia Malaysia in
and Malaysia in particular.
particular. Of the small cane rattans
small carie rattans only
only caJ.amus
Calamus
caesius and c.
caesius C. trachy=leus
trachycoleus are planted extensively in
planted extensively in the
the rainforest
rainforest belt
belt of
of
this region. They are cluster
this region. cluster rattans c. caesius
rattans and C. caesius has traditionally been
traditionally been
treated as aa crop
treated of shifting
crop of shifting cultivation,
cultivation, being
being harvested
harvested completely
c:arpletely at
at age
seven to ten years and again at the end end of the
the fallow
fallCM period
period at about age
age
fourteen . If,
fourteen. If, lJa.Iever,
however, the clusters are harvested selectively inin alternate
alternate
years,
years, they
they can managed on aa sustained
can be managed sustained yield
yield basis
basis for
for many years
many years
(Dransfield 1979).
(Dransfield 1979).

Canes are usually cultivated in secondary forest, forest, rut

bit they have been
raised successfully
raised successfully in in abandoned
abandoned rubber
rUbber plantations
plantations andand even
even in
in a Rinus
a Pinus
oocarpa. plantation
occarpa and a Shorea robusta
plantation and roblsta plantation in Bangladesh (Davidson
(Davidson
1986) . Themanipulation
1986). The manipulationofofthe shadeis
theshade is critical
critical to
to the production of quality
the production
rattan; too much
rattan; Irnlch shade,
shade, for example under Dillenia
exarrple under Dillenia spp.,
spp . , results
results in poor
grCMth of
growth rattan, bit
of the rattan, rut with
with longer
longer internodes,
internodes, which
which isis aa desirable
desirable
Sabah, East
feature. In Sabah, Fast Malaysia
Malaysia thetheyield
yieldof ofCalamus trachycoleus after 11
Clamus trachy=leus 11
years has been estimated at 2.5 2 . 5 tons/ha/year
tons/ha/year with a sale value of US$800/ton
unprocessed US$l 500/ton
and US$1
unprocessed and 500/ton processed
processed (Dransfield
(Dransfield 1988).
1988).

C.
C. manan
manan is usually
usually grown
grCMIl the production
for the production of large
large canes;
canes; this
this
species is
species is not
not aa cluster
cluster rattan
rattan and
and does
does not
not shoot
shoot frcn
fran the
the base aftercut-ting
baseafter cutting
and therefore can
and can only
only be
be cut
cut once.
once. Other large cane cane rattans
rattans which do do fonn
form
clusters, e.
clusters, e.g.
g. C.C. inermis
inezmis or C.C. merrillii from
fran the Philippines
Philippines areare possible
possible
alternatives . Another
alternatives. Another problem
problen with C. C. manan
manan isis that the its
its weight (it can
grCM to
groka to 180
180 Inm in
in length)
length) can
can break
break supporting trees. Other
supporting trees. Other rattans are grCMIl
grown
in India and Sri Lanka and and there
there isis even
even one
one African
African species
species of of rattan.
rattan.

Rattan wouldappear
Rattanwould appearto
to offer
offer attractive
attractive financial
financial returns,
returns, up
up to
to about
about
500/ha/year gross
US$3 500/ha/year gross after
after only
only 11 years, with
11 years, with few
few management
managem:mt expenses.
expenses. It
has to be grown
grCMIl in mixture,
mixture, rut
but to what
what extent the other
other species of the crop
can contriOOte
contribute to returns is not clPar. The
not clear. The options
options would
would appear
appear to be either
either
to consider the rattan to be a c:arponent early secondary successional
component of the early
stage · of the
stage-of the ecosystem
ecosysten and to accept
accept that it will be replaced
replaced in later
later
stages,
stages, or or to attarpt to
to attempt manipulate the
to manipulate the canopy
canopy in
in order
order to retain it
to retain it
throughout a longer rotation,
throughout to maintain
or to
rotation, or an early stage
maintain the plantation in an
of succession to favour the rattan at the expense of other
other c:arponents
components of the
crop
crop.. There is scope forfor further
further investigation.
investigation.

Sandalvo:rl (see also Appendix

Sandalwood (see 4)
Appendix 4)

Sandalvo:rl is aa root
Sandalwood root heni -parasite that can grCM
hemi-parasite grow in association
association with
with aa
wide range ofof hosts,
hosts, including
including grasses
grasses.. The
The genus
genus occurs
occurs in
in India,
India, Australia
and the Pacific
Pacific basin . There
basin. There are
are fourteen
fourteen species,
speCies, bit
rut the m:JSt
most valuable and
one of the
the m:JSt
most vigorous
vigorous is Santa/um alliJm
is Santalum album which
which occurs naturally in India
naturally in India and
and
West Timor,
in West T:im:>r, Indonesia; this species
Indonesia; this species isis nCM being planted
ni being planted in
in Western
Western
Australia and
Australia and also inin many the Pacific
many of the Pacific Islands,
Islands, where
where indigenous
indigenous species
species
have been heavily
heavily exploited.
explOited.

Sandalvo:rl is one
Sandalwoodis one of
of the
the most
m:JSt valuable
valuable timbers
timbers on
on the
the world
world market.
market. It
is used for carving in India for which use it can fetch up to to $US
$US 99 400
400 per
per
tonne . Australian
tonne. grown sandalvo:rl
Australian grCMn sandalwood is m:JStly sold on the Far
mostly sold Far East
FAst market for
incense and even vo:rl
wood chips and pooder command prices of about $US 2 300
powder can ccmnand
 44
44

per tonne. SandalYlOOd

Sandalwood oil sells
sells on
on the European and North Airerican
American markets
sus 1 500 per
at $US per kg.
kg .

It has been found that

has been that establislment
establishment can be be improved f aa primary
improved iif primary host
host
is
is used
used it1
in the
the nursery,
nursery, rut
but that
that in
in the
the field
field the
the sandalYlOOd
sandalwood and
and its
its primary
primary
host
host should bebe planted out near
near to
to aa se=nda.ry
secondary host,
host, usually
usually aa larger,
larger, JOC)re
more
species. The primary
vigorous species. host should
primary host should be a be a low growing
growing shrUb, such
shrub, sudh as
as
Cajanus
Cajanus cajan
ca janor or Sesbania
Séstania grandiflora;
grandiflora; Acacia spp, Albizia
Acacia spp, Albizia spp
spp and
and other
legumes such
such as
as Bauhinia bilob:J, Dalbergia
Bauhiniabiloba, sissoo and
Ealberyia sissoo and Terminalia spp have been
TerminaLiaspp been
found SUitable,
found suitable, butrut Pinus caribaea and Araucaria spp have been recorded as
been recorded
giving pcor results.
poor results.

Concl.usi ems OIl

Conclusions non-industrial procmcts
on DOD-industrial products and services

The inclusion
inclusion of species
species that
that provide
provide non-industrial
non-industrial products
products andand
services in plantations is an important way in which the needs
services inplantations is an important way in which the needs of rural of rural people
people
for many
many forest
forest products
products can be be mat
met and
and in which
which they
they can be involved
can be involved inin the
the
production ofof goods for use elsewhere, such as in the growing of rattan or
goods for use elsewhere, such as in the growing of rattan or
sandalYlOOd.
sandalwood. It It is
is likely that there
likelythat there is
is aa far
far wider
wider range
range of
of such
such species
species than
than
been reported
has been reported here,
here, which suggests not that that the demand
demand for their
their products
products
does not
not exist
exist rut
but that
that they
they have
have not been adequately
not been adequately investigated
investigated with
with a view
view
to inCOI:pOrating than
incorporating them in single species plantations
plantations as as a fom
form of enriclment
enrichment
planting.
 45

5. THE
5. '!HEMAMGEMINT
MI\NI\GDmfT OF
OFMIXTURES.
KIn'URES.

There
There are iJrportant sources
are two important sources which review
review the
the classification
classification of
mixtures, methods
methods of
of achieving
achieving them their success:
and their
than and success:

The Indian Forest

The Indian Forest Service
Service in the the fourth
fourth andand fifth
fifth Silvicultural
Silvicultural
Conferences Dehra Dun
Conferences in Dehra 1934 and
Dun in 1934 1939. The minutes of
and 1939. of these conferences
give
give anan extensive
extensive account
account of experiences
experiences and logical guidelines for
logical guidelines
establishing plantations in
establishing forest plantations mixture in
in mixture the Indian
in the Indian subcontinent.
subcontinent.
The Centre
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical
Technique Forestier Tropical has studied the
has studied the subject
subject in West
in West
Africa and
Africa and various reports and
and papers have been brought together in aa chapter chapter
of ~
FAO Forestry Paper no.
Forestry Paper no. 98
98 -- Les Plantations aaVocation
Les Plantations Vocation de
de Bois
Bois d'Oeuvre
d'Oel1V1:"e en
Afrique Intertropical amide
Afrique Intertropical (Timber Production
Humide (TiMber Production Plantations
Plantationsin in the
the Humid
amid
Tropics of
of Africa) (~1991b).
Africa) (FAO 1991b). AA classification
classification andand criteria
criteria for
for selecting
selecting
and rranaging mixtures are
managing mixtures are given.
given .

sources are
These two sources are complementary
canplementary and
and come
cane to
to similar
similar conclusions.
conclusions.
The following
follCMing classification
classification is
is drawn fran both
drawn from both sources.
sources .

Classification of
A Classification
A mixtures.
of mixtures.

No classification
No classif ication of
ofplantation
plantation mixtures
mixtures is
isentirely
entirelysatisfactory,
satisfactory, since
since
classes of mixtures are not discrete, rut tend to grade from
discrete, but fran one
one to
to another
another
in aa spectrum,
spectrum, depending
depending on site
site and
and the
the degree
degree of
of silvicultural
silvicultural intervention.
intervention.
The follCMing classification, based
following classification, based on
on stand
stand structure
structure and
and the
the duration
duration of
of the
the
mixture relative
mixture relative to
to the
the rotation,
rotation, is
is proposed:
proposed:

1. 'lWo-layered canopy.
Two-layered canopy.
1.1.
1.1. Temporary mixture, end
Temporary end result
result moncspecific.
rronospecific.
1.2. Pennanent, multi-specific .
end result multi-specific.
Permanent, end

2. Single-layered canopy.
Single-layered canopy.
Generally pennanent
permanent mixture, end
end result
result multi-specific.
multi-specific.

general reference
In general reference will
will be made to mixtures
be made mixtures of species; lOOre
of two species; more
canplex
complex mixtures
mixtures are
are possible
possible rut the rranagement
bit the management of of even two species
even two in aa
species in
plantation is
plantation not easy
is not and each
easy and each additional
adriitional species campounds the
species canpounds the difficulties.
difficulties.

1.
1. TWo layered canopy.
Two layered canopy.

1.1.
1.1. Temporary mixtures,
mixtures, designed to become
becane rronospecific before the
monospecific before the
end of the
end the rotation.
rotation.

Nurse
Nurse Crops
Crops are
are used bring aa more
used to bring lOOre valuable
valuable species
species through
through a a
difficult establishment
difficult establishrrent stage.
stage. The lOOSt
most camon
common circumstances in which
which
they are used are to protect against adverse
they adverse climatic
climatic factors
factors -- frost,
frost,
insolation -- or to deter
deter insect attacks
attacks.. In temperate zones the use of
temperate zones
nurse crops to give frost
frost protection
protection is well
well known and they areare of
of use
for this
this purpose
purpose in parts
parts of the subtropics such
such as
as the
the Himalayas. In
the tropics
tropics the use of fast growing
grCMing trees to nurse
nurse valuable
valuable species
species ofof
the family Meliaceae
1461iaceae and
and other
other species
species such
such as Milicia (=Chlorpphora)
as Milicia (=Chlorophora)
excelsa through
through the
the stage
stage inin which
which they are at riskrisk of attadk
attack from
fran
shoot borers is camon.
is common. references to
Few references to investigations
investigations into
into the
the
effectiveness of of this
this strategy were found,
found, rut
but the borers are thought
inhibited by shade.
to be inhibited shade. The Sundapola SWietenia
SWietenia macrqphylla
macrophylla
plantations in
(mahogany) plantations Sri Lanka
in Sri are aa goal
Lanka are good example
exarrple ofof the
the
 46
46

successful
successful use
use of
of nurse
nurse crops,
crops, though
though the opinion in
the opml.On in the
the Dehra
Dehra Dun
conference (1939) was
conference (1939) was that
that teak : SWietenia macrophylla
teak:Swietenia mixtures were
macrophylla mixtures were not
not
successful in India
India and Ianka. The pure mahogany
Sri Lanka.
and Sri mahogany plantations ofof
Fiji Martinique were,
Fiji and Martinique were, however, succes~fully raised
halever, successfully raised without
without the
benefit
benefit of
of aa nurse crop and evidently
evidently without
without large-scale attadk by
large-scale attack by
borers
borers..

An understanding
understanding of the
the succession of species
species in the
the local ecosystem
will often help in the
the selection of
of nurse
nurse species.
species . Milicia (=Chlorophcra)
(=Chlorophora)
excelsa
excelsa and Entandrophragma grandifoliola were established successfully
Ebtandrophragma grandifOlicla in
successfully in
7ezminalia ~
fire prone Terminalia woodland using Phyllanthus crop
dis=idEus as a nurse crop
Ihyllanthus discoideus
(Dawkins 1949). years, though
After forty years, though the
the site
site has suffered several
has suffered several
vicissitudes, the M.
vicissitudes, E. grandifOliola
AL excelsa and E. have done
grandifoliola are reported to have done
well on !lOisture receiving microsites.
moisture receiving microsites .

. In Nepal there is is an
an interesting
interesting variation
variation on on nurse
nurse crops.
crops. There the
planting of pines
planting pines inin village
village afforestation
afforestation schemes
schemes defines
defines very
very cle4Arly
clearly the
area to be reforested and thereby makes the protection
protection of of the
the site
site against
against
unplanned cutting by the villagers broosing by their
villagers and unmanaged browsing their cattle
cattle
sinpler and !lOre
simpler effective . Often
more effective. Often there is
is no
no need
need to
to fence.
fence. As aa result
result
been satisfactory
there has been satisfactory regeneration
regeneration of
of the
the !lOre
more valuable hardwoods under
valuable hardwoods under
the pine canopy.
canopy. Subsequently,
Subsequently, the pines can be removed or allowed allCMed to grow
grcM
on as a further component in aa mixed
c::arp:>nent in hardwood stand
mixed hardwood (Gilm:Jur et
stand (Gilmour et al 1990).
al 1990).

reasons, in order to improve

Silvicultural reasons, inprove the form
fonn of
of the
the main crop.
main crop.
This may
may be an effect of spacing,
spacing, and it has not been scientifically
rut the form
tested, but fonn of Fterocarpus dalbergicides
of Iterocarpus dalbergioides in in the
the Andaman
Andaman
Islands is
is considered
considered to be inproved
to be when the
improved when the tree isg
tree is = through an
gran
overstorey of Lagerstroemia
Lagerstrcemia hypoleuC8,
hypoleuca, 7ezrninalia
Terminalia bialata etc.
D3 ltergia latifOlia
Dalbergia is
latifolia is similarly improved by
similarly inproved grcMing through
by growing through an
an
overstorey (Indian
overstorey (Indian Fbrest
Forest Service
Service 1939).
1939) .

In-fillers can be used if there is aa shortage of the main main species, oror
the main
main species is expensive or or difficult
difficult to
to establish.
establish. In that case
cAse
the main crop can be planted at wide spacing in a natrix cheap in-
matrix of cheap in-
fillers which
whidh can suppress weeds, supply side
weeds , supply side shade
shade to
to the
the main
main crop
crop or
or
provide
provide ground cover to protect
ground cover protect the
the soil.
soil . In Indonesia Altingia
In Indonesia Altingia
excelsa, Schima wallichii var. noIOllhae,
wallichii var. noronhae, Eugenia were
polyantha were
Eugenia pcdyantha
recx:rrrrended
recommended for planting under Tbcna
planting under 1bona sureni, in order to provide ground
ground
cover with wood production
with wood production as
as only aa secondary objective (Grutterink
(Grutterink
1930)
1930)..

In many functions of
many respects these three functions of nurse
nurse crops,
crops, silvicultural
silvicultural
inprovement
improvement andand in-filler
in-filler can
can be achieved by
be achieved by enrichment
enrichment planting
planting in forests
forests
in the
the humid tropiCS. The naturally-occurring
humid tropics. naturally occurring law lCM value residual species in in
cut-over forest
forest have aa nursing,
nursing, cultural or in-filling function, function, though the
advantage of the latter is seriously
advantage reduced by
seriously-reduced by the
the prevalence
prevalence of climbers
clilnbers on
on
many sites .
many sites. It is hard to
is hard to find
find examples
exanples where
where enrichment
enrichment planting
planting to to
establish
establish industrial
industrial plantations
plantations can be considered an unqualifiedunqualified economic
ec:onanic
success. There was some sore optimism
optimism that
that trials
trials involving
involving group planting of
Maesopsis eminii
Mesopsis aninii and the exploitation
and the exploitation of of the
the residual
residual forest
forest for
for Charcoal
charcoal
would
would be profitable (Earl 1968),
profitable (Earl 1968) , but
rut there
there have
have been
been nono recent
recent reports
reports ofof this
this
work.
work. On the other
On the other hand, introduced
introduced species,
speCies, such as as Albizia
Albizia chinensis,
chinensis, Melia
Akdia
azedarach, Milletia dura
azedarach,AU/detia dura and
and inin particular
particular Maesopsis eminii have invaded the
Maesopsis eminii
natural forest in thethe East Usambara
UsaMbara !lOuntains
mountains of Tanzania, where where they
they are
are now
nCM
a::npeting
carpeting with
with the indigenous species (Binggeli
(Binggeli and
and Hamilton
Hamilton 1990). However,
Hbwever,
 47
47

where the prirre is not so llUlch

prime objective is production as
much wood production as the
the maintenance
maintenance
of aa diverse ecosystem, enriclmant
enrichment planting
planting is to be reccmrended
recommended because the
soil is not put at risk
risk during
during the
the establishment
establishment process.
process .

Early economic returns can sometimes

econanic returns scmatirres be obtained through
through the
the use of
mixtures when
mixtures when the main crop is aa valuable,
valuable, but
rut slaw
SICM growing,
grCMing, shade
shade
bearer having
bearer having no value
value as
as thinnings
thinnings. . An early return from
An early-return fran an
an admixture
of
of aa fast
fast growing
grCMing species
species can make aa project
project economically
econanically more
rn:>re
attractive. In India and Myanmar
Myanmar the planting
planting of 21lia dolabriformis
Xylia dolabrifoIIllis
with teak
with was not
teak was not considered
considered aa success
success (Indian
(Indian Forest
Forest Service
Service 1939),
1939),
rut as
but as the
the teak
teak which tended to
which tended to suppress
suppress the X. dolabriformis
the X. dolabrifoIIllis was
was
rather rn:>re
rather more valuable
valuable the failure was was not
not too
too serious,
seriOUS, especially as the
especially as the
mixture had
mixture the effect
had the effect of spacing
spacing the
the teak
teak out at a period
period when it was
custanary to plant teak
customary too close.
teak too close . In Nigeria the establishment
establistment of
Lovoa trichilioides
Lovaa trichilioides and Entandrophragva
Entandrophragma utile
utile with Nauclea diderrichii,
can be
which can
which be exploited
exploited for
for poles
poles at
at the
the age
age ofof 1515 years, was considered
(Lamb 1991;
a success (LaMb ~ 1991).
1991; Lowe 1991). In the Solomon
Solaron Islands experiments
experirrents
instituted for raising SWietenia nacrophylla
have been instituted macrophylla in in a matrix
matrix of
of
Securinega flexuosa,
flexuosa , which has aa ready market as house poles at age
which has age
five or six and expected to reduce the
and is also expected the incidence
incidence of
of Hypsipyla
Hypsipyla
shoot borer in in the
the Mahogany (Solaron Islands
Mahogany (Solomon Islands 1988a).
1988a) .

The timing of the renoval

removal of the teng:JOrary
temporary crop and the care needed
needed to
ensure that the main
ensure crop is not damaged
main crop during removal
damaged during renoval of
of the
the nurse
nurse trees
trees is
is
great importance.
of great importance.

1.2
1.2.. Pennanent mixtures
Permanent mixtures

Understorey for soil

Understorey soil improvement.
improvemant. The necessity
necessity for maintaining
maintaining the
the
organic matter content
organic matter content of the topsOil and the conditions under which
topsoil and the conditions under which it it
can be expected
expected to to be
be depleted,
depleted, for
for exa:rrple
example through
through the
the ruild
huid upup of
of
litter (Mo=is
(Mbrris 1986)
1986) or
or litter
litter renoval
removal by fire under
byfire under teak
teak (Bell
(Bell 1973),
1973),
have been noted
been noted in the section on soils. Sane
Some species have leaves that
break dCMn more
breakdown rn:>re easily
easily and provide aa better
and provide better environment
environrrent for
for microfauna
microfauna
and flora
flora which are are the main
main agents
agents for converting litter to
for converting to organic
organic
matter in
matter in the
the soil. The mixture of
Themixtare of other
other species
species with alliodoza
with Cordia alliodora
:in
in Costa Rica has been shcMn shown to increase the rate rate of decomposition
decanposition of
the C.
C. alliodacza leaves
alliodora leaves markedly (Rabrer
(Babbar and Ewel 1989).
and Ewel 1989). The
introduction of
introduction of understorey
understorey species
species into
into the plantations in
the teak plantations in
Indonesia in
Indonesia in the early part
the early part ofof the
the twentieth
tYientieth century was largely
century was largely
rn:>tivated by aa desire
motivated desire to
to improve
improve soils
soils or
orhydrological
hydrological conditions,
conditions,
though the production
production of
of rn:>re
more saleable wood
wood fran
from the understorey was
the understorey was
also considered
also considered anan essential
essential requirement
requirem:mt ofof understorey
understorey planting.
planting.
Opinions
ppinions were sharply divided on the necessity or utility of planting
planting
mixtures . Pythe
mixtures. By thenineteen
nineteenthirties
thirtiesevidence
evidencehad
hadbeen =llected to
been collected to show
shCM
that the planting of mixtures was
of mixtures was unprofitable
unprofitable in e=nanic
economic tenns (Hart
terms (Hart
1931a)
1931a) and that an
and that an economically
e=nanically better,
better, but
rut ecologically
e=logically similar,
similar,
result
result =uld
could be achieved by encouraging
encouraging aa natural
natural understorey
understorey (KUnst
(Kunst
1918).. It was suggested that the beneficial
1918) beneficial effects of an an understorey
understorey
Leucaena sp.
of Leucaena sp . could be attrililted
attributed to the effects of of the
the cultivation
cultivation
rather than to the
the species (Hart 1931b). In north-east
north-east Zambia the ladklack
of aa deep litter layer
layer under
under tYienty year old
twenty year old P.kesiya (18 m. tall;
Rkesiya (18 tall; 23
23
an dbh;
dbh; soil
soil pH 6.2) was associated
pH 6.2) associated with an open
with an open canopy
canopy andand aa good
ground cover
=ver including Desmcdium
Desrrodium ascendens var var.. rotastum
robustum and
gphenostylis marginata and the presence
Sphenostylis presence of
of earthworms
earthwonns (Lawton
(Lawton 1991).
1991). '
 48
48

In
In Trinidad the practice
Trinidad the practice arose
arose of
of close
close planting
planting teak
teak and
and in
in consequence
consequence
there was
was an increased incidence of fire because the deciduous deciduous teak
teak leaves
leaves
accumulated on
on the
the forest
forest floor
floor without
without deCXlllfXJSing
decamposing. . As aa result fire- tender
fire-tender
species were
were eliminated which in turn
eliminated which turn resulted
resulted in
in the
the alIrost
almost CCIlq:>lete
complete loss
loss of
of
organic
organic matter
matter in the topsoil
topsoil and serious erosion.
and serious erosion. Previously
Previously the the teak
plantations had been established
plantations established at a a wider spacing and with an admixture of of
other species. In those plantations the teak leaves deCCllq:>OSed
decomposed llUlch faster
much faster
and the forest
forest floor,
floor, being much less prone
llUlch less to fire,
prone to fire, provided
provided conditions
conditions
suitable for natural regeneration
regeneration ofof local
local trees
trees and
and shrubs.
shruJ:s. There was IIOre
more
cover, better
ground cover, better soil
soil conditions
conditions and
and less
less erosion
erosion (Bell
(Bell 1973).
1973).

The use of N2-fixing

Nz-fixing trees,
trees, particularly
particularly acacias,
acacias, isis often advocated
e. g. Acacia
e.g. Acacia auriCLUifonnis may be
which may
auricarifomiswhich be cpppiced
coppiced under
under Eucalyptus exserta in
Eucalyptus exserta in
China (Eames 1991,
China (Barnes 1991, Kaeokamnerd
Kaeok.amnerd 1991)
1991) or the the mixtures
mixtures of poplars with
poplars with
Hippophae rhamnoides or
Hippophae or Robinia pseudoacacia (see
Robinia pseudoacacia (see Chapter
Chapter 4).
4). Soil
Soil conditions
conditions
are iIlproved
improved through thethe grONth
growth of the
the N -fixing
N2-fixing
2
species and
and the
the utility
utility of
of
plantations to
the plantations to people
people isis iIlproved
improved through aa widerwider range
range of
of products,
products, but
but
there is
is little
little evidence
evidence fran
fram the
the tropics
tropics that
that the
the main
main crop
crop is
is significantly
significantly
iIlproved.
improved. There are, haoJever,
There are, however, well-documented instances of N2-fixing
well-documented instances N2-fixing
operating beneficially on on the grONth
growth of one of IIOre canponents of a mixture
more components
in North Alrerica.
Nbrth America.

2.
2. Single layered canopy
canopy

By this is
Bythis is meant the maintenance
maintenance of
of aa mixture
mixtureofoftwo woody speCies, both
twowoodyspecies, both
of which are dominants.
which are daninants . This mixture is usually permanent
permanent for
for the
the duration
duration
of the rotation, but there is always an
rotation, but an option
option toto convert
convert toto aa single
single species
species
thereby making the mixture temporary.
tarporary. The reasons for attempting
atterrpting aa single
layered mixture include:
mixture include:

Synergy. species growing

Two species
Synergy. Two growing together
together may
may give
give a higher yield than the the
mean of those twotwo inin separate
separate pure
pure plantations.
plantations. The mixed species
mixed species
effect has
effect has been noted in in Scandinavia
Scandinavia with pine and spruce
spruce (Jonsson
(Jonsson
1961) and in the beech/oak
beech/oak forests of of Belgium, Germany
Germany and
and France.
France. In In
QJeensland it
Queensland it has practice to plant Pinus elliottii
been the practice
has been elliottii with
cunninghamii; there
Araucaria =ni.nghamiij
Araucaria there has been aa positive
has been positive response
response in in the
the
A. =ni.nghamii growth,
A.cunninghamii but the
grONth, but the sites
sites have
have been outside the
been outside the normal
nODll3.1 range
range
of that
that species
species and the practice
and the practice has
has been discontinued (Applegate
been discontinued (Applegate
1991). A A mixture of Banbax
Banbax nalabaricum and Acacia
malabaricum and Acacia catechu
catechu has
has been
been
noted to have better grONth
growth than either
either species
species alone inin India (Indian
Forest Service
Forest Service 1939).
1939).

The Eucalyptus/Albizia
Eucalyptus/Albizia mixture in Hawaii (DeBell
(DeBell et
et al.
al. 1985)
1985) is a
tropical example
tropical exarrple of
of apparent
apparent synergy
synergy associated
associated with
withN2-fixing;
N2-fixingj somewhat
scmewhat
unusually in this
this case the N -fixing
N2-fixing
2
species is in fact
species is in fact larger and faster
faster
growing ''main species".
graaing than the "main species" . This exarrple discussed IIOre
example is discussed later
more fully later
chapter.
in this chapter.

Reduction
Reduction in attacks by
by pests and diseases. This is
pests and is covered
covered in detail
detail
in Chapter 3 . Permanent mixtures only
Chapter 3. only appear to act
act effectively
effectively as
as aa
barrier to diseases and pests when the valuable trees to be protected
protected
are highly dispersed as in the case of Milicia (=Chlorophora)
(=Chlorcphora) excelsa
excelsa
liable to
to attack
attaCk by Phytolyma (Gfrson and
Phytalyna lata (Gibson Jones 1977).
and Jones 1977). There are
instances
instances where
where mixtures
mixtures may actually increase
may actually increase the likelihood of
the likelihood
attacks, e.g. the
attacks, e.g. introduction of an
the introduction an alternate
alternate host
host species,
species, and
 49

therefore mixtures cannot be assumed

mixtures cannot assumed to provide added protection on all
protection on all
sites or for all species
species. .

Wind .
Wind. It is possible that in in taTperate
temperate zones thethe mixture
mixture of
of e.g.
e.g. beech
beech
with larch llI3.y increase resistance to windthrCM,
may incrPase windthrow, rut
but there
there is little
evidence from
fran thethe tropics.
tropics. In South Africa
In South Africa itit was hoped that
was hoped that the
introduction of
introduction of the supposedly
supposedly deeper
deeper rooting Pinus radiata
rooting Pinus radiata into
into stands
stands
of Acacia
Acacia mEdanoxylon,
melanoxyloo, which is is liable
liable toto windthrow,
windthrCM, would
would improve
:iJrprove
stability. This was
stability. was not
not aa success
success (de zwaan 1981).
(de Zwaan 1981).

Econanic
Economic insurance. This is discussed further in
discussed further in Chapter
Chapter 7.
7. If it is
uncertain which species will perfODll perfora best on a site, site, or if there is is a
risk of an unpredictable event - - late
late frost,
frost, wind,
Wind, drought
drought -- then it
then it
llI3.y
maybe be justifiable
justifiable toto plant
plant two or more
tYIO or IOClre species
species (Indian
(Indian Forest
Forest Service
1939, HeYbroek and van Tol 1985).
1939, Heybroek 1985). In this case the mixture is often often
tarporary because
temporary because it it will
will be found that
be found that aa monospecific
lOClnospecific stand
stand has
has
developed
developed by the end
by the end of rotation and the
the rotation
of the the mixture
mixture llI3.y _11 be
may well
redundant for the second rotation, because information
se<Xllld rotation, inforlll3.tion will
will have
have been
been
gained on the
gained siterequiremants
the site requirements for each species
for each species in in the
the mixture
mixture
(Heybroek and van Tol 1985).1985) . The mixture should be carefully llI3.tched matched
to the site and and aa knowledge
knowledge of the the local
local ecosystem
ecosystem successional species
successional species
is useful.
useful .

Silvialltural criteria for

Silvicultura], criteria for suocessful
successful mixtures.

In temporary mixtures the species should be compatible

carq:atible to the
the extent
extent
that the secondary
secondary species is not too dananding;
demanding; for exarrtJle
example it should
not have too vigorous aa crCMn,
crown, so that the tYIO
two species can coexist for
several years without intervention.
intervention.

In perlll3.nent
permanent single layer canopy mixtures there is aa narrow range of
narrCM range of
Sites,
sites, silvicultural
silvicultural characteristics
characteristics and
and llI3.nagarent
management options
options within
which successful
which successful growth of mixtures
grCMth of mixtures is
is likely.
likely .

The site ImlSt

must be suited to both species (Jonsson
(Jonsson 1961;
1961; FM
FAO 1991b).
1991b). The
overlap of
of the
the site
site requiremants
requirements of two species
of tYIO species isis often narro. The range
often narrCM.
of sites on which two
of sites species can
tYIO species can be
be grown together can
grCMn together can be
be extended
extended by
by
silvicultural intervention,
intervention, rut
but that usually implies
:iJrplies aa reduction inin econanic
economic
profitability. This oooervation
profitability. observation is IlErelyan
merely an extension of the fact, fact, already
emphasised, that
that llI3.tching species to
matching species to site
site is
is one of
of the
the first requirements
requiremants of
of
good forestry practice, whether
whether the
the plantations
plantatiOns are are pure
pure oror mixed.
mixed.

Silvicultural characteristics
Silvicultural characteristics must
must be
be carq:atible;
canpatible; essentially this I!EanS
essentially this means
represent approximately
tYIO species should represent
that the two approximately the
the SallE
same stage
stage in the
secondary succession
secondary should have
succession and should have similar
similar crown characteristics.
CrCMn Characteristics. In
addition the initial height
addition height growth should be
grCMth should be comparable.
carq:arable . Thus the mixture
mixture of
SlCM growing
slow growing Khaya
Khaya spp
spp or Entandrophragma spp
or Ehtandrqphragma spp with Tenninalia spp
with Tbiminalia spp or
or
Triplochitoo
Triplochitcn scleroxylon
scleroxylon is
is unlikely
unlikely to successful, while mixtures of
to be successful, of
Tenninalia superba, T.ivorensis
Tbrminalia super-La, T.ivorensis and Triplochitoo
Triplcchition scleroxyloo do have
scleroxylan do have aa chance
chance
(FM 1991b).
of success (FAO 1991b).

threshold at which
The threshold c::x:rrp=tition starts
which competition starts and hence the
and hence the density at
planting, the maxilmlm
maximum basal area and the timing
and-the and intensity
timingand intensity of
of thinning
thinning also
also
need to
need to be
be similar.
similar.
 50
50

In the tropics
tropics it
it is advantageous f the rotation
advantageous iif rotation ages are similar
similar (FM)
(F7IO
1991b);
1991b); this
this is because
because daninant
dominant trees
trees in the tropics usually carry broad
crowns and thinning
crowns thinning operations
operations can considerable damage
can cause considerable damage to residual
to residual
trees. In Scandinavia
trees. Scandinavia where
where crowns
crowns are relatively !la.l:rCM,
are relatively narrow, thethe raroval
removal of of
birch fran
birch pine and
from pine spruce at
and spruce at about
about 60% rotation
rotation ageage is rea:::mtended
is recommended
1988).
Tham 1988).
(Mielikainen 1985; Tham

Recently
Recently IlUlch
much thought
thought has been given
has been given in Germany
GeIIl\aIly and central
and other central
European countries
European countries toto putting
putting plantation forestry
forestry onto onto aa sound
sound ecological
ecological
basis. The criticism
criticism is made of manymany llOIlospecific
monospecific plantations that there is is
too great
great aa risk
risk attached
attached to the attE!rpts
to-the attempts at narrow optimization
at narrCM optimization of objectives
objectives
(Brunig
(Brunig 1983),
1983), though
though the advantages
advantages of selection
selection forests
forests and "natural"
and "natural"
managaoont
management are probably
probably overestimated
overestimated (Kenk 1990) . Mixed planting would
(Kenk 1990).
achieve aa broadening of of objectives,
objectives, rutbit whether
whether the advocated
advocated useuse of
of yield
rrodels instead of the
models . instead m:lre rigid yield tables is practicable
the more practicable in tropical
in tropical
polyspecific stands
polyspecific stands ranains
remains to to be tested. The recommended
be tested. rea:::mtended policy of
maintaining very open standsstands toto encourage
encourage indigenous
indigenous undergrowth
undergrCMth achieves
achieves
similar
similar effects
effects asas the
the policy
policy ofof heavy
heavy thinning,
thinning, in in order
order to
to put
put rnaxinrum
maximum
growth on the most
grCMth m:lSt valuable stems,
stans, advocated on econamiceconanic grounds
grounds in South
Africa nearly
Africa nearly forty years ago
forty years ago (Craib 1947).
1947). Exarrples of overstocked
Examples overstocked
plantations of pine, cypress and
plantations teak are common
and teak in same
CCIlIOCl!l in sare tropical
tropical countries
countries
and
and the adverse effects on
adverse effects on the
the sites
sites are
are apparent;
apparent; such such effects
effects are
are due
due to
to the
the
managaoont rather
management rather than to the
than to the single
single species
species composition.
c:crnposition.

Methods of
tiethods of establishing mixtures.
establishing mixtures.

Mixtures can be established as intimate mixtures

Mixtures (that is,
mixtures (that is, the species
are mixed
mixed within
within the
the lines),
lines), byby line planting (in (in which
which case
case each line is
each line
planted to only one species),
species), which may be a coMbination
canbination of any number of
lines of each
each speCies, or by
species, or by groups. The canbinations
ooMbinations of mixtures
mixtures within
within and
and
berneen lines are
between lines are described
described in in sare detail in the fourth Debra Dun
same detail in the fourth Dehra Dun
silvicultural conference (Indian
(Indian Forest
Forest Service
Service 1934).
1934). A general conclusion
Ageneral conclusion
was that mixtures are extremely difficult to manage unless lIDless one component
CCIlIpOl1ent is
is
clearly daninant
dominant and the other
other isis aa shade
shade bearer
bearer that
that can
can s1,lIVive
survive inin aa seni-
semi-
suppressed state;
state; in other words a two layered layered mixture is easier easier to
to manage
manage
than aa one
one layered
layered mixture. Administratively line
mixture. Administratively line planting
planting is the easiest
easiest toto
establish, butrut it is is also
also thethe most
m:lSt difficult
difficult to to manage
manage technically,
technically,
particularly
particularly if if the
the species areare not
not campatible.
cx::Ilp3.tible. An exarrq::>le
example of aa line
line mixture
mixture
that did not succeed
that the CUpressus
succeed is the Cupressus spp. Grevillea rorusta
spp.//Grevillea robusta mixtures
mixtures in Kenya
Kenya
(Graham
(Graham 1949);
1949); thethe trees
trees were
were not
not cx::Ilp3.tible
compatible and and as
as aa result
result the cypress
cypress
neighbouring the
neighbouring the G. robusta lines
G. rorusta lines developed
developedseveresevererutt
buttsweep.
sep. Intimate
mixtures
mixtures are
are the m:lSt satisfactory
the most satisfactory if if the mixture has has been planted as an an
"insurance", since the
"insurance", the crowns
crowns ofof successful trees can expand expand into
into the space
left by failures with the minimllm edge effect.
minimum edge effect. The natural oc=ence occurrence of of aa
mixture, ~ver, is often as a m:lSaic
mixture, however, mosaic of small groups in response response toto minor
minor
site differences.
site differences. .

In Zaire
Zaire plantations
plantations have been established
have been established usingusing groups
groups ofof up
up to 37
plants at
at close
close (.5 m) spacing
(.5m) spacing within the groups and 10
groups and 10 m
m spacing
spacingberneen
betven the
groups in a matrix
matrix ofof natural
natural bush.
rush. The species
species used included a range range of
of
exotics such as eucalypts and Grevillea robusta
and pines, Grevillea Acacia decurrens;
and Acacia
rorusta and decurrens;
in one
one variant
variant of
of the
the technique
technique the species CUpressus
the species CUpressus lusitanica,
lusitanica, Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
grandis and Acacia decurrens were mixedmixed within
within each
each group.
group. The species did
not appear to
to have been selected
have been selectedwith
withcx::Ilp3.tibility
compatibilityin mind. At
inmind. At 30
30 llOIlths
months the
growth, as
grCMth, as indicated
indicated by photographs, appeared
byphotographs, appeared good
good within
within the
the groups
groups but
rut there
there
appeared
appeared toto be matrix and
be no matrix and edge
edge effects
effects must
ImlSt have
have been large.
been large. The
 51
51

technique,
technique, based on Anderson's (Anderson 1953)
Anderson's groups (Anderson 1953) was
was also proposed for
Kivu and
Kivu and Ruanda (Pier1ot 1955);
Ruanda (Pierlot 1955); no
no further
further reports
reports have
have been noted.
been noted.

A broadsense
Abroad sensemixture
mixture(Chapter
(Chapter1)
1) was
was defined
defined asas being
being different
different species
species
or provenances
provenances inin neighlxJuring
neighbouring blocks. Mixtures of
blocks. Mixtures of clones maymay be
be also
also defined
defined
in the broad
broad sense of neighbouring blocks. An exarrple
neighbouring blodks. example of this fom form of
of mixing
mixing
has been
has been used in in Aracruz,
Aracruz, Brazil
Brazil where
where clones
clones ofof eucalyptus
eucalyptus havehave been
been
developed for each site type in the estateestate and there
there isis aa policy
policy toto ensure
ensure
that out of a total
total of same
same 100
100 available
available clones
clones aa selection
selection of 10 10 toto 15
15
clones are
clones are used on each site in blocks of 5 to to 3030 ha
ha (Burley
(Burley andand Ikemori
IkEm::>ri
1988) .
1988).

skills.
Manat;Eiie.. L skILLs
Management

Mixed plantations require

MixEkipaantations require more
rrore intensive
intensive management
management than single species
than single species
plantations so
plantations so that while the basic
basic skills
skills may be the
maybe the same
same for either type thethe
the former
management of the fomer requires
requires greater
greater attention
attention to
to detail
detail and
and has less
has less
roan for error
room e=r than the latter.
than the latter. The skills
skills required
required may be summarised
maybe surrmarised under
under
headings.
three headings.

Clear abjectives.
Clear objectives .

There l!Il.lSt
must be a clear statement of objective for the the mixture;
mixture; whether
whether
it is
is soil improvement, increased yield by synergy, the reduction of
soil illq:>rovement, increased yield by synergy, the reduction of adverse
adverse
effects on wildlife
effects etc . Only
wildlife etc. Only when the objectives are clearly
clearly defined can the
staff he
field staff be expected
expected to
to establish
establish and maintain the
and maintain the mixture.
mixture. Ideally,
Ideally,
objectives should
objectives should be be held
held constant
constant for
for aa rotation
rotation rut fact one of the
but in fact the
advantages of
advantages of aa mixture
mixture may
may be that
that if
if markets
markets change
change then
then there
there is
is the
flexibility to change objectives to to meet
rreet the
the new
new demands.
danands .

Experience.

The
The point has
has been made that that management
management of mixed plantations is aa
mixed plantations
delicate operation
delicate operation(Dupuy
(Dupuy1986)
1986).
. Prescriptions
Prescriptions can be established
established for
for guiding
guiding
field foresters,
foresters, rut management decisions
butmanagement decisions have
have to
to take account of small site
take account
differences and l!Il.lSt
differences and must be be made in
in the
the field.
field . The knowledge
knowledge of what is the best
treatment on
on anyone
anyone site site can only be obtained
onlybe obtained by experience and
by experience specifically
and specifically
that site.
experience of that site. The fact thatthat same
same of
of the
the Sapoba
Sapoba mixed taungya
mixed taungya
plantations
plantations in
in Nigeria
Nigeria have eventually produced worthwhile mahogany mahogany trees
despite discontinuous and inadequate management (LaMb 1991; r.a.e
(Lamb 1991; Lowe 1991),
1991), does
does
invalidate the need for skilled
not invalidate skilled management forinixed
for mixed plantations
plantations to
to be
be
econanically successful.
economically successful.

Continuity of management.

In sare
same parts
parts of central Europe it is is not unknown for a forest
unknCMll for forest to
to be
be
managed over many decades successively by
decadPs successively by three generations of
three generations of one
one family.
family .
this way experience
In this experience is ruilt up
is built up and
and passed
passed on.
on. By contrast
contrast inin same
sare
countries
countries it
it is civil service policy to transfer staff,staff, even down
dCMll to quite
quite
junior ranks every three years.
junior ranks years . In that way way detailed
detailed experience
experience of the
the
silvicultural requirarents of a forest can
requirements of can neither
neither be
be obtained
obtained nor
nor retained.
retained.
Good management plans, records and the discipline to enforce their
Goal management
prescriptions can go same wayway to off-setting the effect of staff transfers.
transfers.
But though very
very long
long postings
postings are
are usually
usually illq:>ractical,
impractical, without
without continuity
continuity of
of
management and guaranteed
management guaranteed finances
finances the
the chances
chances for
for successful
successful management
management
especially of mixed plantations are are small.
small.
 52
52

The consequence lack of management

consequence of lack is likely
management is likely to be aa tendency
tendency for one
species to
species to gain
gain dominance
daninanceand
andtotofour'
fODn monospecific
m:mospecificstands
standsororgroups
groups.
.

experiences with
Salle experiences
Same mixtures.
with mixtures.

Sane examples illustrate relevant

Sate relevant points.
points .

(a) re-creation of
The re-creation of natural
natural forest
forest conditions.
conditions.

rainforests, if
Tropical rainforests, if destroyed by man
destroyed by man over an area
area larger than
than aa
small plot,
plot, will
will require
require several hundred years
several hundred years to
to reach
readh aa climax
climax naturally
naturally
(Adlard 1978) . In
.In Malaysia
Ma.laysia the
the dipterocaIp
dipterocarp dem:mstration
demonstration plots
plots at
at the Forest
Institute, Kepong were established
Research Institute, established artificially
artificially in in the
the nineteen
nineteen
thirties by
thirties by planting under
under Albizia
Albizia falcataria nurse crops.
falcafria nurse crops. The plots were
established on reclaimed
reclaiIred tin mines or onto abandoned vegetable plots plots.. This
nurse crop was removed
renoved fairly soon,
soon, but
rut over years local
over the years local species
species have
regenerated under
regenerated under the
the dipterocarps.
dipterocarps. Now, sixty years later,
Now, sixty later, some
Sate of these
these
plots are believed to bebe aa good
goal approximation
approximation to the secondary
secondary succession
succession of
of
the natural
the natural forest
forest that
that once grew on
once grew on the
the site
site (Ng
(Ng 1991).
1991) .

some areas
In Sate areas ofof Brazil
Brazil atterpts
attempts have made to re-create the natural
been made
havebeen
forest
forest.. A wide
A wide range
range ofof species,
species , mostly
mostly indigenous
indigenous butrut including
including same
Sate
exotics, has been planted on
been planted on aa few
few sites.
sites. These plantings have been been studied
to detennine
determine the species'
species' ecological requirements and successional position
(Nogueira 1977;
1977; Kageyama
Kageyama et al.al. 1990)
1990).. In Sao Paulo an an experiIrental
experimental planting
planting
of an area deforested for 50 years was, was, after 22 22 years,
years, considered
considered to be aa
vigorous sani-deciduous
semi-deciduous forestforest with
with trees
trees up
up to
to 20
20mm tall.
tall. At Candida
Candida Mote,
MJte,
however, aa study
~ver, study ofof natural
natural regeneration
regeneration in in aa 15 yearold
15year oldriver bank planting
riverbank planting
slJa.led
shaged that though
though 42 species had had regenerated,
regenerated, 64% were Nectandra
64% were Nectandra megapotamica
megapotamica
and there
there isis aa strong
strong tendency
tendency towards
towards thethe development
developnent of of aa "homogenous"
"harogenous"
(D.n:igan and
forest (Durigan and de Souza Dias
Dias 1990)
1990).. Aknowledge
A knowledgeofoflocal
localec,ology
ecology and the
and the
species of each
species each successional
successional stage
stage isis helpful.
helpful . In Uganda the selection of of
Chlorophora excelsa was
nurse trees for Chlorop!Jora was based
based onon aa knowledge
knowledge ofof local
local ecology
ecology
(Dawkins
(Dawkins 1949)
1949) and has apparently
and has apparently proved
proved to have beenbeen rea.s<Jnably
reasonably successful
successful..
In CUba
Cuba aa dRtailed
detailed classification
classification of species
species byby their successional
successional stage
stage and
and
silvicultural requirements has
silvicultural requirements been made for Sierra
has been Sie/La del Rosario (Canizares
(Canizares etet
a1 1987) .
al 1987).

There is
is no
no indication
indication that
that the
the Brazilian
Brazilian plantings
plantings (above)
(above) are
are likely
likely
to produce
produce cc:mrercial
oommercial timber or or that they were ever intended
were ever intended for anything-but
anything rut
protection planting
planting onon river banks. But the
riverbanks. the Kepong dipterocaIp plots,
Kepongdipterocarp plots, though
they
they are in fact
are in fact ncw
now being
being used
used as
as a a recreational
recreational area,
area, . are carrying
carrying
cc:mrercial timber of exploitable
cannercial exploitable size.
size . This one example has shcwnshown that re-
creation of
of secondary forest conditions
secondaayforest conditions isis possible
possible in aa reasonable
reasonable t:ilre
time span
span
in very small
small plots.

(b) A
A Mahogany plantation.
Mahogany plantation.

At Sundapola
Sundapola in Sri Lanka aamixture
Sri Lanka mixtureof
ofmahogany
mahogany (SWietenia macrophylla) ,
(Swieteniamacrophylla),
teak (Tectona grandis) and
and jak integrifolius) was
(Artocarpus integrifolius)
jak (Artocarlaus was established at
established at
the beginning
beginning of the twentieth century. The mixture was intended to protect
the mahogany
mahogany fran
from attacks
attacks by
by Hypsipyla robusta . By
Hypsipyla robusta. By the nineteen fifties
fifties there
there
was profuse regeneration of the mahogany
mahogany although whether this
this arose
arose because
because
of protection from
fran borer
borer attack
attack oror because
because mahog-any
mahogany isis aa shade
shade tolerant
tolerant and
and
fast growing tree
tree is
is not
not clear.
clear. A decision was
A decision to manage the area as a
was made to
selection forest
forest favouring the moreIlOre valuable mahogany
mahogany (Tisseverasinghe
(Tisseverasinghe and
and
 53

Satchithananthan 1957)
Satdhithananthima 1957). This has
. has been done successfully
been done successfullyforfor scale
sane thirty
thirty years
now and the teak and jak had been reduced
reduced to about 20%
20% of the
the crop
crop by 1963
by 1963
(M..!ttiah 1965).
(MUttiah 1965). Felling is undertaken with great care and because of the the
value of the
the mahogany it
it is
is possible to insist
insist on
on the
the contractors
contractors deliMbing
deliInbing
the trees before
before felling.
felling.

This is aa rather
rather tmusual
unusual exarrple
example of
of aanurse crop achieving
nurse crop its objective
achieving its objective
and then being retained as an equal partner in the upper canopy of the crop
although I!D.lch reduced from
much reduced fran its
its original
original stocking.
stocking. It also illustrates
illustrates that
there
there is option to
the option
is the to change
change the crop to
the crop to be
be monospecific,
m:mospecific, though
though the
circumstances at Sundapola
Stmdapola are tmusual
unusual in that selection felling techniques
are being
being applied
applied in in essentially
essentially monospecific
m:mospecific plantations
plantations in
in the
the tropics.
tropics.
(c)
(c) West Africa

involving Terminalia
Expertise has been obtained in handling mixtures involving Tezminalia
spp., heritiera utilis, Triplochiton scleroxylon,
Khaya spp., Heritiera utilis, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Nauclea
diderrichii,
diderrichii, Lowe trichilioides and Aucoumeaklaineana
LoV03 trichilioides aIOOI1g the indigenous
Auooumea klaineana among
species and
species and teak, Cedrela cdorata,
teak, Cedrela odorata, GMelina artorea and pines as exotics (FAD
Gnelina arborea (Fro
1991b)

In the dense evergreen forests thethe establishment

establishment ofof heritiera utilis,
Beritiera utilis,
Aucomeaklaineana,
Auooumea Alaineana,Nauclea
Baucleadiderrichii
diderrichii (long
(long rotation
rotation -- greater
greater than 35
than 35
years) and Terminalia
Tezminalia ivorensis,
ivorensis,T.T super-La,
. superba, GMelina
Gnelina arborea and pines (short
20 to 25 years)
rotation, 20 years) can be
be achieved
achieved in
in pure
pure stands. Mixtures are
stands. Mixtures are needed
needed
for raising Rhaya ivorensis, K.
Khaya ivorensis, K. senegalensis and K.K. anthotheca with Heritiera
utilis and Nauclea
utilis dirirrichii; in which case there is the option
Nauclea diderrichii; option to
to convert
convert
to the secondary Maya proves unsatisfactory.
secondary species if the Khaya tmSatisfactory.

transition zone from

In the transition fran dense
dense evergreen
evergreen to
to dense
dense semi-deciduous
semi--deciduous
Terminalia ivona2sisand
forests Tezminalia ivorensis and T. superta can be
T. superba be established
established as mixtures
mixtures or
Triplochiton scleroxylon;
either of these two species can be mixed with Triplochiton scleroxylon; the
proportion of the components
carg;x:ments can be controlled by early or late
late thinning.
thinning. In
semi-deciduous forest zone these species and also GMelina
the dense semi-deciduous artorea
Gnelina arborea
raised with
can be raised with teak
teak as
as aa secondary
secondary species.
species. But all
all these
these species
species
Cedrela cdorata
together with Cedrela odorata can also be raised
raised as pure crops.
pure crops.

In the
In tree savannas
the tree savannas teak
teak,and
and G. arborea can be raised either
G.arborea pure or in
either pure
mixture.

It is
is of interest
interest that
that teak is
is considered
considered to secondary, shade
to be a secondary, shade
speCies, whereas
tolerant species, wherPas elsewhere it is
is usually considered as a dominant,
daninant,
light demanding
dananding species.
species. Of the ave
Of the abovespecies
speciesthe
thelight
light demanders
demanders are
are
Terminalia Triplochi ton scleroxylon, Auooumea
Tezminalia spp., Triplochiton Aucoumea klaineana,
Alaineana, GMeline
Gnelina
artorea, Cediela
arborea, Cedrela odorata
cdorata and the while heritiera
pines, while
the pines, Beritiera utilis,
utilis,Khaya
Khaya spp.,
spp.,
Nauclea diderrichii and teak are considered
Nauclea diderrichii considered to
to be
be relatively
relatively shade
shade tolerant.
tolerant.

According to experience,
According to experience, the mixtures to
the mixtures be avoided
to be avoided because
because of
in~tible
incompatible (Dupuy 1985)
growth rates (Dupuy 1985) are:
are:

Tieghemella spp with heritiera

Tieghemella utilis
Beritiera utilis
Cedrela
Cedrela odorata
cdorata with _altandroptiragma utile or Terminalia
Entandrophragma utile ivorensis
Tezminalia ivorensis
Terminalia ivorensis with Khaya spp or .a2tandrophragma
Tezminalia ivorensis utile
Entandrophragma utile
Triplochiton scleroxylon Tieghemella spp.
Rhaya spp or Tieghemella
scleroxylon with Khaya
 54

In Mamu
In River Forest
MarrUl River Forest Reserve
Reserve in in Nigeria
Nigeria mahoganies
mahoganies (Khaya spp,
(Khaya spp,
Ehtandrqphragma spp
Entandrophragma trichilioides) were raised
spp and Lovoa trichilioidés) ised in
in aa matrix
matrix of
GT/eliIJa
Gffielina aroo.rea, whichwas
artorea,which wasfelled
felledon
on aa ten year coppice
ten year coppice rotation
rotation.. After two
After two
or three
three such
such rotations the
the mahoganies
mahoganies over-topped the
the G.
G. aroo.rea
artorea and
and fomed
formed
aa closed
closed canopy, bit it was
canopy, rut was doubtful
doubtful if there was
if there was aa positive
positive econanic
economic return
return
(Lowe 1991).
(Ia-Ie

The essential lessons

lessons to be learned
learned fran
fran the West
West African
African experience is
experience is
that successful mixtures
mixtures for wood
wood production depend on the careful matching
species to
of species to site and aa knowledge
knowledge of
of which
which species
species are
are ecologically
ecologically and
and
silviculturally compatible.

(d)
(d) Eucalyptus clonal plantations .
clonal plantations.

. At Aracruz
Aracruz in BrazilBrazil aa pulp millmili has
has been ruilt which
been built which is
is served
served by
82,000 ha of eucalypt plantations . They are managed on aa seven to
eucalypt plantations. to eight
eight year
year
rotation and as
rotation and result of
as a result of anan intensive
intensive breeding
breeding programme
prograrrme areare highly
highly
productive and each
productive and eadh ofof the varieties
varieties used is is very
very uniform.
uniform. This has been
achieved by developing clones clones with
with the
the required
required characteristics
characteristics for for vigour,
vigour,
straightness,
straightness, branching,
branching, coppicing
coppicing ability,
ability, disease
disease resistance, wood density
resistance, wood density
etc (Burley andand Ikarori
Ikemori 1988;
1988; Aracruz Cellulose 1988;
Aracruz Cellulose 1988; Campinhos and Ikemori
Ikarori
1986). Forestry plantations
1986). Forestry plantations herehere approach
approach about
about as
as close
close as
as they-can
they can toto short
short
term agricultural crops and are, are, one might think, about as far removed
might think, raroved fram
fran
the concept of
the mixed plantations
of mixed plantations as as is
is possible,
possible, although
although it should
should bebe noted
noted
that
that there areare different species and hybrids . Though there is always the
and hybrids.
tarptation
temptation to to concentrate
concentrate effort
effort onon the highest yielding
the very highest yielding clones,
clones, aa
decision was
decision made to have
was made have aa pool
pool of
of about
about one
one hundred
hundred clones and furthermore
clones and furthermore
to ensure
ensure that
that aa selection
selection franfrom 15
15 to
to 20
20 clones
clones should
should be used on each site
be used
type
type.. The decision
The decision then had to
then had whether to
to be made whether clones in
to mix clones in one
one
campartmant
compartment or whether
whether to achieve a mixture
mixture in the broad sense by juxtaposing
by juxtaposing
campartmants
compartments of different clones. The latter latter course waswas taken partly because
partly because
unless
unless the
the clones
clones were
were equally carnpetitive
competitive one one would
would bebe suppressed
suppressed withwith aa
certain loss
loss in in uniformity
uniformityand and aa probable
probable loss
loss in
in yield,
yield, but
rut also because an
intirnate mixturewas
intimate mixture was considered
considered toto give
give no
no advantage
advantage in canbatting
combatting pests and and
diseases
disposes and quite possibly
possibly might
might make attacks more
make attacks IWre likely.
likely. been
It has been
speculated that
speculated that a mixture
mixture of a few clones carries a higher higher risk of losses fran fram
pests and diseases than than does either
either a mixture
mixture of many clones or
many clones or a single clone
(Libby 1982)
1982). . With
With aa monoclonal
IWnoclonal plantation
plantation unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory carpartments
canpartm:mts could
could
he harvested early
be and replaced with
early-and with the miniIrrum
minimum disruption routine, while
disruption to routine, while
a mixed compartment
a canpartm:mt of which one
of which one component
canponent waswas unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory would be be
difficult to treat.
to treat.

In addition
addition there is aa policy at Aracruz retaining 20%
Aracruz of retaining 20% of the
the area,
area,
IWStlyalong
mostly along rivers, under
under indigenous forest
forest and these have been
and these been enriched
enriched with
fruit and other trees.
trees. The objective
Objective here is both
both soil protection and the
the
encouragement of
of insectiVorous
insectiVorous birds
birdswhich may help control
whichmayhelp control insect
insect attacks on
the eucalyptus as well as conserving
conserving biological
biological diversity.
diversity .

Thus even in
Thus even in this
this very
very high
high yielding
yielding operation
operation inin which
which species
species
diversity has been deliberately reduced,
has been reduced, aa policy decision hashas been made to
forgo sane
same short term
term gains inin order to have aa mixture
mixture ofof clones
clones available
available and
element of diversity. In the
thereby to include an element the eucalypt
eucalypt plantations at
Pointe NOire,
Noire, Congo, the
the pool of clones
clones is smaller
smaller and over half
and over half the
the area
area has
has
been established with only 55 clones
with only clones (Martin
(Martin et
et al.
al . 1989).
1989) . The genetic base
has recently been widened
widened through the developrent
development of aa concurrent
con=ent programme
prograrrme
crossing (Martin
of controlled crossing (Martin 1991).
1991). There has diversification
has also been diversification
 55

into sawn timber production (Cossalter

(Cossalter 1991).
1991). The means by which the
by which the risks
risks
involved in the
the use
use of
of clonal
clonal material
material may be reduced have been
maybe been sunmarised
summarised byby
Matziris (1991)
(1991) as the
the use of a large
large number
mnnber of
of clones
clones in
in mixture
mixture or
or mosaic,
m::JSaic,
the rotation of clones over time and the regular introduction
introduction of new clones
canbined with sexual reproduction for the production of new clonal material
coMbined
up.
back up.
and as a badk

Conclusions
('ax:lnsions on
OIl the lIIim'~JB""i1t of
the management of mixtures.

Successful mixtures
Successful mixtures of
of two or rrore
two or species on
more species on one
one site, to
to meet
rreet any
anyone
one
or rrore objectives, depend on management
more Objectives, management having clearly
clearly defined aims forfor
establishing mixed
establishing mixed plantations
plantations and then on
and then selecting species
on selecting species that are
that are
carpatible. AA knowledge
compatible. kncJtdedge of the position
position of the species
species in
in the
the successional
successional
hierarchy in the ecosystem
hierarChy ecosystem is helpful,
helpful, rut
but infonnation
information is also needed
needed on
on the
silvicultural requirements
silvicultural requirements of
of each
each species.
species.

Mixtures involving the

Mixtures involving the growth of one species
g:rcMth of species under
under another, for
for example
exarrple
nurse crops or ground cover,
oover, are generally
generally relatively easy to
to manage,
manage, though
though
skill is still needed in
skill in .removing
removing an overstorey if the
overstorey if the shade tolerant
tolerant species
species
is to fonn crop.
final crop.
form the final

The management
The management of mixtures
mixtures of two daninants is IlUlch
much rrore
more difficult;
difficult; they
can usually
usually only bebe managed
managed on =
on aa narro range
range of
of sites
sites and
and often
often result
result in
in the
the
suppression of
suppression of one
one of the species
species and hence a reversion
reversion to an an essentially
essentially
rronospecific stand. Although
monospecific stand. Although exarrples
examples have
have been quoted where
where two or rrore
more
gra.m together on the sama
species have been grown same site,
site, in general it is is believed
believed
that the laCk
lack of trained
trained and experienced staff
and experienced staff inin many
many tropical
tropical countries,
countries,
canbined
coMbined with
with the lack
ladk of continuity of staff and financial guarantees make
the successful management
the management ofof dominant
daninant mixtures
mixtures unlikely
unlikely atat the
the present
present time.
time .

There isis sane

sane justification
justification for
for planting
planting mixtures
mixtures as
as an
an insurance
insurance
against an unpredictable event, e.g. drought, frost,
unpredictable event, frost, waterlogging, salinity,
salinity,
rut the need to
but to ensure that
that the species
species are
are broadly
broadly matched
matched to
to the
the site
site still
still
ranains and
remains there is
and there is aa general
general tendency
tendency for
for these
these mixtures
mixtures to become
becane
hanogeneous by
homogeneous the end
tythe end of
of the rotation.
rotation. There
There is
is little
little evidence
evidence to
to indicate
that mixtures
that mixtures are effective
effective in preventing attacks
attacks by unspecified
unspecified pests
pests or
diseases.

A strategy
A strategy of
of broad
broad sense
sense mixtures, where
where a .range
range of
of suitable
suitable species
species
are available, and the enforcement ofof good
good forestry
forestry practice, will
will very
very often
often
achieve the
the required
required stability.
stability. Sane of the strategies now nCM being advocated
advocated
on ecological grounds in Gennany,
Germany, such as wider spacing in in plantations,
plantations, are
very similar
similar in effect to
ineffect to sane of
of those
those adopted
adopted in
in southern Africa forty years
southernAfrica years
earlier on economic
econanic grounds.
grounds.
 56

6. YIEUlS.
6. YIELDS.

Themeasurarent
The measurerrent of
of yields
yields of wood (as
of wood (as opposed
opposed to
to other
other benefits)
benefits) in long
long
rotation tree crops
rotation is not
crops is easy . L:lngteIIll
not easy. Longterm experiments need to 1:e be large
large,, are
a:mtrol, have a high incidence of mishaps and
difficult to control, and in
in consequence
consequence aa
high coefficient of residual variation.
variation . For these
these reasons
reasons there
there has 1:een
been aa
tendency
tendency to use mathanatical
mathematical modelling techniques to
modelling techniques to derive yields
yields,, but
rut these
these
measure yield
measure yield potential
potential under
under optimal
optimal or standardized
standardized conditions
conditions andand the
the
inputs to the models
models are often fram
fran undisturbed
undisturl:ed plots.
plots . measurement of
The measurement
actual yields,
yields, hcw:ver,
however, reflects the real situation and the inputs then are
fram average plots exposed to average treatment
derived fran treatment and to to the
the average
average
calamities. The emphasis in this case
occurrence of calamities. case will be on large data
will 1:e
input,
input, the
the relevant
relevant grouping
grouping of stands
stands and plots and the use of regression
regression
functions
functions for describing the processes.
processes .

North and temperate

America and
North America tEDp"ZClte Asia.

scme attention
Same attention has been given
has 1:een given toto the
the eff ect on yields
effect yields of
of wood of an
admixture of nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing species.
species .

Alder (mostly
Alder (rrostly Al.r2us rubra)ininNorth
Alnus zubIa) NorthAlrerica
America in
in mixture
mixture with
with a:mifers
conifers
e.g.
e.g. Douglas
Douglas fir
fir (Pseudotsuga on nitrogen
menziesii) on
(Pseudotsugamenziesii) nitrogen poor
poor sites can result
result in
a large
a large increase
increase in the conifer
conifer yields,
yields, though
though the increase may
the increase not be
may not 1:e
apparent until after about age 30 in the case of the conifer (Binkley (Binkley 1984;
Binkley Greene 1983).
Binkley&& Greene 1983). The
The beneficial
beneficial effects
effects may
may only
only be
1:e apparent when the
nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing species
species isis daninant
dominant or c:o--Qaninant in
or co-dominant in the
the stand and on on
nutrient-poor sites these species
species are
are unable
unable to
to fix
fix N2.
N2 • On nitrogen
nitrogen rich
rich
sites
sites overall
overall yields
yields usually
usually remain
remain unaffected
unaffected oror may
may decrease,
decrease, while
while the
the
a:mifer component
yield of the conifer carp:l!1ent usually
usually decreases
decreases (Binklay
{Binkley and
and Greene
Greene 1983).
1983).

lIdmixtures alder, black locust

Admixtures of alder, locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and
(Robinia pseudoacacia) and inin
particular autumn olive
particular olive (Elaeagnus can have
umbellata) can
(Elaeagnusumbellata) have an
an effect
effect on the
the g:rcMth
grawth
of walnut
walnut (Juglans nigra) in North
(Juglansnigra) Alrerica; nitrogen
NorthAmerica; nitrogen mineralization
mineralization is greatly
greatly
increased and
incre_ased andthere
theremay bea acorresponding
may1:e corresponding increase
increase in
in the
the yield
yield of
of the
the walnut
walnut
which can
which can 1:e
be as high as 30 fold
fold (Paschke et al.
al. 1989;
1989; Schlesinger
Schlesinger andand Williams
Williams
1984).
1984). But there is also an instance of walnut basal area growth l:eing
grCMth not being
closely correlated
closely correlated with
with soil nitrogen
nitrogen a:mcentration, even though
concentration, even though nitrogen
nitrogen was
was
l:eing
being fixed satisfactorily in the the topsoil
topsoil by alder
alder and
and other
other nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing
(Friederich and
species (Friederich and Dawson 1984) .
Dawson 1984).

In mixtures
In mixtures of light demanding
of light dananding species
species one
one carp:l!1ent
component tends
tends toto 1:e
be
suppressed by
by the
theother.
other.Cherrybark
Cherrybarkoakoak(CUercus falcata var pagcdifolia) will
(Cuercusfalcatavarpagodifolia)
be suppressed up to the
1:e the age
age of 25 years
of 25 years when grown in close
when grc:MIl close association
association withwith
(Liguidanbar styzaciflua)
sweetgum (Liquidamb3r styraciflua) or american sycamore
american sycam:::>re (Platanus
occidentalis). The more valuable cherrybark
cherrybark oak l:etter form
oak had better fOIIll when
when grown
grc:MIl
in close association
association with other species and
with other and after
after 25 years of age
25 years age was
was able toto
caIlpete
compete with than (Clatterbudk
(Clatterruck etet al.
al. 1987;
1987 ; Clatterbudk
Clatterruck and
and Hodges
Hodges 1988).
1988).

The a:mcept that

The concept that one
one species
species can
can fill
fill aa niche
niche in a stand
stand without
without
to the
detriment to the main species
species is
is attractive.
attractive . It isis suggested that this may
occur in rather
rather special
special circumstances
circumstances such as in in Finland
Finland inin spruce/birch
spruce/birch
mixtures where Betula pubescens
putescens grCM.3 bad!Y established
grows in gaps in badly established spruce
spruce
(Mielikainen 1985).
(Mielikainen 1985). But an exarrple fran North Alrerica
example from America shCM.3
shows that though the
natural admixture
natural admixture of Tsuga canadensis
of Thuga into hardwood
canadensis into stands increased
hardwood stands increased the
the
standing volume
standing volume on two sites
on two by 30%
sites by 20%, this
30% & 20%, this in
in fact
fact involved
involved a 20%
20%
 57

reduction in the volume

reduction vollzne of
ofthe
themore valuable hardwoods,
morevaluable hardwoods, such
such as
as Q:lercus
Quercus IUbra.
rubra
(Kelty 1989).
1989) .

Japan aa mixture
In Japan
In mixture of akamatsu (Pinus
(Pinus densiflora) and hinoki
(Chamaegyparis obtusa)
(Cbamaecyparis obtusa) resulted
resulted in
in aa greater overall
overall volume,
volume, rut
but aa lower
lCMer
hinoki (Kawahara and Yamamoto
volume of hinoki Yam3IlOto 1986).
1986) .

I!mcpe.
Europe

The admixture of beech (Iagus sylvatica) with spruce (Picea

(Fagus sylvatica) abies) is
(Picea abies)
cla.im2d to increase
clailuxito increase total
total yields by 15%
yields by 15% (Schutz
(Schutz 1989) . This
1989). This is, hcMever, less
is, however, less
an example
example of
of an
an interaction
interaction between
between the species than a reflection of the fact
the spruce ~
that the grows faster than
than the
the beech;
beech; pure
pure spruce stands
stands may be even
more productive.
productive.

The interaction of Picea abies and Pinus Finus sylvestris

sylvestris has been examined
examined
in sane
some detail
detail in Scandinavia (Jonsson 1961)
Scandinavia (Jonsson 1961).. AA positive interaction, known
positive interaction,
as the ''mixed
as the "mixed species
species effect",
effect", has been identified when
has been when pine
pine and spruce are
mixed on sites where both species can be expected to do well . The The benefits
benefits
effect reduce
this effect
of this reduce asas the site changes
the site changes to to favour
favour one
one oror other
other ofof the
species
species -- drier,
drier, less
less fertile
fertile sites
sites favour
favour pine;
pine; wetter,
wetter, more
more fertile
fertile sites
favour spruce . There
favourspruce. There is
is also
also aa oorresponding
corresponding tendency
tendencyfor for the
the favoured
favoured species
species
to becane
become daninant
dominant and to fonn
form IlOIlospecific
monospecific stands,
stands, or at least a a mosaic of
of
monospecific groups.
groups. This tendency has has also been
been noted
noted with
with other
other species
species in
Holland 1985). The mixed
Bblland (Heybroek and Tol 1985). mixed species effect varies with the the
parameter measured;
measured; for height it it is
is positive
positive for
for both
both species;
species; forfor diameter
diameter
growth, hcMever,
grcwth, however, it is positive
it is positive for for pine,
pine, rut
but of no no effect
effect or or slightly
slightly
negative for spruce (jcnsson
(Jonsson 1961). M:Jre Mbre recent work on pine/spruce
receatvoprkon mixtures
pineruce mixtures
Calluna heaths
on Ca11una heaths and peat has indicated
indicated a strong
strong positive
positive effect
effect on the
the
growth of Piceasitchensis
grcwth Picea sitchensis(Aalcolm et a1
(M:l.loolm et 1990) . Themixed
al 1990). The mixedspecies
species effect
effect (or
(or
synergy)
synergy) makes
makes a::IIparison
canparison between mixed pure natural
and pure
mixed and natural stands
stands onon different
different
sites difficult,
difficult, if the Site Index is defineddefined byby daninant
dominant height, since
since mixed
mixed
stands will be tend to be compared
a::IIpared with pure stands
with pure stands ofof aa higher
higher Site
Site Index.
Index.
may have
This fact may have disguised
disguised thethe benefits
benefits ofof mixed stands (Jonsson
mixed stands (Jonsson 1961).
1961) .
Site Index has then toto be
be defined
defined byby the
the less
less precise
precise nethod
method of ol::.serving
observing soil
characteristics,
characteristics, vegetation types and indicator species.
and indicator species .

The interaction of of birch

birch with
with conifers
conifers is ~lex . This has been
more complex.
is more been
investigated
investigated in in two
two studies
studies in
in Finland and Sweden (Mielikainen
(Mielikainen 1985;
1985; ThaIn
Tham
1988)
1988) using
using yield
yield modelling
modelling techniques.
techniques. TheThe general interpretation of
general interpretation of the
interactions of of birches
birdhes with
with conifers
conifers isis similar in thethe two
two studies,
studies, rut
but the
the
yields and scale
scale ofof benefits
benefits are
are much
much higher
higher in Sweden; this
in Sweden; this may be an
maybe an effect
effect
of site
site oror only
only of
of the
the assllI1ptions made in the models. a
assumptions made B.pendtda,
pendula, a pioneer
species
species that
that initially dominates
dominates the
the main
main crop maymay have a beneficial effect
on spruce
spruce (Picea abies), which
(Picea abies), which is
is aa shade tolerant
tolerant speCies,
species, even when the
even when
retained to
birch is retained to full
full rotation.
rotation. Pine sylvestris) is
(Pinus sylvestris)
Pine (Pinus is aa shade
shade
intolerant speciesandtherefore
intolermtspecies and thereforethough
thoughbirch
birchincreases
increasesyields
yields in
in open
open stands,
stands,
in close competition birch
close ~tition birdh depresses
depresses height growth of
height grCMth of the
thepine.
pine. One
One solution
solution
is to
to cut
cut the
the birch back for
birch back for the
the first
first seven or or eight years until the pine has
eight years
a 11 mm height
height advantage
advantage (Mielikainen
(Mielikainen 1985), rut
but this would
would appear
appear to reduce the
value of the birch
birch as a nurse crop.
crop. Birch should nevernever be allCMed
allowed to remain
to full
full rotation in pine pine stands,
stands, because
because the
the total yield will be depressed
depressed..
B.
B. pubesoens
pubescens may have have aa depressing effect
effect on conifers
oonifers (Mielikainen
(Mielikainen 1985)
1985) and
and
is less beneficial (ThaIn (Tham 1988).
 58

Table 33 =
Spruce - Birch Yield estimates =
- SWeden
Sweden

Pure
Pire Mixed
~
Age S~cies
Species #/ha Ht Vol ~ Ht
#/ha Ht vol
Vol
m F7ha
ii?7ha m
m ii?7ha
r7177-ha

25 Spruce 1936 55.3

.3 39
39 1936
1936 5.5 23
Birch
Birch - - - 600 15.8
15.8 78 thinned
at age
at age 25
25
50 Spruce 1237 14.6 300 1238 15.0
15.0 300

Total yield 300 378

Source: Tham
Source: (1988)
Tham (1988)

Note: light thinning

Note: This assumes a light thinning of
of the
the spruce
spruce at
at age
age 30
30 && 40 years.
40 years.

Thus retaining the B.

Thus by retaining B . pendula
pendula an extra 78 m3 /ha is
78 m3/ha is obtained and and
though
though this
this is is at
at the
the expense
expense of of 40%
40% of the spruce yield at at age
age 25,
25, that
that
deficit is
deficit is made
made up over the following
up over following 2525 years to give an overall
years to overall gain
gain as
as muCh
much
as 25% in aa 50 year rotation. The gain in yield is dependentdependent on
on the
the ability
ability
of the spruce to
the spruce respond to
to respond to release
release after
after being
being semi-suppressed,
semi-suppressed, since
since shade
intolerant species
intolerant species do not have
do not have this
this ability.
ability. If B.B. pubescens
ptiLescens is
is used
used the
the gain
gain
is sore
sane 20 mnO3 less,
less, possibly
possibly because of the
because of the fast initial growth of thisthis latter
latter
birch species.

Table i4 Spruce-Birch ~& Pine-Birch

Pine-Birch Yield
Yield estimates - Finland =
B. pendula
B. pendUla B. pubescens
B. putescens
Total Saw Total Saw
T~r
Timber T~r
Timber
vol m3
----------------------- Vol e -----------------
Spruce SI 24(00)
Spruce SI 24(100) 90 years
Rotation 90

Spruce 100% 425 266 415 257

25%
+ Birch 25% 438 282
282 394 217
+ Birch 50% 433 251
251 390 184

Pine SI 28(1W)
Pine SI 28 (100) Rotation 80 years

Pine 100% 615 371

B.pendula 100% 493
493 200
Mixed 50%
Mixed 50% 625
625 350
350 birch thinned
birch thinned out
out age 40
40

MieliJtiiinen (1985)
Source: Mielikainen (1985)

Note: A
Note: 25% admixture
A 25% admixture of B. in aa stand
pendula in
B. pendula stand of
of spruce
spruce increased
increased total
total
yields by t~r by 6% in comparison
by 3% and saw timber ccrrparison to a pure spruce
spruce stand,
stand, but
rut
a 50% mixture resulted in a a lower increase of either spruce or pine and a
depression of
depression of saw t~r production.
saw timber production.

The evidence fram

fran SWeden
Sweden and Finland suggests that a "mixed
"mixed species"
effect obtained with
effect can be Obtained careful management,
with careful managemant, but
rut interpretation
interpretation and
and
extrapolation
extrapolation ofof the
the results
results is
is not
not siIrple.
simple. In the first
first place,
place, the birch
arises fran
arises f ULL natural regeneration, rather
rather than
than fran
from planted
planted stock,
stock, and
and secondly
secondly
 59
59

the effect is IOClre

more ilrportant
important on the stocking
stocking of the site as aa detenninant
determinant of
yield, than
yield, than on yield atat aa given
given stocking.
stocking . Despite the increase
increase in
in wood
wood
production s~
shown in exper:ilrents
experiments there
there are doubts
doubts whether,
whether, in
in practice,
practice, the
can be
advantages can clearly established
be clearly established (Agestam
(Agestam 1991).
1991).

It is much IOClre
more difficult to construct aa yield nodel for a bispecific
model for bispecific
stand than for aa IroIlospecific stand; eadh
monospecific stand; each additional
additional species canpounds the
species compounds the
difficulties . Amodel
difficulties. A =delhas hasbeen developedfor
beendeveloped forsouthern
southernUSA
USA which
which assumes
assurres that
that
individual
individual c:arp:lI1ents
carponents of of mixtures behave very
mixtures behave very much
much the
the sane as for pure
saIOO as pure stands
stands
(Nelson 1964);
1964); there is no no indication that this model
indication that =del hashas been tested in
been tested in the
the
tropics and it is not ~ known whether it would valid there.
be valid
would be there.

T.tqlics.
Trcpics.

The outstanding exanple

example of the benefit of mixtures is the Ricalyptus Eucalyptus
falcataria exper:ilrents
saligna/Albizia talcataria experiments on the Hamakua coast of Hawaii on on an
an
abandoned estate.
abandoned sugar estate. In one experiment,
In one exper:ilrent, whidh
which also
also included Acacia
included Acacia
melanaxylon as one treatnent,
melanoxylon treatment, a 40:60 Eucalyptus :Albizia mixture resulted in
Eucalyptus:Albizia
aa 140%
140% increase in total
increase in total yield
yieldof of wood overthe
woodover pureE7.1calyptus
thepure Eucalyptus at at the
the age
age of
of
IroIlths.
65 months. Even when
Even only the
when only Eucalyptus component
the Eucalyptus a:::rrg:xnent of
of the mixture was
the mixture
considered that slJa.led
showed aa 60%
60% increase
increase over the pure
over the pure plot
plot.. AA 50:50
50: 50 mixture
mixture of
Acaciamelanoxylon
Acaciamelanaxylon and Eucalyptus
Eucalyptusgave lesser response,
gave aa lesser respcnse,but rut even
even that slJa.led
showed
aa 50% overall increase
increase and only aa slight
and only slight drop
drop in
in the
the yield
yield of Eucalyptus in
of Elica7yptus
the mixture.
mixture . The experiment
exper:ilrent received an application
application of fertilizer
fertilizer to all
treatnents.
treatments. (DeBell al. 1985).
(DeBell et al.

In another
another exper:ilrent
experirnent ininwhich
whichall
alltreatnents
treatments received
received fertilizer
fertilizer in
in the
the
first year rut
first but only the Eucalyptus
only the Eucalyptus plot received further
plot received further applications
applications inin each
each
of the following years , the
follaaing three years, the admixture
admixture ofof 25% or less Albizia falcat,Iria
25% or falcataria
resulted in aa drop
resulted in drop in
in total
total yield
yield at
at the
the age
age of 48 months,
IroIlths, while
while if
if the
proportion of Albizia was increased
proportion increased to 34% or higher then the total yield of
the mixture was greater,
greater, rutbut not significantly
significantly so,so, than the pure Eucalyptus
pure Eucalyptus
plot. The yield of the Eucalyptus
plot. mixtures was consistently less than
alcalyptus in the mixtures
in the
the pure
pure plot,
plot, rut
but when Albizia canponent
when the A_Zbizia component exceeded 50% 50% the Eucalyptus
Eicalyptus
individual
individual tree
tree volurres
volumes were significantly greater than in in the pure plot.
the pure plot .
There was no
no comparison
CCIl1pClIison with
with aa plot
plot of pure Albizia.
of pure Albizia. As the CCIl1pClIison was
the comparison
being made with aa heavily
being heavily fertilized pure plot
fertilized pure plot of Eucalyptus the
of Eucalyptus the results
results were
were
biased against the mixture. It is is assurred
assumed that
that aa CCIl1pClIison
comparison withwith Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
receiving
receiving standard
standard rates
rates would have s~
would have shown all
all the
the mixtures
mixtures in in aa much IOClre
more
favourable light (DeBell
(DeBell et al. 1989).
et al. 1989) .
 60
60

Table 5:
5: E.saligna-Albizia falcataIia
falcataria &
& E . saligna-Acacia
E.saligna-Acacia melanoxylOl1
melanoxylon
mixture
Hawaii.
Hawaii.

Experiment !1 65 IlOl1ths
months Experiment 22 48 rronths
months
Mixture Stems Dry
Dry Wgt Mixture -Stems
Stems Dry wgt
~ha
per ha tonnejha
tonne/ha ~ ha
per tonnejha
tonne/ha

Eucalypt 2200 37 . 6
37.6 Eucalypt
Eucal t 2396 93 .7
93.7

Eucalypt 1012 35.3

35.3 Eucalypt 2101 58.1
58.1
Acacia 50% 1012 16.2
16.2 11%278
AThizia 11%278
Albizia 8.9
2024 51.5 2379 67 . 0
67.0

Eucalypt 838 58.2

58.2 Eucalypt 1562 57.8
57.8
60% 1225
AThizia 60%
Aibizia 37.1 50%833
AThizia 50%833
Aibizia 44.8
44.8
2063
2063 95.3 2395 102.6

Eucalypt 815 53 .4
53.4
AThizia
Albizia 66% 1632 50 .8
50.8
--2447
2447 104.2
(standard
Eucalypt (standard 44 .0
44.0
fertilizer )

Souroe: (1985 , 1989)

Source: DeBell et al. (1985, 1989)
It is to be inferred fram these figures that thethe beneficial
beneficial effect of
fixing Albizia falcataria
the nitrogen fixing (or Acacia melanoxylon)
falcataIia (or melanoxylon) only takes
effect when there is aa sufficiently
sufficiently high
high proportion
proportion of
of the
the nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing
species. effect was
species. This effect noted in
was noted in North
North America
America (see
(see chapter
chapter 3).
3) .

The experiment
The conducted on an old sugar estate,
experiment was cxmducted estate, where
where soil
soil nitrogen
nitrogen
is likely to have been depleted,
depleted, rut
but other nutrients maymay still have been in
good supply. It should
good supply. should never be overlooked that on
overlooked that on other
other sites
sites in
in Hawaii this
Hawaii this
mixture has
mixture done poorly
has done poorly or
or has even failed.
has even failed .

In Espirito
Espirito Santo,
Santo, Brazil
Brazil aa mixture
mixture ofof Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus urophylla
urophylla andand Leucaena
Leucaena
leucocephala
leucocephala resulted
resulted in in higher
higher rrortality
mortality in in the
the eucalypt
eucalypt and
and lower
lower total
total
yield at
yield at the
the age
age of
of seven
sevenyears
years.. It was thought that the mixture had praroted
promoted
humid
humid oonditions
conditions which
which had
had favoured
favoured thethe spread
spread of
of spores Cryphonectria
spores of Cryphonectria
cutensis which
cubensis which attacked
attadked the eucalypt.
the eucalypt plots had
The plots
. had received
reoeived nitrogen
nitrogen
fertilizer
fertilizer which may have prohibited
which may the N-fixing
prohibited the N-fixing effect
effect of
of the L . leucocephala
the L. leucocephala
(M::lraes de
(Mbraes de Jesus and 1989) .
Brouard 1989)
and Brouard .

Measurements of
Measurements of yields
yields of mixed plantations have
mixed plantaticns have been made in
been made in the hills
hills
of Nepal,
Nepal, not far from
fram Kathnandu
Kathmandu.. canparat i ve measurements
Oarparative measurateIlts of pure and mixed
pure and mixed
stands were
were not made, rut the differential response to site of
made, but of the planted
the planted
pines (P.
(P. roxbcryii,
roxturgii, P P.. wallichiana and P . patula)
and P. patula) and broadleaved species
and broadleaved species
daninated by Schima.
ddrninated by Schirnawallichii,
wallichii, which
which appear
appear naturally in the pine
naturally in pine plantations,
plantations,
was apparent. In In a ten year old old plantation the yield
plantation the yield (stem
(stem plus
plus leaf)
leaf) of
of the
the
pines
pines varied
varied fram
fram .8 6 . 7 tons/ha/year
.8 to 6.7 tonsjha/year with highest yields
with the highest yields onon old
grazing sites
sites which had few remnant broadleaved
which had species, while
broadleaved species, while the broadleaf
the broadleaf
species (with yields of 1.8 to 6.7 6.7 tonsjha/year) did best on
tons/ha/year) did on old forest sites
sites
and on abandoned
Abandoned cultivation on on terraces.
terraoes . On these
these latter
latter sites
sites the pines
pines
suffered fram ccrrpetition with the broadleaved
from campetition broadleaved species
species (Mohns
(M::lhns et
et al. 1988) .
al. 1988).
 61
Concl''5jms
Conclusions on yields.
00. yields.

There are sore

same exarrples
examples in roth
both tarperate and tropical zones
temperate and zones of
of higher
higher
wood voluroo
total yields of wood volume of mixtures ~ to
as compared
mixtures as to pure
pure plantations. But
accurate
accurate speCies/site
species/site matching and the
matching and the choice of complementary
canplementary species
species is
critical to success and the
the effect of one species
species on another can
can change
Change with
with
site
site and time; gains
and in tine; gains are
are also
also dependent
dependent on
on the
the timing
timing and
and scale
scale of
of forest
forest
management interventions.
interventions. FW:theIIOOre total gains
Furthermore the total gains may
may be
be small and in
industrial plantations
industrial plantations may
may not
not be
be on
on the rrost valuable
the most valuable component
canponent ofof the
mixture.

The construction
construction of
of polyspecific yield models
models of
of tropical rainforest
tropical rainforest
species in plantations, given the
plantatians, given the potential
potential number
mxnber of
of species
species and
and the lack of
the ladk of
data, is difficult.
difficult . But just because itit may prove ~sible
may prove *possible to predict the
developnent
development of mixtures
mixtures in the tropics
tropics with
with any
any precision,
precision, it
it does
does not
not follow
follow
that such
such mixtures should
should not
not be
be tried.
tried.

The number of exarrples

The examples of yield records in the tropics areare limited and
gains, it
where mixtures have not resulted in gains, it often
often appears
appears that
that there
there has
has
been a laCk
lack of clarity in defining the objective of the mix mix and therefore a
possibility that the
possibility-that the species
species are
are inappropriate . The outstanding exarrple
inappropriate. example fran
from
Hawaii quoted arove
above nrust
must be treated with caution as a general model because
of the confounding
confounding factors
factors applying
applying there.
there.

Yield of wood
Yieldof wood is
is aa good
good measure
measure of
of success
success of
of industrial
industrial plantatiOns and
plantations and
for fuelwood and pole
pole plantations,
plantations, but
bit it
it is
is inappropriate
inapprppriate where
where plantations
plantations
have been established
established forfor envirornrental reasons -- to
environmental reasons to control erosion,
erosion, enhance
enhance
soil fertility, aneliorate
soil fertility, ameliorate the the microclimate
microclimate oror to provide
provide direct social
direct social
benefits . The
benefits. The evaluation
evaluation of of these
these "non-market"
"non-market" benefits
benefits are discussed
discussed in rrore
more
detail in the next chapter.
chapter .
 62

7.
7. PIXNJlICS.
EIDONCMICS.

Econanics
Economics concerns
concerns the
the ccmnitment
commitment ofof resources
resources to production and the
production and
return in yields of
return of value
value to
to society.
society. plantation
Plantation forestry
forestry in tropical
in tropical
countries may
countries may be favoured by the
favoured by the availability
availability of
of land
land with
with la-r
low opportunity
cost and
cost and the
the availability of labour
availability-of lad wage costs.
labour at la-r Technological know-hcw
costs. Technological knC1N-ha-i'
and managerial
and tJa..iever, may
managerial skills, however, be !lOre
may he scarce and
more scarce and therefore
therefore !lOre costly.
more costly.
The physical environment may be favourable to rapid, rapid, high
high volume
volurre growth of
grCMth of
favoured species. This has a commensurate
cx::mrensurate cost in that weed growth
grCMth is
is also
also
therefore expensive
heavy and therefore expensive to
to control.
control. local market value
The local value of the
of the
product may
product may be relatively
relatively la-r because of
law because la-r demand
of law demand from
fran the
the low
la-r income
ineate
due to
ec:onany due
econamy to the
the availability
availability of la-r-cost alternative ~
of low-cost wood material fran
fram
natural forest or because of
natural of the
the distance and cost
distance and cost of
of transportation
transportation involved
involved
-in
-in reaching
reaching alternative markets. The equation alters as the local economy
ec:onany
develops, changing roth the supply
changing both supply cost
cost of inputs and the demand
demand for products.
products.

An investmentin
Aninvestment in tree
tree planting
planting matures
matures over
over several years and it is
several years is !lOSt
most
important in assessing
:irrIJortant assessing such an investment
investment to take account of the the displacement
displacement
in time
time between
between the expenditure ineate . In the
and the income.
expenditure and the case
rase of
of many
many tropical
tropical
tree crops
crops this
this displaC€!OOllt
displacemaatmaymay be relatively
relatively short canpared
compared with
with equivalent
equivalent
periods in temperate
periods countries -- 10
temperate countries 10 to
to 20
20 years campared with 50
canpared with 50 to
to 100 years
100 years
for example, to to produce
produce final
final yields
yields of
of 200
200 to
to 400 m3 /ha.
400 m3/ha.

The concept
concept of Net
Net Present
Present Value
Value provides
provides aa useful
useful tool
tool for
for evaluating
evaluating
on aa canparable
comparable basis expenditure
expenditure and
and incane
income oc=ing
occurring at
at different
different times
times in
the production cycle
cycle and thereby alla-ring carparison of the
allowing the comparison
"profitability"
"profitability" of different
different crops and different options within
within crops.
crops. In such
assessments the
assessments the assumption
assumption isis made
made that
that all
all costs
costs and benefits can
and benefits can be
expressed in monetary tenns rate can
terms and that a discount rate can be selected which
J:e selected which
relates all values oc=ing
occurring at different times to present day values.
to present day values.

In industrial
industrial plantations,
plantations, where revenue from
where revenue fran sales is the the prime
prime benefit
benefit
and
and the inputs are
the inputs are bought
!::ought and
and sold
sold in in established
established markets,
markets, aa financial
financial
analysis is
is straightforward.
straightforward. Thus Thus aa positive
positive financial
financial return
return may
may beJ:e ~cted
expected
fran
fram aa high-yielding species in favourable and and constant growing
gra-ring conditions
conditions
established markets,
with established markets, as as with plantations
plantations of eucalypts
eucalypts at AracruzAracruz inin
Brazil or
or at
at Pointe
Pointe Noire
Noire inin Congo.
Congo. OnOn the
the other
other hand,
hand, costjbenefit
cost/benefit analysis
analysis
of the United
of the United Kingdom Forestry Commission
Kingdon Forestry Cormission plantations,
plantations, considering
considering only
"market"
"market" benefits gave a negative financial return. return. Including "non-market"
values and
and environmental benefits,
benefits, such as as arrenity,
amenity, recreation,
recreation, preservation
preservation
of the landscape and the the function
function of plantations
plantations as as carbon sinks
sinks indicated
indicated aa
positive
positive econanic
economic return
return (Bate:nan 1991).
(Batan 1991). When the main
When main objective
objective of of a
plantation is to rehabilitate degraded sites, the protection of
degraded sites, of watersheds
watersheds
or soil
soil conservation,
conservation, then correct pricing
then the correct pricing of of environmental
environmental benefits
benefits
becanes even
becomes even !lOre :irrIJortant although
more important although the
the criteria
criteria for
for assessing environmental
assessing environmental
benefits
benefits are notnot well
well developed.
developed. It is
It is to
to be noted, however,
J:e noted, tJa..iever, that
that the
the
necessity for pricing environmental benefits benefits is is becoming
becaning generally
generally accepted.
accepted.
An analysis of -rates
rates of of return of World Bank forestry projects
Wbrld Bank projects shCMed
showed 15-21%
for 88 Watershed
Watershed Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation projects,
projects, 15-30% for 27 27 Agroforestry/FUel~/
Agroforestry/Ftelwood/
carmunity/Social
Community/Social projects,
projects, rut bit only
only 10-15%
10-15% for Industrial plantation
for 15 Industrial plantation
projects (Spears 1985).
projects (Spears 1985). Ha.-lever,
However, itit is
is not clear
clear to what
what extent "non-market"
extent "non-market"
values have J:een
value:shave been included
included in the the econanic
economic analysis
analysis of anyany plantation
plantation projects.
projects.

Scarcity of investment resources leads financial authorities to adopt

high discount rates which favour high yielding species,
species, short rotations
rotations and
managem:mt policies of minimum cost and high output,
management output, which
which in the
the absence
absence of
of
 63

adequate trials and and experience may may also tend to to involve
involve high
high risk.
risk. Such a
policy
policy will oblige managers to employ employ quick acting, often expensive
expensive solutions
solutions
problans such as
to problems as the
the addition
addition ofof artificial
artificial fertilizers
fertilizers to to relieve
relieve
unforeseen
unforeseen nutrient
nutrient problans,
problems, the
the use
use of chanicals and aerial
of Chemicals aerial spraying to
overcare outbreaks
overcame outbreaks of of disease
disease and pests. Where benefits are perceived fran
and pests. frun
the establishment
the establisJ:ment of mixed plantations,
of mixed plantations, on on the
the other hand, they may be
other hand, be
achieved at
achieved at the expense of
the expense of laaer yield. This "low
lower yield. "low input/low output/law
output/low risk"
approach is likely
approach likely to be be of value in long rotation crops,crops, rut
bit ~d
would be
be ruled
out by a:JI1?OllIld interest
by high compound interest rates
rates over
over long
long periods.
periods. Sane authors have
questioned whether
whether high discount
discount rates
rates are
are appropriate
appropriate forfor the
the analysis
analysis of
of
long tenn
term projects
projects and and have
have also
also suggested
suggested that
that the
the long tenn "real" interest
longterm interest
rates in industrial countries
countries are
are only
only in
in the
the order
order ofof 2-4%
2-4% (Leslie
(leslie 1987).
1987).

Be that
that as
as it may, it
itmay, it is
is clearly
clearly ipprudent
ilrprudent to enter into
to enter into an investment
investment
in plantations
plantations without
without ensuring
ensuring that
that the expected
expected returns
returns will be sufficient
will be sufficient
to repay the
the costs
costs and liabilities involved
involved in the the project. Society, through
the Government
Government or the a::mmmity,
community, may be willing
may be willing to increase funding
funding in
in order
order
to pay
pay to secure benefits fran which
from whidh there is no direct
is no direct cash return to
return to thethe
investor, rut
investor, bit which
which are
are perceived
perceived to be of
to be of value
value toto the
the camn.mity
community- - soil and
conservation, amenity and
water conservation, other environmental
and other enviroIlllEIltal benefits
benefits are
are examples.
exarrples.
Clear
Clear identification
identification of
of these
these benefits objectives of aa plantation
benefits in the objectives plantation
project is
project is essential
essential to
to aa sound econanic evaluation.
sound economic evaluation.

The ecuuoics
'l.'he economics of m:ixt:mes.
mixtures.

Mixtures may have

Mixtures have advantages
advantages of
of symbiosis,
symbiosis, although
although the
the evidence
evidence
presented in Chapter 6 on on the
the effects
effects on
on yield
yield ofof wood is not
wood is not conclusive.
conclusive.
They may have
Theymay have advantages
advantages ofof spreading
spreading the
the income-generating
incare-generating period
period through
through the
the
reroval
removal and sale of the products of
products one of the species early
early in the rotation.
species
Species may mixed as an insurance against
may be mixed the risk
against the risk that one or another
another will
be attacked
attacked by pests or
by pests or disease. On the ground that the trees remaining will
the ground
have gained
gained fran
from the intermixture
intermixture during
during fonnative
formative years the lossloss fran
fram pests
pests
or disease may
may be less than proportional to the deaths since the dying ones
also be
may also harvested.
be harvested. Finally, there may be
Finally, an amenity,
be an amenity, aesthetic
aesthetic or
e=logical
ecological preference for for mixture.

The econanics
economics of each ofof these
these types
types of
of sche!re
scheme may be analyzed through
maybe through
the present
present value assesSllalt
assessment discussed
discussed above,
Above, through appropriate
appropriate estimation
estimation
revenue and
of costs and revenue evaluation of
and evaluation of non-market
non-market benefits.
benefits.

'J.'eIIperate experience.
Temperate experience.

In Scandinavia
Scandinavia thought has been
been given
given to the theory of mixed
mixed plantation
plantation
econanics,
economics, rutbit is
is mainly centred
centred on
on the managenent
management of naturally
naturally occurring
broadleaved species
broadleaved species in
in planted
planted conifer
=nifer stands.
stands. Because harvesting is so long
establishment and prices
after establisJ:ment prices for
for the final product are unpredictable,
unpredictable, the
a.rgurrent proposed that:
been proposed
argument has been that:

the initial investment

the initial investment should provide aa choice
should provide choice (Le.
(i.e. should
should be
be aa
mixture), not least
mixture), not least because
because there
there is
is aa strong
strong possibility
possibility that
that over
over aa
long rotation objectives may
may be redefined;
be redefined;

thinning and aa final

thinning and final choice between the
choice between two canponents
the two components for
for the
the final
final
crop should be delayed
delayed as long
long as
as possible.
possible.
 64

This gives the bestbest opportunity

opportunity to identify
identify thethe species
species that
that will
will have
have
the greatest chance
the greatest chance ofof ccmnanding
commanding thethe higher
higher value
value at final felling
at final felling and
providing that both species are are equally suited to the the Site
site, , at nono extra
extra risk
of the biological failure
failure of oneone of
of the
the species.
species. This principle
principle has, of
has, of
course, to be constrained
course, constrained within silvicultural
silvicultural and managarent
management limits;
limits; for
exarrple, overstocking
example, overstocking may may lead
lead to stagnation,
stagnation, or or late
late thinnings
thinnings may cause
excessive damage
excessive damage toto residuals.
residuals. It is also confined to market values rather rather
to the values of other benefits, nor
than to
than nor does itit take into account the the effect
effect
soil over
on the soil over several
several generations.
generations. Within these limitations,
limitations, the theory
assumes that relative price dhanges
changes are essentially randan,random, rut related
but are related
to previous prices in
to in inverse
inverse proportion
proportion toto the
the time
time elapsed.
elapsed. In other YJOIDswords
predictions of prices are likely to be IlOre more accurate over a short short time
time span
span
over aa long
than over
than long one.
one. It has been suggested that econanic fran mixed
economic gains frultmixed
stands,
stands, which
which may in addition
addition include eA.rly returns
include early returns fram
fran more
IlOre valuable
valuable
thinnings, have
thinnings, been underestimated
have been underestimated andand are
are inin all
all probability
probability much much larger
larger
than the much-discussed,
much-discussed, rut but often small
small and doUbtful
doubtful mixed species effect
mixed species effect
(Lohrnander 1990).
(Lohmander 1990). should be noted
It should noted that
that inin Scandinavia
Scandinavia the the secondary
secondary
species, which
species, which are
are IlOStl
mcstlyy birch
bdrch and aspen, and also the
and aspen, the regeneration
regeneration of
conifers,
conifers, oc=occur naturally
naturallyin in plantations.
plantations. TheThe broadleaved
broadleaved species have until
canparatively
comparatively recently been been treated
treated as weeds;
weeds; itit isis only
only since a market for
birch has re-developed
birdh re-developed that
that it
it has contrihlted to
has contributed to income.
incane.

The argument
argument is saretimes
sometimes made that
that the
the inclusion
inclusion of
of aa secondary
secondary species
species
ilrprove the quality and hence the profitability
can improve profitability of thethe main species.
species .
Examples include:
include:

suppression
suppress ionofofepicormics
epicormicson
on red oak and
red oak and the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of aa ground
cover suitable for odk regeneration by
for oak by the hemlock understorey (Kelty
the hemlock (Kelty
1989)
1989);;

increased bole length in cherrybark

increased cherrybark oak in canpetition with Liquidambar
competition with LiquidBInbar
(Clatterruck and
(Clatterbuck a.'ld Hodges
Hodges 1988)
1988);;

suppression of
suppression of spruce side branches by B. pendula resulting
by B. resulting in a 6%6%
gain in saw timber
tiMber yields
yields (Mielikainen 1985).
1985). But
But though
though the
the admixture
admixture
25% B.
of 25% B. pendula
pendula resulted in a small gain in total yield of pines it
apparently depressed saw
apparently saw timber
timber yields
yields by 5% -- see
by 5% see Table
Table 4;4;

other
other studies
studies shc:M
show that retention of birch increased
that retention increased the height
height of
of
self-pruning
self-pruning on
on pine and reduced
pine and reduced the
the knotty
knotty core;
core; any extra tending
costs paid ~re returns. These ~re,
by returns.
were covered by hcMever, effects
were, however, effects of
density
density rather than of species mixture and could - _ . though
though at
at extra
extra
cost -- probably
prObably have been achieved by closer spacing
by closer spacing ofof pines
pines (Haegg
(Haegg
1988, 1989, 1990).
1990).

It is not known haw

hc:M large these
these benefits
benefits will
will be.
be.

Tnlpical
Tropical experience.

econanic analysis of mixed plantations in the tropics was noted in

No economic
this study.
this the accounts of the ElIcalyptus/Albizia
study. In the Eucalyptus/Albizia experiments in Hawaii
Hawaii
there was no
there no mention
rrention of
of the
the economics
econanicsofofgravaing
growing the
the mixture.
mixture. The trees ~re
were
being raised for an energy project,
project, therefore the prime Objective
objective must have
been to grow
been grow as much
much bianass
biomass as
as possible. Although the
possible. Although the lighter A. falcatoria
lighter A. falcataria
YJOOd YJOuld
wood would be IlOre
more expensive
expensive to handle because of of the
the larger number
number of
of stems
stems
and because it is branchy
branchy it YJOuld
would be
be IlOre liable to
more liable to felling
felling damage,
damage, its value
value
 65
65

bianass would he
as biomass be nearly as high
high as
as that
that of
of the eucalypt. In an energy
the eucalypt.
the mixture,
plantation the mixture, given the results quoted,
quoted, can bebe expected
expected toto be
be an
an
economic success. But if the objective had been to grew
econanic success. gro the eucalyptus for
saw tiMber,
timber, the
the econanic
economic advantages
advantages of
of the
the mixture
mixture would
would not
not have
have been so
obvious; the value
obvious; value of
of the
the two timbers in
two tiMbers in relation
relation to
to end use is
end use is important.
important.

In Nigeria, mentioned earlier, Nauclea diderrichii (opepe)

Nigeria, as mentioned (opepe) isis used
used
as aa nurse
nurse crop
crop for members of
formembers of the Meliaceae family -- EY2tandrophragma,
the Meliaceae Entandrophragma, 10]aya,
Khaya,
Lovoo -- thereby
Lovoa incidence of Hypsipyla robusta and giving an
thereby reducing the incidence
interrrediate yield from
intermediate yield fran the
the sale
sale of
of the
the poles of
of the Opepe. It was found that
the Internal Rate of Return for Opepe grcwn grown on aa timber
tiMber rotation
rotation of of 60
60 years
4.5% whereas when
was 4.5% it was
when it mixed 55 Opepe
was mixed Opepe to Meliaceae the
to 11 14e1iaceae the IRR increased
slightly, to
slightly, to 4.6%
4.6% over the same
sarre rotation
rotation (Ball
(Ball 1979).
1979). The reason
reason for
for the
the
small
small difference between the
difference be~ two rates
the two rates was final volume
was the lower final volume of thethe
Meliaceae CCIlp3redto
Meliaceaecampared to pure
pure Opepe,
Opepe, despite
despite the
the higher
higher value
value of the Afeliaceae.
of the Meliaceae.
was also found that the high
It was high demand
demand for the Opepe poles
the Opepe poles led
led to to felling
felling ofof
best-fomed in the early thinnings,
the hest-formed thinnings, leaving the poorest for for the
the final
final
crop,
crop, and causing severe damage
damage toto the final crop
the final crop trees
trees in
in the
the process.
process .

The plantations of Swietenia/Securir2ega

mixed plantations
The mixed SWietenia/Securinega being
being tried in the
the Solaoon
Solomon
Islands also have this potential. But in
this potential. in this
this and other
other rases,
cases, the
the extra
extra
ina::rre is only possible
income possible if there isis aa market for thinnings.
market for thinnings. In the nineteen
fifties there
fifties was no local
there was local market for ninenine year old thinnings
year old thinnings in in Nigeria
Nigeria
(Henry 1960)
(Henry 1960) whereas
whereas the
the rapid extension of the electricity
electricity supply
supply in in the
the
nineteen seventies led to a high
led to high but
rut unforeseen
unforeseen demand
demand for
for Opepe
Opepe poles.
poles. In
In
India
India the GMelinaarborea
the use of Gnelina artorea as Dipterocarpus turbina
nurse for Dipterocarpus
as aa nurse tus
turbinatus
worked well silviculturally, but
worked rut the nurse crop
crop had rerroved before
had to be removed before itit
saleable and there were problems
was saleable problems inin controlling
controlling the coppice regrowth
the coppice regrcwth
(Indian Forest Service
Service 1939).
1939).

In Scandinavia
Scandinavia it has been shewn
has been shown (above)
(above) that
that the
the retention
retention of
of naturally
naturally
oc=ing mixtures can
occurring can be economically
econanically advantageous. A A a::uparable
comparable situation
in the tropics
tropics -- invasion
invasion of
of aa plantation by pioneer
plantation by species such as Mararanga
pioneer species Macaranga
spp., Anthocephalus chinensis,
spp., Anthocephalus chinensis, Neoboutonea
Neoboutonea macrocalyx
macrocalyx or croton spp.
or Croton spp. can
easily be
easily be envisaged. But the interaction with the main
main speCies,
species, particularly
particularly
if that
if is an exotic conifer,
that is conifer, may so benign
may not be so benign as
as in
in Scandinavia
Scandinavia and
and
secondary species
markets for the secondary species have
have not
not been widely developed.
been widely developed.

IaIg term
Long gains and
teIm gains losses .
and losses.

The benefits of mixed

mixed planting to soil linprovanent
improvement andand the maintenance
maintenance
of site conditions
site conditions over several rotations are
rotations are of the utIrost
utmost importance. These
are benefits
benefits that are difficult to quantify or, or, since thethe time scale
scale is
is so
so
long, to acccnm::rlate
long, accommodate inin an
an economic
econanic model.
m:del. The situation
situation can
can arise in which
which
a crop can deplete
a deplete a site
site ofof one
one nutrient
nutrient without
without necessarily
necessarily reaching
reaching aa
condition of deficiency
deficiency in in the first fewfew rotations.
rotations. The yields of that crop
considered sustainable,
would be considered sustainable, if if no
no account were taken of the the loss
loss of
of
nutrients and the
nutrients and the risk
risk ofof aa sudden
sudden decline
decline inin yield when the
yield when the threshold
threshold forfor
that nutrient is is crossed.
crossed. In the long
In the long run
run what
what is is needed
needed is
is sustained
sustained
fertility as well as sustained achieve this
sustained yields. To achieve this it
it will be necessary
necessary
to incur costs or to forgo
forgo short tenn
term financial benefits. The short tenn term (one
or two rotations)
rotations) econanic rrodels usually
economic models usually applied
applied should
should not
not be
be used
used to
to blind
blind
foresters to the
the risks
risks of long tenn
term site deterioration,
deterioration, which can possibly
which can possibly bebe
arreliorated by the use
ameliorated use of
of mixtures.
 66
66

Risk evaluation.
Risk evalua-tian.

Econanic analysis should

Economic should include same
SCDe evaluation of the
the risk
risk of
of failure
failure
attached to
attached to any
any enterprise.
enterprise. Those who advocate ~
who advocate mixed plantations
plantations are
are often
often
I!()tivated
motivated by by the
the desire
desire to reduce the
to reduce risk of a major
the risk rrajor failure
failure from
fran same
SCDe
unpredictable catastrophe,
catastrophe, such as insect or or fungal
fungal attack
attack or
or drought
drought etc.
etc.
The concept of mixtures as an insurance, discussed in Chapters 3 and
insurance, discussed and 6,
6, is a
rerognition of this
recognition this risk.
risk. !biever,
However, this insurance rray
this insurance may entail
entail aa cost
cost in
in
reduced yields
reduced yieldR and higher establisbrrent and managEm2llt
establishment and costs . In
management costs. In New Zealand,
where 85% of thethe plantations are planted Pinus radiata,
planted to Pinus radiata, the argument has
proposed (Burdon
been proposed (Burdon 1982)
1982) that
that aa policy ofof investing
investing in
in one
one species
species is
is
follOWing grounds:
justified on the following grounds:

P.radiata has been well matched

that P.radiata rratched to the
the sites
sites available
available in New
New
Zealand and there is no particular reason
reason to anticipate catastrophic
epidemics,

that should
that should a serious
serious disease or pest
disease or pest arise,
arise, such as Dothistraria
such as pini,
Dothistrana pini,
New Zealand
New Zealand has the financial
has the financial and
and staff
staff resources
resources to
to combat
ccmbat it,
it,

that there is no evidence P.radiata is any I!()re

evidence that P.radiata more susceptible to
diseases than
pests or diseases native naturally
than native naturally regenerated
regenerated stands,
stands, sudh
such as,
as,
~le, insect (Platypus) attacks
for example, attacks on
on Atthotagus,
Nothofagus,

that within this one

one species
species an
an investm:mt made in
been rrade
has been
investment has in rraintaining
maintaining
as broad a genetic
genetic base as
as possible,
possible, which
which reduces
reduces the
the chances
chances of
of
catastrophic epidemics such
such as have
have occurred in poplars,
occurred in poplars,

that silvicultural
silvicultural managEm2llt
management includes
includes early and heavy
early and heavy thinnings
thinnings and
rotations are short,
short, so that in the event
event of an
an epidemic
epidemic harvesting can
harvesting can
fornard at a minimum loss and the affected site
be brought forward site can
can be
be re-
re-
established to to another provenance
provenance or
or species.
species . In the past
past epidemics,
epidemics,
ee.g.
. g . Sirex
Sirex wood wasp, have been
\oJOOd wasp, the consequence of
been the of lack of
silvicultural managEm2llt,
management, and

that research
researdh into other species
species potentially suitable
suitable to
to New
New Zealand
conditions is being
being carried
carried out and
and tested
tested alternative
alternative species could
could be
introduced into the plantation programme
prograrme at
at short
short notice
notice if
if required.
required.

In short,
short, New
New Zealand
Zealand having
having selected
selected a species for \oJOOd
wood production
production and
and
watershed protection that is wellwell rratched
matched to the available sites and having
having
rrade
made a careful
careful analysis of the
the risks,
risks, has decided that it is I!()re
more advantageous
advantageous
continue to invest
to continue invest in aa proven highly profitable
profitable species rather
rather than to
to
reduce profits by investing in a range
range of
of lower
lower yielding
yielding species.
species .

The risk
risk analysis
analys1.s that has undertaken at
been undertaken
has been at Aracruz,
Aracruz, Brazil has
has
arrived at a similar answer. The objective
arrived at a similar answer. objective is
is high yields
yields over a short
short
rotation. On the one hand the
rotation. On the risks
risks attached to reduced species and within-
species
species diversity
diversity in the production
production populations are considered
populations are to be srrall
considered to small and
there is aa good capability
capability for handling any "catastrophe" . On the other
handling any "catastrophe". other hand
the convenience
convenience of managEm2llt and the gain
management and gain in yields
yields of
of =noclonal
monoclonal plantations
plantations
are highly attractive.
are attractive. Provided
Provided precautions
precautions such
sudh as
as rraintaining
maintaining aa large
large
genetic base in parallel base populations are taken,
taken, aa reduction in species
and Within-species diversity can
within-species diversity can he
be justified.
justified.
 67

Many developing countries wish to invest in industrial plantations rut

Many but
have neither
have neither the resources for research
resources for to counter
research to counter epidemics nor the
epidemics nor the kn<Mledge
knowledge
of aa species
species that
that the
the foresters
foresters ofof New
New Zealand have of
Zealand have of P.radiata
P.radiata oror that
that
Aracruz Cellulose
Cellulose has Eucalyptus spp.
of Eucalyptus
has of spp. For developing countries aa policy
of spreading
spreading the
the risk by having aa mixture
mixture of
of species
species inin industrial
industrial short
short
rotation plantations in the broad sense, sense, in which
which the species are carefully
carefully
matched to the
matched to the sites
sites available, may may be
be desirable.
desirable. Where
Where long rotation
rotation crops
crops
are proposed the policies
are proposed policies of reducing
reducing the
the risk
risk by careful species/site
by careful species/site
matching spreading the risk by
and of spreading
matching and using more
by using rrore than one species areare of
of as
as
much (if not rrore)
much (if more) :irrq;lortance
importance as with short rotation crops, crops, and
and there may be
opportunities
opportunities forfor intimate
intimate mixtures
mixtures ifif circumstances
circumstances permit
permit -- that
that is,
is, if
there is sufficient kn<Mledge
knaaledge of thethe silviculture
silviculture ofof the
the species
species proposed
proposed for
for
the mixture,
mixture, the objectives can be met or other benefits can can be
be identified.
identified.
the objective
Where the objective is watershed management
managemmt or or rehabilitation
rehabilitation of degraded
degraded
lands then mixtures,
mixtures, especially in the sense of encouraging an understorey,
understorey,
are often the most
rrost appropriate
appropriate composition.
~ition .

Conclusions on economics.

Little fully evaluated

evaluated infonnation on the econanics
informationon economics of of gr<Ming mixtures
growingmixtures
t~rate regions
in temperate regions or in the
the tropics
tropics was found
found inin this study. Theory
this study.
suggests that establishing
suggests plantationsmakes
mixedplantations
establishingmixed makesit it possible
possible toto keep
keep options
options
open as long as possible
as long possible in order to obtain the the best prices
prices or range range of
products. If mixtures,
mixtures, such
such as birch/spruce
birdh/spruce in ScandinaVia,
Scandinavia, cancan be be obtained
obtained
at little
little cost
cost it is possible
possible that
that the econanic
economic gains
gains can
can be
be added to any
synergies in yields
synergies yields that
that there
there may
may be,
be, rut indications that the
but there are indications
expenses
expenses ofof establishing andmaintaining
establishingand industrial plantations
mixedindustrial
maintaininixed plantations in in the
tropiCS are often
tropics are often high.
high. There are,
are, however,
ha;ever, circumstances wherewhere non-market
non-market
benefits associated with amenity or ecology regarded as
ecology are regarded as important
:irrq;lortant (see
(see
bel<M) .
below).

The profitability and

and overall desireability
desireability of aa mixture may
may depend
depend on
the ability to harvest one carq;x:>nent
component of aa mixture parly in the rotation as in
mixture early
case of Nauclea diderichii
the case diderichii in in mixture
mixture with
with Atliaceae in Nigeria.
M:liaceae in Nigeria. The
increasing local
local markets
markets for
for small wood (such as rattan)
wood or other products (such rattan)
will favour
favour thinnings and in doing
thinnings and doing so will make the the management
managemmt of mixed
species crops easier
easier because
because there
there will
will be aa wider
wider range of species
species that
that can
can
be considered for mixtures
mixtures.. The
The acre
rrore species
species there
there are
are that
that have
have aa commercial
ccm:rercial
value the rrore
more econanically
economically attractive mixtures become,
attractive mixtures becane, though the
silvicultural requiremmts for
silvicultural requirements for releasing
releasing thethe main
main crop
crop do
do not always
always coincide
coincide
with the
with the best
best moment
rrarent for
for marketing
marketing thinnings.
thinnings.

The econanic
economic and biological success of mixed plantations will depend
biological success depend an
on
the availability
availability- of
of adequate
adequate financial
financial resources
resources and of skilled
skilled staff as well
as species
species suited sites, compatible
suited to the sites, c:anpatible with the
the other
other components
ccmponents and
and
matched to
matched to the
the end uses available.
end uses available.

aOOve has
The above considered only the
has considered the effect
effect on
on returns
returns arising
ariSing from
fran
the provision
mixtures in the provision ofof wood products .
wood products. Species
Species may
may be included in
be included
mixtures for other values -- for instance,
mixtures instance, for the provision of fodder,
fodder, fruit
or nuts,
nuts, or
or for
for the
the soil-improVing
soil-improvingproperties
propertiesofoftheir
theirleaves or associated
'ves or associated
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, or
nitrogen-fixingbacteria, or for
for their
their visual appearance. These are
appearance. These are all valid
valid
reasons
reasons for
for planting
planting mixtures,
mixtures, rutbut they
they are
are difficult
difficult to
to evaluate because
because
their products are not usually
their usually traded
traded in
in markets.
markets.
 68
68

8. MIWI
8. CXH:LUSIaIS.
HIN CONCLUSIONS.

the tropics
in the
Plantations in am. sub-tropics.
t:rqrl.cs and sub-t:rqrl.cs.

Plantations can can supplement,

supplement, but never fully substitute for,
for, the
the range
range
of goods
of goods and
and services
services provided
provided fran
fruit natural forests.
natural forests. Criticisms are
Criticisms are
frequently llI3.de of
frequentlymade of plantations
plantations on
on the
the grounds
grounds that
that they
they lead to impoverished
:inp:lverished
ecosystans and
ecosystems and aa decrease
decrease in the number
in the number of
of plant
plant and wildlife species.
and wildlife species.
Although plantations
Although plantations could
could be
he established
established for
for the specific purpose
the specific purpose of
of
conserving
conserving genetic
genetic resources
resources of
of one
one or
or aa few specified
specified tree species,
species, and
although the
although reconstruction of
the reconstruction of ecosystans
ecosystems has been attarpted
has been attempted on
on aa limited
limited
scale, rrost
most plantations
plantations are not established
established for such purposes and (unless they
purposes and they
have replaced natural forest
forest onon the
the same
same site)
site) their
their benefits should not be
evaluated directly against
evaluateddirectly against the
the natural
natural forest.
forest. It isis also
also :inp:lrtant
important to stress
stress
that the
the establislment
establishment ofof production
production plantations,
plantations, which
which frequently iltplies the
frequanUy implies the
use of fast-growing,
use of fast-growing, pioneer speCies, ImlSt
pioneer species, not preclude
must not preclude reseArdh
research and
and
developrent
development of a range of other, that if
and that
other, local, species; and an ecosystem
if an ecosystem is
is
changed through
changed establishment of forest
through the establishment forest plantations
plantations (or (or agricultural
agricultural
crops) must be taken to conserve elsewhere representative
crops) then care ImlSt representative examples
exarrples
of the local
local flora
flora and fauna.
and fauna.

Forestry plantations
Forestry plantations in in the
the tropics
tropics and sub-tropics
sub-tropiCS make make aa greater
contriOOtion to people's
contribution to people' sneeds
needs for
forforest
forestproducts than their
products than their relatively
relatively SllI3.l1
small
area suggests,
suggests, not
not just
just to
to the
the supply of industrial
supplyof industrial roundwood
roundwood but
rut also through
through
the provision
provision of =y other goods and
many other and environmental
environrrental services.
services. The area area of
forestry
forestry plantations is likely to increase considerably,
plantations is oonsiderably, particularly when when
established
established outside
outside the gove:rnrrent
government sector by ccmnunities
sector by and individuals; the
communities and the
use
use of tree plantations
plantations to sequester carbon to reduce reduce the accumulation
accumulation of of
carbon
carbon dioxide atrrosphere is
dioxide in the atmosphere is also
also attracting
attracting much
much attention.
attention . The
effect of species cullfX"1Cition
composition on on sustaining the flCM
flow of
of benefits fran
from these
plantations is of considerable importance.
:inp:lrtance.

Mixtures of species
Mixtures species in
in forest plantatiOns llI3.y he
plantations may be deliberately
deliberately created,
created,
or they
or llI3.y develop
theymay develop naturally
naturally through
through the
the natural
natural regeneration
regeneration ofof other woody
woody
tree species in otherwise
otheIWise single species
species plantations.
plantations . Mixtures cover
oover a wide
range
range of
of options,
options, fran
from siltple even-aged mixtures of two species to several
simple even-aged several
species
species in aa plantation llI3.naged
managed as aa selection
selection forest.
forest. Mixtures
Mixtures are also
m=an the planting
taken to mean planting of
of different
different species
species in in adjacent
adjacent blocks.
blocks. Most
M:Jst
plantations are at present planted with with a single species, rut objections to
species, but
this
this on the grounds
grounds that it
it isis environmentally
envirOIll1l9Iltally unsound overloOk
overlook the =y
the many
single species associations
associations that
that occur
occur naturally.
naturally. In fact,
fact, the fast-grCMing
fast-growing
species
species best
best adapted
adapted to producing wood products
to producing products on short
short .rotations
rotations are
are
frequently
frequently those
those typical
typical of
of early stages
stages in thethe forest succession
succession in which
which
there are
are few species;
species; they llI3.y
may thus naturally adapted to growth
thus not be naturally grCMth in
in
mixtures.

Dec]
Decline yields of wood
j TV> in yields wood

The evidence for

The evidence for aa decline
decline in yields
yields of
of wood
wood fram
fran single
single species
species
plantations in
plantations in the
the second or
or subsequent rotations appears
subsequent rotations appears to
to be
be based
based more
IOC)re on
on
failure to llI3.tch
a failure species to
match species to site than to be be due
due to
to the
the pure plantation
pure plantation
itself. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, nutrients
nutrients will
will bebe lost fran plantations
lost frum plantatiOns due
due to
to
harvesting, in particular those
harvesting,in those grown on short
9"I"GIIl on short rotations.
rotations . Permanent
Pennanent Sample
Sarrple
Plots will be an
Plots an important
:inp:lrtant tool in
in detecting
detecting yield
yield decline,
decline, but
rut meanwhile
meanwhile
foresters
foresters should
should avoid silvicultural practices likely to lead to losses of
silvicultural practices of
 69

soil or
or organic
organic matter.
I113.tter . Silvicultural practice
practice must
must also contrihlte to the
also contribute
recycling of nutrients through rapid litter b~.
litter breakdown.

of site
IqIartance of
Importance site and
and objectives.

Species must
must be
be I113.tched
matched toto the
the site;
site; problans
problems will
will arise
arise where
where trees
trees are
are
planted off-site,
planted off-Site, There
There will,
will, however,
lJa.iever, usually
usually be
be aa range
range of species that are
are
silviculturally suited to to anyone site; the
anyone site; the choice
choice isis then detennined by
then determined by the
objectives
Objectives of I113.nagel!EIlt.
management. When objectives can
When objectives can be
be achieved through
through extensive
extensive
I113.nagerrent practices, as in the case of watershed I113.nagerrent,
management management, rehabilitation
of degraded
degraded sites,
sites, arrenity sometimes the production
planting and saretimes
amenityplanting production of fodder for
livestock,
livestodk, it willwill often
often be beneficial to
bebeneficial to use
use species which,
which, biologically, are
are
able
able to grow in mixed stands
grc:M in stands and which can
can complement
cc:rrplerrent each
each other
other in the
provision of
provision of aa range
range of
of goods
goods and envirormental services.
and environmental services. If, If, on the other
hand, the objective
hand, objective isis high
high yields
yields of
of aa unifonn
uniform product,
product, for
for exarrple
example for
for aa
industrial process,
specific industrial process, then it is
then it is likely
likely that
that monospecific,
lOClllospecific, short
short
rotation, intensively I113.nagedpioneer
intensivelymanaged pioneerspecies
species will
will best
best satisfy
satisfy the
the objectives
objectives
of management.
I113.nagerrent.

In all plantation
plantation projects,
projects, lJa.iever,
however, there will be other
other objectives and
objectives and
constraints to
constraints achieverrent of the
to the achievement the main
I113.in objects
objects of
of management;
I113.nagerrent; such
constraints
constraints should
should include
include the
the production
production of of sustainable
sustainable yields
yields andand the
the
I113.intenance site fertility. These
maintenance of site These secondary
secondary objectives or constraints to
ensure environmental
ensure sustainability may
environmental sustainability I113.y lead
lead policies
poliCies away
away from
fran single species
plantations;. for
plantations;, for instance,
instance, toto the
the creation
creation of of mixtures broad sense
mixtures in the broad sense
through grouping
through grouping ofof monospecific
lOClllospecific plantations,
plantations, or rotating crops
or by rotating crops of
of
different species,
speCies, or by undertaking heavy
by undertaking heavy thinnings
thinnings to
to encourage
encourage the
the
developnent of
development of an
an understorey
understorey ofof shrubs
shrubs and and herbs.
herbs.

Risk.
Risk.

A mixture of species often provides an insurance against the risk of aa

A
total loss as aa result of sare some catastrophic event or aa change dhange in =kets
markets or
demand. The use of of mixtures
mixtures forfor the
the purpose
purpose ofof reducing
reducing overall
overall riskrisk inin
intensivelyIll3.nagedplantations
intensivelymanaged usually:iIrq;Jlies
plantations usually implies aa reduction
reduction inin profits because
profits because
of the partial substitution of aa valuable species by aa less less valuable one or
because of
because of greater
greater management
I113.nagerrent costs.
costs. MJrlospecific and, even
Mbnospecific and, even more
rrore so,
so,
rronoclonal plantations
monoclonal plantations are are usually
usually associated
associated with
with aa "high
"high input/high
input/high output"
output"
policy whidh
policy which isis also
also often
often high
high risk.
risk. The justification
justification forfor such
sudh aa policy
depends to
depends to aa large
large extent
extent on the the ability
ability of of the
the manager
I113.nager (government,
camrunity, individual
community, individual or or company)
cc:rrpany) to
to evaluate risk, to allocate
evaluate the risk, resources
allocate resources
to overcome
overcare potential
potential problans
problems and and to to undertake
undertake research
research to to anticipate
anticipate
problans.
prdblems. It depends too
It depends too onon the
the length
length ofof the
the rotation.
rotation. Successful
lOClllospecific plantation
monospecific plantation projects are are found
found in
in many
=y countries,
countries, for exarrple
example NewNew
zealand, SOuth
Zealand, South Africa,
Africa, sare
some ofof the
the Australian
Australian states, Brazil, Chile
states,Brazil, Chile and
and Congo,
rut
but where an organization
organization cannot guarantee
guarantee continuing
continuing resources
resources same
sore risk-
risk-
spreading is
spreading is advisable,
advisable, eveneven ifif only in the use of of mixtures
mixtures in in the
the broad
broad
sense.

Although
Although mixtures have
have usually
usually been seen as
been seen as an
an insurance
insurance against
against risk,
risk,
exarrples have been quoted where species diversity has proved ineffective
examples ineffective in
controlling aa disease,
controlling disease, for exarrple Chestnut blight in
for example in USA or
or aothistroma
Dothist.rr:m3
blight in
blight in P.radiata inEast
P.radiata in EastAfrica..
Africa. It has been
been argued that mixtures
mixtures can even
increase risk from
fran disease by providing an
by providing an alternate
alternate host.
host. There is little
knowledge of
knowledge mechanisms by which
of the mechanisms which pests
pests and
and diseases
diseases spre_ad
spread and
and are
 70

controlled in aa forest
forest ecosystem; the chances
ecosystem; the chances that
that unproven,
unproven, indiscriminate
mixtures will control
control pests
pests or
or diseases
diseases are
are small.
small.

Monitoring growth, yields

Monitoring grcMth, yields and soil fertility
and soil fertility is :irrportant, rut
is important, bit the
rronitoring of
monitoring of fertility
fertility isis difficult and yield
difficult and yield trends
trends may
may be
be masked
masked by
by
advances
advances in breeding and
in tree breeding silvicultural techniques
and in silvicultural and may not be
techniques and be
detected
detected until the
the next
next rotation.
rotation. The action to sustain
The need for action sustain soil
soil
fertility through sound management
fertility-through management practices
practices has already been noted,
already been and the
noted, and the
use of mixtures may contrihlte to
may contribute to this
this aim.
aim.

Synezgy.
Synergy.

There are sate

There sane docurrented
documented instances of mixtures
instances of mixtures enhancing
enhancing not only total
only-total
yield rut yield of
bit also the yield of specific,
specifiC, valuable
valuable components
canponents of crop. In
of aa crop.
Scaridi.na.via "IlliJUNi species"
Scandinavia this ''mixed species" effect
effect may be be small, rut
bit there are
there are
indications that
that the use
use of
of nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing =-daninant
co-daminant species
species could
could result
result
in increases
increases in yield.
yield. Such synergies are worth pursuing,
pursuing, rut
bit the sites on on
achievable are limited
which they are achievable limited and the conditions
conditions under which they
operate have not been well researched
researched in the tropics.
in the tropics.

Types of plantations
plantations

(a)
(a) Industrial Plantations

Reduction
Reduction of diversity in production population
in the production population isis an object of
an object of
management
management inin order to maximize
max:irnize growth
grcMth onon valuable
valuable species
species and obtain
and to obtain
uniformity for industrial
uniformity industrial processes.
processes. Sane consist of aa
SCIre natural ecosystems consist
single
single or
or aa few species, rut
few species, bit in single species
in a single species plantation
plantation there
there is
is an
an
increased risk
increased risk of
of instability,
instability, although
although rronospecific
monospecific plantations
plantations may be easier
maybe easier
to treat
treat than polyspecific plantations in in the event of attacks by or
by pests or
diseases.

The efficacy of mixtures to control attacks of of pests

pests and diseases is
and diseases is
uncertain. The I\'echanisms
variable and uncertain. mechanisms involved are often complex
a::rrplex and
and the
the
degree of mixing
degree mixing required may make it uneconanic
may make uneconomic to grcM
graa aa vulnerable
vulnerable species.
It is
is recognized that sane
recognizedthat some valuable tropical timbers,
vaIuabdetropical timbers, notably sane mahoganies,
sanemahoganies,
can only be established satisfactorily in shade which helps control attadks attacks
by liTiosipyla.
Hypsipyla. Usually shade is best provided by another species and mixed
species and mixed
mahogany plantations have proved silviculturally successful in many parts
mahogany parts of
of
the tropics.
the tropics.

The skills required to manage mixed plantations,

manage mixed plantations, particularly
particularly mixtures
mixtures
of dominants
daninants and co-dominants,
=-daninants, are greater than for managing monospecific
rronospecific
Badly tiIred interventions
plantations. 13adlytimed interventions or
or incompatibility
ina::rrpatibility of
of the
the species
species used
used
result in malformation
may result malfonnation of stems or or possibly
possibly a natural
natural reversion
reversion to aa
rronospecific condition.
monospecific condition.

Since the products

Since products of the final
final felling
felling of
of industrial
industrial plantations
plantations in the
tropics are often
tropics often intended
intended for the
the export
export market,
market, mixtures may
may be
be econanically
economically
m::>re viable if a nurse
more nurse or
or "in-filler" crop can
"in-filler" crop can be
be harvested
harvested early
early in the
in the
rotation. But this is dependent on there
this is there being a market for small size
size or
fran the
non-wood produce from the nurse
nurse crop.
crop.

Second rotation decline is

Second rotation is aa real
real risk
risk on infertile
infertile sites
sites and cannot be be
discounted on fertile
fertile sites.
sites. It is controllable
controllable by good forestry
by good forestry practice
practice
which may include temporary or permanent mixtures of species to to improve
:iIrq?rove the
 71

decanposition of
decomposition of litter and
and thereby prarote
promote the
the recycling
recycling of
of nutrients
nutrients and
and
increasing the organic
organic content of the
the topsoil.
topsoil .

(b) Less intensively

intensively managed
managed plantations.

fuelVA:lOd and
In fuelwood pole plantations
and pole plantations there
there is
is usually
usually less need for
less need
unifonnity
uniformity ofof product
product and there is
and there greater scope
is often greater scope for
for unmechanized
unmechanized
harvesting extraction .
harvesting and extraction. Therefore
Therefore the factors that
the factors that militate
militate against
against
mixtures in
in industrial
industrial plantations are less pressing
pressing and the opportunity
opportunity to
to
include mixtures reduce risks or
mixtures to reduce or to
to favour
favour soil
soil improvement
improvement can
can be
be taken.
taken.

FOdder
Fbdder plantations
plantations should generally be mixed give a succession
mixed to give succession of
of
leaf forage throughout the year, particularly
the year, particularly in
in the
the dry season . Windbreaks
dry season.
should also generally be of
of several species, to provide
species, to provide shelter
shelter at
at different
different
of different
and of
levels and different densities.
densities.

The grcwing
growing of other VA:lOdy
woody species in association
association with the main species
species
may offer
may of fereconanic
economic advantages; two examples
advantages; ~ examples that are
are quoted
quoted are of
of rattans
rattans and
and
of sandalwood.
sandalVA:lOd.

(c) Plantations for

for site
site improvement.
improvement.

Plantations
Plantations established
established with
with the objective of
the objective of site
site improvement
improvement --
watershed management,
watershed management, rehabilitation
rehabilitation of degraded soils
of degraded amenity can
soils and amenity can
frequently be established
frequently established asas mixtures.
mixtures. sites often
The sites often present
present special
special
problems about which little is known
kn~ andand aa mixture
mixture represents
represents anan insurance
insurance
against failure, though natural
failure, though natural succession
succession may anyway tend
mayanyway tend towards
tc::W<lIds aa limited
limited
diversity. A of the
A knowledge of the natural ecological succession of the site
site is
is
helpful.
Camervation
Conservatica of wildlife

Most large
large plantations
plantations will have one main Objective
objective (such
(such as
as wood
VA:lOd
production), with other subsidiary
production), su1::sidiary objectives or perhaps constraints
constraints to
to the
main objective
objective (such
(such as soil conservation,
as soil conservation, catchment
catchment protection
protection or the
or the
provision of direct
provision direct social
social benefits).
benefits). There may
may often also be
be objectives
objectives of
wildlife conservation.
wildlife conservation.

The maintenance of suitable habitats conservation of

habitats for the conservation genetiC
of genetic
resources and
resources and the production
production of wildlife species of commercial
wildlife species o::mnercial or
or subsistence
su1::sistence
value are
value the main
are the main Objectives
objectives of
of wildlife
wildlife conservation
coriservation within forestry
forestry
plantations . The contribution of forestry plantations to those aims
plantations. aims can
can be
greatly enhanced by adequate pre-planting
greatly planning and
pre-planting planning and design,
design, as well
well as by
the actual
actual day-to-daymanagernent
day-to-daymanagement of the plantation.
plantation. Plantation scharies
schemes should
should
the wider
be seen within the wider land use context,
land use context, and within the
and within the scheme
schare buffer
buffer
co=idors, the retention of islands of natural forest within
plantings, corridors, within the
the
plantations and incentives
plantations incentives to local
local people can all contribute
contribute to
to wildlife
wildlife
conservation
conservation..

The IOOre
The the management
more the management ofof aa plantation
plantation encourages
encourages overall
overall plant
plant
diversity and the closer thethe plantation
plantation reseMbles
resanbles the
the natural
natural forest
forest the
the
greater will he the contribution
be the contribution toto wildlife
wildlife conservation.
conservation. Mixtures of of age
age
classes and
and of appropriate species,
species, along with the retention of of sane
same natural
natural
forest, will generallypromote
forest,will generallyprarotethis conservation. Generalist
this conservation. Generalist large
large herbivores
can reach high density where there is structural diversity in the plantation
diversity in
or even in young
young plantations
plantations or
or on
on clear
clear felled
felled sites.
sites.
 72

9. RECOMMENDATIONS
9 .RECOKMEHDATIONS..

exhaustive review
An exhaustive review of the literature comparing the
advantages and
advantages and disadvantages
disadvantages ofof mixed
mixed or pure plantations
plantat ions has
has
been made. While there
there are many references
references concerned with tne tne
subject
subject few
few ofof them
them record
record direct
direct comparisons
comparisons ofof plantations
plantat ions
composed
composed ofof aa single
single species
species with those composed
with those composed of more than
of more than
one. This section
This section makes
makes some
some recommendations
recommendations for for practising
practising
foresters,
foresters, forest
forest research
research workers
workers and planners concerned with
and planners
forestry
forestry plantation
plantation development
development in
in the sub-tropics
the tropics and sub-tropics
based upon
upon the
the evidence
evidence that available as
that is available as well as upon those
gaps
gaps in
in knowledge
knowledge ofof the
the behaviour of species
species in pure and mixed
associations.

The objectives of plantations.

plantations .

is recommended
It is
It recommended that
that plantations
plantations are established with
are established with
specific objectives
specific objectives in
in mind
mind in
in order
order to
to be able to evaluate their
their
costs and benefits
benefits fully.
fully . It is
is only under these
these conditions that
that
the
the choice can be
choice can be made
made between
between single
single or multiple
multip le species
species
composition.

Matching species and management

management practices
practices to
to the
the site.
site.

One of
of the
the principal
principal recommendations arising from
recommendations arising from this study
study
is of
of the
the importance
importance of
of matching
matching not
not only
only species
species and
and provenances
provenances
but
but also
also management
management practices to the site to to ensure that growth
and
and yield of desired products are are sustained
sustained inin the
the long
long term.
term .
This recommendation will acquire added weight as plantations are
extended
extended in in the tropics and
the tropics and sub-tropics
sub- trop ics onto sites that
onto sites that are
are
for the
marginal for the growth
growth of
of the
the traditional
trad itional plantation
plantation species.
species .

Plantation guidelines, formulated at

guidelines, formulated at national
national and
and sub-
national level
national level and
and given the status
given the status of
of forest
forest regulations
regulations are
are
recommended in
recommended in order implement good
order to implement good forestry
forestry practice
practice in
in
plantation development. Such guidelines have been produced,
plantation produced, for
example, in
example, in Queensland (Kanowski and
Queensland (Kanowski and Savill
Savill 1990)
1990) and the
and by the
International Tropical
Tropical Timber Organization in collaboration with
FAO . Guidelines
FAO. Guidelines drawing
drawing attention
attention toto "best
"best practice"
practice" inin the
the
planning, establishment and management of
planning, have also
of plantations have also
prepared by
been prepared by other
other organizations.
organizations.

Situations where mixtures are appropriate

appropriate

There are
There are certain situations where it is
situations where is recommended
recommended that
that
the "forest
forest manager
manager or planner should consider
planner should cons ider the
the use of mixtures
mixtures
of one sort or another in
of in aa forest
forest plantation.
plantation. These include,
include,
limited to,
but are not limited to, the
the following:
following:

communi forests, where

ty forests,
community where more
more than
than one
one species
species in
in the
mixture helps to meet
meet multiple and acts as an
multiple end-uses and an insurance
insurance
against failure of aa single
single species;
species;
 73

firebreaks
firebreaks in
in pure plantations, in lines to create
plantations, either in create
a discontinuity or in intimate mixture to introduce less
discontinuity or
flammable fuel;
fuel;

crops, especially
nurse crops, especially for reduction
reduction of insect
insect attack
attack as
as
in the mixture of Nauclea
the mixture diderichii with Meliaceae to reduce the
Nauclea diderichii
incidence of Hypsipila;

areas in which wildlife conservation

conservation is
is aa stated
stated objective,
objective,
as
as distinct from action
action to
to minimise
minimise the impact of
of plantations on
through the
wildlife, through the creation
creation of mixed plantations
plantations to
to establish
establish
a suitable habitat for
a for wildlife.
wildlife.

Also, although
Also, although different
different from
from aa mixture
mixture of
of tree
tree species:
species:

encouragement of
encouragement of aa shrub
shrub and herb
herb layer,
layer, through
through regular
regular
thinning and avoidance
thinning avoidance of overstocking; in fact, the the good
forestry practice recommended
recommended above;
above;

clonal forestry,
forestry, where
where there should be aa mixture of blocks
of clones in the annual plantation area and the regular
introduction
introduction ofof new
new clones
clones arising
arising from
from aa continuing
continuing breeding
sexual reproduction
programme of sexual reproduction (including
(including hybridisation).
hybridisation).

Growth monitoring.

There is
is little information in the tropics on the growth of
stands on
pure stands on aa full range of of sites;
sites; the
the information
information on mixed
stands
stands isis negligible.
negligible. recommended that
It is recommended that aa network
network ofof
Permanent Sample Plots in forest plantations should be
established
established by countries with
by countries with significant
significant forest
forest plantation
plantation
programmes (including community
programmes (including community tree
tree planting).
planting). These
These plots
plots
should be maintained
maintained over several rotations, and are are required
reqUired in
in
all
all major
major species;
species; they mustmust be
be established on full range
on a full range of
potential planting sites.
sites. The Permanent Sample Plots should should be
be
backed by other growth
other growth studies including plots
including plots onon which not
not only
will the same species be re-established
re-established inin successive
successive rotations,
rotations,
but in
in addition
addition the tree seed will be obtained from the
obtained from the same
same seed
seed
source as that of the original plantation, to minimise
error.
experimental error. rotations on which
The short rotations which many species
species
are managed
managed in
in the
the tropics
tropics make
make this practicable. The plots will
also
also be
be useful
useful for
for deriving yield models.
models.

Research.

There is
There is an almost complete
complete lack
lack of
of experimental
experimental evidence
evidence
on
on the
the benefits
benefits and
and constraints
constraints to
to the
the establishment,
establishment, growth and
marketing of forest plantations consisting
conSisting of of mixtures
mixtures or
or single
single
species
species in
in the
the tropics and sub-tropics.
sub-tropics. It is recommended that that
national, regional and international research institutions
include such investigations
include such in their
investigations in their programmes
programmes of plantation
plantation
research. Some examples are
are given
given below:
below:
 74
effect on long-term
long-term soil
soil fertility
fertility and yield,
yield, especially
especially the
potential of nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing species
species to increase yields in
increase yields
mixtures and the effect
effect of
of harvesting
harvesting on
on soil
soil nutrient
nutrient status
status and
of subsequent
the yield of subsequent rotations;
rotations;

identification ofof new species and provenances of trees and

and
shrubs
shrubs for
for use
use in
in mixtures,
mixtures, related not just to their yields of of
wood
wood but also to
but also to their
their non-wood
non-wood products
products and
and other
other benefits.
benefits.
Research
Research may
may be needed to develop markets
be needed markets for the products
products of
of
lesser-known species;
species;

compatibility of different
compatibility of species, whether
different species, whether trees
trees or shrubs,
when
when grown in mixture, particularly the existence
in mixture, particularly the existence of of synergy
synergy
between species and methods of
of management
management of
of mixtures;
mixtures;

the potential
the potential of mixtures for
of mixtures for forest
forest protection,
protection, whether
from insects, disease or fire,
from insects, disease or fire, and particularly the mechanisms
by which diseases and insect pests spread in in forest
forest ecosystems
ecosystems
and
and the
the processes by which they are
are controlled
controlled naturally.
naturally.

Economic analysis.
Economic analysis.

While data on the economics of of plantations

plantations in in the
the tropics
tropics
in
in general
general is scarce, there
is scarce, there is virtually no information on the
no information the
economics mixed plantations.
economics of mixed plantations. It is possible
It is possible thatthat cost and
and
revenue
revenue data
data are
are available,
available, but
but there is no evidence that such such
figures
figures have been collated
have been collated and
and analyzed.
analyzed. ItIt is
is recommended
recommended that
that
data
data on the costs
on the costs and
and benefits
benefits of
of plantation
plantation programmes
programmes are
are
collected in
collected in such
such aa way
way that
that would
would allow
allow reliable
reliable comparison
comparison
between mixed
between mixed and
and pure
pure plantations,
plantations, especially
especially over over several
several
rotations. Such data should attempt
attempt to quantify other benefits
benefits
arising from the plantations in in addition
addition toto wood
wood , products.
products.

Most of the
the emphasis
emphasis in this
this study has been on the
biological
biological effects
effects of
of mixed and pure plantations
plantations but there may
may
be important social
be important social or cultural
cultural reasons
reasons for
for the
the inclusion
inclusion of
of
species other than those
those traditionally planted for wood products
traditionally planted
in
in plantations. It is recommended that consideration
It consideration is given
given
to these
to these factors when evaluating
factors when evaluating the
the options
options for
for the
the species
species
composition of plantations.
 75

APPENDIX 1

ANNOl'ATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED

references are
These references fran comprehensive;
are far from canprehensive; the spread of subjects
subjects
touch on
which touch
which on mixed
mixed planting
planting is
is very
very wide.
wide. The notes only
only refer to aspects
of the publication that appear
publication that appear to
to he of relevance
be of relevance to
to mixed planting.
mixed planting.

l\dl.ard,
Adlard, P.G. Tropical forests
1978. Tropical
P.G. 1978. forests -- comparisons
canparisons and and contrasts.
contrasts. In: In: The
ecology of even-aged
ecology even-aged forest plantations. ProceedingsProceedings of of the
the meeting
meeting ofof
Division I, IUFRO, Edinburgh,
I, IUFRO, Edinburgh, Sept.Sept. 1978
1978. . Institute
Institute of of Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Ecology, Cambridge
Ecology, Cambridge (UK),(UK), 1979.
1979 .
tropics: Management
The tropics: Management.. Soils
primary prodUction
Net primary production in aa rain forest may be used used for
for maintaining a
equilibrium . Nitrogen fixers may be particularly important
dynamic equilibrium. important in
these forests.
these forests . High High temperatures
temperatures and and intensive
intensive rainfalls
rainfalls increase
increase
leaching in the tropics.
leaching tropics. Fertilization
Fertilization is costly and may may cause leaching
and may damage nitrogenous
nitrogenous bacteria
bacteria andand mycorrhizae.
mycorrhizae.
l\dl.ard,
Adlard, P.G., 1990. 1990 . Procedures for for Mbnitoring
MJnitoring Tree Tree Growth
GrO.-lth and Site
Change . Tropical
Change. Tropical Forestry
Forestry Papers
Papers 23,
23, Oxford
Oxford Forestry
Forestry Institute
Institute (UK).
(UK).
General : Management,
General: Management, Research
A manual for designing
A,manual designing and and setting
setting outout Permanent
Permanent Sample
Sample Plots.
Plots.
Agarwal,
Agarwal, S.C., Chinnamani, s.
S.C., Chinnamani, S. and Rege,
Rege, N. 1961. Mixed plantatiOns
D. 1961.
N.D. plantations for for
effective soil conservation in in the Nilgiris.
Nilgiris. Indian
Indian Forester
Forester 87 87 (1):
(1):
26-33
India: Soils.
India: Soils. Management
Natural regeneration
Natural regeneration of of Acacia molissima
molissima under Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus globulus
globulus
seems to work
work well.
well. The
The protective
protective value of the mixture mixture is greater
greater than
either alone.
alone .
Agestam, E. E. 1991. Blandskogens produktion. produktion. (The production
production of mixed
stands)
stands).. Skog
Skog ochoch FoLskning
Forskning 2/91:2/91: 44-51.
44-5l.
Scandinavia
Scandinavia:: Yield.
Yield.
A review of mixtures.
A mixtures. Despite the theoretical advantages of of mixing,
mixing, it
is difficult to demonstrate significant significant practical
practical gains.
gains.
Alphen de de Veer,
Veer, F.J.F.J. van 1950. Loofhout in
1950. Loofhout in Pinus-culturen.
pinus-culturen . (Broadleaved
species in pinepine plantations
plantations.) . ) Unpublished. Noted
Unpublished. Noted in Indonesian Forestry
Forestry
Abstracts, PUIXlC, Wageningen, 1982
Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract . Abstract" 590
Indonesia: Management
Indonesia:
MJnocultures are
Mbnocultures are warned against.
against . Mixing with with broadleaved
broadleaved species
species isis
recommended to avoid the
recommended to avoid the hazards. hazards.
Veer, F.J
Alphen de Veer, F. J.. van 1950. LoofhoutmeIJging
van 1950. Loofhoutmenging Pinus Takengon.Takengon. (Mixing
Pinus with broadleaved species in Takengon, Takengon, Aceh.) Handwritten. Noted
Aceh.) Handwritten.
in
in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts, PUIXlC, Wageningen, 1982.
PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract
Abstract
597.
597
Indonesia
Indonesia:: Management
Management
Wide spacing
spacing and and an understorey
understorey of of broadleaved
broadleaved species
species is is recommended.
reccmmended.
Broadleaves
Broadleaves can can bebe planted
planted after
after the first thinning.
the first thinning. A number of
A number
species in
suitable species in listed.
listed.
Alrasyid, H. 1985.
Alrasyid, Percobaan penanarnan
1985. Percobaan penanaman kayu eboni (Diospyros celebica) celebica) di
rewa tekagan
LaNa tekagan jati jati di Jawa . (The
di Jawa. (The plantation trial of
plantation trial of ebony wcod
ebony wood
(Dicspyros
(Diospyros celebica)
celebica) under teak forest forest stand in Java Java.). ) Buletin Pene-
Pene-
litian Rutan
HUtan No. 464: 23-37.
NO. 464: 23-37 .
Indonesia
Indonesia:: Management
Management
 76
76

A trial to underplant
A underplant ebony in in teak plantations
plantations has has been
been made.
made. It It is
concluded that that the heightheight growth of ebony under teak in aa monsoonal monsoonal
climate is
climate is low.
low.
Althen, F.W. von 1968.
Althen, F.W. Incanpatibilityof
1968. Incompatibility black walnut
of bladk walnut andand red
red pine.
pine.
Bimonthly Research Notes, Department
Bimonthly Research Department of of Forestry,
Forestry, Canada.
Canada. 2.2.
Canada: Management.
Canada: Management. Environmental
An experiment to establish
establish the the effects
effects ofof juglone,
juglone, aa substance
substance excreted
excreted
by walnut roots,
by roots, on on red pine. pine. Results
Results suggest
suggest that
that thethe effects
effects areare very
very
sanet:ilnes lethal.
bad, sometimes lethal.
Althen, F.W. von 1974.
Althen, F.W. Successful establishment
1974. Successful establishment of of sugar
sugar maple
maple inin aa Scots
plantation. Information
pine plantation. InfoIrnation Report,Report, Great Lakes Forest Research Cen-
Research Cen-
tre, Canada, No.
tre, Canada, No. O-X-208.
0-X-20S.
Canada:
Canada: Management
Sugar maple grows poorly on abandoned
Sugar abandoned fannland
farmland in pure
pure stands.
stands. Attempts
at planting
planting it it under
under Pinus
Pinus sylvestris
sylvestris havehave shown
shown promising
premising results.
results.
Ananthia Padnanalila,H.S., Nagareni,H.C.
Ananthia'.Padmanabha,H.S., NAgareni,H.C. and Rai,S.N. 1988. Influence Influence of of host
host
plants on on growth
growth of of Sandal.
Sandal. Myforest
Myforest 24 24 (2):
(2): 154-160.
154-160.
India: Management
India: Management
Suitable hosts
Suitable hosts for for Santalum
Santall.1Ill album
album areare suggested.
suggested. Suggestions are
supported by
supported by potpot culture
culture and and leaf
leaf analysis
analysis forfor Mg,
Mg, N,N, PP and
and K.
K.
Anderson, M.L. 1953. Spaced group
1953. Spaced group planting.
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Unasylva 7: 7: 55-63,
55-63.
Tropics: Management
Tropics:
Describes aa systemsystem of of group
group planting.
planting.
Andersson, S.O.
Andexsson, 1985. Treatment
S.O. 1985. Treatment of young mixed
of young stands with
mixed stands birches and
with birches
conifers.
conifers. In: In: Broadleaves in in Boreal Silviculture -- An Obstacle or or an
an
Asset? Swedish
Asset? SWedish University
University of of AsjLicultural
Agricultural Sciences,
Sciences, Department
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Silviculture, Report Report No. No. 14.14.
SWeden:
Sweden: Management
The advantages of retaining broadleaves broadleaves as nursenurse stands
stands are
are considered
considered
outweigh the
to outweigh the losses
losses of of increment.
increment.
Andrasko, K.
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=ent knowledge
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of effects, adaptation
adaptation and and mitigation options. FO:MISC/90/7,
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FAO, Rare. pp pp 60.
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Climate
General: Climate
A review
A, review of of factors
factors causing
causing climatic
climatic change
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effect on forests.
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Anon 1974. planting in in logged
logged beech
beech forest.
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What's New New in
Forest Research 10. 10. Forest Research
Research Institute,
Institute, Rotorua,
Rotorua, New New Zealand.
zealand.
New Zealand:
New zealand: Management.
Management.
Eucalyptus is is used in Podocarpus-Nothofagus forest where rimu
in Podocarpus-Nothofagus
cupressinum) grows
(Dacrydil.1Ill cupressinl.1Ill)
(.Dacrydium grows in in mixture
mixture with
with the beech.
Af,plegate, G.B. 1991.
Applegate, Personal communication.
1991. Personal carmunication.
Af,plegate, G.B.
Applegate, G.B. and Bragg,Bragg, A.L. 1988. Agroforestry tree
A.L. 1988. tree species
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Reforestation on on the
the North
North
Coast of NewNew South
South Wales, Queensland
Oleensland Forest
Forest Department.
Department.
Australia: Management
Australia: Management
A
A <=nparison
comparison of 'lbona australiensis, pure or in mixture
Tacna australiensis, mixture with
with Grevillea
Grevillea
rolxlsta.
robusta. Best Best results
results were were achieved
achieved whenwhen pure
pure or or under
under aa one yearyear
nurse. It
nurse. It isis important
:important to to thin
thin out out the
the nurse.
nurse.
Af,plegate, G.B. and Gi
Applegate, G.B. 1 nX"lI]r , D.A.
Gilmour, Experiences in
1987. Operational Experiences
D.A. 1987. in Forest
Management Developnent
Development in in the Hills of of Nepal.
Nepal. International Centre Centre for
for
Integrated Mbuntain
Integrated M:Juntain Development
Developnent (ICIMJD)
(ICIMOD) Occasional Paper Paper No.6,
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40.
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Nepal: Management, Yield
A forest
A forest classification and management options, options, depending
depending on initial
stand to be nsed used in in village
Village levellevel work
work plans.
plans.
 77

andGi1mrur, D.A.
AWlegate, G.B. andGilmour,
Applegate,G.B. 1988. Bianass andproductivity
D.A. 1988.Biomass and productivity estimates
estilPates forfor
ccmnunity
community forest management: a case study fran the hills of
a case study from the hills of Nepal - I. Nepal - 1.
Bianass
Biomass and productivity of
and productivity of Chir pine pine (Pinus roxburghii
(Timis roxburgtii Sargent) Sargent)
Bianass 17:
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115-136.
Nepal: Yield
Nepal:
Presents regressions
regressions for for predicting
predicting site site class(20)
class= fromfran internode
internode length
length
and for predicting stem weight, weight, branch weight and foliage weight from fran
dbh for Chir
Chir pine.
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AWlegate, G.B. et
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1990a. Sandalwood the Pacific:
Pacific: aa state-of-
state-of-
kn=ledge synthesis
knowledge synthesis and surrrnary from
and summary fran the
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April 1990 symposium. In
1990 symposium.
Proceedings of the
Proceedings the Symposium
Symposium on on Sandalwood
Sandalwocxi in in the
the Pacific, AprilApril 1990,
1990,
Honolulu, Hawaii. US
Honolulu,Hawaii. US Department
Departrrent of of Agriculture, Forest Service, Service, General
General
PSW-122. pp
Technical Report PSW-122. pp 1-11.
1-11 .
Tropics: Management,
Tropics: Management, Ecology,
Ecology, Utilisation
A
A resume of the the papers
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AWlegate, G.B., Davis, A.G.W.
Applegate, and Annable, P.A. 1990b. Managing
Sandalwocxi for conservation in North QJeensland.
Sandalwood Queensland. In Proceedings of of the
the
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Sandalwocxi in in the
the Pacific,
Pacific, April
April 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii,
1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
US Departrrent
Department of Agriculture,
Agriculture, Forest Service,Service, General Technical
Technical Report
Report
PSW-122. pp pp 12-18.
12-18.
Australia:
Australia: Management
A general
A general description
description of of Sandalwood
Sandalwood in in North
North Queensland.
QJeensland .
Aracruz Celulose S.A. 1988. Technology, Social Progress and the
Social
Leaflet describing
Environment. Leaflet describing the the company's
carnpany's activities.
activities.
Brazil: Management
Brazil:
20% of
20% the area
of the area under
under native
native forests.
forests. FruitFruit trees
trees being
being planted
planted to to
enoourage birds
encourage birds asas predators.
Aubreville, A. A. 1953. lme visite
1953. Une visite aux plantations dé
aux fdantaticns limbo du
de limbo M:Jyen-Congo.
du Atyen-Congo.
(A visit
visit toto the
the lirobo
limbo plantations
plantations in central Congo.) Congo.) Bois
Bois et et Forets
Forêts des
des
Tropiques 27:
Tropiques 27: 3-8.
3-8.
Congo: Management
Congo:
Experiments have
Experiments have shown Tezminalia supérta
shown that Terminalia superba can can he
be planted
planted in in widely
widely
spaced strips with with aa canpa.ratively
comparatively 1= nlxnber of
l1 number of seedlings
seedlings per per hectare,
hectare,
and still produce high grade timber. timber.
Auclair,
Anclajr, D. 1978.
1978. La sylviculture de
sylviculture dé forets m6langees.
fdréts melangees. Etude
bibliographique. (The
biblipgraphique. (The silviculture
silviculture of of mixed
mixed forests.
forests. A A review
review of of the
the
. literature.)
literature . ) Document
Document Centre
Centre de Recherches
Recherches Forestières
Forestieres d'Orléans
d'Orleans No. No .
78/30 .
78/30.
Review: Management
Review: Management
A review
A review ofof literature
literature concerning
ooncerning the the silviculture
silviculture of of mixed
mixed stands.
stands .
Babhar , L.I.
Babar, and EWel,
L.I. and :Diel., J.J.
J.J. 1989. Decanposicion del
1989. Decanposicion del follaje
follaje en en diveiscs
diversos
ecosistemas sucesionales
ecosistemas sucesionales tropicales.
tropicales. (Decanposition
(Decomposition of foliage in
of foliage
eoosystems.) Biotropica
successional tropical ecosystems.) Biotropica 21 (1): 21-29.
21 (1): 21-29.
Costa Rica:
Rica: Soils
Cordia alliodora
Cbrdia alliodora leavesleaves in pure plantation
in a pure plantation decomposed
decanposed slowly
sl=ly (22%(22%
mass and <50% elements, except P and K,
<50% of all elements, K, in
in 15 weeks
weeks as as against
against
50% of
50% of mass elements, except
mass and elements, except N N and S, S, inin 66 weeks in in aa simulated
simulated
species-rich successional stand).
A.C . 1930. Vul-drijf
Bakhoven, A-C.
Bakhoven, dikkingshout in
VUl-drijf en dikkingshout in wildhoutbergculturen,
wildhoutbergculturen,
dan wel,
wei, de in in de Lergwildhoutbergrulturen
bergwildhoutbergculturen in te brengen houtsoorten houtscorten
vor blijvend
blijvend onderbestand
ondertestand en en ondergroei. (Auxiliary, nursing
ondergroei. (Auxiliary, nursing and soil
oovering tree species to mix in
covering in non-teak plantations in
non-teak plantations in the
the mountains,
lOCluntains,
or,
or, to formfonn aa permanent
pennanent understorey
understorey tree tree layer
layer and
andundergrowth.)
undergrCMth . )
Tectona 23:23: 558-569, 569-581. Noted in Indonesian Forestry
558-569, 569-581. Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts,
PUIXlC,
PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract Abstract 591.591.
Indonesia: Management.
Indonesia: Management. Soils
 78

Silvicultural
Silvicultural guidelines
guidelines for establishing vertirally
for establishing vertically closed
closed mixed
mixed
plantations, considered
plantations, considered superior
superiorfranfromthe
thehydrological
hydrologicalpoint pointofof view.
vi.
Ball, J.B. 1979. Plantations. Technical
J .B. 1979. Tectmical Report No.No.3, Forestry Des.eiciment
3, Forestry IB.elq:nent
Nigeria . FAO,
Project, Nigeria. FAD, Rome.
Rane.
Nigeria: Mixtures of Nauclea diderichii with Meliaceae
Nigeria: Nkliaceae
Growth models and calculation
calculation of internal
internal rate
rate ofof return.
return.
Bandara, P.D.H.G.D. 1990. Insects and diseases of forest plantatiOns
P.D.M.G.D. 1990. plantations in
Sri Lanka.
Lanka. In Pests
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Diseases ofof Forest
Forest Plantations.
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HUtacharen, C.,
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Asia and the Pacific,
PacifiC, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
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Lanka: Pests and diseases
Notes
Notes pest diseases of
pest and diseases of forest
forest plantations
plantations and and lists areas of
lists areas
plantations by (total 180,000
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180,000 ha).
Barnes, R.D. Personal communication.
R.D. 1991. Personal carmunication.
Barnes,
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Rhodesia. South African Forestry
Forestry Journal
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98: 16-19.
16-19 .
Southern Africa:
Africa: Management. Environmental
Management. Environmental
Failures in tree plantations
plantations in southern
southern Africa
Africa can often
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attributed
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Aparajita, H.
B.K. and Aparajita,
Basu, B.X.
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1987. Effect Eucalyptus monocultures
IlIOnocultures on
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district, India.
India.
India: Soils
India:
Soils analysed under three hybrid Eucalyptus plantatiOns plantations (ages(ages 14,14, 10
and 4 -- dbh
dbh 19.1,
19.1, 9.5,9.5, 6.8
6.8 cm).
an). pH increased
increased fromfran 5.2
5.2 to to 5.7
5 . 7 with
with
increasing age;
age; organic content increased
increased (result
(result of fire protection),
N, exchangeable
also N, exchangeable Ca and KK and
Ca and and total
total MgO Kp.
and K20.
MgO and
Bateman, I.1. 1991. Placing
Placing IlIOney values on
money values on the unpriced benefits
the unpriced benefits of
forestry.
forestry. Quarterly Journal of ForestryForestry (UK) 85 (3):
(UK) 85 (3): 152-165.
152-165.
Econanics
UK: Economics
UK:
Analysis of
Cost Benefit Analysis of the
the UK Forestry Commission.
UK Forestry Commission.
L. and
A.L.
Bates, A. and Tbor,
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E. 1970. Mixed-species plantations:
plantations: canposition
composition and
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Forestry 68 68
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(4): 234-236.
USA: Yield
USA:
Pure Pinus echinata was c:anpared to mixtures with Pinus
was compared Pinus strobus
strobus and
tulipifera in 25
Liriodendron tulipiféra 25 year old stands.
stands. There
There were no signs of
increased growth
increased grCMth in in the
the mixtures.
mixtures.
Becking,
Becking, J.J.H.H. 1928
1928. Le djaticultur
. De djaticultur op Ja Java. Een verlijkend
va. Een verlijkend onde=oek
onderzoek naar
naar
uitkansten van veischillende
de uitkomsten verschillende verjcngingsmethoden
verjongingsmethoden van van den
den djati
djati op
Java. (The
Java. (The cultivation
cultivation of of teak in in Java.
Java. AA comparative
c:anparative investigation
investigation
into the
the results
results of of different methods of teak teak regeneration
regeneration inin Java.)
Java.)
Meded.
Meded, P.v.b.H
P.v.b.H.. 22,
22, TheSiS,
Thesis, Agricultural University,
University, the Netherlands.
Netherlands.
Noted in
Noted in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts, PUlXlC,
PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982 1982..
Abstract 714.
Abstract 714.
Indonesia: Management
Indonesia:
regenerating teak is compared
The taungya system for regenerating canpared to regeneration
regeneration
. fran
from coppioe
coppice.. Best results are achieved
achieved with
with taungya with
with interplanting
interplanting
of Leucaena.
Bell, T.I.W.
Bell, 1973. Erosion in the
T.1.W. 1973. the Trinidad
Trinidad teak
teak plantations.
plantations. Commonwealth
Ccmnonwealth
Forestry Review
Forestry Review 52 52 (3):
(3): 223-233.
223-233.
Trinidad: Soils.
Trinidad: Soils . Management
Canparative measurements
Comparative measurements of of soil
soil losses
losses between 10 and
between 10 and 13 year old
old teak
teak
plantatiOns and
plantations and natural shONed aa greater
natural forest showed greater soil
soil loss under
under teak
teak by
by
factors
factors ranging fran from 2.5
2.5 to
to 99.
. Until
Until 1919
1919 teak was raised in mixtures
teak was
in Trinidad.
 79
79

Benites,
Benites, J.R. 1990. Agroforestry
J.R. 1990. Agroforestry systems
systems with
with potential
potential for
for acid
acid soils of
the humid tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean.
Caribbean. Forest
Forest Eoology
Ecology
and Management 36: 81-101.
Management 36: 81-101.
South America and
and Caribbean:
Caribbean: Soils
GrElina aroorea and
GMelina artorea and sane other
other species have
have a great ability
Ability to increase
top soil ca Mg. But exchangeable K
Ca and Mg. K may
may decrease to very
very lCM
low levels
trigger deficiencies.
and trigger deficiencies.
Bhatia, N. and Prani.l.a
Bhatia, N. 1984. Neighbour interactions
Kapoor. 1984.
Promila Rapear.
Leucaena leucocephala
between Leucaena leucocephala and Acacia
Acacia nilotica in Punjab.
Punjab. Leucaena
IBucaena
Research Reports
Research Reports 5: 5 : 18-19.
18-19.
India:
India: Yield
L. leucocephala and
L. and A.A. nilotica
nilotica have been mixed
have been mixed at
at different
different levels.
levels.
Observations during the
Observations the first suggest that this mixture
weeks suggest
first 30 veeRs mixture is
is
very promising.
very pranising.
Binggeli, P. and Hamilton,
Binggeli, Hamilton, A.C. 1990. Tree species invasion and and
sustainable forestry in the East Usambaras. Usarnbaras. In Research
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Conservation
Conservation of Tanzanian Catchment
of Tanzanian catchrrent Forests. Hedberg, II.. and
Forests. ed Hedberg, and
E., Uppsala,
Persson, E., Uppsala, Sweden.
SWeden.
Management; Ecology.
Tanzania: Management, Eoology.
Describes the
Describes invasion of
the invasion of natural forests by
natural forests exotics and
by exotics steps
and the steps
needed to
needed to rehabilitate
rehabilitate the
the forests.
forests.
Ecosystem production
1983. Ecosystem
Binkley, D. 1983. production in
in Douglas-fir
Douglas-fir plantations:
plantations:
interaction of
interaction red alder
of red alder and
and site
site fertility.
fertility. Forest
Forest Eoology and
Ecology and
Management 55 (3):
Management (3): 215-227.
215-227.
USA:
USA: Soils
On a site deficient in N,
On alder increased Douglas fir mean
N, red alder mean dbh but
not b. a., total biarass
b.a., (including alder) gave 2.5-fold
biomass (including 2. 5-fold increase. There
There
an increase
was an increase in foliar
foliar N. the N-rich site
N. On the site red
red alder caused
caused a
reduction inin dbh
dbh and
and b.a.
b . a. of
of Douglas
Douglas fir.
fir.
Binkley, D.
Binkley, 1984. Importance of size-density relationship in mixed
D. 1984. mixed stands
stands
of Douglas
Douglas fir and red alder.
alder. Forest Eoology
Ecology and Management
Management 99 (2):
(2): 80-
80-
85
85
canada: Yield . Soils
Canada: Yield. Soils
Douglas fir
Pairs of Douglas fir and
and Douglas
Douglas fir/red
fir/red alder
alder plots
plots were
were compared.
canpared.
M::lrtality was higher
Mbrtality higher for
for mixed
mixed stands
stands on
on fertile
fertile sites.
sites. ItIt seems
seems that
that
underutilized resources
underutilized resources are
are available
available for
for the
the alder
alder on
on infertile
infertile sites.
Binkley, D.
Binkley, D. 1990. Mixtures of
1990. Mixtures of N2-fixing
N2-fixing and
and non-N2-fixing
non-N2-fixing tree
tree species.
species .
In Eoology
Ecology of Mixed Stands
stands of Trees.
Trees. British
British Ecological
Ecological Society and
IUFRO Div S2.01
S2.01 Symposium.
Symposium.
Temperate forests:
forests: Soils
Soils
Effects can only be expected on N-deficient
N-deficient sites where
where the
the N-fixing
trees are dominant
daninant or co-dominant.
oo-daninant. Increased grCMth
growth may
may give
give rise
rise to
increased nutrient
nutrient demands.
demands. Then,
Then, the rate ofof nutrient
nutrient cycling
cycling may
may not
not
enough for
be enough for maintaining
maintaining thethe growth
grCMth rate.
rate.
Binkley, D.
Binkley, D. and
and Greene, 1983. Production in mixtures of conifers and
S. 1983.
Greene, S.
red
red alder:
alder: the importance
importance of fertility and stand
of site fertility age. General
stand age. General
Report, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Technical Report,
Station, Dept. of Agriculture
Station, US Dept. Agriculture Forest
Forest Service
Service 163:
163: 112-117.
112-117 .
USA: Soils
USA: Soils
infertile sites
On infertile sites mixed
mixed alder/conifer
alder/oonifer stands
stands increased
increased rates
rates of
ecosystem production . Gains in conifer
ecosystem production. oonifer production occurred after age
30. On fertile sites mixed stand productivity did not exceed
30. exoeed that of
stands and
pure stands and conifer
conifer production was impaired.
production was impaired.
BiIot, Y.
Birot, Y. 1991 Boisement et reboisement.
reboisement. Position paper,paper, Theme 13, 10th
13, 10th
World Forestry
World Forestry Congress,
Congress, Paris,
Paris, 1991.
1991. Proceedings
Proceedings Vol.
Vol. 5:5: 9-19.
9-19.
Global: survey including
Global: General survey including examples
examples ofof the
the use
use of
of mixtures.
mixtures.
 80

Bjorkdahl., G. and Eriksson,

Bjorkdahl, G. Eriksson, H. Effects of crown
EL 1989 Effects cr= decline on increment
inCrem2l1t
in NOrway (Picea abies (L.)
Norway spruce (Picea (L.) KUnst.)
Kunst.) in
in southern
southern Sweden.
SWeden. Medd.
Medel.
Norsk. Inst.
Norsk. Inst. Skogforst
Skogforst 42
42 (1):
(1): 19-36.
19-36.
SWeden: Disease;
Sweden: Disease; Yield
Yield
of the
An account of
An the effect
effect of
of crown
cr= decline
decline on
on yields.
yields.
Productivity under
Boardnan, R. 1978. Productivity
Boardman, successive rotations
under successive rotations of Radiata
Radiata
pine.
pine. Australian Forestry
Forestry 41(3):
41(3): 177-179.
177-179.
Australia:
Australia: Yield
Second rotation decline was
rotation decline was correlated
correlated toto site
site quality
quality of the first
of the first
rotation.
rotation. It is important to stimulate the growthgrCMth of
of young
young stands.
stands.
Boardnan,
Boariman, R. 1982. Use of balanced fertilizers
R. 1982. fertilizers to produce
produce acceptable
acceptable
grCMth rates in Pinus
growth Finus radiata on marginal
marginal sites in SOuth
South Australia. In:
In:
IUFRO
RTFRo Sympcsium
Symposium on
on Forest
Forest Site
Site and
and Continuous
Continuous productivity,
Productivity, Washington,
Washington,
323-332.
Australia: SOils. Management
Australia: Soils.
Analysis of
Analysis of rooting
rooting strategies.
strategies. YieldYield decline overcane by paying
decline overcome paying
attention
attention to to organic
organic matter content of
matter content the topsoil,
of the topsoil, thethe principal
principal
source of base exchanges.Lack
he exchanges. Lackofoforganic
organicmat'cer
matter results
results inin compaction.
carpaction.
Litter accumulation must
Litteraccumulation must be
be avoided. Stepped
stepped application of of fertilizers
fertilizers
suited to
is well suited Pinus radiata.
to Pinus radiata.
Boardnan, R.
Boardman, 1988. Living
R. 1988. Living on edge -- the
on the edge the development
developnent of of silviculture
silviculture
in South Australia pine plantations.
plantations. Australian
Australian Forestry 51 (3): (3): 135-
156.
Australia:
Australia: Management
A history
A history of silviculture
silviculture in in S.Australia.
S.Australia.
Boardnan,
Boardman, R. 1990. The use of species mixtures
R. 1990. mixtures in plantations
plantations for for reha-
reha-
bilitation purposes
bilitation purposes in in the winter rainfall areas of SOuth
winter rainfall South Australia. In In
Ecology of Mixed
Ecology Mixed Stands
Stands of of Trees.
Trees. British
British Ecological
Ecological Society
Society andand IUFRO
Div S2.01
Div S2.01 Symposium.
Symposium.
Australia: Management
Australia:
Discusses
Discusses carpatibility
compatibility in in mixtures
mixtures using
using evidence
evidence framfrom spaced
spaced group
group
plantings in
plantings in Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus and fran espacement
and from espacement trials trials in P.radiata to
in P.radiata
produce vigour
vigour models.
roodels. Mixtures
Mixtures areare being
being used
used in in effluent
effluent schemes.
schemes .
Boardnan, R.
Boardman, Personal communication.
1991. Personal
R. 1991. crnrnunication.
Australia: Management
Australia:
Intrinsically
Intrinsically lowerlower raterate of nitrogen mineralisation
of nitrogen mineralisation in P.radiata
in P.radiata
carparison to
plantation in comparison to natural
natural woodland.
woodland.
G. 1983.
Bond, G. Taxonany and
1983. Taxonomy and distribution
distribution of of non-legume
non-legume N-fixing
N-fixing systems.
systems .
In: Biological
In: Biological Nitrogen fixation in forest ecosystems: Foundations and
and
applicatiOns. JJ.C.Gordon
applications. . C . Gordon and
and C. T. Wheeler
C.T. Wheeler eds. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr
eds. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr
W.Junk publishers.
W.Junk publishers.
General:
General: Soils
Lists genera which
which include
include species
species bearing
bearing Alnus-type
Alnus-type nodules.
nodules.
Bossut, P. 1988. Premiers resultats des plantations d'acacias
plantaticns
Australiens. AFR1
Anstraliens. AFRI (Togo), urn', unpublished.
(Togo), Cl'FT, unpublished .
Togo:
Togo: Yield. SOils
Yield. Soils
. Line mixtures
mixtures established
established 1982-83 to to improve
:iroprove sites
sites unsuitable
unsuitable forfor pure
pure
eucalyptus plantations
eucalyptus plantatiOns were were enumerated. The acacia, on average,
produced twice as much much wood
wood asas eucalyptus.
eucalyptus.
Boyce, J.
Boyce, S. 1954.
J.S. 1954. Forest
Forest plantation
plantation protection
protection against
against disease
disease and insect
and insect
pests. FAO
pests. FAD Forestry
Forestry Development
Developnent Paper
Paper 33 pp pp 41.
41 .
General:
General: Pests and Diseases
A general review of pest and disease problems .
A .

Brandis, D.
Brandis, 1901. Pure forests
D. 1901. forests and mixed forests.
forests. Transactions of of the
Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. Society.
Gemany: Management
Germany:
 81

Pine/Spruce and
Pine/Spruce and Pine/Beech
Pine/Beech mixtures are less prone
prone to
to Nun
Nun roth
moth (Liparis
(Eiparis
monarcha) attacks.
monarcha) attacks Pine/Beech
Pine/Beech and Larch/Beech mixtures
. mixtures have better
better soil
soil
structure.
structure. Oak/Beech
Oak/Beech mixtures in Spessart
mixtures in Spessart depend
depend onon early
early felling
felling of
of
beech for
beech for glassworks,
glassworks, allowing
allowing oak to came
oak to cane through.
through.
Brown, A.H.F. 1990. FUnctioning of mixed species stands:
A.H.F. 1990. stands: the Gisbum
Gisburn
experiment in NW England.
England. In Ecology
Ecology of
of Mixed
Mixed Stands
Stands of
of Trees.
Trees. British
British
Ecological Society
Ecological 8=iety and
and IUFRO
IUFRO Div
Div S2.01
S2.01 Symposium.
Syrrposium.
UK: Soils
UK:
effect may
Mixture effect may be positive, negative or compensatory.
ccnpensatory. In the
the case
case
of spruce
spruce NN (and
(and possibly
possibly P) P) nutrition
nutrition appeared
appeared to to be be implicated,
irrplicated,
availability
availability of which may may vary with with differences
differences in turnover
turnover of of organic
organic
matter or
matter or camplementarity
complementarity of of rooting
rooting patterns.
patterns.
Brown, A.H.F. and Harrison,
Brown, A.H.F. Harrison, A.F. 1983. Effects of tree mixtures on
A.F. 1983.
earthwonn
earthworm populations
populations and and nitrogen
nitrogen and and phosphorus
phosphorus status
status in NoJ:WaY
in Norway
(Picea abies)
spruce (Picea stands. In
abies) stands. In New Trends
Trends in Soil Biology.
in Soil Biology. Lebrun,
P., Andre,
P., Andre, H.M.
H.M. and Medts,
Medts, A. (eds.) P
A. (eds.) 101-108 . Université
p 101-108. Universite Catholique
catholique
de Louvain,
Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve. pp pp 703.
703.
UK: Soils
UK:
26-year-old
26-year-old mixture
mixture of of spruce,
Spruce, Alder Alder and Scots pine at
Scots pine at Gisburn.
Gisbum.
Earthwonn numbers and weight,
Earthworm weight, soil NO., PP status and tree height were
soil NO,,
increased by an admixture of of alder ana and rore
more so of pine. Admixed trees
of pine.
are assumed to have encouraged earthwonns, earthworms, resulting
resulting in in an
an increased
mineralisation of
mineralisation of NN and
and P.P.
Bruenig, E.F. 1983. Designing ecologically
Bruenig, ecologically stable plantations. In: In :
Strategies and Designs for Afforestation
Strategies Afforestation and and Tree Planting.
Planting. proceedings
Proceedings
of anan International
International Symposium
Syrrposium (Wiersum,
(Wiersum, K. K.F.
F. ed.), PUlXlC, Wageningen,
ed.), PUDOC, Wageningen,
1984.
1984
Gennany: Management.
Germany: Management. Yield
The rigidity of of present-day
present-day forestry
forestry is is criticized.
criticized. Guidelines
Guidelines forfor aa
rore flexible
more flexible and
and functional
functional forestry
forestry are are given.
given . AA practical
practical example
example of
of
irrplementation of these is
implementation is provided.
Bruenig, E.F.
Bruenig, ITIO guidelines
1991(a). ITTO
E.F. 1991(a). guidelines for for the
the sustainable
sustainable management
management of of
man-made tropical
tropical forests (First Draft).
forests (First Draft). Presented
Presented to the the Permanent
Pennanent
carrnittee reforestation and
committee on reforestation and Fbrest
Forest Management
Management at the seventh
at the seventh
session, Quito, Ecuador.
Ecuador.
Tropics: Management
Tropics:
Outlines 48 principles and suggests 56 possible lines lines of action,
action, with
with
particular reference to
particular to maintaining stability
stability and reducing risk. risk. Mixed
Mixed
planting strongly
planting strongly favoured.
favoured.
Bruenig, E.F. 1991(b). Forests and climate: climate: new dimensions and
perspectives. Position Paper,
perspectives. Paper, Theme
Theme 1, 1, 10th
10th World
World Forestry
Fbrestry Congress,
Congress,
Paris, 1991. Proceedings
Paris, 1991. Proceedings Vol. 2: 2: 9-15.
9-15.
Global: Management
Global:
Draws attention to the problems
Draws attention problems inherent
inherent in man-made forests due to
man-made forests to
their design for maximum production
production leading
leading to to ecological
ecological instability.
instability.
Man-made forests
Man-made forests must
must bebe modified
Il'Cldified toto cope
cope with
with impending
irrpending climatic
climatic
changes.
changes.
Budowski,
Budowski, G. Biological diversity
1983. Biological
G. 1983. diversity and and forestation
forestation in the tropics.
in the tropics.
In:
In: Strategies
Strategies and Designs for
and Designs for Afforestation
Afforestation and and TreeTree Planting.
Planting .
Proceedings of of an
an International
International Symposium
Syrrposium(Wiersum,
(Wiersum, K.K.F. ed.), PUDOC,
F. ed.), PUlXlC,
1984 .
Wageningen, 1984.
tropics: Management
The tropics:
Advantages of plantations over over natural forests
forests are
are summarized.
summarized. TheThe so
so
far limited,
limited, and largely disappointing, experiences of mixed
plantations
plantations is is discussed.
discussed. An An exception
exception is is the
the use ofof cover and and shade
shade
crops.
 82

Bu1e, and Daruhi,

L. and
Bule, L. Daruhi, G. 1990. Status
G. 1990. Status ofof Sandalwood
Sandalwood resources
resources in in Vanuatu.
Vanuatu.
Proceedings of
In Proceedings of the S~itnn on Sandalwood
the Symposium Sandalwood in the Pacific, Pacific, April
1990,
1990, Honolulu, Hawaii. US Department of Agriculture,
Honolulu, Hawaii. Agriculture, Forest Fbrest Service,
Service,
General Technical Report PSW-122. pp pp 79-84.
79-84 .
Vanuatu: Management.
A history of exploitation
A exploitation of Sandalwood
Sandalwood in Vanuatu
Vanuatu and and an account
account of
current problems and
and research.
research.
Burdon, R.D. 1982.
Burdon, R.D. MJnocultures -
1982. Mbnocultures h~ vulnerable?
- how vulnerable? What's What's new in in Forest
Fbrest
No. 115.
Research No. 115. Forest
Forest Research
Research Institute,
Institute, Rotorua.
Rotorua.
New Zealand:
Zealand: Environmental.
Environmental. Soils
Criticism of pure even aged plantations
plantations are
are summarized
s\.ll11l1arized and
and discussed.
discussed.
It is concluded that pure
pure even
even aged stands
stands areare not automatically more
vulnerable thaninixed
than mixed stands.
stands. The limited success of exotics other than
exotics other
Radiata pine in New Zealand
Zealand isis noted.
IkaJDri., Y.K.
J. and Ikemori,
Burley, J. 1988. Tropical forest production:
Y.K. 1988. production: the impact
of clonal
clonal propagation technology. In T~
propagation technology. Towards an an Agro-industrial
Agro-industrial FUture,
Future,
Royal Agricultural Society
Society of England, Mbnograph
MJnograph Series
Series 8: 8: 169-180.
169-180 .
Brazil:
Brazil: Management
A
A description of the tree breeding
breeding and
and cloning
cloning programme of of Aracruz,
Aracruz,
Brazil.
Butter.fie1d, J., standen,
Butterfield, J., V. and Benitez Malvido,
Standen, V. 1990. The
J. 1990.
MaIvido, J. The effect of
of
mixed species
species planting
planting on the distribution
distribution of soil invertebrates
invertebrates inin
broadleaved and conifer stands. Ecology of Mixed
stands. In Ecology Mixed Stands
Stands of
of Trees.
Trees.
British Ecological
British Ecological Society
Society and
and IUFRO
IUFRO Div
Div S2.01
S2.01 Symposium.
Sympositnn.
UK: Soils
UK:
Distribution of Enchytraeidae
Distribution Enchytraeidae carabid ground beetle beetle detennined
determined byby soil
soil
type and tree species.
Ca1abri, G.
Calabri, 1991. Problems and prospects for forest fire
G. 1991. fire prevention
prevention and
control.
control. Position Paper, Theme 5, 5, 10th
10th World Forestry Congress, Paris,
World Forestry Paris,
1991.
1991. Proceedings, Vol.2:
Vol.2: 405-414.
405-414.
Global:
Global: Management
Statistics on forest fires and and means
means of hazard reduction.
of hazard reduction.
CaIpinhos, and ikemori,
Campinhos, E. and IkaJDri., Y. K. 1986.
Y.K. Breeding Eucalyptus in Brazil.
1986. Breeding
Aracruz Florestal S.A.S.A. mdmeographed
mimeographed Report
Report pppp 9.
9.
Brazil:
Brazil: Management
Reviews the need for improvement in genetic genetiC quality in tree
plantations. Beside increases in volume etc major major improvements in in wood
wood
density, pulp yield,
density, yield, coppicing
coppicing ability
ability achieved.
achieved. Economic
Econanic advantage
advantage
Brazil $55/ton
Brazil $55/ton pulp
pulp v.
v. Finland
Finland $155.
$155.
Caopinhos, E.
Campinhos, E. and C1anilio-da-Silva,
Claudio-da-Silva, E.
E. 1990. Developrent
Development of the
of
future. Paper presented to ESPRA Spring
Eucalyptus tree of the future.
conference, Seville,
conference, SeVille, Spain.
Spain. Aracruz
Aracruz Florestal
Florestal S.A.
S.A. mimeographed
mimeographed report.
report.
Brazil: Management
Brazil:
Importance
Importance of
of breeding
breeding for
for pulp
pulp quality.
quality. Volume
Volume mai
mai (1990) has fallen
(1990) has
35m3 as against 45m3
to 35m3 in 1985
45m3 in 1985 asas aa result
result of of drought.
drought.
Canizares, E.G. et al.
Canizares, E.G. (i987?). Propuesta de planificacion territorial
al. (1987?). territorial de
forestal en la
la actividad forestal la Sierra
Sierra del Rosario, alba.
del Rosario, Cul:E . IESACC, A.
A.P.
P.
8010, C. Habana
8010, C. Habana 10800.
10800.
Management
CUba: Management
Cuba:
Derives aa stress
Derives stress index
index for
for sites,
sites, and index for
and an index for each
each species'
species'
ability
ability to
to cope with the stress.
stress. Using
Using these
these indices,
indices, it
it should
should be
be
to match
possible to match species
species to
to sites.
sites.
carlson, A.
Carlson, 1986. A
A. 1986. canparison of birds inhabiting pine plantation and
A comparison
indigenous
indigenous forest
forest patches
patches in a tropical
in a tropical mountain
mountain area.
area. Biological
Conservation 35:
Conservation 35: 195-204.
195-204.
Kenya:
Kenya: Wildlife
 83
83

Specialist species
species were
were more
more impoverished in Radiata Radiata pine plantati
plantationsons
than were
than generalists. Palaearctic
were generalists. Palaearctic species
species were favoured by pine.
were favoured pine.
Native forests
forests reserves
reserves are needed,
needed, and islands
islands and mosaics of of native
native
pplant
l ant species.
carlson, P.J. and Dawson JJ.0.
Carlson, P.J. 1984. Effects of auturrm-
. D. 1984. olive and black
autumn-olive
alder leaf llDllches
mulches on the tbe growth
gra-vth ofof eastern
eastern cotton
cotton wood
wocd inin two
two soils.
soils.
Fbrestry
Forestry Research
Research Report,
Report, Dept.Dept. of Forestry,
Forestry, Agricultural
Agricultural Experiment
Experiment
Station,
Station, University of Illinois Illinois 84-1:
84- 1: pp
pp 3.
3.
USA: Soils
USA:
In pot
pot experiments,
experiments, llDllch
mulch of of Alnus glutinosa and
Alms glutinosa Eaaeagnus umbellata
and Elaeagnus
leaves (especially of the latter) improved improved growth
grCMth of Populus deltoddes
of Populus deltoides
in both loamy prairie
prairie soil and 2:1:1 sand:peat:soil mixture. mixture. N-fixing
species may be beneficial even even onon fertile
fertile prairie
prairie soil.
soil.
Cellier, Boarduan, R.,
K.M., Boardman,
Cellier, KiM., R., Boamsma, andZed,
D.B. and
lloansma, D.E. Zed,P.P.G. 1985. Response
G. 1985.
Pinus radiata D.Don to various
of Pinus various silvicultural treatments on adjacent
treat:rrents
first- and second-rotation
second- rotation sites sites near
near Tantanoola,
Tantanoola , south
south Australia.
Australia . I. I.
Establishment and
Establishment and grCMth
growth up up to
to ageage 77 years.
years . Australian
Australian FOrestry
Forestry
Research 15:
Research 15: 431-447.
431-447.
Australia
Australia:: Management,
Management, Soils
Description of treatments
treat:rrents on on paired
paired first-
first- and
and second-rotation
second-rotation plots.
plots .
Of particular effecteffect were weed weed control
control using
using aa herbicide,
herbiCide, Phosphate
Phosphate
addition at high level and Nitrogen at moderate moderate level;
level; lime effective
on 2nd
2nd rotation.
rotation . No difference
difference between
between yields
yields of rotations at
of two rotations at
optimum levels;
levels; overall increase
increase in in yield
yield of
of 30%.
30%.
Chaffey, 1978. Decline in productivity under successive rotations of
D.R. 1978.
Chaffey, D.R. of
forest monocul ture. Land Resources Division, Miscellaneous
monoculture. Miscellaneous ReportReport 243,
243,
ODA, London.
General review
Literature review under the follONing following main headings;
headings; pathogens,
pathogens, soilsoil --
physical properties,
properties, soil soil-- chemical
chemical properties,
properties , biological factors and and
climate.
climate.
Chanpion, Forestry . Oxford
H. G. 1954. Forestry.
Champion, H.G. Oxford University
University Press
Press (UK).
(UK) .
textbook: Management
General textbook:
Line and matrix mixing are briefly briefly explained.
explained . The
The relative
relative rarity
rarity of of
successful mixtures is is noted.
noted .
Chaopion, H.G. and Griffith,
Champion, H.G. Griffith, A.L. 1948. Manual of general silviculture
A.L. 1948.
India. Geoffrey
for India. Geoffrey Cumberlege,
CUmberlege , Oxford
Oxford University
University Press
Press (UK).
(UK).
India:
India: Management,
Management, textbook
!rrq?ortant
Important reasons for failures with with mixed
mixed plantations
plantatiOns are are summarised.
sUlllllarised.
Limited present
Limited present knowledge
knONledge means
means that
that work
work must probably
probably be experimental
experimental
for many years to cane came.. Evidence
Evidence indicates
indicates that
that benefits
benefits from
fran mixtures
mixtures
llDlSt be
must be derived
derived from
fran thethe maintenance
maintenance of of soil
soil over
over future
future rotations.
rotations.
K., Whittaker,
Chapman, K.,
ChapDan, Whittaker, J.B. J.B. and Heal,Heal, D.W. 1988. Metabolic and faunal
O.W. 1988.
activity in
activity in litters
litters of tree mixtures
of tree mixtures compared
canpared with with pure
pure stands.
stands.
Proceedings: Workshop
Wbrkshop on interactions between soil-inhabiting
between
invertebrates and microorganisms
invertebrates microorganisms in in relation
relation to plant grCMth,
growth, Columbus,
Columbus,
Ohio, March 1987. In:
March 1987. In: Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
Environment V. 24 24 (1-
(1-
3), Elsevier, 1988.
3), 1988 .
UK: Soils
UK: Soils
Vi s-a.-vis single species stands,
Vis-a-vis stands, nutrient availability
availability and tree tree gra-vth
growth
were enhanced
were enhanced in in spruce/pine
spruce/pine and depressed depressed in in spruce/alder
spruce/alder and and
spruce/oak
spruce/oak mixtures
mixtures.. MJbilization
Mbbilization ratesrates were correlated positively
positively with
metabolic activity,
metabolic activity, andand related
related to to changes in the decanposer ccmnuni ty
decomposer community
forest floor.
of the forest floor .
Chaturvedi,
Chaturvedi, A.N. 1983. Eucalyptus for Farming.
A.R. 1983. Farming. Uttar Pradesh Forest
Bulletin 48.48 . 48pp
 84

India: Management
India:
Suppression inevitably occurs in aa mixture mixture.. Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus tends tends toto suffer
suffer
rrore from
more fran competition.
ccrnpetition. 99 mixtures
mixtures havehave been tried and
been tried and rejected.
rejected.
Chijioke, E.O.
Chijioke, Impact on soils of fast-growing species in lowland
E.O. 1980. Empact
humid tropiCS.
humid Andre Mayer Research
tropics. André Research Fellowship. FAO F7IO Forestry
Forestry Paper
Paper 21,
21,
F7IO, Rome.
FAO, Rare.
Tropics:
Tropics: Soils
No evidence that monoculture
rronoculture leadsleads to a morerrore rapid
rapid depletion of the the
soil
soil nutrient reserves than
nutrient reserves than would mixtures
mixtures having the the same
same biomass
bianass
rotation length
production, rotation length andand the
the same
same proportion
proportion of the crop crop removed
rem:Jved
in harvesting.
Chou, C.K.S.
Chou, 1981. M:moculture,
C.K.S. 1981. Mbnoculture, species diversification,
diversification, and disease
hazards
hazards in plantation forestry. forestry . New Zealand
Zealand Journal
Journal of of Forestry
Forestry 26
(1):
(1): 20-42
20-42..
. New
New Zealand: Environmental,
Envirornnental, Pests and and diseases
The issue of
The issue stand composition
of stand canposition and and disease hazard is
disease hazard is unclear.
unclear. If If aa
pathogen has several host species, species, mixtures may be no safer than pure
stands.
stands. ThisThis makes
makes prescription
prescription of of safe
safe mixtures hard. Regimes
mixtures hard. Regimes for
for
mixed stands
mixed stands may
may by themselves create
by themselves create disease problems.
problems. Crop crop rotation
rotation
is aa fonn
form of mixture that may prove necessary.
may prove necessary.
elm,
Chu, C.G.1980. (Study on
C.G.1980. (Study biological productive
on biological productive forces
forces of koraiensis
of Pinus koraiensis
artificial forest.)
forest.) Institute
Institute of Forestry
Forestry andand Pedology,
Pedology, Academia
Sinica.
China: Yield
China:
Pure and mixed stands of Pinus koraiensis are compared. carpared. Total biomass bianass
when mixed with broadleaves is higher than in pure stands.
when stands. QJ.ality
Quality and
vigour of mixed stands is
mixed stands is also
also higher.
higher.
Ciesla, W.M.
Ciesla, Cypress aphid:
W.M. 1991. Cypress aphid : aa new
new threat
threat toto Africa's
Africa's forests.
forests.
Unasylva 167.
Unasylva 167. Vol.42:
Vol.42: 51-55.
51-55.
Eastern Africa:
Africa: Insect attadk attack
Account of attacks
attacks to to CUpressus
Cupressus lusitanica
lusitanica by by Cinara
Cinara cupressi.
cupressi.
Ciesla, W.H.
Ciesla, W.M. and J.E. Mari Macias 1987. Desierto
Samano. 1987.
as Samano. Desierto dede los
los Leones:
Leones: A A
forest in crisis.
crisis . American Forests Forests 93:93: 29-31,
29-31, 72-74.
72-74.
Envirornnent:
Environment: Pollution
Clatt:erl:JUck,
Clatterbuck, W. W.K.,
K., Oliver,
Oliver, C.D. C.D. and
and Burkhardt, E. E.C. 1987. The
C. 1987. The silvi-
silvi-
cultural potential
cultural potential of of mixed stands of cherrybark
mixed stands cherrybark oak and and American
American
sycarrore: Spacing
sycamore: Spacing is is the key. Southern Journal
key. Southern Journal of of Applied Forestry 11:
Applied Forestry 11:
158-16l.
158-161.
USA:
USA: Management
Line mixture
mixture of Olercus falcata var.
Cuercus falcata var. pagcxlifolia,
pagudifolia, Platanus
Platanus occidentalis
occidentalis
Populusdeltoides(died
and Populus deltoides(died out). Q. Q. falcata, thethe rrore
more valuable speCies,
valuable species,
suppressed by
was suppressed by neighbouring
neighbouring P. occidentalis. At At 24 yean; daninant Q.
years dominant
falcata caught up with with P. occidentalis. Management
P. occidentalis. obviously important.
Management obviously important.
Clatt:erl:JUck,
Clattetbudk, W.K. W.K. and Hodges,
Hodges, J.D. 1988. Developnent
J.D. 1988. Development of cherrybark oak and
sweet gum in mixed,
nixed, even-aged
even-aged bottanland
bottomland stands in central central MiSSiSSippi,
Mississippi,
USA.
USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Forest Research
Research 18(1):
18(1): 12-18.
12-18.
USA
USA:: Yield.
Yield. Management
"Restricted" developnent
"Restricted" development oc=ed occurred at a spacing
spacing of 5.5 5.5 m.In. Liquidambar
styraciflua daninated
dominated for 20 20 years
years.. By age 58 Q. falcata had a dbh of
Q. falcata
61 an and a height of 34 In. developnent occurred
m. "Unrestricted" development oc=ed where
daninants
dominants or codominants
codaninants were rrore more than 5.55.5 m apart. Then
In apart. Then Q.Q. falcata
falcata
achieved 56
achieved 56 an
an dbh
dbh and
and 2626 mIn in
in height
height atat age
age 40.
40.
Clout,M.N. 1985. Wildlife
Clout,M.N. Wildlife in in pine
pine plantations
plantations -- the the New
New Zealand
Zealand position.
position .
In : Wildlife
In: Wildlife management
management in the forests forests and forestry
forestry controlled
controlled lands in
the tropics and southern hemisphere.hemisphere. ed J. Kikkawa . IUFRO Workshop
J.Kikkawa. Workshop held
held
University of
at University of Queensland,
QJeensland, Australia.
Australia.
 85
85

Tropics and southern hemisphere:

hemisphere: Wildlife
Diversity of native
Diversityof native bird
bird species
species isis positively
positively correlated to structural
structural
diversity. Young pine
habitat diversity. pine plantations
plantations are particularly poor
are particularly poor
habitats forfor native
native birds.
birds.
Personal communication.
Cossalter, C. 1991. Personal carmunication.
Coster, C. C. 1934. Rapport over reJ::.oisatie der
over de raboisatie der Tegal-Naroe
Tegal-Waroe landen.
(Report
(Report of of the reafforestation of the
the reafforestation the Tegal
Tegal Waru
Waru lands
lands 1934.)
Unpublished. Notedin
Unpublished.Noted in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen,
PUIXlC, Wageningen,
1982.
1982. Abstract 626.
Abstract 626.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
Recarrnendations of
Recommendations of methods
methods to reafforest grasslands.
to reafforest grasslands. Mixtures
Mixtures with
Albizia falcataria
Albizia falcataria inin the top
top storey
storey is is among
among the
the methods
methods recommended.
recarrnended .
Cote, B. and Camire,
Cot6, B. Camire, C. 1987. Tree grCMth
C. 1987. growth and nutrient cycling in dense
plantings of hybrid poplar and black alder. alder. Canadian
Canadian Journal of
Fbrest
Forest Research 17 (6): (6): 516-523.
516-523.
Canada:
Canada: Soils
Alnus
Alnus glutinosa and Populus
POpulus nigra xx P. trichocazpa. stimulatory
P. trichocarpa. Stimulatory effect
effect
of alder on
of alder poplar growth
on poplar grCMth decreased
decreased over three three years.
years . Reduced
canpetition
competition of of the
the srraller
smaller alder
alder for soil N
for soil light in
N and light in the
the first
first
grow-ing
growing season
season is
is considered
considered thethe lOC)st important factor
most important factor inin increasing
increasing
poplar growth.
individual poplar grCMth.
Courrier,
Courrier, G. G. and Garllaye,
Garbaye, J. 1981. A propos dé
J. 1981. de la sylviculture des
peuplements melanges .OnUnexemple
peuplementsmélanges. exanplede 1 'effet tenefique
de l'effet benefique de 1 'aulne sur
de l'aulne sur la
la
croissance des peupliers.
croissance des peupliers. Revue
RevueForestier
ForestierFranr,laise
Fran<;aise 33 (4): 289-292.
33 (4): 289-292.
France:
France: Soils
Fertilizer effects on loppulus Populus "Fritzi Pauley" had completely canpletely
disappeared
disappeared after 10 years, but
after 10 years, but there
there was strong
strong correlation
correlation between
between
poplar volume
volume and
and mxnber
number ofof Alnus glutinosa.
Alms glutinosa.
Craib, I.J. 1947
Craib, The silvicultura
1947 The silviculture of exotic conifers
of exotic conifers inin South
South Africa.
Africa.
Journal of the South
South African Fbrestry Association
African Forestry Association 15:
15: 11-45.
11-45.
South Africa:
Africa: Management
Recarrnendations
Recommendations for for heavy
heavy early thinnings in conifers
early thinnings conifers to to maximise
maximise
economic returns.
economic returns.
Ciki 1977 (?).
CTE"l'1977 (?). Projet
Frojet de plantation framire en melange
pdantation du framiré mélange avec d'autres
essences (fraké,
(frake, samba,
saml::e., cedrela, ou Propose àala
cordia). Iroposé
ou corola). la _Direction
Direction de
RelxJisement
Réboisement de la SODEFOR. CTFT Division d'Entarologie
la SODEFOR. MIT Division d'Entomologie et de
de Pathologie
Pathologie
Fbrestieres (unpublished).
Forestieres (unpublished).
c'1101': Management,
CTFT: regeneration, spacing
Management, regeneration,
It has been found
has been found that
that efforts
efforts at raising Tenninalia
at raising Terminalia ivorensis
ivorensis are lOC)re
more
successful
successful when they
they areare raised at lCM
low densities.
densities. To keep
keep up
profitability, mixtures have have been tried.
been tried.
Liki 1991. Essais:
CTE"l' ESsais: Cmposition
Composition de peuplement 'melange
'in6lange d'essences"
(Experiments:
(Experiments: MixedMixed stands). Unpublished. CTFT, Nogent-sur-Marne.
West Africa (+ (+ Madagascar, French Guyana,
Madagascar, French New Caledonia);
Guyana, New caledonia); Management,
Yields
A summary
A stmrnary of each of 63 experiments (active (active oror closed) mainly-in
mainly in 88 West
West
countries.
African francophone countries.
Darrah, G.V. and Dodds,
Darrah, G.V. Dodds, J.W. 1967. GrCMing
J.W. 1967. Growing broadleaved treestrees in mixture
mixture
with conifers.
conifers. Forestry
Fbrestry 40 40 (2):
(2): 220-228.
220-228. UK.UK.
UK:
UK: Management
carpatibility between
Compatibility between species,
species, oror provenances,
provenances, is is important
important to the
to the
success
success of of aa mixture.
mixture. Yields of conifers are are often less
less than optimal
than optimal
because thinnings occur
because thinnings occur at inconvenient
inconvenient times,
times, especially
especially if if the
the mix is
mix is
incanpatible.
incompatible.
Darroze,
Darroze, S. s. 1991. Personal communication.
1991. Personal carmunication.
 86
86

Davidson,
Davidson, J. 1986. Underplanting,
J. 1986. Underplanting, inteI:planting
interplanting and buffer planting for
forest
forest plantations.
plantations. Assistance
Assistance to the Forestry Sector Sector of of Bangladesh.
Bangladesh.
BGD/79/017. Working Paper 18.
UNDP/FAO Project BGD/79/017. 18 . Bangladesh:
Bangladesh: Management
Underplanting of of ground cover crops is advocated. Examples of
successful legumes are given. given. 'IWo species mixtures
Two species mixtures withwith one
one legume
legume are are
recarmended.
recommended.
Dawkins, H.C. 1949. Timber planting in the Tenninalia
Timber planting Terminalia woodland of
Northern Uganda.
Northern Uganda. Empire
Empire Forestry
Forestry Review
Review 28 28 (3):
(3): 226-246.
226-246.
Uganda: Management
Uganda:
Establishment of
Establishment Chlorophora excelsa
of Chlorophora excelsa and grandifoliola in
Khaya grandifdliola
and Khaya in aa
matrix Phyllanthus discoideus
matrix of Phyllanthus discoideus and Gnelina arrorea.
and Grlelina aztorea. An An analysis of of
ecological succession in aa dry dry (5(5 months dry season) site
dry season) site from
fran fire-
fire-
prone Tenninalia grassland
prone Terminalia grassland to fire tender
to fire tender spp Entandrophragma.
spp -- Entandrophragma
angolense
angolense etc.etc.
J.O., Dzialowy, P.J., Gertner, G.Z. and Hansen,
Dawson, J.0., Hansen, E.A. 1983. 1983.
Changes
Changes in soil soil nitrogen
nitrogen concentration
concentration around Alnus glutinosa
aroundAininz; glutinosa in aa
mixed, short-rotation plantation
mixed, plantation with hybrid hybrid Populus.
Populus. Canadian
Canadian Journal
Journal
of Forest Research 13(4): 572-576. 572-576.
USA:
USA: Soils
In
In aa 4-year-old
4-year-old mixed mixed plantation
plantation N N accretion
accretion was was greatest in
alder: poplar 1:1
alder:poplar 1: 1 plantations, less less inin 2:1
2: 1 mixture
mixture and and least
least in 3:13: 1 mix.
It is hypothesised
It is hypothesised that that early
early accretion
accretion of of N soil results
N in soil results fromfran
carpetition-induced
competition-induced stress stress resulting fran from shading
shading by by poplars
poplars or or poplar
poplar
allelochemicals.
DeBell Whitesell,C.D. and
,S.D., Whitesell,C.D.
DeBell,S.D., and Schubert,T.H.
Sdhaert,T.H. 1985. Mixed plantations
1985. Mixed plantations of
Eucalyptus and
Eucalyptus and leguminous
leguminous trees
trees enhance
enhance bianass
biomass production.
production. Research
Research
PSW-175. Berkeley, CA: Pacific
Paper PSW-175. Southwest Forest
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Range
Experiment Station,
Station, Forest Service, US US Dept. of of Agriculture. pp pp 6.6.
Hawaii: Yield. Soils
Hawaii: Soils
N-fixing Acacia melanoxylon
speCies, Acacia
N-fixingspecies, melanoxylon and and Albizia falcataria, were
Albizia falcataria, were grown
grown
in
in line
line mixtures
mixtures of of Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus grandis
grandis and and E.E. saligna.
saligna. At 65 roonths
At 65 months
height
height grCMth
growth of eucalyptus was greater
of eucalyptus greater in in mixtures
mixtures with Albizia.
with Albizia.
Foliar nutrient concentrations
concentrations were were higher,
higher, and and soil
soil nutrients
nutrients lower,
lower,
in the mixtures.
DeBell,
DeBp11, D.S.,
D. S., Whitesell, C.D. Crabb, T.B.
and Crab, T. B. 1987. Benefits of
Eucalyptus-Albizia
EUcalyptus-Albizia mixturesmdxtflresvary vary by by site
site on on Hawaii Island,
Island. Research
Research
Paper PSW-187.
PSW-187. Berkeley, CA. Pacific Southwest Forest
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Range
Experiment Station, Forest Service, US US Dept. of of Agriculture.
Agriculture.
pp 5.
PP 5-
Hawaii:
Hawaii: Yield.
Yield. Management
Inorganic fertiliser applied to pure and mixed mixed plantations.
plantations. Admixture
Albizia tal
of Albizia falcataria into Eucalyptus
cataría into EUcalyptus saligna plantations improved
saligna plantations improved
eucalyptus grCMth
eucalyptus growth on on the two wetter
the two wetter sites,
sites, but but not
not on the two drier
sites. On
sites. one site
On one site the Albizia failed.
the Albizia failed. Failure
Failure attributed
attributed to to lawlaw
rainfall. Acacia mangium
rainfall. mangium maymay be an alternative
be an alternative to Albizia.
to Albizia.
DeBell, D.D.S.,
S., Whitesell,
Whitesell, C.D. and and Sdhlibert,
Schubert, T.H. T.H. 1989. Using N2-fixing
1989. Using N2-fixing
. Albizia to increase grCMth growth of of Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus plantatiOns
plantations in Hawaii.Hawaii. Forest
Forest
Science 35 (1): (1): 64-
64- 75.
75.
Hawaii:
Hawaii: Soils.
Soils. Yield
In comparison
canparison to pure (heavily (heavily fertilised)
fertilised) eucalyptus
eucalyptus (94 (94 t/ha
t/ha dry dry
matter) those mixtures with 11
mixtures with 11 and
and 25%
25% Albizia depressed
depressed yield
yield by
by up to to
29%; higher proportions of
29%; of Albizia
Albizia increased yields yields by by up 12%. But
up to 12%.
even the plotplot with
with the lowest yield (67 (67 tt -- 11% Albizia)
Albizia) had a higher
yield than pure eucalyptus (outSide the experiment) receiving
eucalyptus (outside receiving standard
standard
application (yield
fertilizer application (yield 4444 t).
t).
 87

DelwaulJ.e, 1989.. Plantations

J . C. 1989
Delwaulle, J.C. clonales au Congo.
Plantations clonales Congo. Point des recherches
Point des recherches
sur le cholg des clones
le choix ans apr'es
dix ans
clones dix apres lesles premie'res
premieres plantations
plantations.. In:In :
Gibson, G.L . , Griffin,
Gibson, G.L., Griffin, A.R. A.R . and Matheson,
Matheson, A.C. (eds). Proceedings of aa
A.C. (eds). Proceedings of
Conference
Conference on Breeding
Breeding Tropical Trees:Trees: Population structure and
Population Structure and Genetic
Genetic
Irrprovement Strategies in Clonal
Improvement Strategies Clonal and and Seedling
Seedling Forestry,
Forestry, held
held in in
Pattaya, Thailand, 28 November
Pattaya, Thailand, 28 November - - 3 December 1988. IUFRO WPs S2
1988. IUFRO WPs S2.02-08 . 02-08
and S2.02-09.0xford
S2.02-09.Oxford ForestryFerestry Institute,
Institute, UK. UK. 431-434.
431-434.
Congo:
Congo: Management
Delvaux, J. stands . ) Bull.
(Pure or mixed stands.)
J. 1971. (Pure Bull. Soc. Fer. Belg.
Soc. For. Belg. 78
(4):
(4): 183- 197.
183-197.
Reviewing article
A general discussion
A general discussion on the merits
on the merits and drawbacks of
and drawbacks of mixed
mixed and
and pure
stands.
Deventer, A.J. van. 1913. Gemengde GemengdedjatiJ:xJsschen (prae-advies). Mixed teak
djatibosschen (prae-advies).
forests (proposals).) Tectona 6:
forests (proposals).) 6: 273-293
273-293.. Noted
Noted in in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry
Forestry
Abstracts, PUDOC,
PUJX)C, Wageningen, 1982. 1982. Abstract
Abstract 600.
600.
Indonesia
Indonesia:: Soils
AA cover crop in a teak plantation must give soil protection, protection, be shade
tolerant, never
tolerant, never overgrew
overgrow the teak, teak, andand yield
yield aa marketable
marketable product.
product.
Kesmabi (Schleichera oleosa)
Kesrnabi (Schleichera oleosa) is is recommended
recxmnended for for this.
this .
Donauhauer , E. 1991. Plantation Management:
Donaubauer, Management : Aspects
Aspects of Resistance
Resistance and and
Resilience to Pests, Pests, Diseases and Abiotic Factors. Factors. UnpUblished
Unpublished report
for FAO.
ElID.
General:
General: Pests and and Diseases
A review of the literature.
A review literature.
Dransfield, .JJ.. 1977. calamus
Calamus caesius
caesius and C. C. trachycoleus compared.
trachycoleus canpared.
Gardens'
Gardens' Bulletin, SingaporeSingapore 30:30 : 75-78.
75-78.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
caesius, aa rattan species,
Calamus caesius, species, can be completely
canpletely harvested twice, twice ,
at 7-10 years and 4 years later, later, before exhaustion.
exhaustion. This fits in in with
aa shifting cultivation system where at at least
least 1414 years
years fallow
fallew needed.
needed .
But if
But if selective
selective cutting
cutting isis used, thethe plant's
plant's life
life isis very
very much
much longer.
longer.
C. trachycoleus has
C.trachycoleus longer stolons
has longer stolons and and it
it therefore
therefore establishes
establishes itself.
itself.
Dransfield J. 1988. 1988. Prospects for rattan cultivation. cuItivat ion . Advances
Advances in in
Botany 6:
Economic Botany 6 : 190-200.
190-200 .
Management. Yield.
Malaysia/Indonesia: Management. Yield . Economy
Econany
Heavy shade results results in poor growth,grcwth, but but longer
longer internodes
internodes which is is
desirable.
desirable. Canes
Canes can be cultivated in secondary forest, forest, poor
poor quality
plantatiOns or
rubber plantations or under
under pines.
pines.
A.B . , Hall, R.A.
Duff, A-B., and Marsh,
R.A. and Marsh, C.W.
C. W. 1984. A A survey
survey of wildlife in and
around a a:mnercial
around commercial tree plantation
plantation in in Sabah.
Sabah . The Malaysian Forester 47
Malaysian Forester 47
(3)
(3):: 197- 213.
197-213.
Malaysia (Sabah):
Malaysia (Sabah): Wildlife
Wildlife damage
Wildlife damage can reduced by
can be reduced by separating
separating natural
natural forests
forests and and
plantations, or by plantingplanting unpalatable species at the J::.oundary boundary toto the
the
natural forest.
natural forest. Islands
Islands of natural forests are are beneficial
beneficial to predators.
Mammal presence
Mammal presence is is higher
higher where
where ground
ground cover
cover isis available.
available.
IlUnikcwski., S.
Dunikowski, S. 1991. Protection des
1991. Protection des fOréts
forets contre
contre les
les agressions
agressions biotiques
biotiques et et
abiotiques . Position Paper,
abiotiques. Paper, Theme
Theme 4, 4, 10th
lOth World
World Forestry
Forestry Congress,
Congress,
Paris, 1991.
Paris, 1991 . Proceedings, VO1.2:Vol . 2 : 285-290.
285-290.
General : Environment
General: Environment
Need to
Need to transform
transfonn pure pure conifer
conifer stands,
stands, which
which are are susceptible
susceptible to to
damage fromfran atmospheric
atmospheriC pollution,
pollution, into into raixed
mixed stands
stands with
with aa high
high
proportion of broadleaved
broadleaved trees.
trees.
 88
Dupuy,
nJpuy, B. 1985. Plantations a vocation
Plantations à vocation bois d'oeuvre et
tois d'oeuvre associations
et associations
d'especes en
d'esp6ces en Ee6lange:
nelange: objectifs sylvicoles. crier,
contraintes sylvicoles.
objectifS et contraintes Cl'FT, COte
Cate
d'Ivoire (unpublished).
(unpublished).
COte d'Ivoire:
Cate d' Ivoire: Management,
Managerrent, Yields
Yields
Dupuy, B. 1986.
nJpuy, B. 1986. (The
(The main
main silvicultural
silvicultural rules
rules for timber production
calq, Cate
plantations.) Cl'FT, COte d' Ivoire (unpublished
d'Ivoire (unpublished draft).
draft) .
COte
Cate d'Ivoire:
d'Ivoire: Managerrent
Management
Mixtures can be classified into those made up of one main main species
species and
and
one
one with cultural role,
with a cultural role, and those consisting of
those consisting species of
of species of equal
equal
sil vicultural importance.
silvicultural importance. Possible
Possible associations
associations and regimes are
andregimes are discus-
discus-
sed.
Dupuy, B. 1989a.
nJpuy, B. Etude de
1989a. Etude de nelange: Gnelina artorea/Acacia
E61ange: GMelina arborea/ Acacia auriculifOrmis.
auriculiformis.
Cl'FT (unpublished).
C2Y2 (unpublished).
COte
Cate d'Ivoire:
d'Ivoire: Managerrent
Management
4 mixtures G. arborea/A.
mixtures of G. artorea/A. auriculiformis
auriculifOrmis were
were tested,
tested, 50,
50, 33,
33, 20
20 and
and
10% of acacia Gnelina outgrew
acacia.. GMelina the acacias,
outgrew the acacias, except
except in
in the
the 10%
10% mixture.
mixture.
In this kind of mixture
mixture firewocd
firewood can be collected after 55 to 6 years,
years,
while the dominant
daninant species
species is
is allowed
allowed to
to grow.
gr= .
Dupuy, B.,
nJpuy, B., 1989b. Sylviculture des
1989b. Sylviculture des peuplement
peuplement en
en Epélange
nelange fraké/framiré.
frake/framire.
COte d'Ivoire
Cl'FT, Cate
cfrT, d' Ivoire (unpublished).
(unpublished).
COte d'
Cate Ivoire: Managerrent.
d'Ivoire: Management. Yield
superb3, 50/50,
Mixtures of Terminalia ivorensis/Terminalia superta, 50/50, 25/75
25/75 and
and
6/94%, were ~ed.
6/94%, were compared. Rate of mixture does not appear
appear to affect
affect growth
grCMth
of either species.
species. Silvicultural
Silvicultural methods depend on which
which species
species is
is to
to
favoured in
be favoured in the
the thinnings.
thinnings.
IJurigan,
Durigan, G.G. and de Souza Dias,
Dias, H.C. 1990. Ahlndimcia
H.C. 1990. Abundancia e diversidade da
regeneracao natural
natural sob mata ciliar
ciliar implantada.
implantada. Instituto
Instituto Florestal,
Florestal,
Sao Paulo,
Paulo, Brazil.
Brazil. Mimeographed
Mimeographed Paper presented to 6th Congresso Flo-
restal Brasiliero.
Brazil: Managerrent
Brazil: Management
Regeneration under
Regeneration riparian forest
under riparian forest planted
planted 1973
1973 (17
(17 years old)
old) in
MJta-SP. 150 species
Candida Mbta-SP. :-lanted, 41
species rianted, 41 other
other spp.
spp. regenerated
naturally. Only p.
naturally. -<;i few planted species
few plantad species regenerated,
regenerated, these included
these included
exotics. Generally 1=
exotics. low species diversity in regeneration,
regeneration, tending toto aa
homogenous forest in in the
the next
next succession
succession stage.
stage.
Nogueira, J.C
IJurigan, G. and Nogueira,
Durigan, . B. 1990
J.C.B. 1990 Recomposicao
Reccmposicao de matas
matas ciliares.
ciliares.
Instituto Florestal Serie Registros, Sao Sao Paulo
Paulo 4:
4: 1-14.
1-14.
Brazil:
Brazil: Managerrent
Management
Lists appropriate species for creating natural forests forests on river banks
and classifies
classifies them by their ecological
ecological requirements
requirements and
and position
position in
in
ecological succession.
Earl, D.E.
D.E. 1968. Latest techniqes
techniqes in the
the treatment
treatment ofof natural
natural high
high forest
forest
in South
South Mengo
Mengo District.
District. Paper to 9th
Paper to 9th Catrronwealth Forestry Conference,
Commonwealth Forestry Conference,
India.
Uganda: Managerrent
Uganda: Management
The use ofof charcoal
charcoal burning managerrent tool
burning as a management tool in in natural
natural forest
forest
managerrent.
management.
EidDann, F.E.
Eidmann, 1932. Het
F.E. 1932. onderplantingsvraagstuk van den djati.
Bet onderplantingsvraagstuk (The
djati. (The
problem of undeI:planting
problem Korte Meded.
underplanting teak.) Korte Meded. B.P.S.
B. P. S. 27
27 and
and Tectona
Tectona 25:
25:
671-690,
671-690, 1628-1682.
1628-1682. Noted Indonesian Forestry
Noted in Indonesian Forestry Ahetracts,
Abstracts, PUDOC,
PUIXlC,
1982, Abstract
Wageningen, 1982, Abstract 984.
984.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Managerrent
Management
It is
is expected
expected that the
the only
only successful way of underplanting teak teak will
will
to thin regularly and heavily to open the canopy and at the same time
introduce
introduce aa shade tolerant, deep rooting
shade tolerant, rooting species
species that
that will
will produce
produce
valuable wood.
valuable
 89
89

Evans, J.
Evans, 1975. Two rotations
J. 1975. of Pinus
rotations of patula in
Pinuspatula in the
the Usutu
Usutu forests,
forests,
SWaziland. Ccmronwealth Forestry
Swaziland. Commonwealth Forestry Review
Review 54
54 (1):
(1): 69-81.
69-8l.
SWaziland: Yield
Swaziland:
A slight
A slight increase
increase in
in second
second rotation
rotation yield noted
noted and attributed
attributed to
better than average rainfall and reduced grass carpetition
competition at time
ti1lle of
establishment .
establishment.
EVans, J.
Evans, 1978. A
J. 1978. A further report on second rotation productivity in the
Usutu forest, SWaziland results of the 1977 reassessment.
Swaziland - results
Commonwealth Forestry
Commonwealth Forestry Review
Review 57 57 (4):
(4): 253-261.
253- 261.
SWaziland: Yield
Swaziland:
Average rainfall
rainfall was 1230 nim.
was 1230 rrrn. Late
Late arrival
arrival ofof spring
spring rains
rains 1974-6
1974-6 can
detected in
be detected in growth
grCMth rates
rates (reports drought-induced deaths).
(reports of drought-induced deaths) .
Reports on
Reports yields obtained
on yields obtained fran the second
from the second rotation
rotation or later are
or later are
reviewed
reviewed..
Evans,
EVans, J. 1987. Site and species
species selection -- changing peispectives.
perspectives .
Ecology and
Forest Ecology and Management
Management 21:
21: 299-310.
299-310.
tropiCS: Management.
The tropics: Management. Yield
Reviews the
Reviews the use
the need for the use of
of appropriate
appropriate species,
species, including
including the
appropriateness for the end use,
appropriateness including village use
use, including use.. An
An analysis
analysis of
plantation species
plantation species used
used in
in the tropics in order of frequency, excluding
excluding
southern China.
Evans, J.
EVans, The Usutu
1988 . The
J. 1988. Usutu forest:
forest : 20
20 years
years later.
later. Unasylva
unasylva 159
159 (40):
(40):
19-29.
19-29.
SWaziland
Swaziland:: Yield
Yield.. Management
LcM rainfall in
Law rainfall 1958-65 and 1978-82
in 1958-65 1978-82 is is a a confounding
confounding factor
factor · in
canparing
comparing yields ..Fertility
Fertility losses
lossesmay be due to nutrient
maybe nutrient drain through
bianass removals,
biomass removals, alteration
alteration of soil characteristics or ccrrpaction compaction and
erosion
erosion resulting
resulting franfrom thethe extraction.
extraction. 15% 15% ofof the area is on gabbro gabbro
rock fonmations
formations and and here phosphate
phosphate reserves
reserves may have been critically
may have
depleted.
depleted.
Evans, J.
EVans, 1990. Long-tenn
J. 1990. Long-term productivity
productivity of of forest
forest plantations
plantations -- status
status in
1990.
1990. Procedings of IUFRO XIX World World Congress,
Congress, M:lntreal.
Montreal. Vol 1: 1 : 165-18l.
165-181.
Tropics; Management, Soils
Tropics; SOils
A review
A review ofof yields
yields attained
attained in in later
later rotations.
rotations.
Ewel, J.J.
EWel, Designing agricultural
1986. Designing
J.J. 1986. agricultural ecosystems
ecosystems for for the
the humid
humid tropics.
tropics.
Annual Review
Annual Review of of Ecology
Ecology andand Systematics
SystematiCS 17: 17 : 245-271.
245-271.
The tropics:
tropics: SOils
Soils
A general review of the
A the literature.
literature . Deep rooted
rooted species
species increase the
soil volume
volume exploited.
exploited. N N fixers
fixers may
may use the
the NN themselves and and only
only make
make
it available
available through
through leaf
leaf fall
fall.. Organic
Organic matter
matter accounts
accounts for
for upup to 50%
surface horizon
of total P in surface horizon ofof tropical
tropical soils.
soils.
Organic P circulates
circulates rapidly.
rapidly.
FAO. 1988.
Ero. 1988. An interim report
An interim report on the state
on the state of of forest
forest resources
resources in in the
the
developing countries.
countries . Forestry
Forestry Department
Department FO:M1SC/88/7,
FD:MISC/88/7, FAO, FAD, Rome.
Rane.
tropics : Management
The tropics:
An analysis
analysis of forest types and plantations
forest types plantations as as at 1980 with
with planting
estimates forfor 1981
1981 toto 1985.
1985 .
1991a. Exotic aphid pests of conifers:
Ero, 1991a.
FAO, conifers: A A crisis in African forestry.
Workshop Proceedings,
Proceedings, FAD/Kenya
FAO/Kenya Forestry Research Institute,
Institute, June
June 1991
plantations a
Ero . 1991b. Les plantations
FAO. à v=ation
vocation de bois d'oeuvre
de Lois d'oeuvre en Aftioue
Afrique
intertropicale huraidé. FAD
intertrqpicale humide. FAO Forestry Paper
Paper 98.
98.
West Africa
Africa:: Management
A
A silvicultural manual with a chapter on mixtures. mixtures.
Farrichan, V.
Farridhon, V. 1987. Resultats des
1987. Résultats des etudes
'etudesmenees
men6es au au projet
projet AFRI d'avril
APRI d'avril
1986 a à mai 1987. CmJparaison
Mai 1987. COvaraison de de deux
deux esp6ces
especes d'eucalypts
d'eucalypts (T. (E. tereti-
tereti -
cornis etet E.E. torelliana)
torelliana) utilisees
utiliséesau projet AFRI.
auprojet CIYI! (unpublished).
AEU. Cl'FT
 90

Togo:
Togo: Yield
In aa line mixture
mixture of of E.
E. tereti=rnis
tereticornis and and E.E. torreliana,
torreliana, EE. . tereti=rnis
tereticarnis
proved to
has proved be the
to be the more
more competitive
competitive of of the two.
the two.
Ferguson, I.S. 1983. 1983. Plantation Management in
Plantation Management in Australia.
Australia. New Zealand
New Zealand
Journal of of Forestry
Forestry 28 28 (3):
(3): 327-338.
327-338 .
Australia: Management
M3nagement
An analysis
analysis of national forest
of national forest policy
policy in in relation
relation to to plantation
plantation
establishment and
establishment and the need for understanding
understanding marketing
marketing issues;issues; includes
includes
aa statement of areas under under various
various treetree crops.
crops.
Ferguson, J.H.A.,
Ferguson, J.H.A., Hellinga,
Hel.linga, G. G. and Alphen
Alphen de Veer,
Veer, F.J.F.J. van. 1949. Eenige
van. 1949.
gedachten over de Pinus Pinus kultur
kultur in in indonesie.
Indonesie. (Sane (sane ideas
ideas aOOut
about thethe
cultivation of pines in Indonesia.) Indonesia.) Tectona 39: 39: 383-387.
383-387. Noted in in In-
In-
donesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts,
Al::.6tracts, PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982.
PUiXlC, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract
Al::.6tract 584.
584 .
Indonesia
Indonesia:: M3nagement,
Management, cover crop
To avoid the risks of pure plantations when establishing plantations plantations
of PiI2USmerkusii,
of Pinus merkusii, mixing mixing withwith SWietenia macrophylla on the plains,
Swieteniarnacrophylla plains, and
with Agathis loranthifolia
loranthifolia in in the
the mountains
mountains on on not
not tootoo poor soils
soils is
discussed .
discussed.
Florence, R.G.
Florence, 1967 . Factors that may have a bearing upon the decline of
R.G. 1967.
productivity under
productivity under forest
forest monoculture.
monoculture. Australian
Australian Forestry
Forestry 31: 31 : 51-71.
51-71.
General:
General: Soils
Analysis of
Analysis of factors that that may lead to
may lead to a long long termtenn decline
decline in
productivity.
Florence, R.G. and
Florence, R.G. 1974. Influence
Ianb, D.D. 1974.
ami Lanib, Influence of of stand
stand and and site
site onon Radiata
pine litter
pine litter in in South
South Australia.
Australia. New Zealand JJournal ournal of ForestForest Science
Science
(3): 302-310.
4 (3): 302-310.
Australia: Soils Soils
Litter accumulation related more more to soil type type than to site site quality
quality and and
decomposition than
to rate of decomposition than to to rate
rate ofof fall.
fall.
P . J . and
Francis, P.J. Shea, G.M.
ami Shea, Management of tropical
G. K. 1987. Management tropical and sub-
tropical
tropical pines pines in in Queensland.
Q.leensland . In Forest Management
In Forest Management in in Australia;
Australia;
Proceedings of a Conference
Conference of the Institute of Foresters Foresters of of Australia
Australia
pp 273-280.
pp 273-280.
Australia : Management
Australia: M3nagement .
Franzini
Franzini, , F 1957.. Ies
F.. 1957 Les rel::oisement
reboisement artificiels dans les sa vanes de la
savanes
region dé
régicn de Pointe
Ebinte Noire
Noire.. (Afforestation of savannah land in the Pointe
Noire region.) Bois et Forêts Forets des des Tropiques
Tropigues 53: 53 : 25-32.
25-32.
Congo:
Congo: Managernent
Management
Experiments
Experiments in afforestation of savannas
in afforestation savannas with Eucalyptus saligna,
with Eucalyptus saligna,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and casuarina equisetifolia
and Casuarina equisetifolia are are described.
described .
Friedrich, JJ.M.
FriedriCh, .K. and DaWson,
Dawson, JJ.O. 1984. Soil nitrogen concentration and
.0. 1984.
Juglans nigra grcMth grckathin inmixed
mixedplots
plotswith nitrogen-fixingAlnus,
withnitrogen-fixing Alms, Elaeag-
nus, Iespedeza
Lespedeza and Robinia species
and Ro_bi_nia species.. Canadian
CanadianJournal
Journal of ofForest
Forest Research
Research
14 (6):
(6): 864-868.
864-868.
USA:
USA: Soils
14-year-old plantation with
In a 14-year-old with spacings
spacings of of 3.7x4.9
3 . 7x4. 9 and
and 9. 9. Sm,
8m, the
highest
highest total
total soilsoil N concentration in top 30
N concentration 30 cman was under closely-
was under closely-
spaced Elaeagnus and both spacings of Robinia (girdled). (girdled). Walnut basal
strongly correlated with soil nitrogen concentration.
area was not strongly correlated with soil nitrogen concentration.
Friend,
Friend, G.R. 1980. Wildlife conservation and softwood forestry in
G.R. 1980.
Australia
AustLdlia:: same same considerations.
considerations. Australian
Australian Forestry
Forestry 43 43 (4):
(4): 217-224.
217-224 .
Australia
Australia:: Wildlife
Radiata plantations are specia lised and simplified
specialised s:il!lplified habitats.
habitats. They They are
:impoverished
impoverished in that that they lack diversity in wildlife. wildlife. Animals without
specialist requirements
requirements are are least affected,
affected, even favoured,favoured, by planta-
tions. Measures to counter this impoverishment
tions. :impoverishment are discussed
 91

Frivold, Blandningsskogens status

1982. Edandhingsskorgens
Ftivold, L.H. 1982. status ii europeiskt
eurqpeiskt skogsbruk.
(Status
(Status of mixed forests
of mixed forests in EuropeanEuropean forestry.)
forestry.) Tidsskrift
Tidsskrift foer foer
skogsbruk 90
skogsbruk 90 (3):
(3): 250-261.
250-261 .
Europe:
Europe: Reviewing article
M:Jst investigations
Mbst investigations of "mixed species
of the "mixed species effect"
effect" cannot positively
cannot positively
rule out site differences.
differences. Investigations concluding that spruce spruce rrono-
mono-
cultures lead
cultures lead to soil degradation deserve deserve attention.
attention. Experience
Experience sug- sug-
gests certain
certain mixtures
mixtures raiseraise timber
timber quality.
quality. PurePure stands
stands maymay be be rrore
more
sensitive to calamities than mixed, mixed, stand vigour may also play play aa role
role
in this. Mixed stands are probably
this. Mixed probably more
rrore wind
wind resistant.
resistant.
Frivold,
Fkivold, L.H. 1985. Mixed broadleaved stands -- Sane
L.EL 1985. Sara silvicultural con-
siderations. In: In: Broadleaves
Broadleaves in in Boreal
Boreal Silviculture
SilViculture -- An Obstacle or
An Obstacle or an
an
Asset? Swedish
SWedish University
University of of Agricultural
Agricultural Sciences,
Sciences, Report
Report 14.14.
forests: Reviewing article
Boreal forests:
A "mixed
A "mixed species
species effect"
effect" cannot be ruled out. out. The effect is probably
not greater
not greater than
than a few few percent.
percent. DataData on on the
the relationship
relationship betweenbetween
stability and and diversity are few. Mixed stands may,
are few. may, inin same
sare cases,
cases, be be
rrore stable
more stable than Evidence regarding
than pure. Evidence regarding sustainability
sustainability and and mixtures
mixtures
is contradictory.
contradictory.·
Garrido,14.A. and
Garrido,M.A. and Poggiani,F.
Poggiani,F. 1979.1979. Garacteristicas
Caracteristicas silviculturais cinco
especies
especies indigenas plantadas em
indigenas plantadas ]XJvoamentos puros ee mistos.
empovoamentospuros (Silvicu-
mistos. (Silvicu-
ltural
ltural characteristics
characteristics of of five
five indigenous
indigenous species
species in in pure
pure and mixed
stands.)
stands.) Silvicultura en em Sao
Sao Paulo
Paulo 13/14
13/14 pp
pp 33-44.
33-44 .
Brazil: M3nagement
Brazil: Management
5-year grCMth
growth statistics
statistics for for Piptadenia
Piptadenia macrocaIpa,
macrocarpa, Ast=ium urundura,
Astroniumurundura,
M:x:Juinia
Mcquinia ]XJlynvrpha, Colubrina rufa
polymorpha, Cblubrina rufa andand Tabebuia
Tabel::Rlia impetiginosa
impetiginosa grown grown
pure and mixed. P.macrocarpa had better dbh and height grCMth
mixed. P.macrocaIpa growth than than the
mixture
mixture as as aa group. Of the individual
Of the individual species
species only C.rufa C.rufa and
T . impetiginosa did better
T.impetiginosa better in in mixture.
Geldenhuys,
Geldenbuys, C.J. 1975. Die Jrunstmatige
C.J. 1975. verstiging van inheemse
kunstmatige verstiging inheemse]:osLos in die
Suid-Kap.
Suid-Rap. (The(The artificial
artificial establishment
establishment of indigenous forest
of indigenous forest in in the
southern cape
Cape.). ) Bosbou in in Suid
Suid Afrika
Afrika 16:16: 45-53.
45-53 .
South Africa:
Africa: Management
The taungya
The system was
taungya system was used
used to to establish
establish ten species of the
ten species the Cape
cape
indigenous
indigenous forest
forest. . stem
Stem number
number and survival was
and survival was higher
higher than
than in an an
adjacent forest under production
production management.
Gepp, B.C.
Gefp, B.C. 1976. Bird species distribution
1976. Bird distribution and and habitat diversity
diversity in in an
exotic forest
forest in south Australia
Australia.. Australian
Australian Forestry
Forestry 39 39 (4):
(4): 269-287.
269-287.
Australia:
Australia: Wildlife
plantatiOns, native
Pine plantations, native forests
forests and grasslands
grasslands were compared
canpared as to
as to
bird habitats.
bird ~st diversity
habitats . Lowest diversity occurred
oc=ed in the interior interior of of unthinned
unthinned
plantations. The
plantations. The number of of species plantations was
species in the plantations was alrrost
almost thethe
same as in the the native
native vegetation.
vegetation. The landscape rrosaic mosaic seems to provide
enough for
niches enough for most
rrost species
species in in the
the area.
area.
Gefp, B.
Gepp, 1985. Values of wildlife in
B. 1985. in forest
forest plantations
plantations in in the
the tropics
tropics and and
southern hemisphere. In In Wildlife
Wildlife M3nagement
Management in in the Forests
Forests andand Forestry
Forestry
Controlled Lands in the Tropics and and Southern
Southern Hemisphere.
Hemisphere . ed ed J.Kikkawa.
J . Kikkawa .
IUFRO Workshop held at UniversityUniversity of of Queensland,
Queensland, Australia.
Australia .
General:
General: Wildlife
Conditions
Conditions in plantatiOns change.
in plantations change. The pole pole stage
stage (app.
(app. 20%20% of the the
rotation) is
rotation) is the rrost uniform stage,
most uniform stage, andand least
least suited
suited to to wildlife.
wildlife.
Wildlife in plantatiOns
plantations favours favours areas with native
areas with native regeneration.
Retention of islands or or a rrosaic
mosaic of of native species
species is is helpful.
helpful. Planta-
Planta-
tions on farm or grassland
grassland may may raise
raise diversity.
diversity.
Gibson, I.A.S.
LA.S. andand 'Tones,
Janes, T. 1977. Mbnoculture
Monoculture as as the origin of
the origin of major
major
forest pests
forest pests and diseases, especially
and diseases, especially in in thethe tropics
tropi cs and
and southern
southern
 92

hemisphere.
hemisphere. Origins
Origins of of Pest,
Pest, Parasite,
Parasite, Disease
Disease and weed Weed Problems
Problems. . ed
Cherrett, J.M J.M and
and Sagar,
Sagar, G.R.G.R. Blackwell,
Blackwell, OxfordOxford (UK)(UK) pppp 139-161.
139-161.
General:
General: Environmental,
Environmental, pests and diseases .
Diseases in IlOnocultures
monocultures are 1l'Dre more numerous
numerous for for species
species growing
growing in in their
their
native
native range
range thanthan forfor exotics.
exotics . Plantation
Plantation forestry
forestry allows
allows for
for IlOre
more
expenditure on on protection
protection measures
measures thanthan other
other kinds
kinds of of forestry.
forestry.
GilJDCAIr, D.A.,
Gilmour, Ingles, A.
D.A., Ingles, A. and Maharjan,
MAharjan, M.R. 1989. Preliminary harvesting
N.R. 1989.
guidelines for oarnmunity community forests in Sindhu Palchok and
Sindhu Palchok Kabhre
and KAbhre
Technical Note 2/89, Nepal Australia
Palanchok. Technical Forestry Project, Kath-
Australia Forestry Kath-
mandu 9p.
Nepal: Management:
Nepal: Management: Social
Prescriptions for the management, management, by by village communities,
communities, of of coppice-
coppioe-
with-standards, mixed and single species high high forest,
forest, including
including pine-pine-
broadleaved
broadleaved mixtures.
GilJDCAIr,
Gilmour, D.A.,
D. A., King, G.C.,
G. C., Applegate,
Afplegate, G. G. B
B.. and Mans,Mohns, B B.. 1990.
Silviculture
Silviculture of of plantation
plantation forest forest in central Nepal to
in central to maximise
maximise
community benefits. Forest
community Forest Ecology
Ecology and and Management
Management 32: 32: 173-186.
173-186.
Nepal: Management
Management.. Yields.
Yields. Social
A
A trial of management techniques techniques for Pinus roxburghii roxburghii plantatiOns
plantations in
which mixed broad
which rrti.ced broadleaved
leaved species (predominantlySchima
species(predaninantly Schima wallichii)
wallichii) have have
regenerated.
regenerated. The The objective
objective has been to
has been to devise techniques that
devise techniques that will will
result in sustainable yield yield of products
products thatthat thethe villagers
Villagers require.
require .
Garqp:ijp,
Gonggrijp, L.
L. 1929. Doelbewuste kunstmatige mengir2g
1929. Ecelbewuste menging van djati en
wildhout. (Artificial mixing
wi/dhout.(Artificial mixing of of teak
teak with other other trees.)
trees.) Tectona
Tectona 22: 22 :
1287 -1294. Noted in Indonesian Forestry Abstracts,
1287-1294. Abstracts, PUDOC,PUIXlC, Wageningen,
Wageningen,
1982
1982.. Abstract
Abstract 592. 592.
Indonesia : Econany
Indonesia: Economy
The author feels that the necessity of mixtures is unproven, unproven, and that
the economy
econany of mixingmixing has received too
has received too little
little attention.
attention.
Graham, R.M.
Graham, Notes on
1945. Notes
RIC 1945. on thethe ylowing
growing of of cypress
cypress timber
timber on on farms.
fanns . East
Agricult~dl Journal
Africa Agricultural Journal 11: 11: 132-139.
132-139.
Kenya: Soils.
Kenya: SOils. Environmental,
Environmental, pests and diseases
Grevillea
Grevillea robusta
robusta is is considered suitablesuitable for mixture with Cupressus CUpressus
macr=a.rpa.
macrocarpa. This This is is done
done to avoid hazardshazards with 1l'Dnoculture
monoculture ee.g. . g . soil
degradation, pests pests andand diseases.
diseases.
Graham, R.M.
Graham, 1949. Plantation management
R.M. 1949. management orderorder no.
no. 5. Grevillea robusta.
5 . Grevillea robusta.
Forest Department, Colony Colony and and Protectorate
Protectorate of of Kenya.
Kenya.
Kenya:
Kenya: Management
Considerable quantities of
Considerable quantities Grevillea robusta
of Grevillea robusta havehave been grown in mixture
been grown mixture
with cypresses and
with and other
other species.
species. The species is worth growing for its
own sake.
sake. A A regime
regime is is suggested.
suggested.
Granert, W. W.G.G. and
and CadanJx'g,
Cadampog, Z. 1980. I.eucaena
Z. 1980. Leucaena as aa nurse tree. tree. Leucaena
Leucaena
News Letter
Letter 1: 1: 21.
21.
Philippines:
Philippines: Management
Teak
Teak and mahogany (SWietenia
and mahogany (SWietenia macropbylla)
macrophylla) planted ipil-ipil
planted with ipil-ipil
(I.eucaena
(Leucaena leucocephala).
leucocephala). No effe ct on the growth of teak was observed,
effect
rut it
but was considered
it was considered straighter.
straighter. No growth growth improvements
:iIrq:>rovements noted
noted for
mahogany either, but
mahogany rut incidence of tip borer berer attacks was reduced reduced underunder
ipil-ipil.
Gray, B. 1972.
Gray, B. Econanic tropical
1972. Economic tropical entomology.
entanology . Annual review of Entomology
Annual review Entanology
17: 313-353.
17: 313-353.
Tropics: Pests
Tropics:
Grijpna,
Grijpma, P. 1973. Irrrnunity
Immunity of of Toona
Tacna ciliata Roem Roem.. var australis
(F.v.M)C.D
(F.v.M)C.D.C. .C. and ivorensis A.Chev.
Khaya ivorensis
and Rhaya A. Chev. to attacksattacks of Hypsipyla
of hypsipyla
grandella (Zeller)
grandella (Zeller) in Turriaiba,
Tu=ialba, Costa Rica. Rica. In In Studies
Studies on on thethe
Shootborer Hypsipyla grandella
Shootbcrer hypsipyla grandella (Zeller)
(Zeller) Lep.Lep. Pyralidae
Pyralidae Vol. Vol. II Inter-
Inter-
 93

American Institute
American Institute for
for Cooperation
c=peration on on Agriculture
Agriculture (IICA)
(IrCA) Misc.
Misc. Pub. 101
Pub. 101
P 18-25.
p 18-25 .
Tropics : Pests
Tropics:
11.grandélla
H. grandella (New World) and 11.robusta
H.robusta (Old World) appear
(Old World) appear to
to hebe
relatively specific
relatively specific toto indigenous Meliaceae; SWietenia
indigenous Meliaceae; macrophylla in
SWietenia macrophylla
Lanka and
India and Sri Lanka Rhayaivorensis
and Kbaya ivorensis in Martinique are exceptions.
exceptions.
Grijpna., P.
Grijpma, and Ramaido,
P. and Ramaldo, Et. Tbonaspp
1973.. Toona
R. 1973 sppposibles
posiblesalternativas
alternativas para
para el
el
problem del b3rrendor
problem del Larrendorhypsipyla
Hypsipyla grandélla
grandella dé
de los
loslikliaceae
M2liaceaeenenAmerica
America
Shootborer hTpsipyla
Latina. In Studies on the Shootl::orer Hypsipyla (Zeller)
(Zeller) I.ep.
Lep. Pyralidae
Pyralidae
Inter-American Institute
1. Inter-American
Vol. I. Institute for
for Cooperation
C=peration on
on Agriculture
Agriculture (IICA)
(IrCA)
Misc. Pub.
Misc. Pub. 101 P 3-17 .
p 3-17.
Central America: Pests
T.ciliata
T . ciliata though heavily
heavily attadked
attacked byby liroLusta
H.rob.zsta in Australia is not
in Australia not
attacked by 11.grandella
attadked H. grandella in Costa Rica.
Rica .
Groulez , J.
Groulez, Notes sur
1975. Notes
J . 1975. sur les plantations
plantations déde conversion
conversion dans les fOréts
dans les forets
tropicaleshignides.
tropicales humides.(A, (A note
note on conversion plantations in
conversion plantations in moist
IrDist tropical
tropical
forests . ) Bois et Forêts
forests.) Fbrets des
des Tropiques
Tropiques 162:
162: 3-26.
3-26.
Tropics: Manag~t
Tropics: Management
Discusses
Discusses the the pros and cons
pros and cons of conversion plantations
of conversion plantatiOns (that is, is,
replacing the
replacing the natural forest) andand despite
despite problems
problems ofof costs
costs and
and lack
lack of
of
profitability promising.. 26,000 ha Auctsneaklaineana
profitability considers them pranising Aucumea klaineana in
6 , 000 ha Terminalia
Gabon , 6,000
Gabon, Terminalia superta
superl:a in Congo,
Congo, 50,000
50,000 ha anelina in
ha Gnelina
Brazil
Brazil..
Grutt erink, E.
Grutterink, 1930 . Verslag
B. JJ.. 1930. van de
Verslag van de excursie op
op 21
21 maart 1930
1930 naar dé
de
Loscomplexen Natoetoetoek, Pantcxiana5
boscaIfJlexen Watoetoetoek, Fantodomasenendedesagerij
sagerij Sapoeran
Sapoeran der
der Firma
Finna.
Nélle. (Report
J. v.d. Welle. (Report of
of the
the excursion
excursion on
on 21 March 1930 to Watoetoetoek
21March Watoetoetoek
and Pantodomas
Pantodamas forest
forest complexes
complexes and the Dapuran sawmillsawmill of the firm
of the finn
J.v .d . Welle
J.v.d. Welle.). ) Tectona 23:
23: 633-640.
633-640. Noted
Noted in Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abst-
Abst-
racts, PUDOC,, Wageningen,
racts, PUDJC 1982 . Abstract
Wageningen, 1982. Abstract 593.
593.
Indonesia
Indonesia:: SOils
Soils
Mixtures
Mixtures of of shade-tolerant
shade-tolerant species
species areare to prefe=ed from
to be preferred fran the
the
hydrological point of view.
hydrological view. Planting light demanders means that that aa good
protection forest
protection forest will
will not
not be
be formed.
formed.
Gil; zal , P. 1985. Les
GUizoi, Les plantations
plantations m6langees.
melangees . Ecole
Ecole Nationale
Nationale du GénieGenie
Eaux et
Rural des Eaux et des
des Forêts,
Forets, France,
France, pp.
pp. 18.
18 .
France
France:: Management
A survey
A survey of mixed stands in France.
of mixed France . Advantages of mixing are
listed,
listed, and suitable mixtures recommended.
recommended.
Gil; zal, P.
Guizol, 1983/85.. Les
P . 1983/85 Les rdantations
plantatiOnsmélangees.
melangees . Mixed plantations.
plantations . Eléve-
Eleve-
Ingenieur Civil de Forets
Ingénieur Forêts, , Promotion
Promotion.. Ecole Nationale du Genie Rural, Rural,
Eaux et
des Eaux et des
des Foréts.
Forets.
France
France:: Management
A survey of mixed stands
A stands in France.
France. Comparisons
Ccrnparisons are
are made
nade to see
see what
gave the
mixtures gave the best
best results.
results. Objectives
Objectives ofof mixing
mixing are
are discussed.
discussed.
1988. Loensamheten
Hagg, A. 1988. Loensamheten avavbjoerkinblandningi
bjoerkinblandning i barrskog.
b3rrskog. (The
profitability of
profitability birch admixture
of a birch admixture inin coniferous
coniferous forests.)
forests . ) Swedish
SWedish
University
University of Agricultural Sciences
of Agricultural Sciences, , Department
Department of Forest
Forest Products,
Products,
Report No.
No . 208.
208.
Sweden: Econany
Sweden: Economy
retain birches to
It is profitable to retain to increase
increase stand density.
density . Birch
Birch
admixture Laises
raises the quality of pines.
pines. Selective removals of birch
birch in
in
stands can
mature stands can be increased.
increased. Costs for
for this are counterbalanced
counterbalanced by
by
lower future tending
tending costs.
costs.
Hagg, A. 1989 Ejoerkens inverkan paa tallens grengrovlek och
1989.. Bjoerkens
grenrensning i blandadebestaand.
grenrensningi blandade bestaand. (The influence
inf luence of
of the birch
birch upon the
 94

branch diameter and the self-pruning

self-pruning of of pine
pine trees
trees in in mixed stands.)
mixed stands.)
SWedish
Swedish University of Agricultural
Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Forest Pro-
ducts, Report
ducts, Report NO.No. 208.
208.
Sweden:
Sweden: Management.
Management. Econany
Economy
Increase
Increase in stand density
in stand density caused
caused by by naturally
naturally regenerated
regenerated birches
birches
results
results in in aa lower
lCMer branch
branch diameter
diameter of of the
the butt log. If birches
butt log. birches are
retained after
after cleaning
cleaning operations
operations this this effect
effect is enhanced and
is enhanced and self-
self-
pruning increased.
pruning increased.
Hiigg, A.
Hagg, IAJensamiJeten av
1990. Loensamheten
A. 1990. avatt sjaelvfoeryngrad Ljoerk
att anvaenda sjaelvfOerynyLad bjoerk foer
kvalitetsdaning av av planterad
planterad tall.
tall. (The(The profitability
profitability of of using self-
regenerated birch
regenerated birch for shaping
shaping the quality
quality of the planted planted pine.) Swedish
SWedish
University
University of Agricultural Sciences,
of Agricultural Department of Forest
Sciences, Department Forest Products,
Products,
Report No. 214. 214.
Sweden:
Sweden: Econany.
Economy. Management
Branch diameter of pines depends depends on stand density, density, not on on mixtures.
mixtures.
Retaining 1400
Retaining 1400 and
and 7900 birches/ha. is canpared. calculations shcm
compared. Calculations shcM that
that
retaining birchbirch isis profitable,
profitable, thisthis is enhanced by
is enhanced fertilization after
hgfertilization
50 years.
years. For the regime of of 7900
7900 birches
birches to be the
to be the rrore
more profitable,
profitable, it it
must produce
produce 38% 38% more
rrore ofof prime
prime grade
grade timber
timber than
than thethe other.
other.
Hansen,
Hansen, E.A.
E.A. and
and Dawson,
Dawson, J.D.J.O. 1982.
1982. Effect of Alnus Alnus glutinosa on hybrid
Fbpulus
.Ropulus height growth growth in in aa short
short rotation
rotation intensively
intensively cultured
plantation. ForestForest Science
Science 28 28 (1):
(1): 49-59.
USA:
USA: Yield.
Yield. Soils
In aa 3-year-old
3-year-old line mixture, poplar
'immixture, poplarheight
height increased
increased with with the
the share of
alder,
alder, and decreased with distance
and decreased distance between
between the the two species. In
two species. In aa
neighbouring
neighbouring stand stand significant
significant NN accretion
accretion oc=edoccurred up up to
to 15
15 an
an fran
from
alder stems.
alder sterns.
Barencarspel, W. van
Harencarspel, van 1908. Menging van
1908. Menging van lichtbehoeftige
lichtbehoeftige met sterk Le-
met sterk be-
schaudwende houtsoorten.
houtsoorten. (The (The mixing of light demanding tree tree species
species
with tree species producingproducing shade.)
shade.) Tectona 1: 1: 182-184.
182-184. Noted
Noted inin In-
In-
Forestry Abstracts, PUDOC,
donesian Forestry Wageningen, 1982,
PUIX:lC, Wageningen, 1982, Abstract
Abstract 594.
594.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
mixing CUpressus
Group mixing CUpressus and and casuarina
Casuarina with with species
species that that will
will not
not grow
grow
tall is to be preferred
preferred to to individual
individual mixing.
Harrington, C.A. 1982. Sitka alder, a candidate candidate for mixed stands.
canadian
Canadian Journal of Forest Forest Research
Research 12 12 (1):
(1): 108-111.
108-111.
canada:
Canada: Management
Analysis of heightheight growth
growth pattern
pattern (max.
(max. 5m5m inin 1414 years)
years) suggests
suggests that
that
Alnus
Alnu sinuata
sinuata may be suitable nurse for Pseudotsuga
be a suitable Pseudotsuga menziesii,
menziesii, butbut
advance planting
planting of large P.menziesii
of large P.menziesii is is the
the stock advisable
advisable on on poor
sites .
sites.
Hart, H.M.J. 1931a. Gelrengde
Hart, Gemengde djaticulturen, deel I+11. I+II. (Mixed teak
plantations Part I I and II.)
II.) Meded.
Meded. P.v.h.B.
P.v.h.B. 24: 24: pp 170 (part (part I)I) and pp
pp
400 (part
400 II). NOted
(part II). Noted in in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts, PUDOC,PUIX:lC, Wage-
1982, Abstract
ningen, 1982, Abstract No.No. 602.
602.
Indonesia: Management. Soils
Indonesia: Soils
It is concluded
It concluded that mixing is is favourable only under special
under special
cirCUlllStances. Inmost
circumstances. In rrostcases
cases examined
examinedmixing
mixing proved
proved to to be unfavourable.
be unfavourable.
Hart, H.M.J. 1931b. Gelrengde Gemengde djaticulturen. (Mixed teak plantations
(proposal).) Tectona 24: 24: 88- 107. Noted in Indonesian Forestry
88-107.
Wageningen, 1982.
PUIX:lC, Wageningen,
Abstracts, PUDOC, 1982. Ahstract
Abstract 603. 603.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
M;)st of the supposed
Mbst beneficial effects
supposed beneficial effects of of mixing
mixing havehave proved
proved toto be un-
be un-
founded.
founded. Intensive
Intensive soil soil cultivation
cultivation stimulates
stimulates the the growth
growth of of young
young
teak. Interplanting
teak. Intel:planting of of leucaena
leucaena maymay have
have the
the same
same effect.
effect.
 95

Hart,
Hart, H.M.J. 1931c. Gemengde
HM.J. Ganengde djaticulturen.
djaticulturen . (Mixed teak plantations plantations
(explanation and discussion).)
(explanation and discussion) ) Tectona
Tectona 24:
24: 488-511.
488-511. Noted in Indonesian
Indonesian
Forestry Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen,
Abstracts, PUIXX:, Wageningen, 1982. 1982. Abstract 604
Indonesia: Management
Indonesia:
The
The poorer the soil soil thethe more
IIDre adverse
adverse is is the influence of
the influence of mixing.
mixing.
Natural pruning
Natural p=ing is is better
better in in pure
pure teak
teak plantations.
plantations.
Hart, H.M.J. and Noltee, A.C.
and Nolt6e, Verjonging en
1927. Verjonging
A.C. 1927. en verpleging
verpleging van van den
djati. (Regeneration
djati. (Regeneration and tending of teak.) teak.) Tectona 20: 20: 199-213.
199-213. Noted
in Indonesian
Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen,
Abstracts, PUIXX:, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract 568
Indonesia
Indonesia:: Management
Management
A historic survey
A historic survey of of regeneration
regeneration techniques
techniques for for teak.
teak.
Hasan, SM.,
Hasan, Saraf,11.J.
S.M., alalSaraf, M.J. and Khalil, 14.T.
and Khalil, M.T. 1980. (Ccrrg;Jarative studies
1980. (Comparative
on the growth Pinus brutia in pure and mixed plantations.)
grCMth of Pinus plantations.) Mesopo-
Journal of
tamia Journal of Agriculture
Agriculture (from (fran Forestry
Forestry Abstracts
Abstracts Vol.42
Vo1.42 2949).
2949).
Iraq:
Iraq: Yield
Pure Pinus brutia was compared canpared to P.brutia inteiplanted
to P.brutia interplanted with Acacia Acacia
farnesiana . After three
farnesiana.After grCM"ing seasons
three growing seasons height grCMth was
height growth was significantly
significantly
higher in in the
the mixed
mixed stand.
stand.
Heald, and Haight,
R.C. and
Heald, R.C. Haight" R. 1979. A
R. 1979. new- approach
A new approach to to uneven-aged
uneven-aged silvicul-
silvicul-
ture and management
management of mixed conifer-oak
conifer-oak forests.
forests. California
California Agric. 33 33
(5): 20-22.
(5): 20-22.
Management
A methodof
Amethod of identification
identification of of vegetation
vegetation types
types is is presented.
presented. Management
Management
is directed at maintaining
maintaining these these types.
types.
Heilman, P.
Heilman, and Stettler,
P. and stettler, R.F.R.F. 1985. Mixed short
1985. Mixed short rotation
rotation of of red
red alder
alder and
and
black cottonwood: Growth,
blackcottonwocd: GrCMth, coppicing,
coppicing, nitrogen
nitrogenfixation
fixation and and allelopathy.
allelopathy.
Forest Science 31 31 (3):
(3): 607-616.
607-616.
North America: Soils. Yield
America: Soils.
Beneficial effects of mixing
Beneficial effects mixing withwith red
red alder
alder cannot
cannot be be ruled
ruled out byby this
study.
P.W.T. 1960.
Henry, P.W.T. Akilla plantation.
The Akilla
1960. The plantation . Inform.
Inform. Bull.
Bull. Dep.
Dep. For. Res.
For. Res.
Nigeria 9: 9: 1-4.
1-4.
Nigeria:
Nigeria: Management
Of the species tried for planting planting in in tropical
tropical lowland
lCM"land rain
rain forest,
forest, the
the
greatest success has been been achieved with Nauclea diderichli, pure or
Nauclea diderichii, or in
in
5/1 mixture
mixture with ilkliaceae.
with M21iaceae.
Heybroek,
HeYbrodk, H.M. 1980. M:lnoculture
H.M. 1980. Mbnoculture versus mixture: mixture: interactions between
susceptible
susceptible and and resistant
resistant trees trees inin aa mixed stand.
stand. In: In: Resistance
Resistance to
diseases and pests in forest trees, Proceedings of the Third
and pests
International Workshop on
InternationalWorkshop on the
the Genetics
Genetics of Host-Parasite
Hbst-Parasite Interactions in in
Forestry,
Forestry, Wageningen, September 1990.
Wageningen, September 1990. PUDOC, 1982. pp
PUIXX:, 1982. pp 20.
20.
General:
General: Envirorunental,
Environmental, pestspests and diseases
Mixing of hosts and non-hosts to diseases may be effective, effective, but but as
as it
it
often
often means mixing species,
means mixing speCies, it may entail
it may entail silvicultural
silvicultural problems.
problems .
Mixing genotype is
Mixing of genotype is aa poor
poor substitute
substitute for for breeding
breeding for for resistance.
resistance.
Heybroek, H.M. and Tol,
Heybroek, H.M. Tbl, G.G. van 1985. Experiences with genetically mixed
van 1985. mixed
forest
forest plantations Netherlands. Forest
plantations in the Netherlands. Forest Ecology
Ecology andand Management
Management
12:
12: 155-162.
The Netherlands:
Netherlands: Management
Mixtures are difficult to maintain maintain overover rotations,
rotations, 'theythey often
often develop
develop
into IIDre
more oror less pure
pure stands,
stands, or or rrosaics thereof . In clonal forestry,
mosaics thereof. forestry,
aa rrosaic stands is
mosaic of pure stands is preferable
preferable to to individual
individual mixtures.
mixtures.
Hirano, R.T. 1990. Propagation of Santalum, Sandalwocd. tree.
Sandalwood In
Proceedings
Proceedings of of the Symposium on
the Symposium Sandalwocd. in the
on Sandalwood the Pacific,
Pacific, April
April
1990,
1990, Honolulu, Hawaii. US Department Department of of Agriculture,
Agricul ture, Forest Service,
General Technical ReportReport PSW-122.
PSW-122 . p43-45.
p43-45.
 96

Management
Hawaii: Management
AA brief description of Sandalwood trade in Hawaii and notes notes on nursery
practice.
IkeJDri, Y.K.
Ikemori, 1990. Genetic variation in characteristics of
Y.K. 1990. of Eucalyptus
EUcalyptus
(Hill) Maiden
grandis (Hill)
grandis raised frcra
Maiden raised fran micro-propagation,
micro-propagation, macro-propagation
macro-propagation
seed : D.Phil thesis,
and seed: theSiS, University
University of of Oxford
OXford (UK).
(UK).
Brazil: Yields
Brazil:
Average yield
yield has
has been raised from
been raised fran 30 45m3/ha/yr with
to 45m3/h.a/yr
30 to with anticipation
anticipation
3
of
of raising
raising to 55m • Specific
to 55m3. Specific woodwood consumption
consumption should
should bebe reduced
reduced fran
from
4. 2m3 /tonnes pulp
4.2m3/tonnes pulp to 3. 7m3 •
to 3.7m3.
Indian Forest Service
Indian Forest 1934. Fourth
Service 1934, silvicultural Conference, Item 8.
Fourth Silvicultural 8.
Dehra India.
Debra Dun, India.
India: Management
India:
A document
A docurrent discussing
discussing mixed
mixed plantation
plantation at at sane
sane length.
length.
Indian Forest
Indian Forest Service
Service 1939.1939. Fifth Silvicultural
silvicultural Conference, Item 14, 14,
. Dehra Dun.
Dehra Dun.
India:
India: Management
This document contains one of of the
the rrost
most detailed
detailed discussions
discussions encountered
encountered
the subject.
on the subject.
Ingles,
Ingles, A. 1990. Demonstration
A. 1990. Demonstration of of forest
forest management
management options
options inin shrublands
shrUblands
and mixed
mixed pine
pine -- broadleaf
broadleaf forests.
forests. Discussion
Discussion Paper
Paper ofof Nepal- Australia
Nepal-Australia
Forestry Project,
Project, Kathmandu.
Kathmandu. pp pp 47.
47.
Nepal: Social.
Nepal: 8=ial . Management
Management.. Yields
Management options for different vegetation types are suggested. suggested.
Ishibashi,
Ishibasbi, H. 1987. The
H. 1987. The developnent
development and problems
problems in the the anti-erosion
anti-erosion
plantations in Japan. Mitteilungen der Forstlichen Forstlichen Bundes-
Versuchanstalt,
Versuchanstalt, Wien, No. 138. 138 .
Japan
Japan:: Soils
Soils
Terraces are
Terraces are planted
planted withwith aa mixture
mixture of Pinus thunbergii
of Pinus tbunbergii andand Alnus
Alnu
pendula. Big areas have developed into
pendula. into stands
stands of little
little or no no pine,
pine,
which erode and needneed intensive
intensive treatment;
treabnent; thethe regime
regime isis described.
described.
H. W. about
Japing, H.W. 1931. Het
about 1931. Het verjongingsonderzoek
verjongingsonderzoek van (Santalum
van sandelhout (Santalum
album)
album) op Java. (Research on the
qp JaM'!. the regeneration of of sandalwood (Santalum
(Santalum
album) in
album) in Java. Unpublished. Noted in Indonesian
Java. UnpUblished. Indonesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts,
Abstracts,
PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982.
PUL'OC, Wageningen, Abstract 638.
1982. Abstract 638. .
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
presentation of
Brief presentation of trials
trials to
to raise
raise sandalwood
sandalwocd in in mixture.
mixture.
Janes, A.D., Davies,
Jones, Davies, H. I. and
H. I. ami Sinden,
Sinden, JJ.A. 1990. Relationships between
.A. 1990. between
eucalypt dieback
diebadk and land use in in southern NewNew England, New South
England, New South
Wales. Australian
Wales. Australian Forestry
Forestry 53 53 (1):
(1): 13-23.
13-23.
Australia: Environmental:
Australia: Environmental: Pests and diseases
analysis of a time
An analysis time series
series ofof aerial
aerial photographs
photographs using
using as-
as-
sociations in
sociations in multiway tables. No clear
multiway tables. clear relationship
relationship cOuld be be
detected between increased species
detected between reduction in
species diversity and reduction in
dieback.
Jones, E.W.
Jones, 1945. Structure and reproduction of the virgin forests
E.W. 1945. forests of
of the
terrperate zone.
north temperate zone. New
New Phytologist
Phytologist 44:
44 : 130-148.
130-148 .
terrperate : Ecology
North temperate:
Janes, E.W.
Jones, 1965. Pure conifers in central Europe -
E.W. 1965. - A
A review of sane old
and new work.
work. Journal of OXford
Oxford University Forestry 8=iety
Society 13:
13: 3-15
Europe: Management
Europe:
Important works concerning
concerning the
the subject
subject are
are reviewed.
reviewed .
and Wigley,
Janes, P.D ami
Jones, Wigley, T.M.L. 1990. Global warming trends.
T.M.L. 1990. trends. Scientific
American 263
American 263 (2):
(2): 66-73.
66-73 .
General:
General: Environmental
 97
97

A "greenhouse"
A "greenhouse" mathematical
mathematical model rocdel has
has predicted
predicted thatthat the
the warming
warming inin the
the
last century should have been .5
century should have been .5 to 1.3° C to 1. 30 C and will
will be +4 0 C by the
+4° C by the yearyear
2050.
2050. The
The rocdel
model does
does notnot fit
fit the facts facts as as known
known exactly
exactly - - 1920-40
1920-40
waLmer
warmer than predicted; 1940-70 1940-70 cooler.
cooler.
Jonsson, B. 1961-62. On an b3.rrblandskogens prcxiuktion.
Larrbiandskogens produktion. (Yield of
(Yield of mixed
mixed
coniferous forests
forests.) . ) Meddelanden
Meddelanden fran statens skogsforskningsinstitut,
50.
50
SWeden:
Sweden: Yield
Yield
Results
Results indicate
indicate that mixtures
mixtures affect
affect yield.
yield. TheThe effect
effect is is greatest
greatest onon
sites
sites suited
suited to both Pinus Pinus silvestris
silvestris and Picea Picea abies. either
abies. In either
direction the effect
effect diminishes,
diminishes, finally
finally becoming
becoming negative.
negative.
Jordan, and Farnworth,
C.F. and
jardan, C.F. Faznworth, E.G. E.G. 1982. Natural versus
1982. Natural versus plantation
plantation forests.
forests.
A case study
Acase studyof of land
land reclamation
reclamation strategies
strategies for for the
the humid
humid tropics.
tropics. En-
virormmtal
vironmental Managerrent
Management 6 (6): (6): 485-492.
485-492.
Puerto Rico:
Rico: Yield
Yield
After
After four decades the productivity
productivity of of the natural regeneration
regeneration plot plot in
in
the experiment was higher or equal to to that
that of of the
the plantation.
plantation.
Kaeokamnerd, W..
KaeokaImerd, W. 1991.
19910 Travel Report to to People's
People's Republic
Republic of of China.
China.
Milreographed
Mimeographed pp 60. 60 . UNDP /FAO/SIDA/RFD Project
UNDP/FAO/SIDA/RFD Project THA/86/016,
THA/86/016, Royal
Royal Forest
Forest
Depar1:Irent,
Department, Bangkok.
China:
China: Managerrent
Management
Mixtures of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and and E.E. exserta with Acacia Acacia auri-
auri-
culifoLmis
culiformis in alternate rows to improve improve soilssoils and
and coppices
coppices noted.
noted .
BiellA, L.C. ami
Kageyama, P.Y., Biella, and Palermo,
PaleJllD, A. A. 1990. Plantacoes mistas
1990. Plantacoes mistas corn
can
especies nativas
nativas finsfins de protecao
protecao ee reser vatorios.Paper
vatorios. Paper presented
presented to
6th Congresso
Congresso Florestal Brasileiro, campos
Florestal Brasileiro, Jordao, Sao
Campos do Jordao, Sao Paolo,
Paolo,
Milreograph
Mimeograph 11 11 p.
p.
Brazil:
Brazil: Managerrent
Management
Analysis of one year old old mixed plantations. Silvicultural
Silvicultural performance,
performance,
height grCMth,
growth, is correlated to ecological groups groups of secondary
secondary succes-
succes-
sion.
Kanowski, P. J. and
P.J. ami Savill, P. P.S. with Mlard,
S..with Adlard, P.G.,P. G., Burley,
Burley, J.,J., Evans, J.,
EVans, J.,
Palmer, J.R., ami
Palmer, Wood, P.J. 1990. Plantation
and Wbod, Plantation forestry.
forestry . World Bank Bank
Fbrestry Policy. Issues
Forestry Issues Paper.
Paper. Oxford
Oxford Forestry
Forestry Institute.
Institute.
General: Soils.
General: Soils. Environmental,
Envirormmtal, pests and diseases
Second rotation decline of the kind kind observed
observed in in South
South Australia
Australia cancan be
be
,avoided
.avoided byby appropriate silviculture and
appropriate silviculture and tree
tree breeding.
breeding.
Kawahara, T.
Kawahara, T. and
ami YamaDDto,
Yamamoto, K. (Studies on mixed stands of akamatsu
1986. (Studies
K. 1986.
(Pinus densiflora)
(Pinus densiflora) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis
(Chamaecyparis obtusa) (III) Stem
obtusa) (III) Stem volume
volurre
of mixed
mixed stands.) Journal of Japanese Forestry Society 68 (8):
Forestry Society (8): 327-332.
Japan: Yield
Japan:
Hinoki
Hinoki height
height is is equal
equal in in mixed and pure stands, stands, diameter
diameter and tree
volurre greater in pure.
volume pure. Total stem stem volume
volurre is is greater
greater in in mixed
mixed stands
stands
than pure stands of of either
either species.
species.
Kawahara,
Kawahara, T., T.,Sato,
Sato, A.,
A-, Takeuchi,!.,
Takeuchi, I., Tadaki,Tadaki, Y. Y. and
and Hatiya,
Hatiya, K. K. (1981).
(1981).
Litter fall
fall and its decomposition
deoomposition in in aa mixed
mixed stand of Japanese
Japanese larch
(Larix leptolepis) and
(flarixleptolepis) and hinoki
hinoki (Chamaecyparis
(Chamaecyparisobtusa). Bulletin Forestry
obtusa). Bulletin Forestry
and Forest Products Research
Research Institute,
Institute, Japan. Japan. No.313:
No.313: 79-91.
79-91.
Japan: Soils
Japan:
decomposition was faster for mixed leaves than for
Leaf deoomposition for either
either species
species
alone.
alone
Keating, W.G.
Keating, 1981. Utilization of mixed species through grouping and
W.G. 1981.
standards
standards.. Australian Forestry 43
kistralian Forestry 43 (4):
(4) : 233-244.
233-244.
Australia:
Australia: Managerrent
Management
The author recommends
recarmends grouping
grouping of of timbers
timbers intointo strength
strength groups
groups based
based on
on
the requirerrents
requirements for structural materials to overcome overcame the the problem
problem ofof
 98

marketing mixed species.

species. This requires
requires good knowledge of the charac- charac-
teristics of of each
each species
species and effective grading
and effective grading techniques.
techniques.
1966. Sane
Keeves, A. 1966.
Reeves, Sore evidence of loss loss ofof productivity
productivity with
with successive
successive
rotations
rotations of Pinus radiata
of Pinus radiata in south east
in the south east of
of South
South Australia.
Australia.
Australian Forestry
Australian Forestry 30;
30; 51-63.
51-63.
Australia: Yield
Australia:
First rotation felled
First rotation felled at 24.5 years after
at 24.5 after aa fire,
fire, second rotation
rotation
assessed at 9.5 years.
years. Ccnrronly
Commonly aa drop of 1 - - 22 Site Quality
Quality classes,
classes,
sometimes as much as 4 classes.
Productivity of New England
Kelty, M.J. 1989. Productivity England hemlock/hardwood
hemlockjhardwood stands as
affected by by species
species camposition
composition and canopy structure.
structure. Forest
Forest Ecology
and Management 28: 28: 237-257.
237-257.
USA: Yield
USA:
Hemlock
Hemlock presence
presence resulted
resulted in in lower
lower stocking
stoCking ofof hardwoods
hardwoods inin mixed
mixed
stands (30%)
(30%) asas well
well asas lower volume (20%) and 5 year increment (14%)
volume (20%) (14%)
of
of the hardwoods. Total
the hardwoods. Total stocking
stocking increased
increased (65%)
(65%) as
as well
well as volume
as volume
(27%) and
(27%) and increment (18%). Silvicultural gains are better
increment (18%). better conditions
conditions
for regeneration and less epicormics.
epiconnics.
Kemp, R.H. 1992. The conservation of genetic resources in managed tropical
KeDp, R.H.
forests. Unasylva 43 43 (169):
(169): 3434 -- 40.
40.
Kenk, G.K.
Kerik, 1990a. The silviculture of mixed species stands in Gennany.
G.K. 1990a. Germany. In
Ecology of Mixed
Mixed Stands
Stands ofof Trees.
Trees. British
British Ecological
Ecological Society
Society and
and IUFRO
Div S2.01
52.01 Symposium, Edinburgh.
~h .
Gennany: Management
Germany:
Clear objectives of mixtures,
mixtures, knowledge of sites and of growing growing rates
rates
of
of canbining species are
coMbining species are indispensable.
indispensable. The The selection forest
forest is often
seen as an ideal,
ideal, but
but its
its possibilities
possibilities get over estimated.
estimated . 672 mixed
stand types identified.
identified.
Kenk, G.K. 1990b. Effects of air pollution on forest growth in
southwestern Gennany
Germany -- hunting for aa phantan?
phantom? Proceedings
Proceedings Div
Div.2. 2 XIX
XIX
IUFRO World Congress.
Congress. AugAug 1990,
1990, Montreal. pp 388-395.
388-395.
Gennany:
Germany: Yields,
Yields, Disease
Ccrmients
Comments on the yields
on the yields of stands
stands suffering
suffering crown
crown decline
decline in in which
which
yields
yields maymay hebe higher
higher than predicted. May May he be due
due to increased
temperature, m 2 , rainfall or
tanperature, CO2, or mineralization.
mineralization.
Kenward, R.E. 1990.
Kenward, R.E. Are tree species mixtures too good for grey
1990. Are
squirrels? In Ecology of Mixed Stands of Trees Trees.. British Ecological
Society and IUFRO Div S2.01 ~h .
52.01 Symposium, Edinburgh.
UK: Wildlife
UK:
An analysis of of the
the grey
grey squirrel
squirrel problem
problem inin forestry.
forestry.
Kerr, G., Nixon, C.J. and Matthews, R.W.
Kerr, G., Nixon, C.J. and Matthews, R.W. 1990. 1990. The silviculture and yield
of mixed
mixed species stands:
stands: the
the UK
UK experience.
experience. In In Ecology
Ecology ofof.Mixed
Mixed Stands
Stands
of Trees.
Trees. British Ecological
Ecological Society and IUFRO IUFRO Div 52.01 Symposium,
Symposium,
Edinburgh.
UK: Management.
UK: Management. Yield
It isis believed
believed that
that nurse
nurse crops
crops increase
increase profitability
profitability andand flexibility
flexibility
in the lowlands.
lowlands. In the
the uplands
uplands benefits
benefits have been
been clearly daronstrated
demonstrated
soils. Mixing
on certain soils. Mixing spruce
spruce with
with pine
pine or larch
larch is recxmnended
recommended on
nutritionally deficient
nutritionally deficient soils
soils in
in the
the upland
upland heaths.
heaths .
Kio, P.R.O.
Kio, P . R.O. 1976.
1976. What future for natural regeneration of
of tropical high
forest? in An appraisal with examples fran from Nigeria and Uganda.
Commonwealth Forestry Review
Ccnrronwealth Forestry Review 5555 (4):
(4): 309-318.
309-318.
Nigeria: Economy.
Nigeria: Economy . Management
It is argued that natural regeneration
regeneration is is more
I'OClre economic
econanic than planta-
than planta-
tions (GMelina
(Gnelina on a 40-year
40-year rotation),
rotation), that includes
includes an assumed
assumed 25%
25%
decline in
decline in yield
yield in
in the
the second
second rotation.
rotation .
 99

Kolesnichenko, H.V.
Kolesnidhenko, ELV. and CluoakrN,
Chumakov, V.V. 1973. Basis for selection of
V.V. 1973.
species for admixture in mixed mixed plantations of canadian poplar. Lesnoi
Canadian poplar.
Zhurnal16
Zhurnal 16 (5):(5): 12-16.
12-16.
USSR:
USSR: Soils,
Soils, nutrients
Betula verrucosa, Sambucus
Eetula verrucosa, Sambucus racemosa
racerocJSaand pumila var.
Ulmuspi/Eli/a
andU/mus var. arrorea
artorea in-in-
hibited grcMth. Robinia pseudoacacia,
poplar growth.
hibited poplar pseudoacacia, Caragna
Garagna arrorescens,
arborescens,
Lonicera tatarica,
Lcnicera tatarica, Alnus glutinosa, Cbtinus
Alnus glutinosa, Cotinus coggyria
coggyria and Fraxinaq
Fraxinus
pennsylvanica activated.
pennsylvanica activated. It It is suggested
suggested that inhibitor spp. spp. should J:e be
(10-20%) to
included (10-20%) to promote
prarote aa "response
"response reaction"
reaction" inin the
the poplar.
poplar.
ROn, I.
Kan, I. 1973. Growth Cryptaneria japcnica
GroNth of Cryptomeria japonica in in mixture
mixture with Pinus
with Pinus
elliottii var elliottii
elliottii var elliottii on the Arraial Estate, Parana, Brazil Brazil.. Floresta
Floresta
30-33.
(2) : 30-33.
4 (2):
Brazil:
Brazil: Yield
A note
A note on
on the
the performance
perfonnance of of the
the species
species after
after three
three years.
years.
Kmmanik, 1979. Biological
P.P.P. 1979.
Kormanik, P. Biological means
means ofof improving
improving nutrient
nutrient uptake
uptake inin
trees. In the Ecology
trees. Ecology of even- aged forest plantations. Ford, E.D.,
even-aged E. D., Mal-
Mal-
colm, D.C
D.C.. and Atterson,
Atterson, JJ.. eds.
eds . Proceedings
Proceedings DivDiv 1. IUFRO.
IUFRO. Institute
Institute of of
Terrestrial Ecology, CaMbridge.
Cambridge.
General: Soils,
General: Soils, nutrients
Reviews the NN fixing
fixing role
role of
of micro-organisms
micro-organisms and and mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi.
fungi.
Kramer, 1925. Het verjongingsondérzoek
F. 1925.
Kramer, F. verjongingsonderzoek van sandelhout (Santalum
van sandélhout (Santalum aJ.J:xzm)
album)
op Java.
Java. (Research on the regeneration of (Santalum album)
of sandalwood (Santalum aJ.J:xzm)
in Java.)
Java.) Korte
Korte Meded.
Meded. P.v.b.H.
P.v.b.H. 10 10 and Tectona
Tectona 18:
18: 455-498.
455-498. Noted
Noted in in
Indonesian Forestry Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982.
PlIDX:, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract
Abstract 642.
642 .
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
Management
aJ.J:xzm was mixed with field
Santalum album field crops Leucaena glauca.
crops and Leucaena glauca. Many
Many
seedlings died when unable to reach reach the roots of plants in in the
the inter-
inter-
mediate
mediate roo.
row. IONLow heroo
herbs around the the seedlings
seedlings helped.
helped. Once
Once the roots
roots
reached the Leucaena,
Leucaena, they developed well.
developed well.
Krislmim.nthy,
Krishnamorthy, K., !t.megowda, N.H.K.
K., Eimegowda, K. and Rajagopal,
Rajagqlill., D.D. 1990. Outbreak of
1990. Outbreak
Psyllid, Heteropsylla
Psyllid, Heteropsylla cubanacubana Crawford on on Leucaena
Leucaena and its its outlook
outlook in
alley cropping
alley cropping in in India. InIn Leucaena Psyllid: Problems
Leucaena Psyllid: Problems and
and Management.
Management.
International Workshop,
International Workshop, Bogor, Indonesia ed.
Bogar, Indonesia ed. Napompeth,
Napa:rpeth, B. B. and
MacDicken, K.
MacDicken, K.G.G. pp 17-24.
India: Pests
India:
DescriJ:es distribution,
Describes distribution, damagedamage and
and attempts
attempts atat control
control of of the
the insect.
insect .
Kunst, E.D.
KUnst, E.D. 1918. Toelichtingen Lie
1918. Tbelichtingen bie de
de excursie
excursie der
der houtvesters
houtvesters in de 2de
en 5de Inspectie-afdeeling
en 5dé Inspectie-afdeeling naar Raranggedeh
Karanggedeh qpop 21 December 1918.
21 December 1918 .
(Explanations at at the
the excursions
excursions of the forest district officers of the
second and
second fifth inspection
and fifth inspection division
division to Karariggedeh
Karanggedeh on December
on 21 December
1918.) In: Boschwesen,
1918.) In: Ebschwesen, Dienst van het,
Dienst van 1918. Notulen
het, 1918. Attulen van
van de gecan-
de gecom-
bieerde
bieerde dienstvergadering
dienstvergaderingrderder tweede
thllgede en vijfde inspectieaafdeeling
inspectieaafdeeling van
Boschwesen te
het Ebschwesen te Samarang qpop den
den 20 December 1918.
20 December 1918. (Minutes
(Minutes of the
the
canbined
coMbined service meeting
meeting of the second and fifthfifth inspection division of
inspection division of
Samarang, 20
the forest service in Samarang, 20 DeceMber
December 1918.)
1918.) Unpublished.
Unpublished. Noted
Noted
Indonesian Forestry Abstracts,
in Indonesian Wageningen, 1982.
PlIDX:, Wageningen,
Abstracts, PUDOC, 1982 . Abstract
606.
606
Indonesia: Management
Indonesia:
If fires are
If fires are avoided,
aVOided, natural
natural mixing
mixing species
species develop
develop vigorously.
vigorously.
mixing is
Natural mixing is to
to be preferred to
J:e preferred to artificial.
artificial.
Lahiri, A.K.
Lahiri, 1987. A
A.K. 1987. A note on the prospects of Tectona grandis and Xylia
dolabriformis mixtures
dolabrifOrmis mixtures in North Bengal.
Bengal. Indian Journal of Forestry 10
(3):
(3): 232-233.
India: Management
India:
A line mixture
A line mixture of Xylia dolabrifOrmis
of Xylia dolabriformis and Tectona grandis.
and Tectona grandis. 2x2
2x2 mm
spacing, 44 lines teak, 4 lines
lines teak, lines of of Xylia
Xylia and
and 44 lines
lines of of Schima
 100

wallichii, Chukrasia tabularis, tabularis, Michaelia chanpacachanpaca mixed.

mixed. The last two
are fire tender and tended to be eliminated. eliminated. At 5 years mean mean height
height 66
m, dbh
m, dbh of of fire
fire tender
tender spp.
spp. 5.1 am, the
5.1 am, the rest
rest 7-8 am.
7-8 am.
Lamb, A.F.A.
A.F .A. 1969. Artificial regeneration
1969. Artificial regeneration withinwithin thethe humid
humid lowland
lowland
forest. Commonwealth
tropical forest. Crnmonwealth Forestry
Forestry Review
Review 48 48 (1):
(1): 41-53.
41-53.
Nigeria: Management.
Nauclea diderrichiiused
Naucleadiderrichii usedin in matrix
matrix with Meliaceae, Lovca
with Meliaceae, Lovoa trichilioides,
trichilioides,
Khaya ivorensis, Entandrophragma utile,
Rhaya utile, E.cylindricum,
E.cylindrictUll, E.angolense. 55
Nauclea to 1 Meliaceae.
Aauclea Atliaceae. 3.7m 3.7 mspacing. Nauclearemoved
spacing. Nauclea removedat at age
age 12
12 to
to 15.
15.
Meliaceae harvested
Atdiaceae harvested at at 60
60 to 70 70 years.
years. On Amazon infertile
On Amazon infertile soils
soils
alternate rotations of shade tolerants tolerants is is recommended.
recommended.
Lamb, A.F.A.
Laibb, 1991. Personal
A.F-A. 1991. Personal catIllunication.
communication.
Nigeria: Management
Nigeria:
Lovoa
Lovca too slow growing to keep up with the Nauclea. Nauclea. Cedrela odorata
odorata notnot
attacked by
attacked Hypsipyla in
by Iiypsipoyla in Nigeria.
Nigeria.
Lawton, R.M. 1991. Personal communication.
1991. Personal catmUnication.
Leclerq,
Leclerq, W.L., 1960. Fl:Ines
I'LL., 1960. Fbmes annosus
annosu and Prunus serotina. Ned.
PLlllJUS serotina. Tijd-
Bosb. Tijd-
Ned. Bosb.
schr.
schr. Vol 33 (2): (2): 74-75.
74-75.
The Netherlands: Environmental, pests and diseases
Netherlands: Environmental,
possible danger
The possible
The danger of using using Prunus serotina in
PLlllJUS serotina in coMbination
canbination with with
conifers is discussed.
Leslie, A.J.
Leslie, 1966. The problem
A.J. 1966. problem of of limited
limited fundsfunds in tropical forestry.
tropical forestry.
Crnmonwealth
Commonwealth Forestry Review 45
Forestry Review 45 (2):
(2): 156-159.
156-159.
tropics: Management.
The tropics: Econany
Management. Economy
There is no case for for allocating
allocating scarce funds for extensive silvicul- silvicul-
tural workwork in natural forests, forests, achieving low econanic economic returns,
returns, at the
expense of intensive work in high yielding yielding plantations.
plantations.
Leslie, A.J.
Leslie, 1987. A
A.J. 1987. second look
A second look at at the
the economics
econanics of of natural
natural management
management
systems in tropical mixed forests. Unasylva
mixed forests. Unasylva 155 155 (1):
(1): 47-58.
47-58.
Tropics:
Tropics: Econanics
Economics
In the
the management
management of of tropical mixedmixed forests the "non-revenue" benefits benefits
must not be overlooked.
must overlooked. Econanic
Economic prospects are largely governed governed by the
rate of interest selected; the choice is subjective, but the
appropriate
appropriate rate rate is is likely
likely to to be
be at the lower ICMer end of any plausible
plausible
range.
Leyy, G.
levy, Estimation de
1982. Estimation
G. 1982. 1 'utilite d`une
de l'utilité d'tme introduction
intrcduction d'aulne
d'aulne gluti-
gluti-
neux en melange
neux mélange a de jetmes plants
dé jeunes plants d' epicea commun
drépicéa ccmnun sur sol sol aa hyriraror-
hydromor-
phie
phie terrporaire
tenporaire superficielle. Annales Annales desdes Sciences
Sciences Forestieres
Forestieres 39 39 (1):
(1):
33-40.
France:
France: Soils.
Soils. Management
Management
Two year
'lWo year data
data fran
from aa trial
trial with
with alder
alder mixed
mixed with
with NOIWaY
Norway spruce (1:5)(1: 5) in
troughs
troughs with with pseudogley
pseudogley soils. Water table was 55 cm
soils. Water am below
below surface.
surface.
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration 19-34% 19-34% greater
greater thanthan control.
control. ~ringLowering the the water
table
table improved
improved rooting,
rooting, NN uptake,
uptake, and and spruce
spruce survival.
survival. In In sunmer
summer aa
ICMered water table may
lowered may have adverse
adverse effects
effects on on spruce.
spruce.
L:il::by,
Libby, W.J. 1982. What
W.J. 1982. What is is the safe safe number
number of of clones
clones perper plantation?
plantation? In In
Resistance to Disease and Pests in in Forest
Forest Trees.
Trees. eds Heybroek, H.M.,
eds Heybroek, H.M.,
Stephan, B.R.
Stephan, Weissenberg, K.
B.R. and von Weissenberg, K. Proceedings Third International
Workshop
Workshop on on the Genetics
Genetics of Host Host Parasite
Parasite Interactions
Interactions in Forestry
Forestry
September 1980. 1980. Wageningen,
Wageningen, Netherlands
pp 342-360.
342-360.
Envi ronmental: pests and diseases
Environmental:
Cross adapt
adaptionion ofof aa short
short generation
generation pest pest may
maybebe rrore
more likely arrong
among many
many
clones thanthan arrong
among aa fewfew unrelated
unrelated clones.
clones. M:Jnoclonal
Monoclonal plantations
plantations are are aa
strategy, 2-3
good strategy, 2- 3 clones
clones possibly the worst strategy. strategy. A robust
robust andand
optimum strategy
perhaps optimum strategy is is 7-25
7-25 clones.
clones.
 101

Idmander, P. 1990. Flexibilitet -- en ledstjaerna

LOhmander, ledstjaerna rber
foer all
a11 skoglig
Skogsfakta, inventering
planering. Skogsfakta, inventering och ekonani 23,
och ekonomi 23, Swedish
SWedish University
University
of Agricultural Sciences.
Sciences.
SWeden: Econany
Sweden: Economy
wng-tenn
Long-teila predictions of of timber prices and logging costs are
impossible. So is the future impact of environmental changes.
Therefore, maintenance flexibility
Therefore,maintenance flexibility isis of
of vital
vital importance.
importance. Mixed
Mixed stands
stands
pennit
permit Il'Ore The Il'OSt
more flexibility. The econanic species
most economic species can encouraged in
can be encouraged in
thinnings.
future thinnings.
rowe, R.G.
Lowe, R.G. 19911991 Personal communication.
carmunication.
Nigeria:
Nigeria: Management
Lundgren, ern,., B.
llmvdgLltrr... B. 1980. Plantation forestry
1980. Plantation forestry in tropical countries
in tropical countries -- physical
physical
and biological
biological potentials
potentials and risks. Rural
and risks. Rural Development
Developnent Studies
Studies 8.
8.
SWedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Swedish University Sciences, International Rural
Developnent Centre, Uppsala, Sweden.
Development SWeden.
tropics: Soils
The tropics:
Argues that
Argues that plantation
plantation forestry
forestry in
in the
the tropics
tropiCS should
should be treated much
be treated nruch
Il'Ore as a short term
more tenn crop, canparable
comparable toto an
an agricultural
agricultural crop,
crop, and
and that
that
soil and site management has not not been given adequate
been given adequate attention.
attention.
Mad;r:egor, W.D.
MacGregor, W.D. 1934. Silviculture of the mixed deciduous forests forests of
of
Nigeria with special reference to the south-western
south-Western provinces. Oxford Oxford
MeiOOirs 18.
Forest Memoirs 18 . Oxford
Oxford Forestry
Forestry Institute
Institute (UK).
(UK).
Nigeria
Nigeria:: Management
Primarily concerned
Primarily concerned with
with natural
natural forests,
forests, but
but the
the success
success of plantation
plantation
mixtures and and enrichment
enrichment planting
planting isis commented
carrnented on.on.
McColl,
Mcfi>ll, J.G.
J . G. and
andEdmonds,
Edoonds, R.L. 1983.
1983. Symbiotic nitrogen fixationfixation by
by
Daviesia nllmosoides
Laviesia mimasoides under Eucalyptus.
Eucalyptus. In:In : IUFRO
IUFRO Symposium on Forest
Forest
Site and Continuous
Continuous Productivity,
Productivity, Seattle,
Seattle, Washington,
Washington, August
August 1982.
1982.
General Technical
General Technical Report, Pacific Northwest Forest
Pacific Northwest Forest andand Range Experiment
Experiment
Station,
Station, US US Dept.
Dept. of Agriculture Forest
Forest Service
Service (1983),
(1983), No.
No. PNW-163,
PNW-163,
pp.
pp. 122-129.
Australia:
Australia: Soils
On red red earth kraznozems derived
earth kraznozems derived from
fran highly
highly weathered
weathered Ordovician
Ordovician
sediments E.dives and
sediments E.dives E.dalrympleana grow
and E.c1alryrrpleana grow onon exposed
exposed ridges
ridges with
with an
understoreyof
understorey of D. nllmosoides, kg/ha/yr. The pattern of NN
mimosoides, fixing 4.5-7 kg/ha/yr.
fixing
fixing is is examined.
examined. N N fixing
fixing rate
rate constant
constant at at nonnal
normal soil
soil tension,
tension, aa
.drop when plants reach reach wilting point.
point. Increased
Increased N N fixing up to to -.01
-.01
then sudden drop (anaerobic
(anaerobic conditions).
conditions).
Milroy,
McIlroy, J.C.
J.e.1978.
1978. The
The effects of forestry practice on wildlife wildlife in
Australia. AA review.
review. Australian
Australian Forestry
Forestry 41 41 (2):
(2): 78-94.
78-94.
Australia:
Australia: Wildlife
The
The general
general effect
effect of forestry practices
of forestry practices is reset or
is to reset or initiate
initiate
succession
succession of of plant carmunities. Management plans cannot
plant and animal communities. cannot
wholly replace
wholly replace reserves
reserves and
and national
national parks.
parks.
~, F.H. 1990.
MtEinnell, F.H. Status of
1990. Status management and
of management and silviculture
silviculture research
research on
Sandalwood in in Western
Western Australia
Australia and
and Indonesia.
Indonesia. In In Prooeedings
Proceedings of of the
the
Symposium on Sandalwood in the Pacific,
Pacific, April 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
US Departrrent
Department of Agriculture,
Agriculture, Forest Service,
Service, General
General Technical
Technical Report
Report
PSW-122. pp 19-25.
19-25.
Indonesia : Management
Australia, Indonesia:
A general description of Sandalwood management
A management and research in WesternWestern
Australia and
Australia and Indonesia.
Indonesia.
Maheut,
Maheut, J.J. and
and Dommergues,
IlcmDezgues, Y. Y. 1959.LaLafixation
1959. fixationpar
par 1e
le reboisffi/ellt
reboisement dé de
dunes
dl.llles de la presqu' ile de
presqu'île Cap Vert et ll'évolution
dé cap ' evolution des sols. (Fixation
sols. (Fixation
of the Cape
Cape Verde Peninsula sand hills hills by
by reafforestation.)
reafforestation.) Bois et
Fbrets des Tropiques No.
Forêts No. 63:
63 : 3-16.
3-16.
 102

Senegal: Soils
Senegal:
casuarina eguisetifolia raises
Casuarina equisetifolia raises biological
biological activity
activity.. Therefore
Therefore it is
it is
oonsidered a suitable
considered suitable species
species for
for reafforestation
reafforestation sand
sand hill
hill soils. Crop
Crop
rotation may
rotation may prove
prove necessary.
necessary.
Magundikcro, LA. and Depari,
Depari, K.S.
K.S. 1958. (Insect and
1958. (Insect and fungus
fungus attacks
attacks in the
northern Sumatra.)
pine forest of northern Sumatra.) Rimba
RiInba Indonesia
Indonesia 10-12:
10-12: 417-452.
417-452.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Environmental, pests and
and diseases
diseases
Mixing withwith deciduous
deciduous species
species is is among
arrong the measures
measures recommended
recarrrended to
lessen the insect attacks on on Pinusimarkusii
Pinus IfY2rkusii in in the
the area.
area.
Maheut, J. and Dommergues,
DaJmergues, Y. 1960. 1960 . Les teckeraies de Casamance casamance --
Gap3cite de prcxiuction
Capacité production des peuplement
peuplement caracteristiques biologiques et
caractéristigues biologigues et
maintien du
Haintien du potentiel prcxiuctif des
potentiel praluctif des sols. (Teak plantations of
(Teak plantations of Casaman-
Casaman-
ce -- Biological
Biological characteristics
characteristics and maintenance
maintenance of the the productive
productive
potential of
potential of soils.)
soils.) Bois
Bois et
et Foréts
Forets de de Tropiques
Tropiques 70: 70 : 25-42.
25-42.
Senegal : Soils.
Senegal: Soils. Yield
Yield
There is reason to fear aa future decline in the yield of teak teak planta-
tions in Casamance. Mixing is arrong preventive measures
among the preventive measures suggested.
suggested.
Malcolm, D.C. 1979. The future
D.C . 1979. developnent of even-aged
future development even-aged plantations:
plantations :
silvicultural iInplications.
implications. In: the
In: eoology of even-aged forest
the ecology
plantations. proceedings
plantations. Proceedings of the meeting of Division
the meeting Division I, I, IUFRO,
IUFRO,
Edinb..rrgh, Sept.
Edinburgh, Sept . 1978. Institute
Institute of Terrestrial
Terrestrial Ecology,
Eoology, CaMbridge
cambridge
(UK),
(UK), 1979.
1979. pp 481-504.
481-504 .
UK: Ecology.
UK: Eoology. Management
D.C. and Titus,
Malcolm, D.C.
Malcolm, 1983. Decanposing
B.D. 1983.
Titus, B.D. Decomposing litter as aa source of
nutrients
nutrients for for second
second rotation
rotation Sitka
Sitka spruce
Spruce established
established on on peaty
peaty gley
gley
soils.
soils. In:In: IUFRO Syrrposiurn
Symposium on Forest Site and and Continuous Productivity,
Productivity,
Seattle, Washington,
Seattle, Washington, August
August 1982. Technical Report,
1982. General Technical Report, Pacific
Pacific
Northwest Forest and
Nbrthwest and Range Experiment station,
Station, US Dept.Dept. ofof Agriculture
Agriculture
Forest Service (1983),
(1983), No. PNW-163, pp pp 138-145.
138-145 .
UK: Soils
UK:
Leaving brash
brash after felling
felling onon gley
gley soils
soils promoted
promoted aa high release
release ofof
nutrients and
nutrients and weed grCMth. Without
weed growth. Without brash there was
brash there tendency for
was a tendency for
nutrients to be lost in
be lost in run
run off.
off.
Malcolm, D.C.,
Mlcolm, Hooker, J.
D.C., Hooker, J.E. Wheeler, C.T.
and Wheeler,
E. and C.T. 1985.
1985. Ilankia symbiosis as
Frankia symbiosis as
aa source of nitrogen in forestry:
forestry: aa case study of of symbiotic nitrogen-
fixation
fixation in in aa mixed
mixed Picea-Alnus plantation in in Scotland.
Sootland . In In Symbiosis
Symbiosis
and Plant Nutrition.
Nutrition. Proceedings
Proceedings of the Royal Society of of Edinburgh 85
(3/4): 263-282.
(3/4): 263-282 .
UK:
UK: Soils
In aa 16-year-old
16-year-old plantation
plantation on on moderately
moderately fertile
fertile clay
clay aa line mixture
mixture
of Alnus rubra did
Alnus zubra did not iInprove
improve grCMth
growth of P. si tchensis as against aa pure
P.sitchensis
spruce plantation.
plantation. The presence
presence of alder
alder increased
increased upper
upper soil NN status
status
by
by 585 kg/ha.
Malcolm, D.C., Campbell,
CilIIJlhell, J.M. and Kxgan, J.
J .M. andMargan, J .L. 1990. Synergism in mixed
L. 1990.
species
species stands
stands onon oligotrophic
oligotrophic sitessites in Sootland.
Scotland. In In Eoology
Ecology of Mixed
Species Stands
Stands of Trees.
Trees. British Ecological
Eoological Society
Society andand IUFRO
IUFRO Div
Div 2.01
2.01
Syrrposiurn,
Symposium, Edi.nbrrgh.
Edinburgh.
UK
UK:: Soils
Beneficial
Beneficial effects
effects of of Pine
Pine and Larch mixtures
and Larch mixtures withwith Spruce
Spruce start
start to
to
appear about age 6 -- 8. 8. Differences
Differences in in rooting
rooting intensities
intensities and patterns
together with
with increased
increased N N mineralisation
mineralisation ratesrates inin organic surface
surface soils
appear to be be sufficient
sufficient to acoount
account for the enhanced
enhanced grCMth
growth in mixtures
mixtures..
Mallet, B. 1988. Note
B. 1988. sur la
Note sur la croissance
croissance dé Khaya senegalensis
de Khaya senegalensis en planta-
tions en zone de for-6f
foret sffili -decidue
semi-décidue en cote
Cate d ' Ivoire .
d'Ivoire. CI'FT
C1101
(unpublished)
(unpUblished)..
cote d'Ivoire:
Cate d'Ivoire: Management
 103

senegalensis seems to grON

Khaya senegalensis grow best in openings, Hypsipyla
although lypsipyla
openings, although
robusta poses problems.
robusta problems . Stem
stem fault
fonn is better when when mixed
mixed with Leucaena
with Leur!aena
leucocephala or
leucocephala Cedrela odorata,
or Cedrela odorata, attacks
attacks of H.robusta
of H. being delayed.
robusta being delayed .
Mangoendihardjo, S., S . , wagiman, F .X., Suthoni, A. and SUbyanto.
Wagiman, F.X., Subyanto. 1990.
Econanic
Economic :i.uqJact
impact of Leucaena
Leucaena Psyllid
Psyllid infection on estate crops crops and
and teak
teak
plantation . In Leucaena
forest plantation. Leucaena Psyllid:
Psyllid : Problems and Management.
Management.
Workshop in
Wbrkshop in Bogor,
Bogor, Indonesia.
Indonesia. F/FRED
F/FRED Coordinating
C=rdinating Unit,Unit, Bangkok.
Bangkok. pppp
184-188.
Indonesia : Pests
Indonesia: Pests
Gives details of of areas
areas infected
infected and and financial
financial loss
loss involved.
involved.
ManU, G.
Manil, (The problem
1971 . (The
G. 1971. problem of maintaining
maintaining the the fertility of the soils
under
under pure conifer
conifer plantations
plantations.) . ) Bull.
Bull . Soc. Belg . 78 (5):
Soc. For. Belg. (5): 217-250.
217-250 .
Belgium:
Belgium: Soils
AA review
review ofof the
the effect
effect of
of conifer
conifer plantations
plantations on on soils and ecosystems.
soils and ecosystems.
Martin, B.
Martin, B.,, T,aplace,
Laplace, P. P. ~et,
and Quillet, G. 1989
G. 1989.. L 'UAIC Afocel-Armef
L'UAIC Afocel-Annef
Informations Forêt.
Informations Fbret . No.2
No. 2 -- 1989.
1989 . Pointe-Noire,
Pointe-Noire, Congo.
Congo .
Congo
Congo:: Management
Description of clonal eucalypt plantations.
plantations. Spatial mixtures achieved
achieved
by mixing clones,
clones, 42 clones used but
42 clones but on 50% of of the
the area only 55 were
were
used
used.. Mixtures were also achieved over time by succession. Advantages
by succession.
large genetic
include large genetic base
base and
and uniformity
unifonnity of of output.
output.
Martin, B.
Martin, Les croisements
1991 . Les
B. 1991. croisements controlés
cantroles industriels:
industriels : appui
appui majeur a la
Hajeur A la
voie clonale.
vole c1anale. Nouvelle
Nouvelle stratégie
strategie pour
pour les
les plantations
plantations fOrestières
forestieres
intensives. Paper, Theme 13,
13, 10th
lOth World
World Forestry
Forestry Congress, Paris, 1991.
Proceedings, Vb1.5:
Vol. 5: 43-49.
43-49.
Congo:. Clonal forestry
Congo:
Mathew, G. 1990.. Cossid
G. 1990 pests of
Cossid pests of teak
teak inin the Asian Region
the Asian Region and
and the
possibilities of their
possibilities their control.
control. In Pests and
In Pests and Diseases
Diseases of of Forest
Plantations in the Asia-Pacific Region. Region. FAO,
TIIO, Regional Office for for Asia
Asia
Bangkok . pp
and the Pacific, Bangkok. pp 204-213.
204-213.
Asia
Asia:: Pests
A review of
A review of these
these pests
pests andand their
their control.
control .
Matziris,
Matziris, D. 1991. Selection and plantation of species
D. 1991. species and provenances
provenances in
relation to sites
relation sites and
and objectives.
objectives. Paper, Theme 13. 2, lOth
13.2, 10th World
Forestry Congress,
Forestry Congress, Paris,
Paris, 1991.
1991. Proceedings,
Proceedings, VO1.5:
Vol.5 : 77-84.
77-84.
Includes a recommendation
reoammendation for for the
the use
use of
of mixtures.
mixtures.
Merlin, M.
Merlin, M. and
and Van Ravenswaay,
Ravenswaay, D 1990. The history
. 1990.
D. history of of human
human :i.uqJact
impact onon the
the
. Santalum in Hawaii.
genus Santalum Hawaii. In Pr=eedings
Proceedings of the Symposium on Sandalwood
Sandalwood
in the PacifiC,
Pacific, April 1990,
1990, Honolulu,
Honolulu, Hawaii
Hawaii.. US Dept.
Dept. of Agriculture
Forest Service, General Technical
Technical Report
Report PSW-122.
PSW-122.
pp 46-60.
pp 46-60.
Hawaii: Management, exploitation
Hawaii: explOitation and and conservation
conservation
A brief
A brief survey.
survey.
Mielikainen, K. developnent of pine and spruce
K. 1985. The structure and development
stands
stanciswith
with birch
birch mixture.
mixture. In : Broadleaves
In: Broadleaves in in Boreal
Boreal Silviculture
Silviculture - - An
An
Obstacle or an an Asset?
Asset? (Eagglund,
(Hagglund, B. Petterson G.
B. and Petterson G. eds).
eds). Swedish
University
University of Agricultural
Agricultural Sciences, Department
Department of SilViculture, Report
Silviculture, Report
14: 189-206.
14: 189-206.
Finland : Yield
Finland:
Admixture of Betula
Admixture pendula, 25
Betulapendula, 25 to
to 50%,
50%, enhances
enhances yield
yield ofof spruce at all
ages
ages.. Mixed
Mixed with pine,
pine, it enhances yields yieldq only if rerooved
removed early,
early, 20-30
years. Mixed
years. Mixed with pine
pine it depresses
depresses sawtimber yields. Betula
sawtimber yields. Eetula pubescens
pubesoens
does not
not enhance spruce grONth,
growth, but can act as filler in in gappy
gappy planta-
planta-
tions.
Miller, P. R. and Eiderman,
P.R. Eidennan, M.J.
M.J . (eds). 1977. Phot=hemical
Photochemical oxidant
oxidant air
pollutant effects on on aa mixed
mixed conifer
conifer forest
forest ecosystem.
ecosystem.
 104

EPA 600/3-77-104.
600/3-77-104. USEPA, Corvallis,
Corvallis, Oregon.Oregon. pp pp 338.
338 .
Environrrent:
Environment: Pollution
!t>fiat,
Mbffat, A.J. and Boswell, R.C.
A.J. and R.C. 1990.
1990. Effect of tree species and species
mixtures on soil properties
properties at Gisburn forest, forest, Yorkshire
Yorkshire.. Soil Soil Use
Use and
and
Management 66 (1): (1): 46-51.
46-51.
UK:
UK: Soils
32 year old mixture
mixture experiment
experiment with with ScotsScots pine, No:rway spruce,
pin, Norway oak,
spruce, oak,
alder and grass control.
alder control. TheThe soil
soil unde
under r conifers
conifers and alder was
and alder was slightly
slightly
rrore
more acid than under oak and grass. grass. pH decline on all
pH decline a ll plots.
plots . Conifers
Conifers
had thicker F and H, H, but thinner A, horizons . Conifers
A, horizons. Conifers and alder may
retarded formation
have retarded formation of of an
an iron
iron deficient
deficient BB horizon.
horizon.
Mans,
K:lhns, B., B., Applegate,
ARllegate, G.B. and Gilmour, Gilmour, D.A. 1988. Biarass
D.A. 1988. Biomass and produc- produc-
tivity estimations for community forest management: management: aa case study study from
fram
the hills of Nepal -- II. II. Dry
Dry matter
matter production
production in in mixed young stands of of
Chir (Pinus roxburghii) and broad leaved species
Chir pine (Rinus species.. Biarass
Biomass 17: 17: 165-
165-
· 184
184
Nepal: Yields
Standing biarass
biomass varied
varied fram
from 15t/ha
15t/ha (7.74 (7 .74 pine
pine, , 7.26
7.26 broadleaves)
broadleaves) on
southern slope
southern slope ridge
ridge to 41.7741.77 (29 (29.73. 73 pine,
p ine, 12 . 04 broadleaves)
12.04 broadleaves) on
northern slope.
northern slope. Annual
Annual dry matter production production from fram 4.50t/ha/yr
4. 50t/ha/yr (2.27(2.27
pine, 2.23
pine, 2 . 23 broadleaves) to to 10.82
10.82 (6.74(6. 74 pine,
pine, 4.08
4 . 08 broadleaves).
broadleaves).
M:xlney, J.W.C.,
Mooney, 1962. The
J.W.C., 1962. tropical she
The tropical l terwood system
shelterwood system in in the
the high forest
high forest
Ghana . Commonwealth
of Ghana. Ccmmonwealth Forestry
Forestry Review
Review 41 41 (3):
(3) : 205-208.
205-208 .
Ghana: Management
Ghana:
Discusses the need for clear objectives objectives and managementmanagement of of incanpatible
incompatible
species.
species. M:JstMbst valuable
valuable timbers
timbers are slow growing shade bearers . Higher
shade bearers.
volumes can be achieved with
volumes with light
light demanders.
demanders . Higher utilisationutilisation in in
production for
production for thethe local
local market
market than than for for export.
export . TSS consideredconside red
unsuitable for production "quality" species.
production of "quality" species.
Iii:.pri Bilan 1987. Essais comportement
1987. Essais carportement CedrelaCedrela odorata.
odorata .
CI'FT (unpublished).
CTi,2 (unpUblished).
COte d'
Cate Ivoire: Yield
d'Ivoire: Yield
Productivity of pure stands of Cedrela odorata was found to to be
be higher
higher
than stands of C.odorata Tenninalia ivorensis
C.cdorata and Terminalia ivorensis mixed.
M:lraes de
Mbraes de Jesus, R. and Brouard,
R. and Brouard, J.S.
J .S. 1989. Eucalyptus-Leucaena mixture
experiment.
experiment. I. I. Growth and yyield. i e ld . International
International Tree Crops Journal JournalS:5:
257-269.
Brazil:
Brazil: Yield
Yield
A trial with
A with E.
E. urophylla
urophylla and and two varieties of L.
two varieties L. leucocephala
leucccephala.. At At age
77 eucalyptus
eucalyptus survival
survival varied
varied fram from 75% 75% (control)
(control) to 50% mixture).
to 50% mixture).
Leucaena survival was 95%.
Leucaena survival 95%. Eucalyptus yield yield in control was greater than
was greater than
in raixed
mixed plots,
plots, inin turn
turn greater
greater than than the Leucaena. Inorganic
the Leucaena. Inorganic fertilizer
may have reduced the NN fixing fixing of of the
the Leucaena.
Leucaena. .
MJrris, A.R.
Mbrris, A.R. 1986 Soil Fertility and Long IDng term
tenn Productivity of Pinus
patula in Swaziland.
Swaziland. Unpublished Thesis Thesis for f or PhD,
PhD, Reading
Reading University
University
(UK).
(UK). pp 398.
398.
Swaziland:
Swaziland: Soils
Estimates
Estimates of of nutrient removal, nutrient content of the mature
nutrient removal, mature stand,
stand,
soil nutrient content and nutrient nutrient removalremoval in in harvested
harvested logs. logs .
Mbss, D.
K:lss, 1979. Even-aged plantations as a
D. 1979. a habitat for birds. birds. In: In : The
ecology of of even-aged forest plantations
plantations.. Proceedings
Proceedings of of the
the meeting
meeting ofof
Division I, I, IUFRO, Edinburgh, Sept.
IUFRO, Edinburgh, Sept . 19781978.. Institute Te=estrial
Institute of Terrestrial
Ecology,
Ecology, Cambridge
CaMbridge (UK),(UK), 1979.
1979 .
UK:
UK: Wildlife
Wildlife diversity increases at
diversity increases at the boundaries
boundaries of two habitats. Decline
of aa species may be due to the removal of its food supply supply rather
rather than
 105

the presence of trees (e.g. (e . g . ravens and sheep on moorlands).

moorlands) . Diversity
Diversity
of structure (all (all ages) as as important
important as as diversity
diversity of of species.
species .
M.rlr,
Muir, W.D.W. D. 1970
1970.. The problem of maintaining site fertility with
successive croppings
croppings.. Australian Journal of Science 32 (8): (8): 316-324
General: Soils
General:
Decline in productivity
Decline productivity in second rotation crops crops appears
appears to he confined
to be confined
to soils of low low natural fertility.
fertility.
ltIrray,
MUrray, M.D.M.D. and Miller, R.E. 1986. Early survival and growth of planted
R.E. 1986.
Douglas-fir with with red alder in four four mixed regimes.
reg:irnes. Pacific
Pacific North West
Research Station,
Research Station, US US Dept.
Dept. of of Agriculture
Agriculture Forest
Forest Service.
Service. pp pp 13.
13.
USA: Management
USA:
Retaining 1250
Retaining 1250 redred alderjha
alder/ha to to 6-8
6-8 years
years had had no adverse effect on
adverse effect
Douglas fir fir in in Cascade
Cascade Range.
Range .
M.D. and
array, M.D.
!t.Jrray, and Leonard,
Leonard, P.C. 1990. Growth
P.C. 1990. Growth ofof trees and stand
structure in mixed stands of Pacific
structure silver fir and western
Pacific silver hemlock. US
western hemlodk. US
Dept . of Agriculture Forest Service Research
Dept. Research PaperPaper
PNW-RP-431. pp pp 12.
12.
USA: Management
USA:
analysis of six hemlodk/silver
An analysis hemlock/silver fir fir stands
stands. Hemlock (Tsuga
. Hemlock heterrr
(Tuga hetero-
phylla) has faster initial
has faster initial heightheight growth
growth but but silver
silver fir fir (Abies
amabilis) after about 35
amabilis) 35 years has faster faster growth
growth.. Therefore
Therefore fir fir should
should
not be discriminated against
be discriminated against in in early
early thinnings.
thinnings .
!t.Ittiah,
MUttiAh, S. 1965. A
S . 1965. canparison of three repeated inventories of Sundapola
A comparison
mixed selection working working circle
circle and future management
management.. Ceylon
Ceylon Forester
Forester
7(1/2) : 3-35.
7(1/2): 3-35 .
Sri Lanka
Lanka:: Management
SWietenia macrqphylla
macIVphylla mixed mixed with Tectona grandis and
with Tectona Art=arpus
and Artocaryous
integrifolius. Age
integrifolius. unknown. SS.macrqphylla
Age unknown. .macrophylla 59 59 to
to 84%
84% of of crop (by stem
crop (by stem
number), T. T. grandis
grandis 22 toto 15% and A.integrifolius 88 to
and A.integrifollus to 19%.
19% . Volume
Volume 9494 to
to
3
155 ro /ha (dbh
NO/ha (dbh up up to em), but trees over 78
58 am),
to 58 em felled
78 an felled 1955-1960.
1955-1960.
Profuse mahogany
Profuse mahogany regeneration.
regeneration . Proposal
Proposal to to treat
treat as as selection
selection forest
forest to
to
achieve an all age structure. structure .
!t.Ittiah,
Miuttiah, SS. 1991. Personal
. 1991. Personal carmunication
communication..
Sri Lanka:
Lanka: Management
Management
Sundapola plantations
plantations established circa 1901. 1901. The potential
potential for for con-
con-
version to uneven-aged (pure) plantation was
(pure) plantation uas recognised in in the
the early
1950s
1950s.. But Mahogany could
But Mahogany could not not havehave been established without
been established without thethe
mixture. Probably inadvisable
mixture. inadvisable to go to pure plantation. plantation. Exploitation
Exploitation
carried out with
carried with extreme
extre.rre care.
care.
Neil , P.E.
Neil, P . E. 1990.
1990 . Growing Sandalwood
Growing Sandalwood in Nepal -- Potential Potential silvicultural
silvicultural
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1990, Honolulu,
Honolulu, Hawaii.
Hawaii. US US Department
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Agriculture, , Forest
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PSW-122. pp
72-75.
72-75.
Nepal , India:
Nepal, India: Management
Management
A brief
A brief description
description of of silvicultural
silvicultural management
management proposals.
proposals.
Nelson, T.C.
Nelson, 1964--65 . Growth models
T.C. 1964-65. !lKldels forfor stands
stands of of mixed
mixed species
species composi-
ccrnposi-
tion. Proc.
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229-231.
USA:
USA: Yield
Based
Based on on a a simplified
simplified theory,
theory, aa growth growth !lKldel
model forfor mixed
mixed stands
stands is is
proposed
proposed..
Mg,
Ng, F.S.P. carmunication .
F.S.P. 1991 Personal communication.
Malaysia: Management
Malaysia:
The Kepong
Kepong plantings
plantings were established
established as demonstration
derronstration plotsplots under
falcataria, which was
Albizia falcataria, was removed.
rerroved . Dipterocarps
Di pterocaIpS were were successful,
successful ,
but eucalyptus
eucalyptus aa failure.
failure. Understorey
Understorey species have regeneratedregenerated natural-
 106

ly. In 30 years a mixed forest had been created.

ly. created. After 60 years
years used
recreational area.
as a recreational area.
F. S. P, Zulkifly
Ng, F.S.P,
Ng, Zulkifly binbin Haji Mokhtar, Ahnad
Haji Mokh-tar, Ahnad Abdul Ghani bin
Abdul Ghani Aziz
bin Abdul Aziz
I.eucana leucocephala
1982. Leucana leucocephala as
as a tall cover
cover crop for sawlog
sawlog plantations.
In: I.eucaena
In: Leucaena Research in the Asian-Pacific
Asian-Pacific region,
region, Singapore 1982, pppp
113-118. IDRC, Canada.
113-118. IDRC, Canada.
Malaysia: Management,
Management, cover crops
I.eucaena has
Leucaena been used
has been used as a tall
as a tall cover
cover crop
crop together Tectona
together with Tectona
grandis and Araucaria
Araucaria hunsteinii.
htmSteinii. It sh=s promise
It shows pranise inin suppressing
suppressing
Imperata,
Imperata, less so in suppressing Pueraria and
suppressing Pueraria Centrosema.
and Centrosema.
(Forest Reseach
1991. (Forest
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~,
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J.C.B. 1977. Reflorestamento heterogeneo
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Paulo 24:
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1-77.
1-77
Brazil: Management
Brazil:
A
A,description
description ofof the
the reforestation
reforestation of of aa small
amall area
area of
of degraded
degraded riparian
forest.
forest. After
After 22
22 years
years aa vigorous semi-deciduous
semi-deciduous tropical
tropical forest
forest had
had
been developed.
been
Nordstroem,
Nordstrom, L. Ekoch
1964. Ek
L. 1964. gran. (oak and
och gran.(0ak and spruce).
spruce) . Skogen
Skogen 21.
21.
Sweden: Management
SWeden:
A silvicultural
A silvicultural regjme
regime for regenerating oak
for regenerating oak in
in group
group mixture
mixture with
spruce is
spruce is presented.
presented. The The ajm
aim of
of the regime is
the regjme is aa pure
pure stand
stand of
of high
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quality oaks.
NaIIais, R.F.
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1983. Eeposicao folhas ee nutrientes
de folhas nutrientes
em plantacoes florestais
emplantacoes florestais puras
puras ee concoriadas
concoriadas de Pinus ee Ldquidambar.
de Pinus Liquidambar.
(Leaf fall
(Leaf fall and
and nutrient
nutrient return
return inin pure
pure and
and mixed plantations of Pinus
mixed plantatiOns Finus
and Liquidambar.
Liquidambar.)) IPEF No. 23: 57-59.
No. 23: 57-59.
Brazil: Soils
Brazil: SOils
Leaf heterogeneity on the floor of the mixed mixed stand appears
appears to increase
litter decomposition and to improveimprove nutrient
nutrient cycling.
cycling.
Nwoboshi, 1983. Potential impacts of sane
L.C. 1983.
NWOboshi, L.C. sare harvesting options on
nutrient budgets of aa Gnelina
nutrient Gmelina pulp.YOOd
pulpwood plantation
plantation ecosystem in Nigeria.
ecosystem in
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Continuous Productivity,
Productivity,
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Dept. ofof Agriculture
Agriculture
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Nigeria:
Nigeria: SOils.
Soils. Management
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nutrient status
status of 10 year
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old plantation Gnelina
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arborea.
arborea. SOil
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also presented.
presented.
Odendaal, P.B. and Bigal.ke,
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R.C. 1979. bushbudk in aa
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39-41.
SOuth
South Africa:
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Five animals
animals radio tradked.
tracked. Indigenous
Indigenous broadleaved
broadleaved forest
forest met their
their
total requirements.
total requirements. Clearfelled
Clearfelled areas
areas prefe=ed
preferred at
at night, dense
night, and dense
Pinus
Pinus radiata and P.elliottii plantatiOns at day.
plantations at day. Lo.vest
Lowest preference
preference was
diversicolor plantations.
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stressed. Their silvicultural
silvidultural
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requirements are unknown.
unkno.-m.
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201-203.
North America:
North America: Management
 107

stratified
Stratified forests
forests need
need not be be unevenaged.
unevenaged. Certain mixtures
mixtures e.g.
e.g.
fir/western hemlock
Douglas fir/western may havehigher
hemlockrmwhave higherbasal
basal area
area than pure stands
than pure stands
either species.
of either species.
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Site
Site preparation
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damaging to to the
the soil.
soil. Lack of site
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for
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GMelina (only. 25%
25% of
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area suitable).
suitable).
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tropical forest
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inteIplanted 3:1
interplanted 3:1 with
with autumn olive and alder. alder. There was aa marked
marked in-
in-
crease
crease in mineralised N
in mineralised under olive,
N under olive, less alder. Up
less under alder. up to 18
to 18
kg/ha/year == 13.5%
kg/ha/year 13,5% of of total
total NN pool
pool under
under olive
olive and
and asas 100
law as 52
as 52
kg/ha/year in
kg/ha/year in control.
control. Walnut grooth correlated
Walnut growth correlated with
with NN mineralisation.
mineralisation.
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General:
General: Disease
A review of the problem. "Broad assumptions lead to false
simplifications. We We know
knoo regrettably
regrettably little
little about
about health
health and
and disease
disease in
in
trees:"
trees:"
Peck, K.M.
Pedk, 1990. Habitat
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SWietenia macrophylla
SWietenia Eacrophylla underunder 3 year old Art=azpus
Artocarpus heterophyllus 1890
onwards. Also S.macrophylla
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important factors,
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USA: Soils
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 108

The effect
The effect of
of mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi
fungi on
on competition
canpetition between
between plants
plants of
of
different species
species stJa..l
show that they convert a negative
negative interaction into
one that is is either neutral or positive
either neutral positive (increases
(increases yield).
yield). They
physically link
physically link trees with
with their hyphae,
hyphae, through which
which carJ::x:m
carbon and nut-
rients probably
probably pass.
pass .
Phillips, D.R. and AbercraIirl.e,
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A
A regime is proposed,
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of hardwoods is re-
re-
together with
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seedlings.
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dense groups,
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presented .
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important insect
insect pests
pests in in south-east
south-east Asia.
Asia.
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natural forest
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India:
India: Soils
After 40 40 years organic
organic carbon
carbon had decreased in the the top 18 an of of the
the
soil.
soil. Natural forest:forest: mixed
mixed plantation
plantation:: teak plantation
11.7:-1.5:0.8%.
. 7:-1 . 5 : 0.8%. P905
P~05 13 :17:10 ppm.
13:17:10 ppm. Total
Total Mg Mg 11.6:1.5:0.9
. 6:1.5 : 0.9 but
but exchangeable
increased under
Mg increased
Mg unaer teak.
teak . Soil considered
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UK: Management
UK:
Greater production
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selection forests unproven, but claim for
but claim for
greater value
greater value more
more sustainable.
sustainable .
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Pure natural stands are often in extreme environments, environments, Pinus mugo, mugo, P.
cembra and Alnus viridis at high elevations, Eetula
Ainus viridis Betula in in the
the far
far north,
north,
CUpressus sanpervirens on south-facing
CUpressus sempervirens south-facing limestone
limestone in Crete, Olercus
in Crete, Quercus
petraea in in the
the Atlantic
Atlantic climate
climate of of west
west Britain,
Britain, AlnusAlnus glutinosa
glutmosa in in
peaty valleys, alercus
peaty Olercus and and fagus
Fagus in in browsed
br~ed areas.areas.
Radwan, M.A. and DeBell,
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USA: Management
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Mixed culture of Populus
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gro.-Tth of
of the
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poplar.
 109

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India:
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methods ofof revegetating
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mined out
out site
site were
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One of
of the
the
methods was sal (Shorea
(Shorea robusta)
robusta) mixed with Grevillea
Grevillea robusta,
robusta, EUca-
Euca-
camaldulensis, Tbona
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auriculiformis, A
Acacia auriculiformis, A.. campylacantha,
campylacantha, GMelina
Gnelina arborea,
arborea, Eucalyptus
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hybrid, and Pongamia pinnatagrown
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bamboo hadhad rather
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better height
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diameter grcMthgrowth and survivalsurvival than
than when
when grown
gr= without. Albizia
without . Albizia
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Grevillea. robusta planted into aa coppiced Eucalyptus grandis stand
Grevillea stand of
1=
law stocking - - showing
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pranise. Pinus radiata planted asas aa 25%
25%
mixture with Pinus Pinuspatulapatula or Cupressus lusitanica.
or CUpressus lusitanica. Both Both line
line mixtures.
Grevillea is not browsed br=sed by by duiker.
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QJ.eensland, Z.il!il:Jab,ve: Soils
Queensland, Zimbabwe:
Inoculation with
Inoculation with Frankia
Frankia can can result
result in in upup to 100%
100% increase
increase inin wood
production in 4 year old old trees of of C.CUIIDinghamiana.
C.cunninghamiana. Qnission
Omission ofof PP fran
from
nutrients appliedapplied can can reduce
reduce growth
gra.'th by
by 75%.
75% .
Reddell,
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Australia, Z.il!il:Jab,ve : Soils
Australia, Zimbabwe:
One Frankia strain increased height growth grCMth by by 200% at age 14 months
months in
Z.il!il:Jab,ve.
Zimbabwe. Wood Wood production
production increases
increases up up toto 150%
150% atat age
age 45
45 months
months were
were
noted in QJ.eensland.
Queensland. Application of P increased wood production by by up
up
250% over
to 250% over control.
control .
Reese, K.P. and
Reese, K.P. and Ratti,
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soil produc-
produc-
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UK: Soils
UK:
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moorland
moorland with impoverished
:impoverished soils soils.. Conifers increased porosity in humus
layer more more than hardwocds.
hardwoods. Both Both :impoverished
impoverished mineral soils below bel= 3030 am,
an,
 110
110

conifers
conifers rrore than hardwoc:ds.
more than hardwoods. Conifers
ConifeLb reduced
reduced pH fran 3.3
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3. 1,
hardwoc:ds increased pH
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mycorrhizal associate
associate of of
Pinus sylvestris but not of Picea sitchensis, sitchensis, occurs in mixed mixed planta-
tions and may
tions may be able to degrade protein rapidly rapidly leaving 87% of the the
protein degradation
degradation products
products in in solution,
solution, which
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may 'be available for for
uptake by the Sitka Sitka spruce.
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wattle Inixed,
mixed, 700700 stems/ha,
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482 m 3
/ha at
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age 10
10 as
nO3 for wattle, 1600
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 111
Sands,
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Australia: Soils
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growth and and soil
soil strength.
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Maintenance
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pure
evenaged
evenaged plantations.
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Instances where
where mixtures
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USA
USA:: Yield
At 13 years Elaea Elaeagnus,
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Robinia, Alnus increased
black
black walnut
walnut dbhdbh atat sane
some locations
locations (but(but notnot all).
all). E. umbellata gave
E. umbellata gave 5656
-- 351%
351% increase
increase in4 out of
in 4 out of 55 locations
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IllinOiS, Missouri and and
Indiana. All species
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100% increase
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Schubert,
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11 etet al.
al.
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proportions of of each
each species
species used in mixture mixture. . In 50:50
In 50:50
and 66:34
66:34 Ellca/yptus: Albizia mixtures,
Eucalyptus: Albizia mixtures, Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus dbh dbh 6%
6% to 15% 15%
greater than mixtures
mixtures with higher proportions of Eucalyptus,
with higher Eucalyptus, but no no
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eucalyptus standing
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volumes .
Sc1mtz,
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management
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Sc1mtz,
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 112
112

Interactions
Interactions of of the two species
the two species planted
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trees/m" are are
examined.
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Douglas fir at these these densities
densities reduced
reduced leaf
leaf area
area ofof alder
alder asas
Douglas fir densities increased,
increased, but growth grcMth parameters of both both species
primarily affected
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hybrid,
Emblica
EMblica officinalis and "miscellaneuos".
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miscellaneous plantations, but
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effects can
attributed to
be attributed to the tree
tree cover
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debatable.
Singh,
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37-47.
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India:
An examination of four forest forest covers,
covers, teak,
teak, sal,
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A
A high proportion of Trewia Trewia nudiflora, Tbcna Toona ciliata and BOmbax ceiba
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resulted in in larger
larger volumes.
volumes.
Siregar et al. 1986. GrCMth
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Leucaena leucocephalain
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I.eucaena Research Report
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82.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Yield
The poor results
results maymay bebe due
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allelopathy of of Melaleuca leucadendron,
Alaleuca leucadendron,
drought stress or or sulphur
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5melyanetz,
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It
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used ifif intimate
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is alroost
almost impossible
*possible to find species that that
will form
f onn single canopied
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No effects
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Eucalypts
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growth to the interplanted
 113
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the
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30 7/88,
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46 14/88,
14/88, Forest
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Solaron
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SWietenia
Swietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla planted
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Securinega flexuosa, .samoana,
leucocephala, Te:rminalia
Leucaena leucocephala, calamansanai, Schleinitschia
Trminalia calamansanai, Schleinitschia nova- novo-
guinensis, Glyricidia sepium sepium to overcome Hypsipylla shoot
overcare hypsipylla shoot borer.
lx>rer.
Spacing 3x4m or 3x5m. S.flexuosa most
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Improved
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recent years
years as-as-
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with increased availability
availability of of water
water (Imllching)
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increased
(fertiliser application,
nutrients (fertiliser application, use of legumes legurres and leaving
leaving logging
logging
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residues). Nitrogen
Nitrogen can can prarote
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Tasmania . pp
pp 89.
89.
Australia:
Australia: Management
A detailed code
A detailed code of
of practice
practice for
for logging
logging native
native forests.
forests.
ThaIn, A.
Tham, 1988. Yield prediction after heavy
A. 1988. heavy thinning of birch in mixed
stands
stands of Norway spruce
of Nbrway (Picea abies (L)
spruce (Picea (L) Karst.)
Karst.) and (Betula
and birch (Betula
pendula Roth
pendula Roth and Betula pubescer2s
and Eetula pubescens Ehrh.).
Ehrh.). Swedish
SWedish University
University of
of
Agricultural Sciences,
Agricultural Sciences, Department
Department of of Yield
Yield Research,
Research, Report
Report 23.
23.
Sweden: Yield. Management
SWeden: Management
The highest
The highest total
total yield was found
yield was found when
when spruce was mixed
spruce was mixed with
with a shelter-
shelter-
800 birch/ha.
wood of 800
wood birch/ha. At higher
higher densities
densities spruce
spruce production was lower
production was ICMer
than in aa pure
pure spruce
spruce stand.
stand . AA shelterwood
shelterwood ofof 500-600
500-600 birches/ha
birches/ha isis
recommended. TheThe shelterwood
shelterwood should
should bebe retained
retained for
for 20-30 years.
20-30 years.
11Ianas, J .W. 1979. Wildlife habitats in managed
Thomas, J.W. forests, the Blue M:Juntains
managed forests, Mountains
of Oregon and Washington.
Oregon and washington. Agric. Handbook
Handbook No.
No. 533.
533. pp. 512. USDA:
pp. 512.
Forest Service.
Forest Service.
Tisseverasinghe, A.E.K. and Satchithananthan,
Tisseverasinghe, A.E.X. Satchithananthan, S. 1957. The management of
S. 1957.
Sundapola plantation. Ceylon
Ceylon Forester
Forester 33 (1):
(1): 82-93.
82-93.
Sri Lanka:
Lanka: Management.
Management. Yield
A summary
A sumnary of data from
fran aa 50 year
year old
old mixed plantation ofof Artocarpus
Artccarpus
integrifolius and SWietenia ma.=phylla.
macrpphylla.
Interim results of intercropping
1970. Interim
X.K. 1970.
Tiwari, K.M. intercropping miscellaneous species
crop of
with main crop of taungya
taungya plantations
plantations to
to increase
increase the
the productivity.
productivity.
Indian Forester
Forester 9696 (9):
(9): 650-653.
650-653.
India:
India: Yield
Yield
MLlltipurpose species
Multipurpose species have introduced in
have been introduced in the
the interspaces
interspaces of salsal
taungya lines.
lines. An additional
additional yield
yield of of approx.
approx. 1 tonne/ha/yr was
tonne/ha/yr was
obtained
obtained on aa four-year
four-year rotation.
rotation. Species
Species used include Albizia
used include procera,
Albiziaprocera,
Bauhinia variegata, Cassia
Eautinia variegata, Cassia fístula
fistula and Ougenia oojensis.
and Ougenia oojensis.
Tourney, J.W.
Tourney, silviculture upon
J.W. 1947. Foundations of silviculture upon an
an ecological
ecological basis.
basis.
John Wiley and Sons.
Wiley and Sons.
General: Textbook
General:
A textbook with
A textbook with a detailed
detailed discussion
discussion about
about mixed stands.
mixed stands.
M.Z. and Yao,
Tu, K.Z.
'lU, Yao, W.H. 1984. Studies on the influences of soil pH by
W.H. 1984. by
different plant ccmnunities.
different Tropical and Subtropical
communities. Tropical SUbtropical Forest
Forest Ecosystem,
Hu Shan
Ding HU Shan Forest
Forest Ecosystem
Ecosystem Station,
Station, China
China 2:
2: 110-113.
110-113.
China: Soils
China:
A study of 26
A study 26 plantations
plantatiOns showed that a mixturemixture of
of legumes
legumes and
and non-
non-
legumes increased pH. pH. Dalbergia
Ealbergia odorifera and Cassia siamea gave best
results.
results. Planting calamus tetradactylus recommended to increase pH
Planting Calamus pH and
and
profits.
TUrner, J.
Turner, 1983. Maintenance
J. 1983. Maintenance and improvement of forest forest productivity in
Australia. In: In: IUFRO Symposium on Forest Site Site and Continuous
Productivity, Seattle, Washington, August 1982.
Washington, August General Technical
1982. General Technical
Report, Pacific
Pacific Northwest
Northwest Forest
Forest and
and Range
Range Experiment
Experiment Station,
Station, USUS Dept.
of Agriculture Forest
Forest Service
Service (1983),
(1983), No.
No. PNW-163.
PNW-163.
Australia: Soils. Management
Australia: Soils.
 115

Describes silvicultural activities

DescribPs activities (site
(site preparation,
preparation, weeding,
fertiliser application)
fertiliser application) to enhance
enhance productivity.
productivity. Major gains in
Major gains
productivity are
productivity are made
made in
in the establishment phase.
the establishment phase.
Turvey, N.D., Attiwill, P.M.,
TUrvey, Cameron, J.N.
PJM., Cameron, and Smethurst,
J.N. and smethurst, P.J.
P.J. 1984.
GrcMth
Growth of planted pine trees in response to variation
variation in the
the densities
densities
of naturally regenerated acacias.
acacias. Forest
Forest Ecology
Ecology and
and Management
Management (7):
(7):
103-107.
AUstralia: Soils.
Australia: Soils. Management
Management
No grcMth
growth benefits to the the pine could
could be detected. It It is speculated that
speculated that
acacia isis not the
the most
IOClSt appropriate
appropriate nitrogen
nitrogen fixer
fixer to
to be
be used.
used.
Uhart, E.
E. 1962. Ies reboisement et
1962. Les et leledéveloppement
developpEmeI1t dede Madagascar.
(Reafforestation and
(Reafforestation and developrent
development of of Madagascar.)
Madagascar.) Bois
Bois et Forêts
Forets dede
Tropiques No.No. 83:
83: 15-29.
15-29.
Madagascar:
Madagascar: Management
A policy
A policy of reforestation in in Madagascar
MadagascAr is is discussed.
discussed.
C.R., Bing,
Un, C.R., Bing, J.Y. and YUng,
J.Y. and study in mixed
N.Y. 1979. Study
Yung, N.Y. mixed planting.
Quarterly Journal
Qparterly Journal of
of Chinese
Chinese Forestry.
Forestry.
China: Management
China:
Tciiwania
Taiwan ja cryptanerioides
cryptomerioides andand Paulownia taiwania in
Faulownia taiwania in mixture.
mixture.
Velez, R.
Vélez, 1991. Uso
R. 1991. Uso del fuego en en selvicultura.
sel vicul tura. Paper,
Paper, Theme
Theme 5.2,
5 .2, 10th
World Forestry
World Forestry Congress,
Congress, Paris,
Paris, 1991.
1991. Proceedings
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Vol.2: 461-470.
461-470.
General:
General: Fire
Villamar,
Vi11amar, C.A.
C.A. 1979.
1979. Silvipasture establishment for range type production production
of water
water J::uffalo.
buffalo. Sylvatrop
Sylvatrop Phillipine
Phillipine Forest
Forest Research
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Journal4 4 (1) pp
(1)pp
17-21
17-21..
Philippines: Management
Philippines:
Ieucaena leucocephala
Leucaena leucocephala (1,360/ha,
(1,360/ha, 82% Gnelina arborea
survival) and GMelina
82% survival) arl:xJrea
(202/ha,
(202/ha, 52%
52% survival) in Stylosanthes guyanensis and Themeda triandra
survival) in triandra
grasslands.
Forestry in
1970. Forestry
Vink, A.T. 1970. in Suriname.
Suriname. Landbosbeheer,
Landbosbeheer, Suriname
Suriname Forest
Forest
Service.
Suriname:
Suriname: Management
Rather intensive systems of enrichment- and strip-planting are
Rather
described.
Voogd, C.N.A.
Voogd, C.N.A. de 1928. Over Aunstmatige
kunstmatige menging
IIEllging van djati REt
van djati met wildhout.
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(On artificial
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Tectona 21:21: 527-533.
527-533. Noted
Noted in In-In-
donesian Forestry
Forestry Abstracts, PUDOC, Wageningen, 1982.
PUL'OC, Wageningen, 1982. Abstract
Abstract 612.
612.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
Management
Mixing advantages
Mixing advantages can
can be obtained
obtained by mixing with
by mixing with species
species growing
growing just
just
trees. Mixing species should stay green during the
below the teak trees. the dry
dry
season, grow and produce
season, be easy to grow produce aa marketable
marketable product.
product.
industrial air
VODOn, P. 1979. The effect of industrial
VOron, air pollution on the health of
forest
forest plantations
plantations in the
the carpathian
Carpathian fcothills.
foothills. Lesovodstvo i i Agrole-
sameiioratsiya 53:
53: 53-57.
53-57.
USSR: Environmental
USSR: Environmental
In aa study of
of pollution
pollution effects mixed
mixed stands were
were rrore
more resistant than
pure.
waage,
Waage, J. 1990. Exploration
Exploration of biological control
of biological control agents Ieucaena
agents of Leucaena
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America. F/FRED Coordinating Unit,
Unit, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
pp 144-152.
pp 144-152.
Central Arrerica:
America: Pests
Describes the insect and its
its predators
predators in
in the
the native
native range.
range.
Watt, A.
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1990. Insect
Insect pest
pest population
population dynamics effects
effects of
of tree
tree species
species
diversity. In Ecology of
In Ecology of Mixed
Mixed Species
Species Stands
Stands ofof Trees.
Trees. British
British
Ecological Society and
and IUFRO
IUFRO Div
Div 2.01
2.01 Symposium,
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Edinburgh.
UK:
UK: Environmental,
Environmental, pests
pests and diseases
 116

way, /4.J.
Way, 1977. Pest
M.J. 1977. Pest and
and disease
disease status in mixed mixed stands
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rronocultures;
the relevance
relevance of eoosystem
ecosystem stability. In: In : The Origin of Pest, Parasite,
Disease andand Weed
Weed Problems.
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127-138, Blackwell,
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OXford.
Environmental:
Environmental: Pests and diseases
It is arphasized
emphasized that diversity itself is no guarantee
diversity in itself against pests
guarantee against pests
and diseases. Diversity
Diversity nay decrease attacks through
may decrease through provision
prevision
carrouflage, barriers,
camouflage, barriers, hazards
hazards oror alternative
alternative hosts.hosts.
Wepf, W.
Wrepf, 1955. Het
W. 1955. Het begrip
begrip menging
menging inin djaticulturen
djaticulturen. . (Mixing
(Mixing inin teak
teak
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43: 290-294. Indonesian Forestry Abs- Abs-
tracts, PUDOC,
tracts, PUIXlC, Wageningen, 1982. 1982 . Abstract
Abstract 596. 596.
Indonesia:
Indonesia: Management
The aim of mixing should be aa luxuriant
mixing should undergrcMth. Use
luxuriant undelyrowth. Use should
should be madenade
natural plant
of the natural plant community.
oomrnunity.
Whitehead, D.
Whitehead, 1981. An ecological overview of plantation forestry.
D. 1981. forestry. New
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(1): 14-19.
14-19.
New Zealand: Environmental,
New Envirernnental, ecology
ecology
The ecological hazards of
ecological hazards of plantation
plantation forestry
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discussed. Sane Sane of
of
the criticism
the criticism of plantation
plantation forestry
forestry foundfound toto bebe unjustified.
unjustified.
Ecological aspects
1982. Ecological
Whitehead, D. 1982. aspects of of natural
natural andand plantation
plantation forests.
forests.
Forestry Abstracts 143
Forestry 143 (10):
(10): 615-624.
615-624.
New Zealand:
Zealand: Environmental,
Envirernnental, ecology
High diversity does not always result result in high high stability
stability and and produc-
produc-
tivity . There
tivity. There areare examples
examples of of pure
pure stands
stands with
with stable
stable structures.
structures .
Whitmlre, J.L.
Whitmore, Myths regarding
1973. Myths
J.L. 1973. regarding Hypsipyla
Hypsipyla and and its
its host
host plants.
plants. In: In:
First Sympcsium
Symposium on Integrated Control of Hypsipyla. IlCA-erEI -Turrial-
Hypsipyla. IICA-CTEI-Turrial-
ba, Costa
ba, Rica.
Costa Rica.
Environmental,
Environmental, Pests and diseases
Q,.lantification studies are
Quantification studies are needed
needed to to learn
learn whether, and and ifif so howho.T much,
less
less shaded seedlings are attacked by by Hypsipyla.
Whitmlre, J.L. 1991.
Whitmore, Personal communication.
1991. Personal crnrnunication .
Whitmlre, T.C.
Whitmore, T.e. 1984. Tropical Rain
1984. Tropical Rain Forests
Forests of of the
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OXford
Oxford University
University Press (UK) (UK) pp
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352.
Far East:
East: Ecology
A
A text book rain forest
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ecology.
Wilcox, B.A.B.A. 1982. In situ
lh conservation of genetiC resources:
genetic
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In: World
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Wilde, S.A. 1964. Changes in soil productivity induced by pine
plantatiOns. Soil Science 97:
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USA:
USA: Soils
Analysis of 156 Pinus banksiana,
Lanksiana, P. P. resinosa,
resinosa, P. P. strobus
strobus stands,
stands, 10-50
years old.
old. ByBy far the
the best
best indicator
indicator of of fertility
fertility status
status of of reforested
reforested
soil is thethe content
content of of organic
organic natter,
matter, strongly
strongly co=elated
correlated with CEC and
with CEC and
total N supply.
supply. After
After ageage 35-40
35-40 years,
years, pine stands usually usually co=ect
correct tem-
porary soil deficiencies caused caused by by logging,
logging, burning
burning etc.etc.
Will,
Will, G.M. matter production and nutrient uptake by
1964. Dry natter
G.M. 1964. by Pinus
Pinv7
radiate in New Zealand.
radiata Zealand. Ccmnonwealth Forestry Review
Commonwealth Forestry Review 43:
43: 57-70
57-70
New Zealand:
Zealand: Soils.
Soils. Yield
Rooting to 6 m m in pumice soils.
soils. High gro.Tth rate attributable to high
growth rate
rainfall (1500 nrn)
rainfall (1500 mm) and solar energy.
and high solar energy. Annual
Annual increment
increment of of dry
dry
natter tons/ha (Site
matter 20 tons/ha (Site Quality
Q.Jality II)II) to 45 45 tons
tons (Site
(Site Quality
Q.Jality I).
I).
Maximum gro.Tth
Maximum growth thethe first
first 10 10 years.
years. Thereafter
Thereafter no fertilization
fertilization is is
decanposing litter
necessary, decomposing litter and
and slash
slash meet
meet most
rrost of
of trees'
trees' demands.
demands.
Will, G.M. and Ballard,
Will, G.M. Ballard, R. 1976. Radiata pine soil degrader or improver?
R. 1976. inprover?
New Zealand
New Zealand Journal
Journal of of Forestry
Forestry 21 21 (2):
(2): 248-252.
248-252.
Zealand: Soils
New Zealand:
 117
117

Where soil
Where soil deterioration
deterioration has been observed under pure
pure coniferous
forests, it has been
forests, caused by
been caused mismanagement and
by mismanagement and exploitation.
exploitation.
This can
can be
be rectified
rectified by fertilizers .
by fertilizers.
M. 1990.
Williamson, ML War and
1990. War and forests:
forests: South
South Vietnam.
Vietnam. New Zealand
Zealand Forestry:
Forestry:
18-21.
Viet Nam:
Narn: Management
Dipterocarps (DipterocaIpus alatus
Dipterocarps (Dipterocarpus alatus and and Hopea oiorata) under aa nurse
Hopea odorata) nurse
Acacia auriculifOrmis.
crop of Acacia auriculiformis.
Wilson, E.O.
Wilson, E.O. (Ed).
(Ed). 1988.
1988. Biodiversity. Nati onal Academic
National Academic Press,
Press,
Washington, D.C. D.C. 521521 pp.
Wilson, W.L.
Wilson, JaIms, A.D. 1982. Diversity
and Johns,
W. L. and Diversity and and abundance
ab..mdance of of selected
selected
species in undisturbed
animal species undisturbed forest,forest, selectively
selectively loggedlogged forest
forest andand
plantatiOns in East
plantations East Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Conservation 24:
Indonesia. Biological Conservation 24:
205-218.
Indonesia : Wildlife
Indonesia:
Snall
Small plantations (6 (6 toto 24 months
rronths old)
old) of Pinus, EUcalyptus,
of Pinus, Eucalyptus, Gnelina,
Anthocephalus and Paraserianthes
Paraserianthes. . Wildlife
Wildlife using plantations a:rne
using plantations came in
fran
from surrounding forest, forest, few few can
can survive
survive in in aa monoculture.
rronoculture.
W:il.ten, W.
Wilten, W. 1955. Aspectsdédelalasylviculture
1955. Aspects sylvicultureauauNJ.4yumbé.
Mayumbe. Bull.
Bull. Agric.
Congo-BeIge Vol
Congo-Beige Vol 46
46 (2):
(2) : 319-328.
319-328 .
Zaire
Zaire:: Management,
Management, regeneration
Methods of of raising Teminalia superte
raiSing Temlnalia superba. areare explained.
explained.
Wj mb ISh, S.H.
WiMbush, S.H. 1945. The
1945. management of
The management of cypress plantations in in Kenya.
Department of
Forest Department of Kenya,
Kenya, Pamphlet
Panphlet No. No. 11.
11.
Management . Environmental,
Kenya: Management. EnVironmental, pests pests and
and diseases
diseases
Because of the perceived hazards plantations, mixing
hazards of pure cypress plantations,
cypress withwith broadleaves is recommended. Grevillea robusta is one
recammended. Grevillea one of of
the species recommended.
recammended. A A regime
regime is is proposed.
proposed.
J . C. Z. 1979.
Woinarsky, J.C.Z. Birds of
1979. Birds of aa eucalyptus
eucalyptus plantation
plantation and and adjacent
natural forest.
forest. Australian Forester Vol. Vol. 4242 (4):
(4) : 243-247.
243-247 .
Australia
Australia:: Wildlife
Diversity was compared between
was canpared between aa plantation
plantation of of Eucalyptus botryoides
Lotryoides
and an adjacent
adjacent natural
natural forest
forest of of mixed Eucalyptus dives
mixed Euralyptus dives species.
species.
Diversity was slightlyslightly higher
higher in in the
the natural
natural forest.
forest.
Wood, P.J.
Wbod, and Dawkins, H.C.
P.J. and 1971. Forest rronocultures
H.C. 1971. monocultures in the tropics - -
ecological anxieties.
ecological anxieties. Mimeographed
Mimeographed Report,Report, Oxford
Oxford Forestry Institute
Institute
Library. pp pp 3.
3.
Tropics
Tropics:: Management
plantation
Plantation establishment is uncarrnon uncommon in pol yspecific forests.
polyspecific forests. Erosion
can bebe serious
serious on on sandy
sandy soils
soils. . Deep
Deep rooted plantations transpire rrore
plantations more
water than grassland,
grassland, but the effect of grazing, grazing, tranpling
trampling oror burning
burning
is
is rrore
more serious
serious than the the type
type of of cover.
cover. Excl usion of
Exclusion of large
large wild
wild life
1de
causes overconcentration elsewhere .
overconcentration elsewhere.
\rAlplisclt,
WUelisch, G. von, !tJhs,
G. von, H.J. and Gebarek,
Mbhs, H.J. Gébarek, T. 1990. Crnlpetitive
T. 1990. Competitive behaviour
,of clones of Picea abies
o f clones abies in in monoclonal
rronoclonal mosaics
rrosaics vs.vs. intimate
intimate clonal
clonal
mixtures . Scandinavian Journal of Forest
mixtures. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 5(3): Research, 5(3): 397-402.
Gennany:
Germany: Yield Yield
Crnlpetitive
Competitive effect effect of of clones
clones of different
different provenances
provenances growing mono- rrono-
clonally
clonally or or inin mixture
mixture was examined. Competitive
was examined. Crnlpetitive differences
differences were were
detected . Positive competitive
detected. canpetitive reactions can raise yields, yields, andand reduce
reduce
risks through genetic genetic diversity.
diversity.
Young,
Young, A. 1976. Tropical Soils and Soil Survey.
A. 1976. Survey. Cambridge University
(UK).
Press (UK).
tropics: Soils
The tropics:
A
A text bookbook on on tropical
tropical soils.
soils.
 118

Zhai, M.P., Xia, Z.Y. and Cao,

Cao, Y.Y. 1987. Element
Y.Y. 1987. contents and their
Element contents their
amlUal
annual and seasonal
and seasonal variations
variations in the leaves
in the leaves of
of trees Pinus
trees in Pinus
tabulaefoLmis plantations.
tabulaefOrmis Scientia Silvae
plantations. Scientia Silvae Sinicae
Sinicae 23(3):
23(3): 286-298.
286-298.
China: Soils
China:
Levels of N, P, K,
N, P, K, Ca and Mg were 5% to 317% higher
higher in Acer truncatum
in Acer tnmcatum
leaves than in the pine.
pine. It is concluded that the maple
maple is a suitable
species for growing
growing in
in mixture with the
mixture with the pine.
pine.
Zhang Xian, XU Guang,
Xian, XU Guang, Zhen Hong, XU and Zhon ~.
Hong, Zhon XU 1980. Repeated
Chong. 1980. Repeated
CUnninghamia lanceo]
planting of Cunninghamia lanceolata
ata and
and soil
soil toxicity.
toxicity. In Ecological
Ecological
studies on the artificial C.lanceolata forests.
forests. Institute of Forestry
Fbrestry
and Pedology.
Pedology. Academia Sineca.
China:
China: Soils
Repeated planting of
Repeatedplanting C.lanceolata results
of C.lanceolata results in
in "soil sickness"
sickness" attril:uted
attributed
.to "rrore intense
to "more intense activity
activity on the the oxidation
oxidation of of certain
certain polyphenol
polyphenol
cClrqxlUnds containing
compounds containing methoxyl".
methoxyl".
ZWaan, J.e.
Zwaan, de. 1981.
J.C. de. The silviculture
1981. The silviculture of of bladkwood (Acacia medancxylcn).
blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon).
South African Forestry
Forestry Journal
Journal 121:
121: 38-43.
38-43.
South Africa:
Africa: Management
A review of the
A the perforrrance
performance andand requirements
requirements of
of blackwood
bladkwood.. Mixture
Mixture with
with
Pinus radiata
Pinus radiata being
being tried
tried because that species
because that species was thought to
was thought to be
be deeper
deeper
rooting and rrore
more wind stable, rut proved
stable, but proved just
just as liable
liable to
to wind
wind throw.
thrCM.
(E.diversicolor and E.
Blackwood/Eucalyptus (E.diversicolor E. microco.rys)
microcorys) mixtures also also
blackwood suppressed.
unsuccessful, bladkwood suppressed.
ZWolinski,
Zwolinski, J.B. 1990. Intensive silviculture and
J.B. 1990. and yield
yield stability in treetree
plantatiOns: an ecological perspective
plantations: perspective.. South African
African Fbrestry
Forestry Journal
155: 33-36.
155: 33-36.
General: Environmental,
General: Environmental, ecology
Puts silviculture of plantatiOns
plantations in in an ecological
ecological setting
setting and
re~ds
recommends saresomeecologically
ecologically sound
sound practices.
practices .
 119

APPENDIX 22
APPENDIX

son.s
SOILS

One of the
One the major
major concerns expressed
expressed on the risk of
of creating
creating Il'Onospecific
monospecific
plantations is
plantations is that
that they
they canse
cause aa loss
loss of
of fertility
fertility and
and soil
soil degradation.
degradation. It
is therefore worth considering in sane
some detail the salient features of soils
on which
which afforestation in the tropics and sub-tropics
sub-tropics Il'Ostly
mostly takes
takes place
place and
interaction between
the interaction between tree
tree crops
crops and
and the
the soil.
soil.

of tropical
characteristics of
Sane characteristics
Same soils .
trqlical soils.

The sites used for forest plantations in the

plantations in the tropics are, as elsewhere,
often only available because they are unsuited
unsuited toto agriculture
agriculture or
or have
have been
been
available for plantations
made available plantations after being degraded
degraded by poorpoor agricultural
agricultural
practices . The
practices. The soils
soils tend
tend to
to have
have certain
certain common
CCllIOCln characteristics.
characteristics.

Ferralsols and
Ferralsols and Acrisols
Acrisols are
are the biggest soil
the biggest groups in the tropics
soil groups tropics
accounting between
accounting between them
them for
for 37%
37% of
of tropical
tropical soils.
soils. They
They are old soils, often
deep, rut
but intensely weatheredand
intenselyweathered and therefore
therefore lacking
lackingin
in prirrary
primary minerals
minerals which
which
provide the reserves ofof nutrients needed for
for plant life.
life. They are
are leached of
nutrients particularly
nutrients particularly on
on sites
sites subject
subject to
to high
high rainfall
rainfall and
and are
are acidic
acidic which
which
adve rsely affects
adversely affects the
the capacity
capacity of
of the
the topsoil
topsoil to hold nutrients
nutrients in a form
plant use.
available for plant use . Nevertheless under
under undisturbed forest vegetation
vegetation
these soils
these soils are capable of carrying a large volume
carrying a of vegetation
volume of vegetation on
on the
the higher
higher
rainfall
rainfall sites
sites because
because the
the nutrient
nutrient supply
supply available
available in in solution
solution in the
in the
topsoil is maintained by the the rapid
rapid decomposition and mineralization
decamposition and mineralization ofof the
the
litter layer on
litter on the
the soil surface.
surface. Even
Even in the drier phases
phases ofof these soils
(mianl:xJ Africa,cerrado
(mioniboininAfrica, c=rado in
in South
South ArrErica)
America) where
where fires
fires are
are frequent
frequent adequate
adequate
fertility can be maintained if the organic matter
maintained if matter content
content of
of the
the soils
soils is
is not
not
grossly depleted.
grossly depleted.

Disturbance of these sites,

sites, whether
whether for agriculture or by clearing
clearing for
for
forest plantations,
forest plantations , involves
involves the
the risk damaging the
risk of damaging the soil
soil structure,.
structure, ·
particularly if heavy
particularly heavy machinery
machinery is used
used.. Exposure
Exposure of the soil and rerroval
removal of
organic matter
matter by,
by, for exarrple
example b..lrning,
burning, both damages the soil structure and and
the loss
promotes the loss of
of nutrients
nutrients through
through leaching.
leaching.

Arenosols and
Arenosols and Regosols form
formaa small
small proportion
proportion of
of tropical
tropical soils.
soils. They
are coarse textured sandy soils having a lowlCM nutrient content and
and low
lCM water
water
retaining capability; as such they
they are of marginal use to agriculture
marginal use and are
agriculture and are
often available
therefore often available for
for forest
forest plantations.
plantations .
lithic (stony
Lithosols and the lithic (stony and shallow)
shallCM) phase of other
other soils
soils are
are
camon
common in the tropics.
tropics . These soils are frequently
frequently subject
subject to
to agricultural
agricultural
mismanagement on steep
steep hillsides.
hillsides. Though seldomseldan suitable
suitable for large
large scale
scale
camercial
commercial forest
forest plantations,
plantations, forestry
forestry may
may be the
the Il'OSt
most appropriate land
land use
use
to rehabilitate
rehabilitate them
them.. Accumulation
ACCUllU.llation of
of organic
organic matter
matter promotes
prcnotes soil
soil formation.
formation .

Nitosols, clayey red tropical

clayey red tropical soils,
soils, are Il'Ore fertile
are more fertile than
than the
the
ferralsols
ferralsols and acrisols
acrisols and are Il'OStly
mostly under agricultural crops, rut in
crops, but in the
highlands of East
East Africa
Africa many
many of
of the
the conifer
conifer plantations
plantations have been established
have been established
on nitosols unsuited
on nitosols unsuited to to agriculture
agriculture byby reason
reason of
of steep
steep slopes
slopes or high
high
altitudes
altitudes and lawlCM temperatures.
temperatures. These soils are less
These soils less prone
prone to
to nutrient
nutrient
deficiencies,
deficiencies, rut
but are liable to to erosion
erosion if
if mismanaged.
mismanaged.
 120

are heavy,
Vertisols are heavy, often black,
bladk, cracking clays
clays which
which develop
develop where
there
there is long dry
is a long season, e.g.
dry season, e . g . in the
the Deccan
Deccan (India),
(India), Gezira
Gezira (Sudan),
(Sudan),
Kanoplains (Kenya).
(Kenya). Though tending to be rather low in nitrogennitrogen and l1
and low in
in
exchangeable potassium
exchangeable potassium and
and available
available phosphorus,
phosphorus, they
they have
have aa high
high cation
cation
capacity and
exchange capacity and can
can be used successfully
be used successfully for
for agriculture.
agriculture. Because of
their high
their content, however,
high clay content, however, theythey are
are difficult
difficult toto work
work and
and may
may be
available for establishing
available establishing forestry plantations.
plantations Organic matter
. matter content tends
low.
be law.
to be

Cambisols
Catbisols and
and Luvisols
Luvisols are
are relatively
relatively young,
young, fertile
fertile soils
soils that
that will
will
mostly reserved for
be reserved
mostly be for agriculture.
agriculture.

Soil Nutrients

The sixteen
sixteen chemical elements
elements known to be essential
to be essential for plant growth
forplant growth are
are
CCIlIlIOrily considered in
commonly considered in four categories
categories (Young
(Young 1976)
1976)

Elements Oxygen, Hydrogen and Carbon supplied from

Oxygen, fran air and water
water and
and not
not
normally considered
normally considered as
as nutrients.
nutrients.
Available form
Primary nutrients Nitrogen N
N NH+&NO
NE-14+ & NO3--
Primary
Phosphorus
Potassium
P
KK ~4
4
ra 3

03.2+
Ca 2+
Secondary nutrients Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg Mg'+
Mg2+
Sulphur S so
SO 2-
2-
4

elements
Trace elements Iron Fe Fe2+
Fe Fe3+Fe"
Boron B Various anions
Zinc Zn Zn2 +
Ze
Copper eu
Cu eu2+
Cu2+
Manganese Mn Me2+
Mn
Molytxienum
Molybdenum Mo MoO 2-
MOO42-
4
Chlorine Cl cr
Cl-

Source:
Source: Young (1976)
Young (1976)

Nitrogen is the nutrient

Nitrogen nutrient most
most frequently
frequently deficient
deficient in the
the tropiCS . Mbst
tropics. Most
soil nitrogen
nitrogen is derived fran the mineralization of organic matter.
derived from matter. In the
the
organic form it is not
not available
available to plants and and must be converted
converted by and
by fungi and
bacteria to the mineral
mineral form in aa 3-stage process;
process; deccmposition
decomposition to ammonia
(~), conversion
(NH3), conversion of
of the
the ammonium
ammonium cation
cation (NH: ) by
(NH4) by nitrifying
nitrifying bacteria first
first
to nitrite (NO2-)
(N02-) then
then to
to nitrate
nitrate (N0 - ) in
(NO3)
3
in which
which form
form it is
is mostly
mostly taken
taken up
by plants. In this form
by form it isis highly soluble and susceptible
susceptible to
to leaching
leaching and
and
therefore aa continuing supply is essential;
essential; the benefits of largelarge doses ofof
artificial NN fertilizer are mostly lost by
mostly lost leaching.
by leaching.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is introduced into
is introduced into the nutrient cycle
the nutrient cycle by the working
by the working of
nitrogen fixing bacteria
nitrogen bacteria which are either
which are living Azotobacter
either free living (rare in
Azotobacter (rare in the
tropics) or sytbiotic
tropics)or symbiotic Rhizobium on the
Rhizobiumon the roots
roots of
of sane
sane legumes and non-symbiotic
non-symbiotic
range of
bacteria on a range of genera.
genera. Fixed ammonia in the subsoil can make some sane
contrib.ltion
contribution to the
the nitrogen
nitrogen econany
economy and
and it
it has been estimated rainfall can
has been
contrib.lte
contribute up to 5 kgfha/year (Ewell 1986)
kg/ha/year (Ewell 1986)

Phosphorus
Phosphorus is
is required by plants
required by plants and
and is
is present
present inin the soil in much
smaller quantities than
mailer quantities nitrogen. Mbst
than nitrogen. Mostofofthe
the PP in
in the
the soil
soil is
is held in aa form
form
unavailable to plants
plants but
but is
is converted
converted to the
the available
available form (the
(the phosphate
 121
121

anion) at
anion) at aa slaw
slCM rate.
rate. The rate at which
which P changes fran
from the unavailable to
the available fODll
the is much
form is much slower than the
the rate at which
which healthy
healthy plantations
need to take up the nutrient,
nutrient, therefore the recycling
recycling of
of P in the
the organic
organic
matter is
matter is an essential contribution
anessential contrib..Ition to
to the
the supply
supply of this
this nutrient.
nutrient. AA problem
problem
in many soils,
soils, especially acid soils,
soils, is the tendency for P to becanebecome fixed
to clay
to clay particles.
particles. The rate of release is extremely
extremely SlCM
slow and,
and, though this
this is
an advantage in that the P isis available over aa long period, it
available over it is
is unavailable
unavailable
at times of rapid
rapid uptake
uptake by
by aa growing
grCMing crop.
crop. But organic P is less readily
than inorganic P and
fixed than and for
for this
this reason,
reason, arrong
among others,
others, it isis important
important to
maintain the
maintain the organic
organic content
content ofof the
the soil.
soil.

Potassilnn is
Potassium is present
present in
in the soil in larger quantities than PP and is
quantities than is less
frequently deficient.
frequently deficient. It is taken
taken up by plants as
by plants as the
the cation,
cation, is
is easily
easily
leached and can be deficient inin rainforest
rainforest and
and sandy
sandy savanna
savanna soils.
soils.

Calcilnn and
Calcium and Magnesilnn
Magnesium are
are taken
taken up cations and therefore
up as cations therefore can
can be
deficient on
on strongly
strongly leached
leached soils.
soils.

Sulphur
Sulphur is
is taken
taken upup as
as the anion
anion and can be lost
lost by leaching
leaching and by
volatilization during burning.
volatilization during I::rn:ning. It may be deficient in soils low
lCM in
in organic
matter.
matter.

OrganiC matter has aa profound effect on

Organic on the
the availability
availability and
and presence
presence
of nutrients inin the
the topsoil
topsoil solution.
solution. I
It affects the
t also affects the structure
structure and
and
rroisture retaining
moisture retaining capacity
capacity ofof soils.
soils . There is
There is a complex
carplex interaction
interaction
involving not
not only these
these nutrients (P deficiency inhibits
inhibits N uptake etc;
N uptake etc; Ca
Ca
excess can cause chlorosis by inhibiting the uptake of Fe) rut also between
Fe) but
the organic
the organic content
Content of
of soils,
soils, water
water availability
availability and and nutrients.
nutrients.

Soil Nutrient
A Sail Flow Model.
Nutrient Flow It:)de1.

In discussing the interaction of crops and

discussing the and soils it
it is
is helpful to
to have
have
aa rrodel
model of nutrient flCMS. Figure 1,
nutrient flows. 1, constructed
constructed for conditions in the pine
plantatiOns
plantations at usutu, swaziland can
Usutu, Swaziland can be
be nsed
used as
as aa general
general mcdel.
rrode!.
 122

Nutrient Flaw
Figure 1 Nutrient Flow Mbdel,
Model, Usutu,
Usutu, Swaziland.
SWaziland.

HaIvest loss
Harvest loss Atrrosphere
Atmosphere N2
N2 fixation
A
(ru!ing)
(burning) /

----~I=~~~I~--------~
1
FOREST FLOOR

~i~ B~::r 1 rea~~!~il ::~!

(litter)
Stream TOPSOIL --> Topsoil >-

i
flow HICNASS
~
readily avail -
reserves
reserves
: - Reserve <E(;--->
*-----

Subsoil
Subsoil
S oln·
Soln
"""'
< :+1----\-... I
~ .
TOPSOIL SOLUTION
'IDPSOIL SOLurION I. { I
Rain
Rain &
&
Filtering

Jubslil
Subsoil
readily
L -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ~
available

Liil
1
Subsoil
slowly
available

Source: M:l=is
Source: (1986)
Morris (1986)

The forester
forester isis primarily
primarily interested
interested in the biomass
bianass component
ca!1pOnent (and
(and
usually specifically
specifically in in the
the tree
tree stern
stem fraction
fraction of of the
the bianass),
biomass), rutbut for a
for a
given regine
given temperature, rainfall
regime of temperature, rainfall and competition,
canpetition, the growth
growth of thethe
bianass is dependent
biomass dependent on
on the
the nutrient
nutrient supply
supply fran
fromthethetopsoil.
topsoil. AtAt anyone
anyone tine
time
the quantity of nutrients
quantity of nutrients held
held in
in solution
solution isis not
not large
large in
in cornparison
carparison with
with the
the
total
total soil
soil nutrient
nutrient reserves
reserves and
and the
the quantity
quantity of of P,
P, in particular,
particular, maymay be
small in comparison
carparison to the amount
amount held
held in
in the
the living
living and
and dead
dead biomass.
bianass.

Table 1 Nutrients in
in the topsoil

available N&P and exchangeable K,

K, Ca & Mg
N P K Ca Mg
--------------- (Kg/ha) --------------
usutu, Swaziland
Usutu, SWaziland -- pine

In top 1 m
m 1st rotation 3170 5 828 288
288 456
2nd rotation 2789 77 842 279
279 342

Bianass 17 years
Biomass 551 73 383
383 238 88

Litter 2nd rotation 2122 113 130

130 308 146

Source:
Source: M:l=is (1986)
Morris (1986)
 123
123

Nigeria Gaelina arborea

Nigeria -- Gtzlelina artorea

In top 1 In
m 1215 2
2 12 347
347 57
57

Bianass 14.5
Biomass 14 . 5 yrs 157 12
12 337
337 66
66 93
93

Litter 66 1 3
3 55 55

Source
Source:: Chijioke (1980)
Chijioke (1980)
Nigeria -- GMelina arborea
Gaelina artorea

Soil Reserves 1725 54 - 3491 1508

Bianass
Biomass 10 yrs 960 371 - 2425 614

Litter 30 1 - 48 11

Source: Nworoshi (1983)

Source: Nwoboshi (1983)

In carqJarison
comparison to the nutrients
nutrients held in the
the canbined
coMbined bianass
biomass and
and litter
litter
the quantities
quantities of NNand available in
and Ca available in the soil
soil would
would appear
appear to
to be
be adequate;
adequate;
the proportion of KK and Mg
mg depends on the site and species
species bit
but the
the quantity
quantity
available PP is very amall.
of available small . These quantities
quantities and will vary
proportions will
and proportions vary
between sites and between species,
species, but it is is to be inferred that
that the
the supply
supply
sene nutrients
of some nutrients in
in solution,
solution, notably P, P, can easily become
can easily becare limiting
limiting
especially at times
especiallyat times of
of rnaxirnurn in the
grCMth in
maximumgrowth the developmentphase
developnent phase of
of plantations.
plantations .
The maintenance
maintenance of available
available soil nutrients
nutrients in the topsoil is critical
critical to
healthy grCMth
healthy growth of plantations.

Inputs
Inputs of
of nutrients
nutrients arise
arise fram
from

Rainfall and
Rainfall and the filtering
filtering effect
effect of
of foliage.
foliage. In Usutu
Usutu this effect was
considered to be small,
small, but
but aa generalized figure
figure for the tropics
tropics of
of 5-
5-
18 kg/ha/yr N <1 kg/ha/yr
N and <1 kg/ha/yr PP has
has been calculated (Ewel
been calculated (Ewel 1986).
1986).

Weathering of primary
primary minerals and
and movement
IOC>vem=nt fram
fram subsoil
subsoil to
to topsoil.
topsoil.
The quantities
quantities involved
involved are
are hard to estimate and must vary with the the
availability
availability of
of primary
primary minerals
minerals in
in the
the subsoil,
subsoil, but
but the rate of
the rate of
replacem=nt will
replacement be slaw.
will always he slow. It is doubtful whether source of
whether this source of
nutrients is adequate to
to replace the losses
losses involved in short
short rotation
forest plantations on
on highly
highly weathered
weathered soils.
soils.

Nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen fixation . This is covered in
in IOC>re
more detail in aa later
later section
section
of this Appendix.
Appendix. On sene
sane tropical sites as much as 58 kg/ha/yr
kg/ha/yr NN has
has
been recorded as being
been recorded being fixed.
fixed . This process
This process can
can make
make a a major
major
nitrogen availability.
contribution to nitrogen availability.

Losses from
fram the system oc=
occur through

Rerroval of
Removal logs at harvesting.
of logs harvesting . This
This can quite high,
can be quite high, but can
can be
be
reduced by
by leaving branches,
branches, twigs, bark
bark and
and leaves in the plantation.
plantation.
 124
124

Table 2 Nutrients lost at harvesting

Yrs.
Yrs. N
N P
P K
K Ca
Ca Mg
mg
(Kg/ha)
(Kg/ha)
Usutu pine 17
17 (1)
(1) 257
257 43
43 159
159 123
123 37
37
Nigeria Qrelina
Nigeria Gmelina 66 (2)
(2) 182
182 38
38 136
136 108
108 51
51
Qrelina 14
Gmelina 14 (2)
(2) 138
138 11
11 169
169 155
155 52
52
Brazil pine
Brazil 6
6 (2)
(2) 99
99 21
21 31
31 25
25 17
17
Nigeria Qrelina
Gmelina 10 (3)
(3) 754
754 282
282 2174
2174 528
528

Sources: (1) Morris

Sources: (1) (1986); (2)
Mbrris (1986); (2) Chijioke
Chijioke (1980);
(1980); (3)
(3) Nwoboshi (1983)
NWoboshi (1983)

These figures
These figures show
show that
that quantities
quantities can vary with species and
locality, but
locality, it can
bit it can be
be appreciated
appreciated that
that significant quantities of
nutrients are involved.
nutrients are involved.
Over aa long
long rotation
rotation it
it is
is possible that IIUlch
much of the nutrients lost
in
in harvesting can be
harvesting can replaoed by
be replaced nitrogen fixation
by nitrogen fixation and
and by
by weathering
weathering ofof
parent soil,
soil, bit
but aa succession
succession of
of short
short rotations
rotations will
will drain
drain the
the nutrients.
nutrients.
Phosphorus is
Phosphorus is accumulated in
in higher
higher concentrations
concentrations in
in the stems of young
pines, therefore
pines, therefore short
short rotations
rotations are particularly likely
likely to drain the P
supply.
supply.

Burning slash. This

Burning slash. This can
can occur
oc= atat the
the time
time of
of initial
initial clearing
clearing and at
at
each harvest. The quantities involved
each harvest. involved have
have been
been calculated
calculated at
at Usutu.
Usutu.
The burning
burning of
of slash
slash provides
provides an
an initial
initial boost
boost of
of some
sane nutrients
nutrients (P,
(P,
ca, Mg) in
K, Ca, in the
the form
form of
of ash,
ash, but
but NN and
and SS are
are volatilized
volatilized and
and lost.
lost.
Most
Mbst of the nutrients released from
fram the ash are lost through leaching
before they
they can
can he
be utilized
utilized by
by young
young plants.
plants.
Table 3 Nutrients lost in burning
burning -- Usutu
Usutu
Kg/ha
N P K ca
Ca mg
Mg
Pinus patula 17 yrs 266
266 19 11 16
16 15

Source: Morris
Source: (1986)
Mbrris (1986)

Leaching.
Leaching. Losses due to leaching under forest cover were
were considered
to be
to srrall in
he small in Usutu (Mbrris
(Morris 1986),
1986), but they can
can be significant on
sandy soils,
soils, and in high rainfall particularly
particularly during the
the clearing
clearing
phase. The maintenance of vegetative cover including that arising
phase.
fram
from the re-invasion of cleared
cleared sites
sites by
by indigenous
indigenous vegetation
vegetation is
is
helpful in controlling leaching.
Run off can involve the loss not only of large volumes
volumes of
of soil,
soil, but
but
also of the
the available
available nutrients
nutrients in
in the
the topsoil.
topsoil. In Trinidad this can
arrount tonnes/ha in
amount to 153 tonnes/ha in aa year
year which
which is
is equivalent
equivalent to
to 11 cm
am of
of
topsoil (Bell
topsoil (Bell 1973). In Usutu,
1973). In Usutu, however, loss of nutrients by erosion
however, loss
and run off was not considered
considered to
to be
be serious.(Mbrris
serious. (Morris 1986)
1986)
Nutrient sinks.
Nutrient sinks. The nutrient cycle
-)
-> Soil
soil solution -)
-> Biomass -)
-> Litter -)
-> Soil solution

is
is of importance. Given
of great importance. Given the generally slow rate of replacement
slaw rate replacement of
nutrients into the ecosystem,
ecosystem, the potential
potential for
for large
large losses
losses from
fram logging
logging and
and
clearing
clearing using
using fire
fire and
and the
the varying
varying rate
rate of
of demand,
demand, depending
depending on the
the season
season
 125

and the stage of development

development of the plantation,
plantation, the buffering function
function of
organic matter in in the
the topsoil
topsoil is
is highly
highly significant.
significant. If the nutrients are
held litter and
held in the litter and become
becane unavailable
unavailable to the the topsoil
topsoil solution,
solution, then
nutrient deficiencies
nutrient deficiencies will
will occur.
occur. In In Usutu it
it was estimated that the weight
of nutrients in the forest floor litter in a 17 year old plantation at 1150
m
m altitude was N N -- 557,
557, P -- 30,
30, KK -- 34, Ca -- 81,
81, Mg -- 38 kg/ha,
kg/ha, but
but that
that at
at
1450 m thesevalues
1450mthese valueswere
wereapproximately
approximately doubled.
doubled. The
Therate
rate of
of litter
litter production
was similar
was similar at roth
both altitudes and
and was roughly equivalent to
roughly equivalent to the
the rate
rate of
of litter
litter
build upat
buildup at the
the higher
higher altitude,
altitude, indicating
indicating that
that there
there decanposition
decomposition waswas very
slow.
slaw.

role of
The role factors.
biological. factors.
of biological

Microfauna activity.
Microfauna activity.

Earthwonns in temperate
Earthworms in terrperate zones are probably
zones are probably the
the most
most intensively
researched of
researched of the soil fauna.
soil fauna. Earthwonns
Earthworms play an important
play an :important role
role in
in
fragmenting leaf litter
fragmenting leaf litter and
and incorporating
incorporating it
it into
into the
the topsoil;
topsoil; the
the number
number and
and
weight of
weight of earthworms
earthwonns in
in aa stand
stand of
of spruce
spruce in
in England
England has
has been increased by
been increased the
by the
admixture of alder into the stand,
stand, and to
to an
an even
even greater
greater extent
extent by adding
by adding
pine; the mineralization of
pine; of N
N and P was also increased (Brown
(Brown and Harrison
Harrison
1983) . Earthworms
1983). Earthwonns are less common
ccmron in the
the tropics
tropics and their role has been
been
taken over
over to aa large
large extent
extent by
by tennites,
termites, which
which not only fragment
fragment the
the litter
but also mineralize the
the nutrients in
in the
the litter.
litter . Whereas earthwonns
earthworms cause a
vertical
vertical mixing
mixing of soils,
soils, tennites
termites create
create aa lateral
lateral concentration
concentration of nutrients
nutrients
into tennitaria
termitaria and
and may as aa result
result deplete
deplete the forest floor of organiC
organic matter
matter
(Young 1976;
1976;. Trapnell
Trapnell in Chaffey
Chaffey 1978).
1978) . Other microfauna -- millipedes, mites,
Other microfauna
beetles -- generally fragment the litter which renders it into a form form better
suited to decanposition
suited by microflora.
decomposition by microf lora. The activity
activity ofof microfauna is strongly
microfauna is strongly
leaf nutrients and
influenced by leaf and chemicals
chemicals such
such as
as phenols.
phenols . The inclusion
inclusion
into aa pure
pure stand ofof species
species with
with leaves
leaves favoured by microfauna
microfauna will
will prarote
promote
activity, leading
their activity, leading to faster litter
to faster litter breakdown
breakdown and the more
and the more rapid
rapid
incorporation of of organic matter
matter into the
the soil and thus
thus the
the faster recycling
nutrients.
of nutrients. In Costa Rica
In Costa Rica inin a plot
plot which
which simulated
simulated a species
species rich
rich
successional mixture,
successional mixture, 50% weight of Cordia alliodora leaf litter (and
50% by weight (and 50%
50%
of elements other
other than nitrogen and
and sulphur) had
had decomposed
decanposed within
within six
six weeks;
weeks;
in aa pure
pure plantation
plantation after
after fifteen weeks only
fifteen weeks only 22%
22% byby weight
weight and
and less
less than
than 50%
50%
of nutrients (except phosphorus
nutrients (except and potassium)
phosphorus and potassium) had
had decornposed
decanposed (Babbar
(Babbar and Ewel
1989)
1989)..

Microflora
Microf lora..

Bacteria are
Bacteria are most beneficial in decomposing
most beneficial decanposing organiC
organic matter
matter and
and are
essential in the
the nitrogen
nitrogen cycle;
cycle; fungi
fungi also
also have
haveananeffect.
effect. Antagonisms
Antagonisms occur
occur
between microflora
microf lora and
and aa change
change in
in the
the forest
forest floor
floor condition
condition may
may shift the
microbiological
microbiological equilibrium
equilibrium to to favour organisms antagonistic
favour organisms antagonistic to NN fixing
fixing
bacteria (Florence
bacteria (Florence 1967).
1967). The conversion
conversion of short
short leaf
leaf pinejhardwocd stands
pine/hardwood stands
in south east
east USA to pure pine stands has lowered the pH which which in
in turn may
may
bacteria and
have inhibited the activity of bacteria and actinomycetes
actinamycetes antagonistic
antagonistic to
Phytophthora cinamoni,
Ihytophthora cinaroclni, which
which now is aa problem
ni is problem in in these stands. Fbmes
these stands. Fcrnes annosus
also occurs and it is possible that it is is favoured
favoured by by the
the lower
lower pH of pine
pH of pine
litter (Florence
(Florence 1967).
1967) . The symbiotic role role ofof mycorrhizae in promoting
praroting the
the
uptake of
of nutrients
nutrients isis well known; Suillus
well known; SUillus variagatus
variagatuswhichwhichoccurs
occursononPinus
Rims
silvestris but
but not
not on spruce
spruce can
can degrade
degrade protein
protein very
very effectively
effectively leaving
leaving up
up
to 87% in solution in the soil where it can be taken up by the spruce;
by the spruce; this
this
may
may account for the enhanced grCMth
account for growth of spruce
spruce when pine is introduced
when pine introduced into
into the
the
stand Alexander 1990).
(Ryan and Alexander
stand (Ryan 1990). Usutu the
In Usutu the foLm
form and
and number
number of
of the
the
mycorrhizae
mycorrhizae on P .patula changed
on P.patula changed in
in second
second rotation
rotation crops
crops which
which were
were in
in check;
check;
 126

this
this change
change in
in the
the myco=hizae
mycorrhizae and
and the growth check was
the grcMth was attrib..Jted
attributed to the
accumulation of litter,
litter, which
which may
may have caused roth
both aa reduction of available
nutrients and an increase
increase of toxins
toxins (Robinson
(Robinson 1973).
1973).

Nitrogen-fixation.

effect of nitrogen-fixation
The effect
The nitrogen-fixation has buen well
has been well documented
documented in in North
North
America (Binkley
(Binkley 1983,1984,1990;
1983,1984,1990; Binkley and Greene 1983; 1983; Hansen and and Dawson
Dawson
1982;
1982; Friederich
Friederich andand Dawson
Dawson 1984;
1984; Schlesinger
Schlesinger andand Williams
Williams 1984). The species
1984). The species
involved
involved have generally been alder (Alnusrubra,
generally been (Alnus rubra, A.sinC2ata and A.glutir2asa)and
A.sinilata and A.glutinasa)and
autumn olive (Elaeagnus
autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) acting on Douglas
umbellata) acting Douglas firfir (Pseudotsuga
Eenziesii), walnut
IrellZiesii), (Juglans nigra)
walnut (juglans and poplars.
nigra) and poplars. Beneficial
Beneficial effects
effects have
occu=ed
occurred when
when nitrogen been in short supply,
nitrogen has been supply, butbut where
where there has been an
has been an
adequate
adequate supply of other nutrients
nutrients to keep
keep the
the nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
fixing species
species gr=ing
growing
healthily. Legumes
Legumes require
require rroisture
moisture and
and when
when under
under stress
stress will
will not fix fix
nitrogen (Sprent
(Sprent 1985),
1985), though it has been suggested that alder and Robinia
pseudoacacia may
pseudoacacia may release nitrogen in in response to competition-induced
canpetition-induced stress
stress
(Dawson et
et al.
al. 1983;
1983; Friederich and and Dawson 1984).
1984). A close association is
A close
needed of the nitrogen-fixer with with the benefiting species and grCMth
benefiting species growth has
has been
been
ShCMn to be correlated with
shown with quantities
quantities of N N fixed
fixed in the topsoil
topsoil (Paschke et
al. 1989). But it has been suggested
has been suggested (Ewel
(Ewel 1986)
1986) that
that nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing species
species
rrostly
mostly use up up the
the nitrogen
nitrogen they
they manufacture
manufacture andand only
only release
release itit through
through their
their
litter,
litter, and it has certainly
certainly been observed that
been observed that leaf
leaf litter
litterfrom
fran A.
A.glutinosa
glutinosa
and E. umbellata used
E.umbellata used asas aa mulch
mulch enhanced
enhanced thethe grCMth
growth of of poplars
poplars on prairie
soils (Carlson
(carlson andand Dawson
Dawson 1984).
1984) . The evidence on on this point
point isis confusing.
confusing.
There is also evidence that Picea sitcnensis did not respond
Pioea sitchensis respond to increased
increased
(585 kg/ha) made
nitrogen (585 made available
available byby A.glutinosa (Malcolm et
A . glutinosa (Malcolm et al.
al. 1985).
1985).

On nitrogen-rich
nitrogen-rich soilssoils the
the presence
presence of of nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing plants
plants cancan bebe
deleterious,
deleterious, because
because they compete
canpete for light,
light, moisture
rroisture and other
other nutrients.
nutrients .
Australia the
In Australia introduction of
the introduction of acacias
acacias into stands of
into stands of P.radiata
P . radiata and
P.elliottii
Relliottii on on sandy
sandy podzols
podzols resulted
resulted in in aa depression
depression in gr=th as
in growth as aa result
result
of increased competition,
canpetition, eveneven though
though the
the soils
soils were
were low
1= in
in NN (TUrvey
(Turvey et et al.
al.
1984)
1984).. On the other
On the other hand Daviesia mimosoides gr=ing
Daviesia llliIocJsoides growing under natural Eucalyptus
alcalyptus
dives E.divesicolor on red
dives and E.divesicolor red kraznozem
kraznozem soils
soils onon exposed
eJqXlsed ridges
ridges waswas
considered to have
consideredto have had
had aa beneficial
beneficial effect
effect on on grawth
grCMth despite
despite the
the fact
fact that
that the
the
had only
D.llliIocJsoideshad
amimosoides only 50%
50% nodulation
nodulation and was fixing
and was fixing only
only 44 to
to 77 kg kg of
of NN per
per
ha per year (McColl
(McColl and Edmonds
Edrronds 1983).
1983).

Hawaii there
In Hawaii there isis aa well
well documented
documented example
example of the benefit
of the benefit of
of
introducing nitrogen-fixing species (Albizia falcataria and Acacia Arcia
rrelanoxylon) into Eucalyptus
melanoxylon) into plantatiOns on
saligna plantations
Eucalyptus saligna on an
an abandoned
abandoned sugar
sugar estate
estate
(DeBell et
et al. 1989). On aa site receiving
al. 1985, 1987, 1989). r eceiving 5000 nm mm rain nitrogen
increased in the topsoil
was increased and there
topsoil and there was a significant
significant and and marked grCMth in
marked growth in
the eucalyptus,
eucalyptus, butbut on aa dry site there was no benefit
benefit andand onon one
one site
site the
the
died . In the
Albizia died.
Albizia the N;Lligiris India there is
Niligiris in India is aa less
less reliable
reliable account
account of
of
Acacia menziesii
Acacia having aa beneficial
IrellZiesii having beneficial effect
effect when
when grown
grCMn under
under Ebralyptus
Eucalyptus
al. 1977)
(Sarnraj et al.
globulus (Samraj 1977).. introduction of
The introduction of leguminous
leguminous trees,
trees,
Erythrina, Gliricidia,
Erythrina, Gliricidia, Acacia orassiocazpa and
auriculiformis, A. crassiocarpa
Acacia auriculifonnis, and A. polystachya
A.polystachya
into
into eucalyptus
eucalyptus plantations
plantations near
near Chittagong,
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Bangladesh has been proposed
has been proposed
(Davidson
(Davidson 1986),
1986), but there is no no record
record of
of any
any effects.
effects.

Nitrogen fixation is often

Nitrogen fixation often associated
associated with
with legumes,
legumes, although nodulation
nodulation
is
is only sporadic in the Caesalpinioideaea
caesalpinioideaea (Sprent
(Sprent 1985),
1985), but in
in fact
fact non-
non-
symbiotic
syMbiotic fixation
fixation of of nitrogen
nitrogen (alder
(alder type
type nodules)
nodules) has recorded as
been recorded
has buen
occu=ing on nearly
occurringon nearly 200
200 species
species in
in 20
20 genera
genera other
other than
than legumes; this included
included
24 species of Gasuarina
species of Casuarina which
which are
are probably
probably the
the rrost
most significant species for
the tropics (Bond
(Bond 1983). The quantities
quantities of nitrogen vary considerably.
fixed vary
nitrogen fixed considerably.
 127

Table 4 Alrount
Amount of Nitrogen Fixed by Sane
Some Species

kg/ha/yr
Casuarina equisetifolia in N.Africa
eguisetifOlia in N.Africa 58
58 (Kormanik 1979)
(Kormanik 1979)
Elaeagnus umbellata 178
178 (Paschke et al.
al . 1989)
1989)
Acacia holosericea 66.4
.4 (McColl et al. 1983)
al. 1983)
A. pulchella var glaberrima
A,pulchella 2.2
2.2
A.mearnsii .8
.8
A . veLTJiciflua
A.verniciflua 32
32 (Turvey
(TUrvey et aI, 1984)
al, 1984)

Allel.opathy
A_Uelopathy

The inhibition
inhibition ofof the
the grONth
growth ofof one species
species by exudates
exudates fran
from another
another
species
species is carparatively
comparatively rare,
rare, but juglone fran from walnuts
walnuts has noted as having
this effect (von
(von Althen 1968)
1968). In Indonesia there is
. is an account of several
including Leucaena leucocephala and SWietenia
species including SWietenia macrophylla
Eacrqphylla failing
failing to
to
thrive under M21aleuca leucadendron and
Melaleuca leucadendron and allelopathy was considered
allelopathy was considered aa possible
possible
cause. In Australia the
In Australia the inhibition
inhibition of of the
the germination
gennination of seedlings
seedlings of
Grevillea robiistaunder
Grevillea robusta under old
old trees
trees of
of the
thesame
samespecies
species has been noted
has been noted (Florence
(Florence
and Lamb
LaMb 1974)

Nutrient deficiencies

Depending
Depending on on the
the soil
soil type,
type, climate,
climate, method
method ofof establishing
establishing thethe tree
tree
crop and
and the nature of the crop any any of the nutrients
nutrients could
could become
becare deficient.
deficient.
It is likely thci.t
that N,N, P,
P, K
K and possibly ca
and possibly Ca are rrost
most likely to be limiting in
the tropics (Lundgren
(Lundgren 1980).
1980) . The
The nutrients
nutrients available
available in in solution
solution in
in the
the soil
soil
maybe small in
maybe small in relation
relation toto the
the requirements
requirements ofof the
the biomass
biomass atat any
anyone time.
one time.
N and P,
N and P, in particular, are
in particular, only slowly
are only slONly available
available fromfran soil
soil reserves,
reserves,
therefore the
therefore the recycling
recycling of of litter
litter is important source
is an important source of these two
of these two
nutrients . The requirements of
nutrients. of the bianass and the drain
biomass and drain on the
the nutrients
nutrients in
with the
vary with
solution vary the stage
stage of
of development
development ofof the
the crop.
crop.

Taking Usutu pine

Taking pine plantations
plantations as
as an
an example:
example :

At the start
start of
of each
each rotation
rotation the exposure
exposure of the
the litter
litter following
follONing
"harvesting results
'harvesting results in rapid
rapid decanposition of organic
decomposition of organic matter
matter and
and aa flush
flush
of nutrients, but the rooting
rcoting volume
volume of
of the seedlings
seedlings is
is small
small and
and they
they
may suffer from
fran ladk
lack of nutrients,
nutrients, particularly PP and K; K; at the
the same
available nutrients
time available nutrients are
are being
being leached
leached away.
away.
Up to the
the age
age of
of seven
seven years,
years, nutrient
nutrient requirements to maintain
maintain biomass
biomass
production increase
production increase rapidly
rapidly and
and KK may
may remain
remain inin short
short supply.
supply .
Fran seven to twelve years of age,
Fron age, biomass production requirements
requirements are
still high but
but litter
litter starts to build up and, iif f decanposition slON,
decomposition is slaw,
cycling may
nutrient cycling may be
be inefficient
inefficient thus
thus putting
putting PP under
under pressure.
pressure.
Fran twelve years of age
From age onwards
onwards biomass
biomass requirements
requirements remain
remain fairly
fairly
constant
constant but
but litter build up continues;
continues; NN and
and PP may
may become
becare deficient
deficient
higher altitudes
and at higher altitudes possibly ca also.
possibly Ca also .

A
A mixture species may
mdxture of species may he
be useful
useful (but
(but not
not necessarily
necessarily at
at Usutu):
Usutu) :

at time of establishment another species used as an in-filler can make

make
excess nutrients
use of excess nutrients and help
help recycle
recycle them;
them; this
this effect
effect can
can be
be
allONing weed
by allowing
achieved by grONth or
weed growth or through
through the
the use
use of
of ground
ground cover.
cover .
in helping
helping to decanpose
decompose the needle mat under the
the pines from
fran seven years
onwards; aa more
rrore open
open stand and the
stand and the encouragement
encouragement of of aa natural
natural
understorey might
understorey might achieve
achieve this.
this .
 128

canparison has
A comparison
A has been made between
been made indigenous forests
between indigenous and Gre1ina
forests and Grlelina
plantations in
plantations in Nigeria
Nigeria and indigenous forests
between indigenous
and between forests and
and both pine and
and
GMelina plantations in South
Grlelina plantations South America
America (Chijioke
(Chijioke 1980).
1980). unable to
He was unable to
demonstrate that
demonstrate that monospecific plantations lead
lead to a more rapid
rapid depletion
depletion of
of
soil nutrient
nutrient reserves than would
would mixtures
mixtures having the same bianass
biomass production,
production,
the same
the rotation length
same rotation length and
and the same proportion
the same proportion of of the crop removed
the crop removed in
harvest. Despite the large quantities
harvest. quantities of N N ilrrnobilized
immobilized by anelina and
by Grlelina and pines
pines
it
it was present in
was present in more
more than optimum levels
than optimum levels in the the soil
soil and
and harvesting
harvesting
represented
represented nono threat
threat to
to the future N N status.
status. K K which was immobilized
ilrrnobilized in
in
greater quantities, and
greater and possibly
possibly P,
P, may
may become limiting.
beCOT¥::! limiting.

In Kenya
Kenya measurements
measurements were
were made
made to
to canpare
compare soils under
under se=nd
second and
and third
rotation =nifer
conifer crops
crops and under indigenous forest (Robinson 1967;
forest (Robinson 1967; Robinson
et al. 1966).
1966). The results were not conclusive,
=nclusive, but only aa slight
slight decrease
decrease in
nutrient availability could be detected in cypress and pine plantations and
there were indications that the drop
drop in nutrient
nutrient availability oc=ed during
availability occurred during
the establishment
the phase of
establishment phase of each
each rotation
rotation as
as aa result
result of
of cultivation under the
cultivation under the
taungya system,
taungya system, while
while fertility increased
increased inin the
the period the trees
period the trees were on the
were on the
ground .
ground. site bulk
On one site bulk density
density decreased
decreased and pH increased
increased under the
the
plantatiOns, indicating aa general
plantations, indicating general improvement
improvement inin soil
soil conditions.
=nditions.
 129

APPENDIX
APPENDIX 3

SPECIES MIXTURES

Thisis aiscollection
This a collection ofmixtures
of most of the most that
of were
the found
mixtures
in the that were found in the
literature. Where Where possible
possible sane indication
indication has given on
has been given on the success of
mixture . M:Jst
the mixture. Most of of the
the mixtures
mixtures listed
listed are
are inin fact
fact experimental.
experimental . The
folloo-ing
following mixtures
mixtures are are thought
thought to to have been used as
have been as general
general forestry
forestry practice.
practice.

QJeensland
Queensland
AIaucariacunning-hat-I-di
Araucaria cunninghamii Pines
rut
but practice discontinued
Vietnam
Eucalyptus teretico=is
tereticornis over Acacia auriculifOrmis
over Acacia auriculiformis
more than
more than 10 , 000 ha thought to have
10,000 have been established, rut
but no
information available to date on success.
success.
Kenya
cypress
Cypress Grevillea robusta
Practice discontinued by mid 1950s
Togo
Eucalyptus torelliana
EUcalyptus E . teretico=is
ET.tereticornis
considered aa success.
considered success .
Sri Lanka
SWietenia macrophy lla
Eacrophylla Tectona grandis
Artocarpus integrifolius
Artocarpus integrifolius
highly successful at Sundapola

The use of nurse species to shade rrehoganies

mahoganies is standard practice
practice in
many tropical
many tropical countries.
countries. In West Africa
Africa the practice has been abandoned
practice has abandoned in
in
rut is
francophone countries, but is still
still continued
continued in
in Nigeria.
Nigeria.
Indonesia
Teak Leucaena leucocephala
Leucaena leucocephala used
used as a nurse
nurse to
establish the teak
Noo- seriously affected by Heteropsylla
Nio cul:Ena
Betergpsylla cubana

MAIN SPEX:IES
MAIN SPECIES SECONDARY(Nurse)
SEX:XElARY (Nurse) SOURCE
AIlS',rRALIA
AUSTRALIA -- ()leensland
Queensland

Araucaria cunninghaudi
cunninghamii Pinus elliottii
Pinus elliottii Nielsen 1991
planting hoop
planting pine under
hoop pine under slash pine resulted
slash pine resulted in better growth
in better grOO"th
(increased nitrogen uptake).
uptake) .
P. taeda, P.Icatula
Rtaeda, P .patula

A . bidwillii
A.bidWillii P . elliottii
P.elliottii Nielsen 1991
Nielsen 1991
-- Victoria
Flindersia brayleyana Araucaria cunninghamii
Araucaria cunninghamii
F.brayleyana able to recover
recover and
and make
make aa crop
crop when
when released.
released .

E. sieberi
E.sieberi with Acacia
Acacia longifOlia
longifolia Smithet
SDith et al1989
al 1989 also
E .botryoides &
E.totryoides & E.sideraxylon
E.sideroxylon
beneficial effect on height grOO"th
growth of Eucalyptus

Pinus radiata Acacia spp. Turvey et al 1984

TUrVeyetall984
or
Pinus elliottii
 130

The effects
effects of
of naturally
naturally regenerated
regenerated acacias
acacias were investigated.
investigated. No
positive effects
positive effects were
were detected.
detected.

BA1GLADES1-1

Calamus spp Shorea roJ:;usta

robusta Davidson 1986
Pinus oocaJ1l'l
oocarpa

Eucalyptus urophylla
EUcalyptus urpphylla Leucaena leucocephala Nbraes de Jesus 1989
M:lraes

Piptadenia macrocarpa Garrido & Poggiani 1979

Garrido
Astronium urundeuva
Astronium UIUlJdeuva
M?qinia polymorpha
Abqinia polYIlVLpha
Colubrina
Cblubrina =fa
rufa
TabeOOia
Tabebuia impetiginosa

Pinus caribaea
caribaea v.
v. hondurensis
hondurensis Liquidamb3r
Liquidawbar styraciflua Novais & Poggiani
styraciflua Novais Poggiani •S
leaf heterogeneity appears
Leaf heterogeneity increase litter
appears to increase litter decomposition
dec::c:rrposition and
and nutrient
nutrient
cycling.

BUREUNA FASO

Dalbergia sissoo Eucalyptus tereticornis

Eucalyptus tereticornis C1TU
CTFl' 1991
Experiment established
established in
in 1967
1967. Treatments
Treatments have
. have favoured
favoured D.
D. sissoo.
sissoo.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis
EUcalyptus Gnelina arborea
GMelina arborea 1991
CTFl' 1991
Citi
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1980.
1980.

BURUNDI

Eucalyptus
EUcalyptus grandis Acacia elata
el ata Cirrr 1991
CTFl' 1991
Experiment established
established in
in 1987.
1987. Poor
Poor survival
survival for A . elata.
for A. elata.

CAMEROON

Khaya senegalensis
Rhaya Dalbergia sissoo CTFl'
Citf 1991
Experiment established in 1986.
1986.

Azadirachta indica Dalbergia sissoo

Ealbergia Clkl 1991
CTFl'
Khaya senegalensis
Rhaya
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1983.
1983.

Khaya
Rhaya senegalensis Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis CTFr 1991
CTFl'
established in
Experiment established in 1983.
1983 . Low survival for
li:M survival Khaya.
for Rhaya.

Pinus elliottii
Pinus elliottii Entandrophragma
Entandrpphragma cylindricum CTFl' 1991
cTrT
established in
Experiment established in 1975.
1975. 90% Pinus.
90% Finus.

Entandrophragma cylindricum
Entandrpphragma cylindricum Pinus elliottii Citi
CTFl' 1991
If
/I Mansonia al tissima
Aansonia altissima
Experiment established
Experiment established inin 1975.
1975. In P. elliottii
In 1977 P. was replaced
elliottii was replaced by
by M.
M.
altissima. GrCMth was slow
altissirna. Growth sla.v and
and survival
survival high
high for
for E.
E. cylindricum.
cylindricum.
 131

CHINA

Eucalyptus exserta
Elicalyptus exserta Acacia auriculiformis
with Acacia auriculiformis Barnes 1991

CCINGO

Acacia auriculifOrmis
Acacia auriculiformis Eucalyptus tereticornis
EUcalyptus tereti=mis CTFl' 1991
CTE1
Exper:irnent established
Experiment established in
in 1984.
1984.

Araucaria hunsteinii
Araucaria Pinus
pini 7S caribaea CTFl' 1991
Clkl
Exper:irnent established
Experiment established in 1980.
1980. Constant height
height differences recorded.
recorded .

Entandrophragma angolense Letestua durissima

Letestua durissima CTFl' 1991
CLE1
Acacia auriculifOrmis
Acacia auriculiformis
Exper:irnent established
Experiment established in 1982
1982. Good condition but
Good condition gro.rr.h for
but poor growth for A.
A.
auriculiformis.
auriculifOrmis.

Tectona
Tectona grandis superba
Terminalia superba crier.
CTFl' 1991
1991
Exper:irnent established
Experiment established in
in 1988.
1988 . Individual
Individual mixture.
mixture.

D' IVOIRE
COTE D'IVOIRE

Au=umea klaineana
Aucoumea utilis
Tarrietia utilis CTFT
CTFl' 1991
1991
Khaya ivorensis
Rhaya ivorensis /I

Tieghcmella
Tieghemella heckelii /I

Exper:irnent
Experiment established in 1964.
established in T . utilis
1964. T. utilis isis the
the nurse
nurse crop. T . utilis grows
crop . T.
Fast growth
well. Fast grCMth for T . heckelii
for T. heckelii on on sands
sands has been noted.
has been noted .

Gnelina
GMelina arborea Acacia auriculifOrmis
Acacia auriculiformis Likl 1991
CTFl'
Exper:irnent
Experiment established in 1985.
1985. Insect attacks have been
been severe.
severe.

Triplochi scleroxylon
ton scleroxylon
Ttiplochiton
/I
Gnelina arborea
GMelina artorea crrr 1991
CTFl'
ivorensis
Khaya ivorensis
/I
Chlorophora spp..
Chlorqphora spp
/I
Mmsonia altissima
Mansonia al tissima
The exper:irnents Gnelina arborea were established in 1961, the others in
experiments with GMelina
1928
1928..

Terminalia ivorensis Cedrela odorata liki

CTFl' 1991
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1977.
1977. C. odorata suppresses
C. odorata T . ivorensis.
suppresses T. ivorensis.

grandifoliola
Khaya grandifOlicla Cedrela odorata Llbi
CTFl' 1991
fr
/I
Ehaya ivorensis
Khaya
ff
/I
Khaya senegalensis
Exper:irnents established in
Experiments established 1977.. Cedrela is the nurse and grows fastest. K.
in 1977 K.
senegalensis did
senegalensis did poorly.
poorly.

Au=umea klaineana
Aucoumea Tarrietia utilis
uti lis CTFT
CTFl' 1991
/I
Khaya
Rhaya ivorensis
Exper:irnent established in
Experiment established 1965 . K.ivorensis
in 1965. K. ivorensis isis promising; A.klaineana not.
pranising; A.klaineana not.

Triplochiton
Triplochitcn scleroxylon
scleroxylcn Tectona grandis CTFl' 1991
C1Y1
Exper:irnent established in
Experiment established in 1961.
1961 .

Terminalia ivorensis superba

Terminalia superta (Alf 1991
CTFl' 1991
Exper:irnent established in
Experiment established in 1981.
1981. The
The mixture
mixture is
is promising.
pranising.
 132

TeIIIZinalia ivorensis
Terminalia Cedrela odorata CTFr 1991
(Atli 1991
Experiment established in
Experiment in 1965.
1965. Individual mixture
mixture with
with law density under
low density under aa
poison girdled
poison girdled forest.
forest . The low
l aw density has adverse effects on the stem form
of Cedrela.
of Cedrela.

¡(haya senegalensis
Khaya senegalensis TeIIIZinalia ivorensis
Terminalia ivorensis CTFr 1991
Ciki 1991
Experiment established in 1965. 64 tree/hectare
1965. 64 tree/hectare were
were planted.
planted .
TeIIIZinalia
Terminalia iivorensis
vorensis Entandrophragma. utile
Entandrophragma utile cit.'.
CTFr1991
1991
Experiment established in
in 1965. planted in
1965. 41 trees/hectare planted in aa poison
poison girdled
girdled
forest
forest..

TeIIIZinalia ivorensis
Terminalia ivorensis TeIIIZinalia superba.
Terminalia super-La CTFT
CTFr 1991
Experiment established in 1977.
Experiment 1977. Line
Line mixture.
mixture. Selectively
Selectively thinned in
in 1980 and
1982. 252 T.
1982. T. ivorensis and 160 T.
and 160 T. superta planted per
superba. planted per hectare.
hectare .
Cedrela odorata
Cedrela odorata TeIIIZinalia
Terminalia ivorensis CTFr 1991
Liki
Experiment established
established in
in 1965.
1965. Individual
Individual mixture
mixture
Triplochiton scleroxylon Khaya ivorensis
Rhaya LITT 1991
CTFr 1991
Experiment established in
Experiment established in 1964.
1964 . Individual
Individual mixture.
mixture.
Tieghemella spp.
Tieghemella spp. Triplochiton scleroxylon
Triplochiton scleroxylon CTFr 1991
CIT1 1991
11
" ivorensis
Khaya ivorensis
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1964.
1964 . Individual
Individual mixture
mixturewith
with¡(haya
Khaya or
or Tieghemella
Tieghemella..

Cedrela odorata
Cedrela odorata Grlelina
GMelina arlxJrea
arborea CTFr 1991
Clkl
Experiment established in
Experiment in 1976
1976 .. Line mixture. After
After four
four years
years
odorata was co-dominant.
C. odarata
C. co-daninant.

Khaya
Rhaya ivorensis Tarrietia utilis cirr 1991
CTFr 1991
Experiment established in
in 1963.
1963 . AA promising
pranising mixture.
mixture.
Triplochi ton scleroxy
Triplochiton lon
scleroxylon TeIIIZinalia superba
Terminalia superba. Lin.' 1991
CTFr 1991
Experiment established
established in
in 1963.
1963.
¡(haya iivorensis
Khaya vorensis Tarrietia utilis CTrf
CTFr 1991
1991
¡(haya anthotheca
Khaya anthotheca "
Experiment established
established in
in 1981.
1981.
Acacia auriculiformis
auriculifozmis Acacia mangium mer
CTFr 1991
1991
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1985.
1985.
Acacia auriculiformis
auriculifozmis nucifera
Cocos nucifera Clkl 1991
CTFr
Acacia mangium
Hongium
casuarina
Casuarina equisetifolia
eguisetifolia
Experiment established iri
Experiment established in 1985.
1985. Two lines
lines of each species separated by two
two
lines
lines of
of C. nucifera.. Best growth has been recorded
C. nucifera recorded for
for A. auriculiformis.
auriculifozmis.

FIJI

Cedrela odorata Leucaena leucocephala Streets

streets 1962
1962

Tectona grandis SWietenia macrvphylla

Eacrophylla Streets
streets 1962
 133

FRENCH GUYANA

Carapa procera
ca.rapa Gnelina arborea
GMelina (LEr
CTFT 1991
1991
or Neopanetia spp..
Neopoffetia spp
SWietenia macrophylla
or
SWietenia mahogani
SWieteniamahogani
Experiment established
Experiment established in
in 1978.
1978 . 10% Garapa or
10% Carapa or SWietenia mixed with species not
attacked by
attadked Hypsipyla. Poor
byI*Tiosi.pyl/a. PoorgrCMth for SWietenia.
growth for SWietenia.

HilWAII
HAWAII

Eucalyptus grandis)
ucalyptus grandis) (Albizia falcataria
(Albizia falcataria DeBell
DeBell et al 1985
Eucalyptus
ucalyptus saligna) (Acacia rrelanoxylon
melanoxylcn
A.rrelanoxylon not so successful as A.falcataria
A.melanoxylon A . falcataria

INDIA

Tectona grandis DalJJergia

falhergia larifolia Indian Forest
"ffff Tephrvsia
Téphrosia candida Service 1934
" Cajanus
"ffft Leucaena glauca
" SWietenia macrophylla
Aacrqphylla
"IF toona
Cedrela toona
" "B'amboo species"
"Bamboo species"
" pterocarpus marsupium
Iterocarpus marsqpium
" Artocarpus hirsuta
Artocarpus
Tephrvsia
Téphrosia is is an
an underwood
underwood species
species that
thatseems
seemsefefficient f introduced
f icient iif the
introduced in the
third year
third year.. Underplanting
Underplanting ofof S. macrophylla
macrqphylla inin 37
37 year
year old plantatiOns had not
plantations had
yielded pranising experience was
results, and the same experience
promising results, with Cedrela
was obtained with
toona.
toona. D. D. latifolia
latifolia sheM.>
shows more
more pranise
promise when sown at
when SCMn at the same stake asas teak
when mixed
than when mixed in
in strips.
strips.

Terminalia myriocarpa
Termlnalia rhyriocarpa Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Indian Forest
in pure
Ended in pure crops
crops of
of the
the faster
faster growing T. ayriocarpa.
grcMing T. myriocarpa. Service 1934

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae
flos-reginae Mesua ferrea
Itksua férrea Indian Forest
pranising than the canbination above. M.
More promising than the corribination above.
MJre ferrea,
AL ferrea, Service 1934
bearer is the underwood species.
a shade bearer is the underwood species.

Dalbergia sissoo
Daibergia spp., Monis
Eucalyptus spp., MJrus nigra Indian
Indian Forest
An irrigated plantation in Punjab. AL nigra Service 1934
Punjab. Great losses of M. 1934
to frost.
due to frost .

Tectona
Tectona grandis Melocanna b3mbusoides
Arelccanna bambuscides Indian Forest
" Cephalostachyum pergracile
Cephalostachyumpergracile Service 1934
" Gnelina arborea
GMelina
" Xylia
Aylia dolabriformis
" catechu
Acacia catechu
" DalJJergia sissoo, Acacia catechu
EalLergia sissoo,
" DalJJergia latifolia
EalLergia latifolia
" pterocarpus marsupium
Iterocarpus
" pterocarpus dahlJJergioides
Iterocarpus dahibergioides
" Artocarpus hiLsuta
Artocarpus hirsuta .
" SWietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla
" Bambusa tulda
Eambusa Luida
 134

Mixtures of M. bambusoides and Teak seem

AL bambusoides seem to have
have been successful from
been successful fran
the econanic
economic point ofof view in the Chittagong
view in Hill Tract.
Chittagong Hill Tract. This
This may
may also
also be
be true
true
for
for mixtures
mixtures with pergracile. For
C. pergracile.
with C. T. grandis
For T. grandis and G. G. artorea there are
arborea there are
reports of
of roth
both species suppressing
suppressing each other.
other. Fran
Fram the
the insect
insect attack
attack point
point
of view the
the mixture is undesirable.
undesirable. x. X. dolabriformis is usually
usually outgrown
outgrCMn by
by
the teak.
teak. Mixtures
Mixtures with
with A. catechu tend to
A. catechu to separate
separate into pure
pure groups.
groups. Intimate
Intimate
mixture of T.
mixture catechu and D.
T . grandis, A. catechu tried. This has led
D. sissoo has been tried.
to mixture of T. grandis and D. sissoo, which
to a mixture of T. grancZis and D. sissoo, which is reported to
reported to have
have done
done well,
well,
though there
though there are
are also reports
reports ofof the opposite. Mixture
Mixture with
with D.D. latifOlia have
latifolia have
successful, mainly due to browsing.
not been successful, browsing. Experiences of mixing mixing with
with P.
P.
marsupium are discouraging. There
marsupium There are
are reports
reports ofof mixture
mixture with
with A. hirsuta being
hirsuta being
silviculturally successful. From the
successful. Fran the econanic
economic point of view the the mixture is is
regarded
regarded as as questionable.
questionable. Reports
Reports regarding
regarding mixture
mixture with
with P.P. dahlbergioides
dahlbergioides
indicate that one species is likely to suppress the other. other. Mixed crops with
S. macrophylla are regarded as failures,
S. failures, S.S. macrophylla
Eacrophylla being suppressed on
good soils and vice versa.
versa. Mixtures
Mixtures with B. tulda have
with B. have led toto suppression
suppression ofof
the teak.
teak.

Bcrnbax malabricum
Banbax malabricurn Acacia catechu Indian Forest
This seems to be
he a worthwhile mixture fran
from the econanic
economic Service 1934
SeI:vi.ce
point of view.
point view.

Dipterocarpus turbina
Dipterocarpus turbinatus
tus Gnelina
GMelina arborea Indian Forest
Fbrest
G. artorea
G. arborea was to serve as aa nurse
nurse crop.
crop. The
The GMelina lffilSt
Gnelina must SeI:vi.ce
Service 1934
be thinned
be thinned before
before they
they reach
reach saleable
saleable size.
size. Silviculturally,
Silviculturally,
this mixture has
has not been a failure.
failure. Alternate
Alternate strip mixtures
mixtures
are reported to have been successful.
been successful.

Dipterocarpus turbina
Dipterocarpus turbinatus
tus Tephrosia cand
Tephrosia candida
ida Indian Forest
T. candida is to be the nurse crop.
T. crop. The mixture
mixture is
is SeI:vi.ce 1934
Service
reported to have been more
have been more successful than
than that
that with
with
Gnelina arborea.
GMelina artorea.

Acacia auriculifOrmis
Acacia auriculiformis )
) Ram Prasad & camire
RiD Camire
A. canpylacantha
A.campylacantha ) 1988
Gnelina
GMelina arborea
artorea ) Bamboo
Hybrid Eucalyptus
Hybrid )
Pongamia pinnata
Ibngamia )
all showed rather better growth
growth with
with bamboo.
bamboo.
showed rather
Albizia procera showed rather worse
worse growth
grCMth with
with bamboo.
bamboo.

Cinarranum zeylanicum
Cinamomum Tectona grandis 1962
Streets 1962

Lalbergia sissoo in mixture

Dalbergia mixture with
with various
various indigenous
indigenous species. Streets 1962
species. Streets 1962

EUcalyptus
Eucalyptus globulus Acacia mearnsii al 1977
et al
Samraj et 1977

Shorea robusta
rol:x1sta Grevillea pteridifolia Prasad 1988
RiD Prasad
Ram
EUcalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Toona ciliata
Tacna
Pinus kesiya

SWietenia macrophylla
macrophylla grandis
Tectona grandis 1962
Streets 1962
tried between 1879 & 1896,
1896, but abandoned because of
of Hypsipyla
hypsipyla
and deer
deer damage.
 135

-- Malabar
Malabar
SWietenia macropbylla
macrophylla Tectona grandis
Tectcna grandis Streets
streets 1962
1962
planted under
under 30
30 to
to 40
40 year
year old
old T.grandis at the
T. grandis at the final
final thinning.
thinning.

Tenninalia
Terminalia arjuna with casuarina equisetifblia
Casuarina equisetifolia Streets
streets 1962
1962

- N.Bengal
- N·BeDJal
Xylia
Aylia dolobrifozmis
dolobriformis Tectona grandis
grandis Lahiri 1987
also Schima
schima wallichii
Chukrasia tahularis
taJ::ularis
Michaelia champaca
blichaelia champa ca

Leucaena leucocephala Acacia nilotica

Acacia Kapoor 1984
Bhatia & Kapoor
Positive effects of the mixture
mixture were
were detected.
detected .

INDONESIA

Pinus
Pinus spp. Pittospezmium mcnticolum
Pittospermium Alphen de Veer 1950b
roonticolum Alphen 1950b
"
If
Schima walichii
walichii
"If Tarema incerta
" Eugenia spp.
" QUercus spp.
Olercus
"If Leu=syke spp.
Leucosyke
The broadleaves were recommended
broadleaves were reccmnended to
to forrn
fo:r:m an
an understorey
understorey in
in conifer
conifer plantations
plantations
established to support
support aa pUlpmill. More than one mixing species
pulpmill. More species should be
he
used.
used.

Altingia excelsa castanopsis tungurrest

Castanopsis tungurrest Bakhaven 1930
Bakhoven
" castanopsis
Castanopsis javanica
javanira
" Podocarpus Mibricata
Rodocarpuq imbricata
Reccmnendations for establishment of non-teak plantations in the rrountains.
Recommendations mountains.

SWietenia macropbylla
Swietenia macrophylla Tectona grandis Becking 1928
Becking1928

Tectona grandis Leucaena glauca Becking

necking 1928
are mentioned.
Positive effects are mentioned.

Tectona grandis Schleichera oleosa Deventer 1913

Reccmnendation establishment of
Recommendation for establishment of mixed
mixed teak
teak forests.
forests.
Tectona grand's
Tectona grandis Leucaena glauca Eicinann 1932
Eidmann 1932
" Antidesma bunius
Antidesma
" Fterocarpus
terocarpus indiensis
" Schoutenia ova
Schoutenia ovata
ta
" CinnaIoclnum iners
Cinnamomum iners
" Gluta renghas
" Eugenia subglauca
" SWietenia macropbylla
macrophylla
" Dalbergia
albergia latifolia
L . glauca
Investigation of underplanting. L. glauca is
is found
found suitable
suitable for
for this.
this .
D. latifolia
D. latifolia may be
be even
even better
better suited.
suited.

Cupressus
CUpressus spp. Myrica javanica
Plyrica javanira Harencarspel 1908
Harencarspel. 1908
or Wenlandia
Wenlandia rufescens
casuarina
Casuarina spp. Wenlandia junghuniana
jungbuniana
Pittosporum ferrugine
Pittosporum ferrugine
 136

Glochidion varium
varil11ll
Albizia falcataria
Albizia falcataria
Individual mixtures
mixtures with either CUpressus
with either apressus or Gasuarina species.
or Casuarina species . Group
Group mixing
with species
with species that will not grow is preferred
grow tall is preferred to individual
individual mixing.
mixing.

Tectona grandis glauca

Leucaena glauca Hart 1930b
Mixing is
Mixing is favourable
favourable only
only under
under special
special circumstances.
circumstances .

Santall11ll
San talum all:x1m
album Leucaena glauca Kramer 1925
Once the S. all:x1m roots
S. album roots reached
reached the Leucaena, they
the Leucaena, they developed
developed well.
well.

'I'ectona
Tectona grandis Leucaena glauna
glauca KUnst
Kunst 1918
1918
If fires are avoided, mixtures develop
develop vigorously.
vigorously.
mixing is
Natural mixing is easier
easier and
and better
better than artificial.
than artificial.
Diospyros celebica
Diospyros celebica Tectona grandis Alrasjid
Alrasjid 1985

SWietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla )
) Siregar et al
Siregar et al. 1986
1986
Aleurites moluccana
Aleurites JOOluccana )
Spathodea carrpanulata
Spathodea campanul ata ) )
LagerstroEmia speci
Lagerstroemia speciosa)
osa ) Melaleuca leucodendron
Pklaleuca leucodendron
Durio zibenthinus
Lurio )
Artocarpus heterqphyllus)
Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Leucaena leucocephala )
)

All failures ?M. leucodendron

failures ?M. leucodendron allelopathy
allelopathy

KENYA

alpressus
CUpressus lusitanica (? goetzenii)
Lt1nb9ya (?goetzenii)
Etatcya Streets 1962
streets 1962

Grevillea robusta Graham 1949

carrpetes on
competes on equal
equal tenns
terms to
to age but has
15, but
age 15, to be
has to be thinned
thinned heavily
heavily
because of spreading
berause cra-m causing
spreading crown causing butt
butt sweep
sweep in
in the
the Cypress.
Cypress .

IWAYSIA (West)
MALAYSIA (West)

Flindersia brayleyana in tall secondary forest

forest Streets 1962
streets

SWietenia
Swie tenia macrophylla
macrqphylla Grrelina
GMelina arrorea
artorea Streets 1962
Streets

SWietenia macrophylla
Swietenia Albizia falcataria
Albizia falcataria Streets 1962
streets

Teak Leucaena
Leucaena leucocephala
leL7cephala Ng et al.
Ng et al 1982
Araucaria hunsteinii
Araucaria ""
same promise for controlling
Shows some Lmperata on
controlling IMperata on more
more fertile
fertile sites.
sites .

MYAMIAR

Tectona grandis pter=a.rpus macrocarpus

Pterocarpus macrocazpus Streets
streets 1962

NEPAL

Schima wallichii Pinus roxburghii Gilmouretet al.

Gi11lP.lr al 1990
and other indigenonR
indigenous broadleaved
broadleaved trees
trees by natural regeneration.
by natural regeneration .
 137

NEW CALEDONIA

Agathis
Agathis lanceolata Acacia ~ii
mearnsii Lai
CTFT 1990
"fl Albizia falcataria
falcataria
" Herb plants
" Broadleaved trees
Broadleavecl trees
in 1978
Experiment established in 1978.. In
In the
the shade of Albizia
shade of Albizia or Acacia,
Acacia, Agathis
grows well.
grows

Agathis moorei
Agathis,moorei Acacia mangium CTFT
CiEl 1991
" falcataria
Albizia falcataria
" Casuarina equisetifolia
" Leucaena leucocephala
Experiment established
Experiment in 1981
established in 1981.. The
The high mortality
mortality and poor growth
grcMth of A.
A.
moorei is
moored is thought
thought to be due
to be due to
to the
the soil.
soil.

Santalum austrocaledonicum
santalum Pinus caribaea CTFT
eTtT 1991
"
71
Arillastrum gummiferum
Azillatrum gurrrniferum
"
11
Araucaria excel
Araucaria excelsea
sea
" Araucaria luxurians
" Leucaena leucocephala
" Dalbergia
Lalbergia sissoo
" Albizia falr!ataria
Albizia falcataria
" Acacia auriculiformis
" senegalensis
Khaya senegalensis
" Tipuana tipu
" Acacia spirorbis
" lebbeck
Albizia lebheck
" Casuarina equisetifolia
equisetifolia
" Casuarina deplancheana
" Casuarina stricta
" Agathis ova
Agathis ovata
ta
Experiment
Experiment established in 1980.
established in Good results
1980. Good results were achieved with
were achieved Albizia
with Albizia
falcataria, Rhaya
falcataria, senegalensis, Acacia spirorbis,
Khaya senegalensis, spirorbis, Albizia
Albizia lebbeck
lebbeck and
and
Casuarina spp. Poor results with Pinus caribaea
with Pinus caribaea and Araucaria
Araucaria spp.

Agathis lanceolata
Agathis lanceolata Albizia falcataria CTFT
Cal. 1991
Experiment established
Experiment established in 1986.
in 1986.

Araucaria subulata
Araucaria subulata Albizia falcataria
falcataria Clki
CTFT1991
1991
established in
Experiment established 1986.
in 1986.

NIGER

tortilis
Acacia tortilis CTFT 1991
C11-1
Acacia nilotica
Acacia nilotica
Balanites
Ealanites aegyptiaca
Anogeissus leiocarpus
Anogeissus
Dalbergia
Laltergia sissoo
1984 . 88 plots
in 1984.
Experiment established in 25 trees,
plots of 25 trees, 55 of
of each
each species,
species,
randcrnly
randomly planted.

NIGERIA

Azidarachta indica
Azidarachta indica Crotolaria striata MacGregor 1934
4 months ht gra-lth
growth cut by nearly 50% in mixture from
fran 44.04m
. 04m to 2.4m
 138

Chlorophora
Chlorqphcra excelsa Teak ~1934
MacGregor 1934

COla
Cola =rdifolia
cordifolia Teak ~1934
Marparegor 1934
suppressed, rut
suppressed, but healthy & 80% survival;
survival; introduced
introduced to m::xlify
modify adverse
effect on
effect on the
the soil.
soil.

Erythrophleum ivorense
Erythrqphleum i vorense Nauclea diderrichii Hemy 1960
Henry
success.
Not a success.

Kbaya grandifoliola
Khaya Teak ~ 1934
Madaregor
well above
20 well
At age 20 above teak
teak (21 m) -- aa good
(21 m) good mixture.
mixture.

K. grandifoliola
K.gTandifoliola Triplochiton
Triplochiton scleroxylon ~ 1934
scleroxylon MacGregor 1934
overtopped by
overtopped T.scleroxylon which
by T.scleroxylon which will
will have
have to
to be thinned.
be thinned.

K.senegalensis sissoo
Dalbergia sissoo ~1934
MacGregor 1934
fungal attack on D.sissoo
fimgal

K.senegalensis Teak ~1934

MacGregor 1934
heavy borer damage in
in the Khaya.
Kbaya.

Lophira alata Teak Hemy

Henry 1960
success.
Not a success.

Mnscnia altissima
~onia altissima Crotolaria striata ~1934
MacGregor 1934

ciliata in
Mitragyna ciliata in any
any mixture only
only a success
success in
in law
low Hemy
Henry 1960
lying areas.
lying areas.
Tectona grandis with
Tctcna grandis cassia siamea
Cassia streets
Streets 1962

PHILIPPINES

Tectona grandis I.eucaena leu=phala Granert

Leucaena leucocephala Cadanpng 1980
Granert && Cadampog
SWietenia macrophylla L.leu=phala
L. leucocephala

SENEGAL

EUcalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptusvcamaldulensis Acacia hclosericea
holosericea UM.
CTFl' 1991
" Albizia lebbek
" Anacardium occidentale
Anacardium
" Azadirachta indica
" cassia
Cassia siamea
" casuarina
Casuarina equisetifolia
" Prosopis
Pros opis chilensis
chilensis
Experiment
Experiment established
established in 1979.
1979. The only
only coMbination
combination with normal growth is
normal growth is
that between E.E. camaldulensis
camaldulensis and indica.
and A. indica.

SOLCKIN ISLANDS

SWietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla Securinega flexuosa
flexuosa Solanon Islands 1988b
Solomon
1988 experiment -- promising.
promising .

I.eucaena leu=phala
Leucaena leucccephala
of S.
form of S. macrophylla
macTophylla thought
thought to be
be superior, but L.leu=phala
superior, rut L.leucocephala prone
prone
to attacks from Phellinus noxius
fran Phellinus noxiusand Heteropsylla cubana.
andlieteropsylla cuhma.
 139

TeIminalia calaITBIJSanai
Terminalia calamansanai
T.calaITBIJSanai has too spreading
T.calamansanai has spreading and
and vigorous
vigorous aa crown.
crown.
The following
The following are not recorded as
as having
having been tried but were
buen tried considered
were considered
unsuitable -- crowns
unsuitable crowns too Paraserianthes falcataria,
spreading -- Paraserianthes
too spreading falcataria,
Anthocephalus chinensis

SRI LANKA

SWietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla Artocarpus integrifolius streets
Streets 1962

SWietenia macrophylla
macrqphylla Tectona grandis folIttiah
MUttiah 1965
Artocarpus integrifolius
Artocarpus

TAIWAN

Taiwania cryptomerioides
cryptarnerioides Un et
Un et al
al 1979
1979
Paulownia taiwania
Faulownia taiwania in mixture
in mixture

MITZANIA

Cinamcmum camphora
carrphora Juniperus
Ju_niperus procera
procera Streets
Streets 1962
1962

TRINIDAD

grandis
Tectona grandis Copaifera officinalis Bell
Bell1973
1973
Cedrela mexicana
Cordia alliodora
Cbrdia allicxiora
all of which tended to be shaded out by the teak
Hyronima caribaea
li.yronima caribaea
Tabebuia serratifolia
serratifOlia
Byrsonima
.5. rsonima spicata
spicata
TeIminalia
Terminalia obovata
regeneration normally
natural regeneration nonnally slashed
slashed inin cultural
cultural operations.
operations.

UGANDA

Chlorophora
Chlorqphora excelsa Eucalyptus Dawkins 1949
C.excelsa near
satisfactory when C.excelsa near drains (malarial control
drains (malarial control sites).
sites).
Cassia siamea
too much root
root competition.
oompetition.
Vemonia
Vernonia amygdalina
shade out
Does not shade out grass;
grass; no
no economic
econanic value.
value.
Harungana
.harungana madagascariensis
madagasnariensis
drought sensitive.
drought sensitive.
Markhamia
Igarkhamia platycalyx
platycalyx
poor at shading
poor shading out
out grass,
grass, but
rut economically
econanically useful.
useful.

The following were considered to be failures

to be for unspeCified
unspecified
reasons Artocarpus sp
Artocarpus )
Canarium schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii ) )

Ceara rubber )
Clausena anisata )
Cassia bicapsularis )
 140
140

EUphorbia
Euphorbia tirucalli )
Ficus spp )
Ta?na
Tbona serrata
seriata )
T.ciliata
T.ciliata )
Chlorophora
Chlorqphora excelsa Phyllanthus discoideus
Ihyllanthus discoideus
& &
Rhaya grandifoliola
Khaya GlElina arborea
GMelina al-torea
has
has worked
worked well on "better" sites

Chlorophora
Chlorophora excelsa
excelsa Eucalyptus Streets 1962

recorded, apart from

Mixtures recorded, bank, during a
fran the data bank, a visit to
to CI'FT, Nogent
sur Marne, in
sur Miarne, in 1991.

Mixture COtmtry
Country Period

Acacia auriculifon7u:s/
auriculiformis/ Benin 1986
EUcalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus

Acacia auriculiformis/ Benin 1986

1986
Leucaena leucocephala
EUcalyptus
Eucalyptus tereticornis/ Benin 1986
EUcalyptus torreliana
Eucalyptus torreliana

EUcalyptus
Eucalyptus tereticornis/ Benin 1986
EUcalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis

EUcalyptus tereticornis/ Benin 1986

1986
Leucaena leucocephala
leucccephala

Acacia auriculiformis/ Benin 1986

1986
to=eliana
Eucalyptus torreliana

Tectona grandis/
Tectona Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
Acacia maconochieana

Tectona
Tectona grandis/
grandis/ Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
Acacia tenuissima
Tectona
Tectona grandis/ Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
Acacia tumida
Tectona
Tectona grandis/ Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
AnogeissusLC leiocarpus
Anogeissi leiocarpus

Tectona grandis/
Tectona Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
Azadiracta indica

Tectona grandis/
Tectona Benin 1988-1989
odorata
Cedrela odorata

Tectona grandis/ Benin 1988-1989

Chlorophora excelsa
 141

Tectona
Tectona grandis/
grandis/ Benin 1988-1989
grandifolia
Khaya grandifolia

Tectona
Tectona grandis/ Benin 1988- 1989
1988-1989
Khaya senegalensis
Rhaya

Tectona
Tectona grandis/ Benin
Benin 1988-1989
1988-1989
Terminalia
Tbrminalia iivorensis
vorensis

Tectona
Tectona grandis/ Benin 1988-1989
Terminalia superba

Khaya senegalensis/
Rhaya Benin 1988-1989
Holoptelea
hbloptelea grandis

Khaya grandifolia/
Rhayagrandifolia/ Benin 1988-1989
Holoptelea grandis
hblqptelea

Diospyros mespilifonnis/
Diospyrosmespiliformis/ Benin 1988-1989
GrElina
GMelina arborea
artorea

Chlorophora
Chlorqphora excelsa/
excelsa/ Benin 1988-1989
Afzelia africana
Afzelia africana

Afzelia africana/ . Benin 1988-1989

Acacia amliceps

Pinus patula/
Pinuspatula/ Burundi
Callitris spp.

Khaya senegalensis/ cameroon

Cameroon 1984-1986
1984-1986
Dalbergia
Lalbergia sissoo

Acacia senegalensis/ cameroon

Cameroon 1987
1987
Khaya senegalensis/
Azadirachta indica
Azadirachta indica

Schizolobium parahybum/
parahybun/ Ecuador 1977
Cordia
Cbrdia alliodora

Tarrieta
Tarrieta utilis/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1926-1960
Khaya
Rhaya ivorensis

Triplochyton
Triplochytcn scleroxylon/
scleroxylon/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1961-1964
ivorensis
Khaya ivorensis
Rhaya

Triplochyton
Triplochytcn scleroxylon/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1961-1964
Tieghemilla heckelii

Triplochyton
Triplochyton scleroxylon/
scleroxylon/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1961-1964
GrElina
GMelina spp.

Triplochyton
Triplochytcn scleroxylon/
scleroxylon/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1961-1964
Terminalia superba
superta

Triplochyton
Triplcchyton scleroxylon/ cOte
Cate d' Ivoire
d'Ivoire 1961-1964
Tectona
Tectona grandis
grandis
 142
142

Acacia
Acacia mar2gium/
mangium/ cote d'Ivoire
Cae d'Ivoire 1985-1988
1985-1988
Acacia auriculifonnis
Acacia auriculifonnis

Terminalia superb3./
TeIminalia superba/ cote
Cate d'Ivoire 1985-1989
Tenninalia
TeIminalia ivorensis

Terminalia superba/
TeIminalia superb3./ cote d' I voire
Cate d'Ivoire 1985-1989
1985-1989
Teutona grandis
Tectona grandis
Eucalyptus
EUcalyptus carnaldulensis/
camaldulensis/ Madagascar 1951-
1951-
Indigafera teya.nannii
Indigofera teysmannii

EUcalyptus carnaldulensis/
EUcalyptus camaldulensis/ Madagascar 1951-
1951 -
Cassia siamea
cassia siarrea

EUcalyptus camaldulensis/
EUcalyptus camaldulensis/ Madagascar 1951-
1951 -
Acacia cyanophylla
cy.anophylla

Eucalyptus mi=theca/
EUcalyptus microtheca/ Madagascar 1951-
Indigoféra
Indigofera tey5mannii
teysmannii

Eucalyptus robusta/
EUcalyptus robusta/ Madagascar 1988
Acacia mangiurn
Acacia mangium

Lophira alata/
Lophira alata/ Nigeria
Nigeria 1918-1939
Swietenia
SWietenia macrophylla
macrophylla

Lqphira alata/
Lophira alata/ Nigeria 1918-1939
Teutona
Tectona grandis

Tectona grandis/
Tectona grandis/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Lophira alata
Lophira alata

Teutona grandis/
TectOlla grandis/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Nauclea diderrichii
Nauclea diderrichii

Tectona grandis/
TectOlla grandi.s/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Lovoatrichilioides
LoV03 trichilioides
Tectona grandis/
Tectona grandis/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Swietenia ma
SWietenia crophyllla
macrophy 1a
Erythrophleun ivorense/
Erythrophleum ivorense/ Nigeria
Nigeria 1949-1960
1949-1960
Nauclea diderrichii
Nauclea diderrichii

Nauclea diderrichii/
Nauclea diderrichii/ Nigeria
Nigeria 1949-1960
1949-1960
Khayaivorensis
Khaya ivorensis
NaUclea cLiderrichii/
Naticlea diderrichii/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Lovoa trichilioides
LoV03 trichilioides

Nauclea diderric,hii/
Nauclea diderrichii/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Entar2drophragna angolense
Entandrophragma angolense

Nauclea di derrichii/
Nauclea diderrichii/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Entandrophragma cy
Entandrophragma cyllndricum
lindricum
 143

Iovoa
Lovoa trichilioides/ Nigeria 1949-1960
Khaya ivorensis

Acacia melanoxylon/
melanoxylon/ Rwanda
Pinus radiata
radiata
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
camaldulensis Senegal
{microtheca}/
(nicrotheca)/
Prosopis juliflora
Prosqpis juliflora

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Senegal

{microtheca}/
(microtheca)/
Acacia holoserica
Acacia

Eucalyptus spp./ Senegal 1983

GJElina aroorea
Gmelina a_rborea

Tectona grandis/
Tectona Togo
Togo 1910
1910
Leucaeana glauca

Tectona grandis/
Tectona Togo 1910
1910
Khaya senegalensis
Maya senegalensis

Tectona
Tectona grandis/
grandis/ Togo 1910
1910
Cassia siamea
Tectona
lb.ctona grandis/
grandis/ Togo 1910
Albizzia zygia
Albizzia

Tectona grandis/ Togo 1910

1910
Erythrophleum guinensii
Elythrophleum guinensii
Acacia mangium/
mangiun/ Togo 1982-1988
1982-1988
Eucalyptus tereticornis
tereti=rnis
Acacia auriclifoIInis/
Acacia auricliformis/ Togo 1982-1988
Eucalyptus torreliana
Eucalyptus torreliana
Eucalyptus tereti=rnis/
Eucalyptus tereticornis/ Togo 1988
1988
Eucalyptus torreliana
Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus saligna/ Uganda 1918-1930

1918-1930
Markhamia
Markhamda platycalyx
platycalyx

Eucalyptus rol:xIsta/
EUcalyptus robusta/ Uganda 1960-1965
1960-1965
Grevillea rol:xIsta
robusta

Eucalyptus rol:xIsta/
EUcalyptus robusta/ Uganda 1960-1965
Cupressus
CUpressus lusitanica

Eucalyptus robusta/
EUcalyptus Uganda 1960-1965
Eucalyptus spp.
EUcalyptus

Eucalyptus rol:xIsta/
EUcalyptus robusta/ Uganda 1960-1965
1960-1965
1bona
Tbona ciliata
 144
144

Aucoumea klair2eana/
Aucoumea klaineanal Zaire 1942-1943
1942-1943
Cassia siamea
Cassia siamea
Haronga paniculatal
harongapaniculata/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Snithia bequaerti
SMithia Lequaerti

Haronga paniculatal
harongapaniculata/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Dcx10nea viscosa
Dodonea viscosa
Haronga paniculatal
harongapaniculata/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Sesi:Enia
Sestania spp.
Eucalyptus spp./
Eucalyptus spp./ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Bridelia ferruginea
Bridelia ferruginea

Eucalyptus spp./
Eucalyptus spp./ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Bridelia micrantha
Bridelia micrantha

Sni thia bequaertil

SMithiabequaerti/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Bridelia ferruginea
Bridelia ferruginea

Snithia bequaertil
Smithia bequaerti/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before
Sakersia laurentii
Sakersia laurentii
Snithia bequaertil
SMithiabequaerti/ Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
MYrica
Myrica salicifolia

Sni thia bequaertil

Smithiabequaerti/ Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Lacnopylis
Lacnqpylis spp.

Sni thia bequaertil

SMithia tequaerti/ Zaire Before 1953
Trana spp.
Trana
Snithia
SMithia bequaertil
tequaerti/ Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Markhamia
Afailchantia spp.

D::Jdonea spp.
Dodonea spp./I Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Before 1953
Bridelia spp.
spp.
Dodonea spp.
D::Jdonea I
spp./ Zaire Before 1953
1953
Trana
Trema

D::Jdonea spp.
Dodonea spp./I Zaire Before 1953
Haronga spp.
Haronga spp.

Markhamia
Aarkhamia luteal
lutea/ Zaire
Zaire Before 1953
Snithia
SMithia spp.
Markhamia
Aarkhamia luteal
lutea/ Zaire Before 1953
D::Jdonea
Dodonea spp.
 145

APPENDIX 4
SANDALWOOD

Members of the family

Mmblers family Santalaceae
Santalaceae are
are root
root hemi-parasites
hemi-parasites and,
and, though
though
they have been recorded as parasitising grasses
grasses and may on occasion
occasion exist
without the benefit of a host,
wlthout host, they are almost always associated
associated with
with other
other
trees and shrubs.
shrubs. Mixed
Mixed planting
planting has
has therefore been
been found to be
he essential
essential in
the establishment and
and management
management of
of sandalwood.
sandalwood.

Santalum occurs
The genus Santalum occurs over
over aa wide
wide geographic
geographic area.
area.
Australia (1)
Australia (1) S.spicatum, S.acuminatum,
S.spicatum,
fran cape
from Cape York to Victoria and S . lanceolatum, S.murrayanum,
S.lanceolatum, S.murrayanum,
through to West Australia S . abtusifolium. (4)
S.obtusifolium. (4)
New Guinea
New (1)
Gli.nea (1) S .macgregori
S.macgregori
New Caledonia
New Vanuatu (1)
Caledonia & Vanuatu (1) S. austrocaledonicum
S.austrocaledcnicum
Fiji (1)
Fiji (1) S.yasi
Tonga (4)
Tonga (4) S.yasi
(3)
Hawaii (3) S. elipticum, S.freycinetianum
S.elipticum, S. freycinetianum
S.haleakalae, S.paniculatum
S.haleakalae,
Tahiti,
Tahiti, Marquesas,
Marquesas, Henderson Island S.insulare
Austral
Austral Islands,
Islands, Cook Islands,
Cm& Islands,
Society Islands
Society Islands (4)
(4)
Imonesia (1)(now
East Indonesia (1) (no.v almost S.album
entirely confined
entirely confined toto West
West Timor)
Tirror)
(2) (primarily
India (2) (primarily on the SS.alhum
.album
Deccan plateau of Karnataka & & Tamil
Nadu, but found throughout
Nadu, throughout India)
India)
Fernandez (4)
Juan Fernandez
Juan (4) SS.fernandezianum
. femandezianum (extinct)
(extinct)

(1) McKinnell (1990)

McKinnell (1990)
(2) Rai (1990)
Rai (1990)
(3) Hirano (1990)
Hirano (1990)
(4) Applegate et alal (1990)
(1990)

The highest grade logs S.album produces

logs are used for carving and S.album produces the
highest quality
highest quality logs, because
because it
it is
is close
close grained
grained and
and has
has aa high
high oil
oil content;
content;
prices up to
prices to US$ 9,400 per
per ton can
can be obtained
obtained in
in India.
India. Lc::Mer grade logs go
Lower grade
to the incense market
to market at aa price
price varying fran US$
varying from US$ 2,000
2.,000 to
to US$
US$ 5,000
5,000 per
per ton,
ton,
though
though roots
roots and
and butts of S.spicatum
butts of S.spicatum and and S.album,
S.album, which
which have
have aa higher oil
content,
content, may fetch up to US$ 7,0007, 000 per
per ton.
ton. Australia supplies
supplies most of thethe
world incense
incense market through
through Hong KongKong and Taiwan.
Taiwan. wood
Wood chips
chips and
and pcu:lered
powdered
wood command
ccmrand prices
prices of
of around US$US$ 2,300 per ton.ton. Sandalwood
Sandalwood oil is is chiefly
produced in
produced in India, where
where 11 ton
ton of S .album heartwood
of S.album heartwood can
can produce
produce 6060 kg
kg of
of oil,
oil,
the export
export price of which
which starts at at US$
US$ 1,500
1,500 per
per kg.
kg. The market
market for oil is is
primarily for
primarily for perfumeries
perfumeries inin France
France andand New
New York
York (Applegate
(ApPlegate etet al.
al. 1990).
1990).

of heartwood
Yields of heartwood oil
oil vary
vary with
with the
the species
species (MtKinnell
(McKinnell1990).
1990).
5 -- 7% S . album and S.yasi
S.album S. yasi
3 -- 6% S . austrocaledonicum
S.austrocaledonicum
2% S.spicatum
3
S. album has aa wood
S.album wood density of 930 -- 950 kg/m
kg/e. •

The yield of of oil franfrom sane species such as S . acuminatum and

S.acuminatum and
S.lanceolatum found
S.lanceolatum found in
in Australia are so
Australia are so low
lo.v that oil
oil is
is not usually distilled
usually distilled
fran these species
from species (MtKinnell
(McKinnell1990).
1990).
 146

S. album is the most valuable species.

S.album species. It has been exploited for many
many
India, West Timor,
centuries in India, Tirror, SuMba
Surnl:a and Flores in
in Indonesia and it
it is
is now
nON'
being introduced
being introduced into
into many
many countries
countries(e.
(e. g.
g. Hawaii
Hawaii (Hirano
(Hirano 1990)
1990),, Java
Java and
and Bali
Bali
(Applegate et
(Applegate et al 1990),
1990), West
West Australia
Australia (McKinnell
(McKinnell 1990)).
1990)) . been
It has been
suggested that album is
S.album
that S India, but
is an introduced tree in India, rot that
that theory
theory has
has
been rejected on the grounds
grounds that
that the
the tree is
is so deeply involved
involved in
in Indian
literature, ethos and
literature, and culture
culture (Rai
(Rai 1990).
1990) .

There are records of sandalwood

sandalwood use use in
in India
India 4,000
4,000 years
years ago (Rai
(Rai 1990)
1990)
and 1,500
1,500 years ago in Hawaii
Hawaii (Merlin and Ravenswaay 1990), rot exploitation
and Ravenswaay 1990), but exploitation
increased immensely wlth
incrPaed immensely with the
the exploration
exploration of the Pacific by the the West
West in
in the
18th century.
century. By 1870 there was virtually none left on many of the
about 1870
By about the
Pacific Islands and only recently have measures been introduced introduced to to regulate
regulate
exploitation of
exploitation of sandalwood
sandalwood in in order
order to to conserve
conserve it.it . Although
Although the stocking
stocking ofof
S.spicatum
S.spicatum in in West Australia is
West Australia is laION'w (2/ha)
(2/ha) the
the area
area over
over which
which it gr= so
grows is so
large that,
that, despite largely unregulated cutting in the last century and the
beginning
beginningof of the
the 20th
20th century,
century, large
large volumes
volumes are
are still
still available.
available . The history
of sandalwood exploitation in Western Western Australia (Statham(statham 1990) good
1990) gives a good
idea ofof the
the fluctuations
fluctuations of of the
the trade.
trade. Exports
Exports of S.spicatum started in
S . spicatum started in 1843
1843
and rose
and rose asas high as as 9,600
9,600 tons
tons in sane sane years
years atat the
the end
end of the 19th and
of the
beginning
beginning of the the 20th
20th century.
century. From Fran the early 1920s, when up to 14,300 tons
a year were exported,
a exported, exports
exports fellfell to to about
about 1,000
1,000 tons
tons aa year
year in
in the late
late
1930s.
1930s. During Second World War exports rPased,
During the Second ceased, but rot have nownON'roilt
built up to
about
about 1,800
1,800 tons
tons aa year
year with
with an export value of A4 A$ 11.5
11.5 million in in 1989.
1989.
Exploitation
Exploitation is nON' carefully
is now carefully regulated,
regulated, but rot nevertheless
nevertheless it has been
has been
estimated
estimated thatthat natural
natural stocks
stocks will will only last last about
about another
another sixty
sixty years
years
(McKinnell 1990).
(MtKinnell 1990) . currently
Currently about half the sandalwoodsandalwood harvest
harvest isis dead
dead wood,
wood,
rot
but the
the practice of exploiting the the whole
whole tree, including
including the the butt
rott and
and roots,
roots,
which have the highest oil
which oil content,
content, continues
continues (McKinnell
(McKinnell 1990).
1990). As recently
recently
as 1954 aa Forests
Forests Department
Department report
report stated
stated that
that the results generally
the results generally fran
from
experilrental work did not warrant any attempt to grON'
experimental gro sandalwood on a large large
scale (statham 1990),
scale (Statham 1990), rot
but nevertheless
nevertheless "pullers"
"pullers" werewere encouraged
encouraged to replace
trees with
with sandalwood nuts . M:>re
sandalwood nuts. More recently the Sandalwood
Sandalwood Research Institute
has been
has investigating the
been investigating the possibility
possibility of of introducing S.album which
introducing S.album which it
it is
is
expected
expected will
will have
have aa rotation
rotation of of 3030 years
years asas against
against 60 60 to
to 80
80 years
years for
for
S.spicatum; pranising (AcKinnell
S.spicatum; these trials are promising (McKinnell 1990).
1990) .

Santalum spp . can

Santalum spp. can grow
grON' on
on a wide range
range of soils,
soils, inin temperatures
temperatures of
of 0°C
O°C
to 40°C
40°C and
and rainfall
rainfall fran
from 500 mm rrm to
to 3,000
3,000 mmrrm (Neil
(Neil 1990).
1990). In India it is is
considered to
considered to be
be a tree of drydry deciduous
deciduous forests and and when a site becanes
becomes mesic
mesic
sandalwood retreats to drier sites, rot sandalwood
sites, but sandalwood is is fire tender (Rai 1990).
In Q..Ieensland
Queensland it been noted
has been
it has noted that
that it
it occurs
occurs inin open woodlands,
woodlands, rot
but tends
to be more common
common onon the
the outer
outer edge
edge of
of scrubs
scrubs of of Itkqaleuca
Melaleuca aCacioides and
aeacioides and
Excoecaria (gutta percha) around
parvifolia (guttapercha)
Excoecariaparvifolia around drainage
drainage lines.
lines . On
On these sites,
at the
the interface
interface of of the
the M.acacioides
Macacioidés scrUbscrub and
and the
the open
open woodland,
woodland, the
the grass
grass
is sparse
sparse and
and hot fires
fires which
which are common in the the densely grassed open woodland
woodland
do not
not oc=
occur (Applegate et al 1990b). In Western Australia it gr= grows on
on sites
receiving little
little rain andand regeneration
regeneration appears to be dependent on on aa succession
succession
of wet years.
years.

Sandalwood is
is aa root
root hemiparasite
hemiparasite that is kn=
that is known to
to parasitise
parasitise at
at least
least
300
300 species
species of
of plants,
plants, ranging
ranging fran
from grasses toto trees;
trees; it kn=
it has also been known
to paras:Ltise
parasitise other sandalwood
sandalwood trees (Rai
(Rai 1990).
1990) . It attaches
attaches itself to its
host
host by
by haustoria
haustoria and appears
appears to obtain
obtain N,
N, PP and
and basic
basic amino-acids fran
from the
host while
while obtaining Caca and KK from
fran the
the soil
soil (Neil
(Neil 1990).
1990) . No reference was
found
found to
to its
its effect on the host,
host, rot not appear
but it does not appear to
to be
be debilitating.
debilitating.
In fact
fact the
the host
host tree has
has to be carefully
carefully chosen not not to
to be vigorous as
be so vigorous as to
to
suppress the sandalwood.
 147
147

When sandalwood
When sandalwoo:l. is is raised
raised in in nurseries the the seedling
seedling should
should he be allowed
allowed
to attach itself to host and this is achieved by raising the sandalwood sandalwoo:l. andand
host in
in the
the same
same pot
pot (Neil
(Neil 1990,
1990, RaiRai1990)
1990).. But in Western Australia this this
technique is CilllSidered
considered to be only aa research tool and the risk risk ofof rupturing
the sandalwood-host
sandalwoo:l.-host connection
connection in in planting
planting out out isis too
too high for for commercial
ccmrercial
planting; for commercial
ccmrercial planting direct direct seeding
seeding is advocated, but but only with
the expectation
expectation of of getting
getting 1% 1% of
of the
the seed
seed through
through to to aa tree
tree (MCKinnell
(McKinnell 1990)1990)..
In
In India
India aa hollowed bamI:xx:> is used
hollowed bamboo used forfor direct
direct seeding
seeding intointo thickets
thickets (Rai (Rai
1990).
1990) . Despite the observation
observation from from West
West Australia
Australia several
several countries
countries have have
found that
found that a dual host system
dual host system produces produces the
the best
best results
results when
when raising
raising
sandalwoo:l. artificially. At
sandahaood Atthethe nursery
nurserystage
stageaa primary
primaryhost host is
is used
used and
and this
this
should
should be aa lCMlow grCMing, short-livedshrUb;
growing, short-lived Cajanuscajan
shrub; Cajanus cajanininIndia
India(Rai(Rai1990)
1990),,
Sesbania grandiflora, Breynia
Sestonia grandiflora, Breynia cerrua,
cerrua, Amaranthus
Amaranthusspp. spp., Medicago spp.
, Atdr_icago spp
. and
tomato, Calotropis,
Calotrqpis, Capsicum in TiIror
Capsicum Timor (Neil 1990; MCKinnell McKinnell 1990), 1990) ,
Altemanthera
Alternanthera sessilis
sessilis in Vanuatu (Bule
in Vanuatu (Bule and Daruhl 1990), Gastrolobium
Daruhl 1990) ,

microcazpum
microcarpum and and Acacia pulchella in Western Western Australia
Australia wheatwheat belt
belt andand Atriplex
Atriplex
rhagodioides,
rhagodioides, Cratystylis subspinescens
su1;spinescens and Mariana polysterygiapolysterygia in the the arid
arid
zone (McKinnell1990)
zone (McKinnell 1990). M.polysterygia is
. M.polysterygia is considered
considered a particularly
particularly good good host
because it is thorny
because thorny and gives
gives protection
protection against
against brCMSing
browsing to which sandalwoo:l.
sandalwood
is particularly susceptible . . On planting
particularly susceptible. planting the the sandalwood
sandalwoo:l. intointo thethe ffield
ield the
seedling
seedling should
should be established near
be established near aa perennial
perennial secondary
secondary host; host; this
this isis
usually achieved by planting
usually achieved by planting the sandalwoo:l. and primary
sandalwood and primary host in alternate
alternate rowsrCMS
with a secondary
secondary host host at two to
at two to three
three metre
metre spacing
spacing(Rai (Rai 1990)
1990).. Secondary
species recommended
recarrrended include Albiziaspp.
include Albizia spp., A .nilotica)
(particularly A.nilotica)
, Acacias (particularly
and other legumes such as Bauhinia biloba, Dalbergia
Eauhinia biloto, Caltergia sissoo sissoo also Terminalia
Terminalia
spp. in
in India
India (Neil
(Neil 1990)
1990); ; Casuarina equisetifolia,
equisetifolia, Pongamia
Itngamia pinnata,
pinnata, M2lia
Media
azedarach, Wrightia
azedarach, Wrightia tinctoria
tinctoria and Cassia siamea
and Cassia siamea(Rai (Rai 1990) but Cassia
1990),, but Cassia fistula
Acaciaauriculiformis
and Acacia auriculiformis are are considered
considered indifferent
indifferent hosts hosts (Ananthia
(Ananthia et et al
al
1988); Albizia falcataria,
1988); A1bizia falcataria, A. lebbek, Acacia spirorbis,
A.lebbek, spirorbis, Dalbergia spp.,
Ealtergia spp.,
Casuarina spp. RToya senegalensis are recarrrended
spp. and Khaya recommended in in New Caledonia,
Caledonia, but
Pinus
PiDUS caribaea
oariboea and
and Araucaria
Araucaria spp.
spp. gave poor results
results (cze2
(CI'FT 1991); Acacia
1991 ) ; Aracia
acuminata
acuminata and and A.aneura
A.aneura give results in
give good results in Western
Western Australia
Australia (MtKinnell
(McKinnell
1990) . .
 148

1. Coppice
1. Coppice regrCMth
regrowth of pure Eucalyptus
of pure Eucalyptus globulus on
on sturrps
stumps planted
planted in
in
1863.
1863. No
No undergr<Mth
undergrowth despite open stand.
stand. Tamil Nadu,
Nadu, India.
India. CSIRO

2.
2. Acacia mearnsii (wattle) in Kenya.
mearnsii (wattle) Industrial plantation
Kenya. Industrial plantation for tannin,
for tannin,
charcoal,
charcoal, poles and fuelwoocl.. Cl ose spacing,
fuelwood. Close spacing, little
little undergrowth.
undergr<Mth. CSIRO
CSIRO
 149

3. Mixture of Tarrieta
utilis and Khaya sp.
(25 years) at Yapo,
cote d' Ivoire . Cl'FT

4. Pure Terminalia superm

(8 years). Although fairly
closely grown, the under-
gro.-lth has developed. Tene,
cote d' Ivoire . Cl'FT
 150

5 . Pure Maesopsis eminii

(19 years) . A vigorous
understorey has developed
beneath this lightly-
crcMrled and open grown
stand . Anguededou,
c6te d'Ivoire . Cl'Fr

6. Pure Pinus caribaea (22 years) .

Regular thinning has allowed the
development of a dense undergrowth .
Yapo, c6te d' Ivoire . Cl'Fr
 151

A young mixture of teak and Terminalia

7. A
7. Tenninalia superta (3 years).
superb3. (3 years).
cote d'Ivoire.
Tene, Cate d' Ivoire . czez
CI'FT

8.
8. Pure teak (c.
(c. 12 years),
years), Navagotha, Sri
Sri Lanka. No undergrowth;
Lanka. No undergrCMth;
the fallen
the fallen leaves
leaves are
are fuel
fuel for
for fires
fires in weather.
dry weather.
in dry F.
F. Ng
 152

9.
9. Mixture
Mixture of Teak,
SWietenia
SWietenia macrophy lla and
macrqphylla and
Artocarpus heterqphyllus
Artccarpus heterophyllus
(c. 80 years).
(c.
Sundapola,
Sundapola, Sri Lanka. F.
Sri Lanka. F. Ng
Ng

10 . Mahogany regeneration,
10. regeneration, which
which will tend to daninate
dominate the species
species
canposition of this mixed plantation.
composition Sundapola, Sri Lanka.
plantation. Sundapola, Lanka. F.Ng