Fao - NWFP 7

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
NO\ -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Non-wood
forest products
for rural income
income
and sustainable
forestry
Food
Food
and
and
Agriculture
Agriculture
Organization
Organization
of
of
the
the
United
United
Nations
Nations
NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
0\-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
7
Non-wood
forest products
for rural income
income
and sustainable
forestry
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
UN ITED NATIONS
NAT IONS
Rome, 1995
1995
Reprinted 1999
1999
The designations employed and

designations employed and the presentation
presentation of
of material
material in
in this
this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
whatsoever
on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of of the
the United
United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
territory, city or
area or of
area of its
its authorities,
authorities, or
or concerning
concerning the
the delimitation
delimitation of its its
frontiers or boundaries.
M-30
ISBN 92-5-103765-5
ISBN
All rights reserved.

All reserved. No part of this publication
publication may be reproduced,
reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or
retrieval system, or transmitted
transmitted in in any
any form
form or by by any
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copyright owner. Applications
Applications forfor such
such permission, with a statement
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the
purpose and extent of the the reproduction,
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should bebe addressed
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the Director,
Director,
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Division , Food and Agriculture Organization
Organization of the United Nations,
Viale delle Terme didi Caracalla,
Caracalla, 00100
00100 Rome,
Rome, Italy.
Italy.
© FAO
© FAO 1995
1995
FOREWORD
An important
An important recommendation
recommendation of the the International
International Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation on Non-wood
Non-wood Forest
Forest
Products held
Products held in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, from
Yogyakarta, Indonesia, from 17
17 to
to 27
27 January
January 1995,
1995, was
was that FAO
FAO should
should
develop and provide
provide comprehensive
comprehensive guidelines
guidelines for
for sustainable
sustainable management
management and utilisation of these
utilisation of these
products. Preparation
Preparationofofsuch
suchguidelines
guidelinesisisaamajor
majorand
andmultidisciplinary
multidisciplinary task
task which
which needs
needs to
to be
be
approached in phases.
phases . ItItinvolves
involvesevaluation
evaluation ofofexisting
existing knowledge
knowledge and practices, assessment for
their strengths
their strengths and
and weaknesses, analysis of
weaknesses, analysis of linkages
linkages ofof different aspects and
different aspects and influence
influence of of
technological and
technological and institutional factors, development
institutional factors, development and and testing
testing of guidelines
guidelines for
for component
component
aspects, and
and consolidating
consolidating of of them
them into
into a compatible set of practical guidelines covering the whole
field of NWFPs.
field NWFPs. This
Thiswould
would need
need time.
time.
Development activities on NWFPs cannot

on NWFPs cannot afford
afford to
to be
be delayed
delayed till
till the
the whole
whole process
process isis completed.
completed.
In fact, itit isis possible
possible to
to compare
compare the the merits
merits and
and demerits
demerits of of selected
selected cases
cases and
and toto develop
develop general
general
principles and approaches
approaches forfor the
the sustainable
management and utilization of NWFPs, and and to
to make
make
them
them available
available for reference
reference and and use.
use. The present
present publication:
publication: Promoting
Promoting Non-wood
Non-wood Forest
Products for Rural
Products Rural Income
Income andand Sustainable
Sustainable Forestry aims aims to do that.
that. It is basically
basically targeted at
planners, practitioners
practitioners andand extension
extension agents and its effects are expected
effects are expected to to be
be filtered
filtered down
down toto the
the
benefit of local local communities.
communities. It is also expected
expected that this would
would encourage similarsimilar publications
in local languages.
languages.
On
On our
our part,
part, it is our
it is our intention
intention to
to follow
follow this
this publication
publication on
on principles
principles and
and approaches
approaches with
with
eventually to prepare consolidated
detailed guidelines on specific aspects, and eventually consolidated and
and comprehensive
comprehensive
guidelines for
guidelines for planning
planning and
and developing
developing NWFPs.
NWFPs. Work
Work is is already
already under
under way
way onon guidelines
guidelines for
management of non-wood forest resources and marketing of non-wood products.products.
Material for
Material for this publication was assembled
publication was assembledand andan
aninitial
initialdraft
draftprepared
preparedbybyDavid
DavidTaylor.
Taylor. A
number
number of experts
experts working
working in thethe field
field of
of NWFPs,
NWFPs, both
both within
within and
and outside
outside FAO,
FAO, provided
provided
valuable inputs. The final
valuable inputs. final version
version benefitted
benefitted from the
the detailed
detailed comments
comments provided
provided byby Blaak,
Blaak,
Braatz, Chipeta, Hoskins,
Braatz, Hoskins, Lintu,
Lintu, Souvannavong
Souvannavong and and Vantomme.
Vantomme. The editing and organising
organising of
illustrations were done
illustrations were done by Laura
Laura Russo. Elisa Rubini
Russo . Elisa did the formatting
Rubini did formatting and proofing.
proofmg. All
activities
activities leading to this publication were guided and coordinated by Cherukat Chandrasekharan,
Chief,
Chief, Non-Wood
Non-Wood Products
Products and
and Energy
Energy Branch.
Branch. MyMy thanks
thanks are
are due
due to
to all
all of
of them.
them.
It is
is my
my pleasure
pleasure and
and privilege
privilege totorelease
release this
this publicatio 7withthe
publicatioiWith the hope
hope that
that itit will
will be found
found
useful by readers.
useful readers .
Karl-Hermann Schmincke
Director
Forest Products
Products Division
Division
iii
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword iii
III
List of tables,
List tables, figures, text
text boxes
boxes vii
Acronyms viii
Summary ix
1. Introduction 1
1
Why are non-wood
non-wood products
products important?
important? 1
1
Who uses non-wood
non-wood forest products?
products? 2
AA basis for sustainable
sustainable forest management
management 2
AA range of options
options 4
2. Resource Assessment and Development 7
Determining tenure
Determining tenure and access 77
The resource inventory
inventory 8
Other factors in in resource
resource assessment
assessment 10
10
Species selection
selection 11
11
Sustainable harvest levels levels 12
12
Scope for domestication
domestication of of species
species 14
14
Summary 16
Assessing Local
3. Assessing Local Use Use of the Resource 19
Why assess locallocal use?
use? 19
Local importance of non-wood
Local non-wood forest
forest products
products 19
How to study
study local
local resource use 22
Identifying target and indicator
indicator groups
groups 23
Subsector analysis for marketed marketed products
products 24
Learning about
about local
local forest
forest management
management 25
Summary 26
4. Opportunities for Improved
Improved Management
Management 29
Improving resource
resource productivity
productivity 29
Improving harvesting methods methods 30
Post-harvesting technologies 32
Multiple-use management
management for wood wood and
and non-wood
non-wood harvests
harvests 32
32
Strategies for domestication
domestication 32
Innovative options in the the use
use ofofmedicinal
medicinal plants
plants 35
Ecotourism 37
Local wildlife management
management 38
Farmer-led initiatives
initiatives 38
Summary 39
5. Exploring Commercial
Commercial Options Options 43
Characteristics of of successful
successful small
small enterprises
enterprises 43
Elements of a successful
successful enterprise
enterprise strategy
strategy 43
43
Problems commonly
commonly faced faced byby small
small enterprises
enterprises 45
45
Planning NWFP enterprises
enterprises 47
47
Managing risk 48
48
Building entrepreneurial and and management
management skills
skills 50
Credit support
support for for small
small enterprises
enterprises 53
Overview of of processing
processing options
options 53
Summary 53
v
V
Page
6. Processing ventures 57
Simple-technology processing:
Simple-technology processing: foods and handicrafts 57
Intermediate processing:
Intermediate processing: medicines,
medicines, vegetable oils, food
vegetable oils, food colorants,
colorants, tannins
tannins and
and gum
naval
naval stores
stores 58
Complex processing: essential
essential oils, waxes,
waxes, other
other products
products 60
Steps in processing 62
Quality standards
standards 64
New product development
development and research support 64
Summary 65
7. Markets, Marketing and Trade 67
Markets 67
Key factors in in marketing
marketing non-wood
non-wood products
products 69
Market information systems 73
The trade environment
The 74
Summary 81
81
Organizing Producer Groups
8. Organizing 85
Factors in successful
successful organization 85
Some tools for organizing
Some organizing 86
Organizing producers for marketing and processing
Organizing 87
Organizing for conflict
conflict management
management 88
Summary 91
9. Research and Extension
Extension 93
Involving producers in in problem-solving
problem-solving research 93
National research efforts
National 93
National extension services 96
Consortiums for research
research and
and training
training 97
97
Scope for regional
regional and
and international
international research
research 98
Some priority research
research areas
areas 99
Gender-sensitive research and and extension
extension 101
Summary 101
10 Institutional and Policy Support
10. 105
Public education 105
Patterns of economic
economic change
change and
and implications
implications for policy
policy 105
Better accounting
Better national accounting 108
Intellectual
Intellectual property rights 110
Direct support
support from
from national-level
national-level institutions
institutions 111
Support for NGOs
NGOs 113
Regional and international
Regional international support 113
Summary 115
Appendix 1. Contacts for further

Appendix further information
information 119
119
vi
Page
Tables
2.1 Overall potential of non-wood forest resources for sustainable management, based on
species characteristics
species 12
12
3.1 Highest valued
Highest valued forest benefits in eight villages
villages in South Ghana
Ghana 20
3.2 Contributions of forest foods
foods to
to human
human nutrition
nutrition 21
44.1
.1 Potential benefits
Potential benefits to producers of of improved
improved harvest
harvest activities
activities 30
4.2 Trends in number
Trends number of of seedlings
seedlings planted
planted for
for six
six species
species in
in tree-planting
tree-planting campaigns
campaigns in
Gorela
Gore1a 34
5.1 Problems inin rattan
rattan production
production in in East
East Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, with
with possible
possible improvements
improvements 47
5.2 Comparison of risks and benefits
benefits of three levels of NWFP trade 49
6.1 Essential
Essential oils
oils obtained
obtained from
from wild
wild andand cultivated
cultivated forest
forest species,
species, in
in main
main producing
producing
countries 61
61
7.1
7.1 Methods for evaluating
evaluating markets, by type of product 68
7.2 Farmers' access
access to to markets
markets inin two
two locations
locations of
of Peninsular
Peninsular Malaysia in 19901990 70
7.3 Amazonian forest
Amazonian forest species
species with
with market
market potential
potential in
in agroforestry
agroforestry andand sustainable NWFP
sustainable NWFP
management systems
systems 76
7.4 NWFPs most prominent in world
NWFPs world trade,
trade, with
with three
three main
main markets
markets 77
77.5
.5 Directions of international trade for major major NWFPs
NWFPs 78
9.1
9.1 Suggestions for enhancing forestry educationeducation and training in in NWFPs
NWFPs 97
Figures
5.1 small-scale NWFP producers

Diagram illustrating how small-scale producers can
can increase
increase their
their incomes
incomes 44
5.2 Exports of Sudanese
Exports Sudanese gum arabic, Thai
Thai lac
lac exports
exports and
and Indonesian
Indonesian rattan for thethe period
period
1981-1988 50
6.1 UNIDO polyvalent pilot plant
plant for
for processing
processing medicinal
medicinal and
and aromatic
aromatic plants
plants and
and spices
spices 63
Text boxes
boxes
2 .1 Species domestication and inequity

2.1 inequity 15
Beekeeping in Zambia
3.1 Beekeeping 22
3.2 Women's involvement
involvement in in processing
processing in in Brazil
Brazil 23
3.3 Adapting assessment methods:
methods: the example
example of of mangroves
mangroves 25
4.1 Integrated forest management
management in in Mexico
Mexico 33
33
4.2
4 .2 Joint forest management
management in India 34
4.3
4 .3 Biological resources in in Costa
Costa Rican
Rican forests
forests 36
4.4 The Terra
Terra Nova
Nova ethnobiomedical
ethnobiomedical reserve
reserve in in Belize
Belize 37
5.1 Matching technology and markets
5.1 markets examples
examples in in Brazil
Brazil and
and Kenya
Kenya 52
6.1 Processing forest fruits for urbanurban markets
markets 58
6.2 The package is is the
the product:
product: leaves
leaves and
and cane
cane baskets
baskets in
in West
West Africa
Africa 59
7.1 Women in the the marketplace
marketplace in in Ghana
Ghana 69
7.2 Matching markets and and processing
processing technology
technology 72
7.3 Some lessons in green
green marketing
marketing 75
8.1 Tree-growing cooperatives
cooperatives in India 88
9.1 Local research
9.1 research capacity
capacity in in Canada
Canada 94
9.2 In-service training forfor foresters
foresters in
in Indonesia
Indonesia 99
10.1 IPR, national
10.1 national policy
policy and
and INBio's
INBio's prospecting
prospecting research
research 111
111
10.2 Support
Supportfor
forlocal
localwildlife
wildlifemanagement
management in inZimbabwe
Zimbabwe 114
114
vii
ACRONYMS
ATI
AT! Appropriate Technology International
CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management
Communal Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
CATIE Centro Agronómico
Agron6mico de Investigación
Investigaci6n y Enseñanza
Ensefianza Tropical
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
Consultative
CIFOR Centre for International
International Forestry Research
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
International Trade Species of Wild Fauna and
and
Flora
CONACNIE Coordination of Indian Nationalities
Nationalities in Ecuador
CPC Provisional Central Product
Product Classification
Classification
FAO Food and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization of of the
the United
United Nations
Nations
F/FRED Forestry/Fuelwood Research
Research andand Development
Development
GATT General Agreement
General Agreement on on Trade
Trade and
and Tariff
GEF Global Environmental Facility
Facility
HS Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding Coding System
System
ICRAF International Centre for Agroforestry
International Agroforestry Research
Research
IDRC International Development Research
International Development Research Centre
Centre of Canada
IFPRI International Food Policy
Policy Research
Research Institute
Institute
IITA
UTA International Institute for Tropical
Tropical Agriculture
Agriculture
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
Intellectual Rights
ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of all all Economic
Economic Activities
Activities
ISO International Standards Organization
Organization
IUCN World Conservation UnionUnion
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NWFPs Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest Products
Products
SITC Standard International Trade Classification
Classification
TRAFFIC Trade Record Analysis
Analysis of Flora andand Fauna
Fauna in in Commerce,
Commerce, aa monitoring
monitoring body
body
of IUCN
TRIFED Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India
TRIPs Agreement on Trade-Related
Trade-Related Intellectual
Intellectual Property
Property Rights
Rights
UNAC Upland NGO Assistance
Assistance Committee
Committee (Philippines)
(Philippines)
UNCED United Nations Conference on on Environment
Environment and and Development
Development
UNDP United Nations
Nations Development
Development Programme
Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment
Environment Programme
Programme
UNIDO United Nations
Nations Industrial
Industrial Development
Development Organization
Organization
USAID
US AID United States Agency
Agency forfor International
International Development
Development
WHO World Health
Health Organization
Organization
WRI World Resources
Resources Institute
Institute
WTO World Trade Organization
Organization
WWF World Wide Fund for for Nature
Nature
viii
SUMMARY
SUMIVIARY
This volume outlines the approaches

approaches for assessing
assessing the potential of NWFP activities in a particular
area. It is mainly addressed to policy-makers,
policy-makers, researchers, local extension workers, NGOs and
extension workers,
others professionals
professionals to identify
identify and pursue possibilities for better
possibilities for better management
managementof of NWFPs.
NWFPs. It is
hoped that through better
better assistance
assistance and
and support,
support, community-level
community-level producers and processors will will
be able to realize the
the sustainable
sustainable potential
potential of
of NWFP
NWFP activities.
activities. An
An outline
outline of
of the
the kind
kind of
of technical,
technical,
institutional and policy
institutional and policy support required to promote
promote NWFP
NWFP activities,
activities, is also provided.
Chapters 22 and
Chapters and 33 describe
describe methods
methods of of assessing
assessing the
the forest
forest resource
resource as
as a source
source ofof non-wood
non-wood
products, and
products, and itsits relationship
relationship toto local
local communities.
communities. ThisThis assessment
assessment of of the
the resource,
resource, its
sustainable yield and current demands
sustainable yield demands on it form the the most
most basic
basic steps in determining
determining what level
of forest use
use is
is sustainable
sustainable in
in the
the long
long term.
term. Yet
Yetthis
this crucial
crucial information
information isis often
often overlooked.
overlooked.
Chapter 4 outlines
outlines opportunities
opportunities for
for improved
improved and
and integrated
integrated forest
forest management
management incorporating
incorporating
NWFPs, and
NWFPs, and discusses
discusses recent
recent trends
trends in
in wildlife
wildlife management,
management, research
research for
for medicines,
medicines , and
and
ecotourism.
Chapters 5-7
Chapters 5-7 focus
focus on on enhancing
enhancing local
local livelihood
livelihood through local enterprises
through local enterprises based
based on
on forest
forest
resources. In many
many cases,
cases, capturing
capturing an
an appropriate share of a product's added added value closer to the
source represents a way
way toto ensure
ensure that
that the
the resource
resource is
is valued
valued properly
properly in
in management
management decisions,
and to distribute its
and its added
added value
value more
more equitably
equitably through the market chain.
chain. Chapter 55 describes
describes
how to identify
identify promising
promising commercial
commercial opportunities,
opportunities, how to to assess
assess alternatives
alternatives and
and what
what skills
skills
are needed for ensuring success
success of
of the
the ventures.
ventures. Chapter
Chapter 66 goes
goes into
into more
more detail
detail on
on specific
specific types
types
of NWFP
NWFP processing
processing enterprises.
enterprises. Chapter
Chapter 7 outlines
outlines the
the crucial
crucial but often
often neglected
neglected areas
areas ofof
marketing and trade.
marketing
Chapter 8 addresses the

the issue of organizing local groups for harvesting,
harvesting, processing and marketing.
Collective/participatory organization
Collective/participatory organization is
is an
an important factor in the
the success
success of
of local
local enterprises,
enterprises, both
both
economically and environmentally.
economically
Chapters 9 and
Chapters and 10,
10, finally,
finally, describe
describe the
thetechnical
technical and
and institutional
institutional requirements
requirements for improved
improved
management of NWFPs.
management
The principles and approaches

approaches described here represent
described here an early
represent an early step
step on thethe path
path toward
toward better
better
understanding the
understanding the role
role and
and use
use of NWFPs.
NWFPs. ManyMany gaps
gaps remain
remain in our knowledge
knowledge -- on harvesting
technologies,
technologies, assessment resources and
assessment of resources and harvest
harvest levels,
levels, as
as well
well as on thethe nature
nature of
of non-wood
non-wood
forest resources themselves
themselves - that thatmust
mustbe
beaddressed
addressed in
infurther
further research
researchinvolving
involving communities.
communities.
For example, techniques
techniques forfor assessing
assessing forest
forest herbs
herbs and
and vines
vines lag
lag behind
behind those
those for
for assessing
assessing tree-
tree-
based products; that
that gap
gap isis unavoidably
unavoidably reflected
reflected here.
here. Likewise,
Likewise, sub-fields
sub-fields for
for which
which few
few sound
sound
guidelines exist,
guidelines exist, such
such as
as ecotourism, are suggested
ecotourism, are here for
suggested here for further
further study.
study. The
The sections "For
sections "For
further reading" after
after each
each chapter
chapter provide
provide sources of more information.
information.
Appendix 1 lists contact addresses to promote networking

Appendix among those
networking among those working
working in
in the
the broad
broad and
and
varied field of NWFPs.
varied NWFPs.
Correcting the
Correcting the neglect
neglect of this
this sector
sector and
and integrating
integrating non-wood
non-wood forest
forest resources
resources into
into overall
overall
development requires involvement
development requires involvement by by people
people from
from aa wide
wide range
range of backgrounds. This volume
backgrounds. This volume
attempts
attempts to provide aa common
common basis
basis for
for this
this collaborative
collaborative action.
action.
ix
As for Uncle
As Uncle Sanya,
Sanya, ... he was
was off into the woods
woods on oneone pretext
pretext or the other ... Mushrooms
and snails were the
and the real
real goals,
goals, with
with the
the gathering
gathering of
offirewood
firewood used
used as
as the
the dutiful
dutiful excuse.
excuse.
- Wolé
Wole Soyinka
Soyinka (Nigeria),
(Nigeria), Aké:
Ake: the
the years
years of
ofchildhood
childhood
A large, red-leafed
red-leafed tree in aa field
field caught
caught Maan's attention.
attention. "What's that tree?"
tree?" he
he asked
asked
"It looks
... "It looks aa bit like
like a mango
mango with with its
its red
red leaves,
leaves, but
but itit isn't a mango."
mahuall ," said
"That's aa mahuall," said the
the farmer ... He He looked
looked amused,
amused, asas if he'd had to explain what
a cat was.
was.
"Very handsome tree," said said Maan.
Maan.
"Oh yes. Useful too," said the farmer...
Useful too," farmer. ..
"The flowers ... are
are very
very light and fragrant ... Ferment them, them, and
and they'll give you a liquor
... Cook them, and they'll act act as
as aa vegetable.
vegetable. Boil
Boilthem
them with
with milk,
milk, and
and they'll
they'll make
make the
the milk
milk red
and the
and the person who drinks it strong.
who drinks strong. MixMix them
them with
with the
the flour
flour you
you use
use toto make
make your rotis
rotis with
with
in winter,
winter, and you
you won't
won't feel
feel the
the cold Feed them
cold ... Feed them toto your
your cattle,"
cattle," added the farmer.
added the farmer. "It'll
"It'll
double their energy." ...
double
"What a wonderful
"What wonderful tree!"
tree!" said
said Maan,
Maan, delighted
delighted ... ... The
The countryside, which so
countryside, which so far had
had
looked entirely monotonous
monotonous to to him,
him, became
became interesting.
interesting.
- Vickram
Vickram Seth
Seth (India),
(India), AA Suitable
Suitable Boy
Boy
11 indica.
Madhuca indica.
x
Introduction 1
1
In recent
recent years
years forests
forests have
have been
beenincreasingly
increasingly recognized
recognized as rich
rich reservoirs
reservoirs of
ofmany
many valuable
valuable
biological
biological resources, not
not just
just timber.
timber . The
The term
term non-wood forest product
non-wood forest product (NWFP)
(NWFP) emerged
emerged as
as an
umbrella term toto recognize
recognize the
the products
products derived
derived from these various forest resources as a group.
group.
originates from
This volume originates from an
an International
International Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation on Non-wood Forest Products,
Products ,
co-sponsored byby the
the FAO
FAO Forestry
ForestryDepartment
Department andand the
the Indonesian
Indonesian government
government in
in January
January 1995.
1995.
It represents a first
first step
step taken
taken by
by FAO
FAO toto respond
respond toto that
that meeting's
meeting' s recommendation
recommendation that FAO
FAO
prepare guidelines
guidelines for
for planners
planners and
and entrepreneurs
entrepreneurs toto use
use inin developing
developing NWFPs activities.
activities.
The definition of
of non-wood forest
forest products used here is the one which was
was adopted
adopted at
at that
that meeting
meeting
in Indonesia (FAO, 1995):
1995):
NWFPs consist ofof goods

goods ofof biological
biological origin other than wood, as well
well as services
services derived
derived
from forests and
and allied
allied land
land uses.
uses.
This definition is intended

This intended to encourage better
better accounting of NWFPs
accounting of NWFPs,, of both plant and animal
origin, as
as aagroup
groupandandtheir
theircontribution
contributiontotothe
thenational
nationaleconomic
economicindexes
indexes which
which policy-makers
policy-makers
use to decide
use decide development
development priorities
priorities and
and policy.
policy. As such,
such, itit admittedly
admittedly does
does not
not cover
cover many
many
important cultural andand environmental
environmental forest functions.
functions. The
The definition
definition will nono doubt
doubt continue
continue to
to
be refined as the
the field
field evolves.
evolves.
Why are
are non-wood forest
forest products
products important?
important?
For most
most of
of recorded
recorded history,
history, people
people have
have valued
valued forests not for
forests not for wood,
wood, but for other
other products.
products .
Ancient writings from China, Egypt
Egypt and
and India record a wide variety of uses for forest plants, and
compilations of
compilations of botanical knowledge from
botanical knowledge from Western
Western Asia
Asia were
were prized
prized by
by the
the ancient
ancient Greeks
Greeks
(Wickens,
(Wickens, 1990).
1990). Whereas
Whereas wood
wood products
products have
have become
become major
major international
international commodities
commodities in
modern times,
modern times, NWFPs
NWFPs rank rank among
among the
the oldest
oldesttraded
tradedcommodities
commodities (Iqbal, 1993). Ancient
(Iqbal, 1993). Ancient
Egyptians
Egyptians imported
imported gum arabic fromfrom Sudan
Sudan for
for use
use ininpaints
paints and
andthe
themummification
mummification process.
process.
International trade in
in sandalwood
sandalwood oil dates
dates back
back to
to the
the twelfth
twelfth century
century A.D.
A.D.
the experience
Through the experience of
of forest
forest communities,
communities, forestry
forestry professionals
professionals have
have recently
recently rediscovered
rediscovered
the
the great importance
importance of NWFPs
NWFPs (ranging
(ranging from
from food,
food, fruits
fruits and fibres,
fibres , dye
dye stuffs,
stuffs, flavours
flavours and
and
medicines)
medicines) for meeting people's needs.
needs. In
In recent
recent years,
years, aa growing
growing body
body ofof scientific
scientific research
research has
has
suggested that, given
given certain
certain basic
basic conditions,
conditions, NWFPs
NWFPs can can help
help communities
communities to to meet
meet their
their needs
needs
without destroying the forest
forest resource.
resource.
The most commonly cited instances

instances come from Latin America, where where the
the term
term extractive
extractive reserves
reserves
describes a system
system where
where forest
forest isis set
setaside
aside for
for low-impact
low-impact use
use by
by traditional
traditional communities
communities in in the
the
area. No
No single
single model
model can
can suit
suit all
all conditions,
conditions, however.
however.
Why have
have modern
modern science
science and
and governments
governments overlooked
overlooked the
the importance
importance of of this
this non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
wealth
wealth for so long?
long? The
The answer
answer is
is threefold.
threefold. First,
First, most
most of
of these
these products
products are used mainly
mainly for
rural subsistence or local
local markets.
markets. They
They often
often go
go unrecorded
unrecorded in in official
official statistics, which focus on
nationally traded
traded goods
goods (Chandrasekharan,
(Chandrasekharan, 1994). Second, Second, because
because modern
modern government
government
administration has
administration has divided these products among forestry, agriculture and horticulture, statistics
among forestry, statistics
do not recognize
recognize even
even nationally
nationally and
and internationally
internationally important
important non-wood
non-wood forest
forest commodities
commodities as as
originating from the forest. The
The divisions
divisions between, and the lack of clear clear definition
definition of,
of, agriculture
1. Introduction 11
and forestry
and forestry have
have created
created a large
large blind
blind spot
spot in
in the
the way
way wewe reckon
reckon our
our dependence
dependence on forests.
forests.
Finally, modern
Finally, modern forestry
forestry has favoured
favoured timber
timber and
and large-scale
large-scale enterprises, and has
enterprises, and has generally
generally
regarded non-wood products as incidental. However, studies studies show that forests
forests produce many more more
types of products than wood products particularly
particularly inin some
some tropical
tropicalforests.
forests. (Toledo
(Toledo etet al.,
al., 1992).
Small-scale forest-based enterprises in Zimbabwe, which mostly
Small-scale mostly are based on NWFPs, employed
employed
237,000
237,000 people
people in 1991,
1991, compared
compared to to 16,000
16,000 employed
employed in in conventional forestry and
conventional forestry and forest
forest
industries for
industries for the
the same year (Arnold
same year al., 1994).
(Arnold et aI., 1994).
Who uses non-wood forest products?

products?
For most of
of the world's
world's rural
ruralhouseholds,
households, NWFPs
NWFPs provide
provide essential
essential food and nutrition, medicine,
fodder, fuel,
fuel, thatch
thatch and
and construction
construction materials,
materials, mulch
mulch and
and non-farm
non-farm income.
income. These
These products areare
particularly important
important inin relieving
relieving the
the "hunger
"hunger periods"
periods" in
in the
the agricultural cycle, and
and in
in smoothing
smoothing
out other seasonal
seasonal fluctuations.
fluctuations. Dealing
Dealing in
in NWFPs
NWFPs cancanprovide
provide employment
employment during
during slack
slack periods
periods
of the agricultural
agricultural cycle,
cycle, and
and provide
provideaabuffer
bufferagainst
againstrisk
riskandandhousehold
householdemergencies.
emergencies.
Poor households, in
in particular,
particular, depend
dependon onthese
these products
products for
for their
their livelihood
livelihood because
because they
they usually
have more access to
have to the
the forest
forest than
than to
to other
other resources.
resources.
For the same

For same reason
reason -- greater
greaterdependence
dependence onon open-access
open-access forests,
forests, for
for lack
lack of
ofother options --
other options
women usually
women usually rely more thanthan men
men on
on NWFPs
NWFPs for for household
household use andand income.
income. InIn many
many places,
places,
women are responsible
responsible for
for the
the household
household activities
activities that
that involve
involve forest-based
forest-based foods
foods and
and medicine,
medicine,
as well as fuelwood. In this
this respect NWFPs are are particularly
particularly important
important to women, addressing their
needs
needs for food
food security
security and
and nutrition.
nutrition.
In local,
local, urban,
urban, national
national and
andinternational
international markets,
markets, forest
forest foods
foods and
and medicines
medicines contribute
contribute
substantially
substantially to national
national economic
economic growth.
growth.
NWFPs are therefore

therefore important
important to
to three
three main
main groups:
groups:
• rural populations
rural populations (the
(the largest
largestgroup)
group) who
who have
have traditionally
traditionally used
used these
these items
items for livelihood
livelihood
and social and cultural purposes;
purposes;
• urban consumers
consumers (a smaller
smaller group,
group, but
but growing
growing faster),
faster), who
who purchase
purchase these
these items;
items;
• traders, and
and product
product processors,
processors, whose
whose numbers
numbers in the NWFP
NWFP sector
sector increase
increase as urban
urban
markets for these
these products
products grow.
grow.
A basis for sustainable

sustainable forest
forest management
management
NWFPs, by
NWFPs, by complementing
complementing wood-based management, offer
wood-based management, offer aa basis
basis for managing
managing forests
forests inin aa
more sustainable way. In In fragile
fragile ecosystems,
ecosystems, NWFP
NWFP activities
activities hold
hold prospects for for integrated
integrated forms
forms
of development that yield higher rural
development that rural incomes
incomes and
and conserve
conserve biodiversity
biodiversity whilewhile not competing
competing
with agriculture
agriculture (Sharma,
(Sharma, 1995).
1995).AnAnimportant
importantconcept
conceptin
in realizing
realizing these
these prospects
prospects isis adding
adding value
value
locally, usually through some
locally, some form of rural processing,
processing, to
to ensure
ensure that
that aa fair
fair portion
portion ofof aa product's
product's
market value accrues to to the
the people
people who
who manage
manage the
the forest
forest resource.
resource.
Agenda
Agenda 21, approved
approved by
by the
the UN
UNConference
Conferenceon onEnvironment
Environment and
and Development
Development (1992)
(1992) which
which
provides aa global
provides global plan for
for action,
action, has
has recognized
recognized thethe role
role of
of NWFPs
NWFPs in in sustainable
sustainable forest
forest
management. UNCED highlighted
management. highlighted the importance,
importance, already recognized by many
many governments, of of
informed participation by
by local
local communities
communities inin all
all aspects
aspects of
offorest
forest management
management andand planning.
planning.
2
11.. Resin
Resin tapped
tapped from Chir
Chir Pine
Pine in
in Northern
Northern Pakistan
Pakistan 2. Bamboos are
Bamboos are used
used worldwide
worldwide for construction,
construction,
has many uses in various industries.
industries . (Photo:
(Photo: M.
M . Kashio)
Kashio) furniture, handicrafts,
furniture, handicrafts, food
food (young
(young shoots),
shoots), erosion
erosion
control, and
control, and many other
other purposes.
purposes. (Photo:
(Photo: M.
M. Kashio)
Kashio)
3.
3. Babassu kernel oil in
in Brazil
Brazil is
is aa major
major subsistence
subsistence 4. Bactris
Bactris gasipaes in Brazil
gasipaes in Brazil isis widely
widely used
used for the
the
product in rural
product in rural Amazonia and has
Amazonia and has also
also aa critical production
production of palm
palm heart,
heart, fruits,
fruits, beverage.
beverage .
industrial and
and commercial
commercial value.
value . (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak) (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)
11.. Introduction
Introduction 3
Local participation
Local participation is important for sustainable management of
sustainable management of NWFPs
NWFPs for for several
several reasons:
reasons: (1)
to recognize the full extent of
of local
local demands on the forest resource; (2) (2) to
to fully
fully consider
consider the
the local
local
knowledge of the resource
knowledge resource that
that has
has developed
developed over
over time;
time; (3)
(3) to
to engage
engage nearby
nearby communities
communities as as
stakeholders in managing
stakeholders managing thethe resource,
resource, ensuring
ensuring their
their commitment
commitment to to long-term
long-termmanagement
management
goals; (4) to engage the
the energies
energies ofoflocal
local people
people in
in their
their own
own economic change, which which can
can include
include
decisions
decisions on social
social and
and cultural
cultural priorities that outsiders do not realize.
Involving communities managing local

communities in managing local resources
resources isis therefore
therefore not
not simply
simply anan equity
equity issue;
issue; itit is
an issue
an issue of wise
wise resource
resource use. Failure
Failure to
to do
do so
so has
has broad
broad consequences. Witness the
consequences. Witness the case
case of of
Australia, which although
Australia, although home to more
more than
than 20,000
20,000 species
species ofof native
native flora,
flora, until
until quite
quite recently
recently
produced
produced no no new
new food
food crop
cropexcept
exceptmacadamia
macadamia nutsnuts (Macadamia
(Macadamia species),
species), which
which were
were
domesticated elsewhere. This singular
domesticated elsewhere. singular failure
failure is
is probably
probably because
because European
European settlers
settlers refused
refused to to
accept that the indigenous
accept indigenous people knew
knew any plants cultivating (Wickens,
plants worth cultivating (Wickens, 1990).
1990). For more
more
in-depth information on community
in-depth community participation, seesee FAO
FAO (1990).
(1990).
A range
range of options
options
This publication
This aims to
publication aims to provide
provide some
some principles and to outline
principles and outline approaches for action
approaches for action by
producers of
producers of NWFPs
NWFPs andand by
by the
the agencies
agencies that
that support
support them
them -- government
government agencies,
agencies, non-
non-
governmental organizations
governmental organizations (NGOs)
(NG0s) andand research
research organizations.
organizations.
is important
It is to recognize
important to that it is
recognize that is not
not aachoice
choice of
ofeither
either timber
timber or
ornon-wood
non-wood products.
products.
Traditional management
management systems of forest
systems of forest peoples
peoples and
and modern
modern scientific
scientific experience with
with multiple-
multiple-
suggest that,
use management suggest that, with
with careful
careful planning
planning and monitoring, forests can yield both timber
and non-wood harvests on aa sustainable
sustainable basis.
This publication
This builds on
publication builds on the
the premise
premise that
that forests
forests offer a variety
variety of
of production
production activities
activities for
improving local
improving local incomes
incomes that
that do not
not jeopardize
jeopardize thethe forest
forest ecosystem.
ecosystem. Forest
Forest management
management for
NWFPs
NWFPs can provide a continuing
continuing source of livelihood
livelihood and help to to maintain
maintain the forest resource
resource
for future generations.
for generations. TheThe focus
focus here
here isis on
onactivities
activities that
that produce
produce items
items for
for subsistence
subsistence and
and
market use.
use . It
It also
also considers
considers several
several activities,
activities, such
such as
as ecotourism (environmentally and culturally
sound tourism based on
sound on local
local scenic
scenic attractions)
attractions) and
and environmental
environmental data gathering
gathering (also
(also called
called
"biodiversity prospecting"), whichwhich involve
involve no no harvest,
harvest, just
just observation.
observation.
This volume points to the varied cultural roles of forests and their non-wood
This products, but a full
non-wood products,
assessment of these is beyond its scope. Rather, itit concentrates
concentrates on the
the decisions by which people
non-wood forest
choose to manage non-wood forest resources
resources for
for livelihood
livelihood purposes.
purposes.
References
Arnold,
Arnold, J.E.M., Liedholm,
Liedholm, C.,
C ., Mead,
Mead, D.,
D., and
and Townson,
Townson, I.M. 1994. Structure and
1994. Structure and growth of
small enterprises using forest products in southern and
and eastern
eastern Africa.
Africa. OFI
OF! Occasional
Occasional Paper
Paper No
No
47. Oxford
Oxford Forestry
Forestry Institute,
Institute, Oxford.
Oxford.
Chandrasekharan,
Chandrasekharan, C. C. 1994.
1994.Non-wood
Non-woodforest
forestproducts:
products:aaglobal
globalview
view of
ofpotentials
potentials and
and challenges.
challenges.
Management of
Paper for the International Seminar on Management of Minor
Minor Forest
Forest Products,
Products, Dehra-Dun, India,
13-15 November,
13-15 November, 1994.
1994. FAO, Rome.
Rome.
FAO. 1990.
1990. The
The community's
community's toolbox.. the idea,
toolbox: the idea, methods tools for
methods and tools for participatory
participatory assessment,
monitoring
monitoring and evaluation
evaluation in
in community forestry. Community
community forestry. CommunityForestry
ForestryManual
ManualNo.2.
No. 2. FAO,
Rome (English, French
Rome French and
and Spanish
Spanish versions).
versions) .
4
FAO. 1995.
FAO. 1995. Report
Report of
ofthe
theExpert
Expertconsultation
consultation on
onNon-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products,
Products, Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, 17-27
Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.
1995. Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products 3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Iqbal, M. 1993.
Iqbal, 1993. International
International trade
tradeininnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products..
products: an overview.
overview. FAO Forest
Forest
Products Working
Products Working Paper Misc/93/11.
Misc/93111. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Sharma, P. 1995.
Sharma, 1995 . Non-wood
Non-wood forest
forest products
products and
and integrated
integrated mountain
mountain development:
development: observations
observations
from Nepal.
from Nepal. In
In Report
Report of
ofthe
the Expert
Expert consultation
consultation onon Non-Wood
Non- Wood Forest Products,
Products, Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta,
Indonesia,
1995. Non-Wood Products 3.
Non-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome .
Toledo, V.M., Batis,

Toledo, Batis, A.I.,
A.!', Becerra,
Becerra, R.,
R., Martínez,
Martinez, E.,
E., and
and Ramos,
Ramos, C.H.
C.H. 1992.
1992. Products
Products from
from
the tropical rain forests of
the of Mexico:
Mexico: an
an ethnoecological approach. In
ethnoecological approach. In Plotkin,
Plotkin, M., and
and Famolare,
Famolare,
L., eds.,
eds., Sustainable
Sustainableharvest
harvestand
andmarketing
marketing of
ofrain forest products.
rainforest products .Conservation
Conservation International,
International,
Washington, D.
Washington, D.C.
C.
Wickens,, G.E.
Wickens G.E. 1990.
1990.What
Whatisiseconomic
economicbotany?
botany?Economic
Economic botany
botany 44:12-28.
44 : 12-28.
1. Introduction
1. Introduction 5
Resource assessment
Resource assessment and
and development 2
A first step in
A in developing
developing any viable forest enterprise
enterprise is understanding
understanding thethe capacity
capacity of
of the
the forest
forest
resource. It is
resource. is impossible
impossible to
to manage
manage the
the resource
resource wisely
wisely or profitably
profitably without
without knowing about its
natural growth and production, and
natural and the
the human
human environment
environment that
that affects
affects it.
it.
Many people assume that harvests ofof NWFPs have

have less impact on a forest than logging. However,However,
this
this assumption
assumption is
is unfounded.
unfounded . Forest
Forest ecosystems
ecosystems have
have such
such complex
complex interrelationships
interrelationships that
harvests of
of some
some non-wood
non-wood resources
resources can
can affect
affect plant
plant (and
(and wildlife)
wildlife) populations
populations as negatively
negatively as
as
logging.
logging. Without aa sound
sound knowledge
knowledge of thethe resource
resource and regular
regular monitoring,
monitoring, harvests
harvests of
of certain
certain
non-wood resources can have a disastrous
disastrous impact that is not noticed until itit is
noticed until is too
too late
late to
to remedy.
For example, overharvesting

overharvestingof offruits
fruits or
orseeds
seeds of
ofaa tree
tree species
species can
can drastically reduce regeneration
regeneration
to the point of
of local
local extinction
extinction without
without any visible effect. Large individual
visible effect. trees may
individual trees may remain
remain and
and
the system might appear undisturbed. Only years or decades later, when the large trees
undisturbed. Only years or decades later, when the large trees die and
no individuals
individuals replace them,
them , will
will the
the damage
damage become
become evident
evident (Peters,
(Peters, 1994).
1994).
This chapter
This chapter describes
describes the the steps
steps required
required to
to gain
gain anan understanding
understanding ofof an area's
area's non-wood
non-wood
resource. Based
Based on
on this,
this , aacommunity
community ororenterprise
enterprisecan
canbegin
beginto
to prepare
prepareaaplan
planfor
formanagement.
management.
Chapter
Chapter 3 describes
describes the
the equally
equally necessary
necessary step
step of
ofgauging
gauging the
theexisting
existing nearby
nearbycommunities'
communities '
dependence
dependence on the resource.
resource .
Determining tenure and

and access
access
Even before producers

producers can
can assess
assess the
the biological
biological components
components of
of an
an ecosystem
ecosystem for
for management,
management,
they
they must understand the legal
understand the legal situation
situation ofof th.e
the land
land in question.
question. Legal
Legal title
title and
and the
the rights
rights of
of
harvest determine
harvest determine the
the scope
scope of
ofmanagement
management options,
options, the
the management
management objectives
objectives and
and the
the
possibilities for resource inventory.
possibilities inventory.
The
The first
first questions
questions that
that must
must bebe answered
answered in in aaresource
resource inventory
inventory include:
include: Who
Who owns
owns the
the
resource? Who has
resource? Who has the
the right
right to
to use
use the
the resource?
resource? What
What restrictions
restrictions (e.g.
(e .g. licensing)
licensing) apply
apply to
to
management?
Property rights
rights can
can be
be divided
divided into
into four
four categories:
categories:
• pri vate property

private property situations are fairly
fairly straightforward, although resolving conflicting land-use
claims can be complex
claims complex (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 8);8);
• common property resources have clearly recognized users who, although they may not own
common property
the resource,
resource , have
have recognized
recognized access
access rights
rights and
and the
the ability
ability to
to limit
limit access
access to
to others
others (ATI,
(ATI,
1995).. Many traditional
1995) traditional communal
communal systems
systems for land
land use
use are
are common
common property
property systems;
systems;
• open-access resources,
open-access resources accessibletoto all,
, accessible all, have
have no
no recognized
recognized users
users and are
are not
not easily
easily
controlled;
• state or
or public
public property
property often
often requires
requires users
users to
to negotiate
negotiate rights
rights or
or obtain
obtain authorization
authorization for
for
secure rights or
or access.
access.
2.
2 . Resource
Resource assessment
assessment and
and development
development 7
Successful extractive actlvItles
Successful extractive activities using
using NWFPs
NWFPs often
often have have the
the features
features of of common
common property
property
management. Common property resources may often be mistaken
management. mistaken for
for open-access
open-access resources,
resources, but
but
common property resources
common property are more widespread.
resources are widespread. If aa resource
resource is
is open-access,
open-access, the
the resource
resource
manager(s) should seek
manager(s) should seek to change
change this,
this, because
because itit isis very
verydifficult
difficult totomanage
manage ananopen-access
open-access
resource sustainably
sustainably and
and equitably
equitably (ATI,
(ATI, 1995).
1995).
The resource
resource inventory
Once tenure isis clarified,

clarified, aaresource
resourceinventory
inventoryshould
should ask
askcertain
certainkey
key questions:
questions: What
What economic
economic
plant
plant and
and animals
animals species occur in
species occur in the
the area?
area? What
What areare their
their ecological
ecological andand biological
biological
characteristics?
characteristics? What
What products
products dodo they
they produce?
produce? HowHow abundant
abundant are
are they
they and
and what
what isis their capacity
for regeneration?
regeneration? During
During which
which seasons
seasons are
are they
they harvestable?
harvestable? What
What local
local social
social and
and cultural
cultural
values are associated
associated with
with different
different parts of
of the
the forest?
forest? (Reis,
(Reis, 1995)
1995)
In tropical forests, one

one consequence
consequence ofof species
species diversity isis extremely low densities for individuals
of any given
given species.
species. In inventories
inventories at two sites
sites (one
(one in
in Amazonia
Amazonia and one in in Southeast
Southeast Asia),
less than 10
less 10 percent of the
the species
species had more
more than
than four trees
trees per
per ha.
ha. Such
Such low
low density
density causes
causes
difficulties in
difficulties in accurate
accurate inventory
inventory asas well
well as
as in harvest management.
management. Of Of course,
course, there
there are many
many
exceptions to this generalization.
exceptions generalization. Oligarchic forests
forests (in which
which one species predominates) exist
species predominates) exist in
in
almost every
almost every region of the
the wet
wet tropics
tropics and
and offer
offer great
great promise
promise for
for relatively
relatively easy
easy sustainable
sustainable
harvests (Peters, 1994).
harvests 1994).
Advance planning
Advance
Planning helps
Planning helps to make
make inventories,
inventories, which
which are
are expensive
expensive and
and labour-intensive,
labour-intensive, more
more efficient.
efficient.
is useful
Before the inventory, itit is useful to
to answer
answer the
the following
following questions, among others, forfor each
each major
major
species (Peters,
species (Peters, op. cit.):
cit.):
• Where does
does the
the desired
desired species
species occur
occur in
ingreatest
greatest abundance?
abundance? Its
Its distribution
distribution should
should be
be
mapped as precisely as possible;
mapped possible;
• is the species
species limited to a certain
certain forest
forest type,
type, or
or isis ititfairly
fairly evenly
evenly distributed
distributed throughout
throughout
the area?
• is the desired
desired material
material produced by by only
only one
one species or by
species or by several
several species?
species? What
What isis the
the
exact taxonomic identity
identity of
of these
these plants?
plants?
• has aa product
has product already
already been
been harvested
harvested from
from the
the area? For how
area? For how long
long and
and how,
how, and
and by
by
whom?
whom? Heavily
Heavily exploited areas and
exploited areas and areas
areas of selective
selective planting
planting or other management by
management by
local people should
should be noted
noted on
on the
the map;
map;
• do any good maps, aerial

aerial photos
photos or
or satellite
satellite images of the region exist?
exist? Handheld,
Handheld, low-cost
global
global positioning
positioning systems
systems (GPS)
(GPS) now
now permit communities
communities to to locate
locate boundaries
boundaries fairly
fairly
using satellite
accurately using satellite data;
data;
• has
has the
the area
area ever
everbeen
beeninventoried,
inventoried, perhaps
perhaps for
for another
another resource
resource (timber,
(timber, minerals,
minerals,
wildlife)? IfIf so,
wildlife)? so, for
for what
what kind
kind of
of resource?
resource? Try
Try toto obtain
obtain copies
copies of
of any
any information
information
available.
In this
this advance
advance work,
work, no
noavailable
available sources
sources ofofinformation
information should
should be
beoverlooked,
overlooked, including:
including:
unpublished reports by local
local government
government officials, companies
companies or projects; local export statistics;
statistics;
or specimens
specimens at a nearby
nearby herbarium (Peters,
(Peters, op. cit.).
8
Inventory methods
When all thethe above

above information
information has
has been
been collected,
collected, aa professional
professional inventory
inventory specialist
specialist or
or team
team
should
should conduct the the inventory.
inventory. Conventional
Conventional forestry
forestry methods
methods forfor conducting
conducting inventories
inventories areare
geared to wood
wood production
production andand are
are not
not well
well suited
suited to
to the
the task
task of
of assessing
assessing non-wood
non-wood resources.
Still,
Still, they
they provide
provide aa starting
starting point
point for
for understanding
understanding thethe resource
resource (see For further
(see "For further reading"
reading"
regarding inventory
inventory methods).
methods).
Peters (op. cit.)

cit.) describes
describes information
information that
that an
an inventory
inventory should
should provide:
provide:
• a reliable estimate
estimate of
of the
the resource
resource density
density (i.e.
(i.e. total
total number
number ofofharvestable
harvestable individuals
individuals per
per
hectare for that species)
species) in
in different forest types.
types . For
For fruit
fruit and
and oil
oil seed
seed species,
species, this
this means
means
the total number of adult trees. For For rattan,
rattan, medicinal
medicinal plants
plants and species that produce latex,
this may also
also include
include juvenile
juvenile individuals;
individuals;
• the current size-class

size-class distribution
distribution of adults.
adults. For trees,
trees, this
this means
means measuring
measuring the
the diameter
diameter
at breast height
height (DBH)
(DBH) ofof all
all stems.
stems. For
Forherbaceous
herbaceous plants
plants and
and small
small understorey
understorey plants,
plants,
height measurements are used
used instead;
instead;
• a preliminary assessment
assessment of species regeneration.
regeneration. Are
Are there
there enough
enough small
small individuals
individuals to
replace
replace the older adult trees when
when they
they die or are
are removed?
removed? Answering this requires
Answering this requires that
smaller, non-productive
non-productive individuals
individuals also
also be
be counted
counted and
and measured.
measured.
The smallest diameter limit limit of

of trees
trees to
to be
be measured
measured depends
depends on the size distribution of the species
and its
its density in
in the
the forest.
forest. Using
Usingaasmaller
smallerminimum
minimum diameter
diameter increases
increases the
the useful
useful information
information
that the inventory
inventory willwill produce,
produce, but
but also
also makes
makes itit more
more expensive
expensive due
due to
to the
the added
added fieldwork
fieldwork
required. For
For tree
tree species
species that
that occur
occur atat relatively
relatively low
low densities,
densities, aa minimum
minimum diameter
diameter of 10 cm
DBH is useful; for for more
more abundant
abundant species,
species, aa higher
higher minimum
minimum might
might be used.
The overall
overall sampling
sampling intensity
intensity (or pattern of sample
sample plots used) also
plots used) also depends
depends on
on the
the trade-off
precision versus
between inventory precision versus cost,
cost, and
and the
the species.
species . For
For example,
example, inventories
inventories ofofbamboo
bamboo andand
rattan may measure all stems
stems 33 mm and
and longer
longer in
in aa 10-m
10-m radius
radius plot.
plot. An
An inventory
inventory ofofnipa
nipa palm
palm
(Nipa fruticans) might use different sample plot sizes
(Nipafruticans) sizes for
for different plant
plant sizes:
sizes: all
all seedlings
seedlings shorter
shorter
than 1.5 m may be
than be measured
measured inin plots of 2-m radius; in 5-m radius plots, all plants
radius plots, taller than 1.5
plants taller
m may be measured (Reis,
(Reis, op. cit.).
cit.).
An inventory
An inventory of non-wood
non-wood resources
resources in southern Ghana focused on
Ghana focused on a few forest
forest products
products that
that
were widely traded or otherwise
otherwise subject
subject to increasing pressure. These included climbers
climbers (such as
cane), bamboo and some herbaceous
cane), herbaceous plants.
plants. The
The inventory
inventory used a uniform 1-ha sample plot size
I-ha sample size
throughout, but
throughout, but sampling methods varied
sampling methods varied depending
dependingon on the
the species.
species. For
For cane,
cane, the
the inventory
inventory
recorded the numbers of mature,
mature, immature
immature and
and cut stems.
stems. For
For herbaceous
herbaceous plants,
plants, the
the inventory
inventory
noted the number of plant groups (clumps)
noted (clumps) per plot. (Falconer,
(Falconer, 1992).
1992).
A useful inventory should take advantage local knowledge.

advantage of local knowledge. For this
this,, the inventory team should
include a knowledgeable local collaborator who can helphelp record each plant's local
local uses
uses (all
(all plant
plant
parts used) and local
local harvest
harvest techniques
techniques (Reis,
(Reis, op. cit.).
cit.).
Some innovative inventory procedures compare natural forest with locally locally managed forest plots
plots
(Salick,
(Salick, 1992).
1992). One
One inventory
inventory in
inNicaragua
Nicaragua compared
compared species
species regeneration
regeneration in
in both
both situations,
situations,
using 5 x 22 m
using m sub-plots
sub-plots within
within 1-ha
I-ha plots.
plots. This
This study
study thus
thus provided
provided aa resource
resource inventory
inventory along
along
with
with detailed
detailed comparisons
comparisons with
with local
local management.
management. These
These comparisons
comparisons permitted
permitted a general
general
assessment of the impact
impact of
of current
current local
local harvests
harvests and
and management.
management.
22.. Resource
Resource assessment
assessment and
and development
development 9
Recently, some new
Recently, new models
models of
of arrangements
arrangements have
have been
been developed
developed toto carry
carry out
out comprehensive
comprehensive
inventories of biological resources. Examples of this
inventories this "biological
"biological prospecting"
prospecting" are
are the
the INbio-Merck
INbio-Merck
agreement in Costa Rica (see Chapters 4 and 10 10 for more details) the grants
details) and the grants organized
organized by
by the
US National Institutes of Health in
US in Latin
Latin America
America and
and Africa
Africa (Sittenfeld
(Sittenfeld and Lovejoy, 1994
1994 and
and
Grifo, 1994).
1994).
Importance of
Importance of wildlife
wildlife
is often
Wildlife is often anan important
important non-wood
non-wood forest
forest resource,
resource, particularly
particularly in Africa.
Africa. Wildlife
Wildlife
characteristics should be recorded in a forest
population characteristics forest inventory.
inventory. Even
Even where
where communities
communities do
not use the wildlife
wildlife resource,
resource, wildlife
wildlife activity
activity influences
influences forest dynamics
dynamics in important
important ways, for
for
example, as seed
example, seed dispersal
dispersal agents.
agents.
Analyzing the results

Analyzing
Before analyzing
analyzing the results ofof an
an inventory,
inventory, itit isis necessary
necessary to to divide
divide the
the information
information following
following
a suitable
suitable classification (e.g. species,
classification (e.g. species, size
size classes,
classes, forest types, types, use types).
types) . The
The data
data for
for each
each
forest type can, for
for example,
example, be be translated
translated into
into charts
charts of of size-class
size-class structure.
structure. Size-class
Size-class divisions
for these charts vary for
for different
different types
types of
of trees.
trees . ForFor large
large canopy
canopy trees,
trees, 10-cm
10-cm diameter
diameter classes
classes
are adequate. Smaller
Smaller tree
tree species
species may need to be divided into 5-cm diameter
may need classes
diameter classes. . For shrubs
and small palms, Peters
Peters (op.
(op . cit.)
cit.) suggests
suggests aa 50-cm
50-cm height
height interval.
interval. Each
Each chart
chart could
could include
include 8
to 12
12 size
size classes.
classes.
provide aa valuable
These charts provide valuable baseline
baseline for
for assessing
assessing the impact
impact of harvesting. They can can show
show
when a population presents a healthy distribution of different-aged trees, or in contrast, reveal a
healthy distribution of different-aged trees, or in contrast, reveal
worsening
worsening situation
situation where
where species
species regeneration
regeneration isis severely
severely limited for some reason,
limited for reason, with
with no
no
established seedlings. Peters
Peters (1994)
(1994) explains
explains in
in more
more detail
detail how
how to
to interpret
interpret these
these charts.
charts .
Reducing inventory costs

costs
Inventories are expensive

expensive to
to conduct
conduct and
and most
most communities
communities or enterprises cannot afford them by
themselves. However, several
themselves. However, several groups
groups interested in a forest's
interested in forest's various
various wood
wood and
andnon-wood
non-wood
resources may work
work together
together to
to conduct
conduct an
an inventory
inventory and share the costs.
Alternatively, in
in some
some cases, an an "indicator"
"indicator" species
species might
might be studied
studied as a signal of forest health.
An indicator species
species is one that is more sensitive to changes in forest
is one that is more sensitive to changes in forest conditions.
conditions . Where
Where such
such aa
species is recognized
recognized locally,
locally, aa focused
focused inventory
inventory could
could study
study this
this species
species to gauge the impact
impact of
of
harvesting on the ecosystem
ecosystem (FAO, 1995).1995).
Other factors
factors in
in resource
resource assessment
assessment
The previous section

section summarizes
summarizes the
the ecological aspects
aspects of resource inventory.
inventory. At the same time,
time ,
an overall
overall assessment
assessment of
of prospects
prospects should
should also
also consider
consider the
the following
following (Vantomme,
(Vantomme, 1995):
1995):
• socio-economic informationon
socio-economic information on the
the nearby
nearby communities
communitiesandand the
the costs
costs and
and benefits
benefits of
of
managing the resource.
resource. Besides
Besides financial
financial factors, economic
economic values
values need toto be
be assigned
assigned to
to
otherwise non-monetized
non-monetized costs and
and benefits
benefits (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 3);
3);
• existing and future demand for preferred

existing preferred species
species (including
(including preferences on size
size assortment
assortment
and quality), site
site conditions
conditions affecting
affecting harvesting
harvesting costs, size
size and types of
of cottage industries,
industries,
location of processing units and
location and transport
transport facilities,
facilities, and
and scale
scale of
of traditional
traditional and
and potential
potential
uses (Chapters
(Chapters 3-7);
3-7);
10
10
• operational information,
operational information,oror factors
factors that
that will
will affect
affect the
the specific
specific operations,
operations, such
such as
protection, harvesting, nursery
nursery establishment
establishment and other
other logistics;
logistics;
• institutional information,
institutional information, meaning
meaning the the legal
legal and
and policy
policy framework
framework and
and political
political forces
forces
influencing resource use. This
This includes
includes local
local attitudes,
attitudes, existing
existing and
and proposed
proposed policies, legal
legal
rights and obligations, and
and training
training and
and research
research support
support to communities (Chapters 8-10).
communities (Chapters
Species selection
With a good
With good knowledge
knowledge ofof the
theforest
forestenvironment
environment and
and the
thesocio-economic
socio-economic environment,
environment, a
community or
community or enterprise
enterprise can
can rationally decide on
rationally decide on which species to
which species to harvest
harvest and
and utilise.
utilise. This
This
decision involves social and cultural preferences
preferences and economic
economic and ecological factors.
ecological factors.
For their
their own
own subsistence
subsistence use,
use, communities
communities will
will likely
likely have
have already
already developed social preferences
for products through their history of
of extraction and traditional use. Likewise,
traditional use. Likewise, certain taboos may
taboos may
have evolved prohibiting the use
use of
of other
other species.
species.
For products intended

intended for market, economic
economic criteria play
playaa larger role. Usually groups will choose
choose
to exploit higher-value resources
resources first.
first.
Ecological criteria
Ecological criteria should
should reflect
reflect the
the species'
species' biological
biological potential for being
potential for being managed
managed on aa
sustained-yield basis.
basis. Some
Some species
species are
are inherently
inherently better
better suited
suited to
to continual
continual harvesting
harvesting than
than others.
others.
For tree
tree species,
species, factors
factors that
that determine
determine thisthis potential
potential include (Peters, op.
include (Peters, op. cit.):
• life
life cycle
cycle characteristics. A
A species
species that
that fruits
fruits annually
annually and
and is
is pollinated
pollinated easily
easily is
is better
better
adapted to regular harvests than
than one that flowers
flowers at unpredictable
unpredictable intervals
intervals.. In general, the
managementof
management of primary
primary forest
forest species,
species , which
which tolerate shade as
tolerate shade as seedlings,
seedlings, has
has less
less
ecological impacts than thethe management
management of fast-growing,
fast-growing, light-demanding
light-demanding pioneer species
species
that require large
large gaps
gaps in
in the
the canopy
canopy for
for seedling
seedling establishment;
establishment;
• type non-wood resource

type of non-wood resource harvested. Harvests of vegetative
vegetative structures
structures (i.e. bark or roots)
roots)
plant.~/Harvests
very often kill aa plant./ Harvests ofoffruits,
fruits, leaves,
leaves, oil
oilseeds
seeds and
and latex
latex do
do not
notnecessarily
necessarily
kill the trees but
but can
can alter
alter the
the population
population structure
structure (in
(in case
case of
of overharvesting
overharvesting of fruits
fruits and
and
although they
seeds); and although they can have negative
negative impacts, these are relatively easier to to address;
address;
• density in
density in different forest types
different forest types.. Species
Species that
that occur
occur locally
locally in
in high
high densities
densities are
are easier to
manage sustainably than those that are scattered and and involve
involve more
more travel
travel for
for harvests.
harvests. Also,
if a species
species is abundant
abundant only in a part of thethe forest that is seasonally inaccessible (e.g.
seasonally inaccessible (e.g. due
due
to flooding), itit can
can be
be difficult
difficult to
to obtain
obtain aa regular
regular supply;
supply;
• size-class distribution.
distribution . Even
Even species
species that
that are
are abundant
abundant in
in the
the area
area can
can present
present problems
problems if,
if,
for example, all
all the
the individuals
individuals are
are of
of roughly
roughly the
the same
same adult age and there is no evidence
evidence
of regeneration.
regeneration. If If compatible
compatible with
with social
social and economic criteria, species
economic criteria, species that show good
natural regeneration
regeneration are are preferable
preferable over
over other
other types.
types.
'1:.' This varies with species. For

For example,
example, cork
cork (Quercus
(Quercus suber) is unusual in that its its bark regenerates
itself after each
each peeling.
peeling. In
In some
some areas,
areas, bark
bark from
from certain
certain specios
species is
is traditionally
traditionally harvested
harvested in
longitudinal strips; this can
longitudinal strips; can be
be aasustainable
management practice and should should even bebe promoted
promoted
where
where appropriate
appropriate (Ocampo,
(Ocampo, 1994).
1994) . In
In Mali
Mali collectors
collectors of
ofbaobab
baobab (Adansonia
(Adansonia digitata)
digitata) fibres
fibres
harvest only once every two or threethree years
years to
to avoid
avoid killing
killing the
the trees
trees (Montagne,
(Montagne, 1985).1985).
22.. Resource
Resource assessment
assessment and
and development
development 11
11
Table 2.1
Table 2.1 summarizes
summarizes major characteristics of tree
characteristics of tree species and their
species and their influence on the
influence on the species'
potential for
potential for sustainable harvests.
Table 2.1:
2.1: Overall
Overallpotential
potential of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest resources
resources for
for sustainable
sustainable management,
management,
based on species characteristics
characteristics
Low potential Medium potential

Medium High potential
High
Type of resource
Type bark, stem, roots
roots some
some resins,seeds,fruits latex, leaves
latex, fruits, leaves
Yield/plant low medium high
Species characteristics
Species
Flowers few,
few, large
large intermediate small, many
Fruits few, large
few, intermediate small, many
Seed germination
Seed low viability Intermediate viability high viability
Sprouting capability none low high
Population structure
Population structure
Size-class
Size-class distribution Type III curve Type II curve Type I curve
Plant density/ha
Plant 0-5 adults
0-5 5-10 adults 10+ adults
adults
Spatial distribution
Spatial scattered clumped homogeneous
Regeneration guild early pioneer late

late secondary primary
Flower/fruit phenology
Flower/fruit phenology unpredictable
unpredictable supra-annual annual
Reproductive biology
Pollination biotic, specialized
specialized biotic, generalist
generalist vector
vector abiotic
vector
Pollinator abundance rare; bats, beetles,
intermediate; beetles, common; small
common; small insects
hummingbirds moths
Seed dispersal
Seed biotic, specialized
specialized biotic, generalized
generalized vector
vector abiotic
vector
Disperser abundance rare; large
large birds,
birds, small
intermediate; small common; bats,
common; bats, small
primates mammals birds
(Source:
(Source: Peters, 1994)
1994)
In most cases,
cases, obtaining
obtaining all
all this
thisinformation
informationrequires
requires extensive
extensive discussions
discussions with
with local
local collectors
collectors
and
and trips to the
the areas of production, preferably during the species' flowering or fruiting season.
areas of production, preferably during the species' flowering or fruiting season.
Sustainable harvest levels

Sustainable levels
To determine
To determine what harvest level aa resource
resource cancan sustain
sustain without
without destruction,
destruction, itIt is
IS important
lffiportant to
to
know the
know the quantity
quantity of non-wood
non-wood material that the
material that the species produces naturally.
species produces naturally. A A major
major problem
among non-wood forest enterprises
enterprises is
is that
that most
most of
ofthem
them do
do not
not possess
possess this
this knowledge.
knowledge.
The type
type of
ofnon-wood
non-wood harvest
harvest helps
helps to
to determine
determine sustainable
sustainable harvest
harvest levels:
levels:
• harvests of
of vegetative structures (such
vegetative structures as roots
(such as roots or bark) would have to be infrequent,
would have infrequent, if
if
at all;
• sustainable harvest level of fruits

fruits and seeds depend on (1) the intensity
intensity of collection, (2)
the means of
of plant pollination and dispersal
dispersal and
and (3)
(3) the
the species'
species' specific requirements for
specific requirements
12
12
regeneration and growth (Peters, op. cit.).
cit.). Harvesting
Harvesting commercial
commercial quantities
quantities of fruits and
seeds can affect not only species
species regeneration,
regeneration, but
but genetic
genetic composition
composition and
and quality of the
quality of the
resource, if only "inferior"
resource, "inferior" fruits
fruits and seeds
seeds are left
left to
to regenerate.
regenerate. In harvests
harvests of wild
wild
fruits, the
fruits, the effect
effect on
on wildlife
wildlife populations
populations must
must also
also be
be considered;
considered;
• harvests of plantexudates
ofplant exudates (latex,
(latex, gums
gums and
and resins)
resins) do
do not
not kill
kill the tree or remove
remove its
its seeds
seeds
from the
from the site.
site. However,
However, many
many techniques
techniques ofoftapping
tapping create
create destructive
destructive wounds
wounds and and
sometimes
sometimes involve burning or felling;
felling;
Yield studies,
Yield studies, regeneration
regeneration studies
studies and
and harvest
harvest assessments
assessments are
are important
important tools
tools for
for evaluating
evaluating
sustainable
sustainable harvest levels.
levels.
Yield studies
Yield
Yield studies focus on

Yield on the
the total
total amount
amount produced
produced and
and the
the relationship
relationship between
between productivity
productivity and
and
plant size. A
A simple
simple yield
yield study
study consists
consists of three steps (Peters, op.
steps (Peters, op. cit.):
• Select a representative sample of healthy plants of different sizes from each

each forest
forest type.
type.
Individual with paint
Individual samples should be marked with paint for
for permanent
permanent field
field identification.
identification.
• Measure each
Measure each plant's production
production of the
the selected
selected product(s).
product(s). Enlist local
local collectors
collectors to
weigh, count or measure the
the amount they collect
collect from
from each
each tree.
tree. For fruits and seeds, this
must be complemented
must complemented with
with estimates
estimates of the
the amount
amount ofofmarketable
marketable material
material left
unharvested..
unharvested
• Plot the data to form

form aa yield
yield curve
curve for
for each
each forest
forest type.
type.
Yield studies
Yield studies should
should be repeated
repeated every few
few years
years with
with the
the same
same sample
sample plants
plants because
because annual
annual
differences in
in rainfall
rainfall and
and temperature
temperature can
can cause
cause variable
variable yields.
yields.
Using the
Using the forest inventory
inventory and yield studies together,
together, the forest manager
manager can determine
determine (1)
(1) the
area's total
total production,
production, (2)
(2) the
the portion
portion produced
produced by each size-class plant, and (3)
size-class of plant, (3) which
which forest
types produce most.
types most.
Based on this
Based this information
information andand the
the relative
relative abundance
abundance of each
each species,
species, forest
forest managers
managers can
can
determine
determine the boundaries
boundaries of of different
different management units and how
management units how each
each should
should be
be harvested.
harvested.
Marking these on aa map
Marking map isis useful.
useful. Some
Someindigenous
indigenous groups
groups manage
manage non-wood
non-wood resources using
this kind
this kind of resource division (Reis,
(Reis, op.
op. cit.).
cit.).
Regeneration studies
Regeneration studies
Regeneration studies assess,
assess, in in permanent regeneration plots,
permanent regeneration plots, the
the impact
impact of management
management on
seedlings and saplings, the
seedlings the individuals
individuals most
most sensitive
sensitive to
to adverse
adverse effects.
effects. Permanent
Permanent plots
plots should
should
be re-inventoried
re-inventoried at
at suitable
suitable intervals
intervals (e.g. every
every five
five years)
years) to
to monitor
monitor the
the long-term
long-term impact
impact of
of
harvests on regeneration
regeneration (Peters, op. cit.).
cit.).
Harvest assessments
assessments
Visual
Visual appraisals
appraisals of adult
adult plants
plants can
can help
help detect
detect problems
problems inin regeneration
regeneration before they
they become
become
serious. Forest
Forest managers
managers should
should periodically
periodically inspect
inspect the
the trees
trees marked
marked as
as sample
sample plants
plants in
in yield
yield
2. Resource
Resource assessment
assessment and
and development
development 13
13
studies
studies and
and note
note their
their vigour,
VIgOur, damage
damage from
from pests
pests and
and insects,
insects, and
and yield
yield variability
variability (Peters,
(Peters,
op.
op. cit.).
The Kenya
Kenya Indigenous
Indigenous Forest
ForestConservation
Conservation (KIFCON)
(KIFCON) project is conducting
project is this kind
conducting this kind of
assessment in
assessment in western
western Kenya indigenousforests.
Kenya indigenous forests. The
The project,
project, begun
begun in
in 1989 by the National
1989 by National
Museums of Kenya, studies
studies current
current ecological
ecological and socio-economic aspects of
socio-economic aspects of grazing,
grazing, recreation
tourism and
tourism and the
the effect
effect of
ofbark-peeling
bark-peeling for
for the
the construction
construction of
of beehive
beehive coverings
coverings for
for local
local
beekeeping.
Harvest assessments
assessments in combination with regeneration
combination with studies permit
regeneration studies permit forest
forest managers
managers toto find
find a
sustainable harvest
sustainable harvest level
level inin one
one of two
two ways
ways (Reis,
(Reis, op.
op . cit.):
cit.): (1)
(1) when
when studies
studies suggest
suggest that
that
has brought regeneration below replacement
collection has replacement levels,
levels, collectors
collectors reduce
reduce harvest
harvest levels
levels;; or
or
(2) managers identify
(2) identify aa quantitative
quantitative basis for
for sustainable
sustainable yield using computer simulations
simulations and
and
matrix models ofof population
population growth.
growth.
Scope
Scope for domestication
domestication of
of species
species
When yield, regeneration

regeneration and
and harvest
harvest studies
studies reveal
reveal that
that actual harvests exceed a species' ability
ability
to regenerate,
regenerate, collectors
collectors may
may have
have totosupplement
supplement wild
wild sources
sources with
with domestication
domestication (Haeruman,
(Haeruman,
1995). Many
1995). Many forest species depend on the interrelationships ecosystem to
interrelationships of a forest ecosystem to survive, but
others do lend
lend themselves
themselves to
to domestication
domestication oror cultivation.
cultivation.
There
There often
often is
is not
not aaclear
clearborder
borderbetween
betweenunmanaged
unmanaged and and domesticated
domesticated resources.
resources . Evidence
Evidence
suggests that at
suggests that at least
least 12
12percent
percent of
ofAmazonian
Amazonian forests
forests are
are under
under indigenous
indigenous forestry
forestry and
and
agroforestry systems for managing
managing dozens
dozens of fruit and nut
nut species
species (Leakey and Newton, 1994).
(Leakey and Newton, 1994).
These systems involving
involving guided regeneration, or enrichment
enrichment planting, practised by many many forest-
forest-
dwelling groups are
dwelling groups are a form ofof domestication in the
domestication in the forest
forest itself
itself (Reis,
(Reis, op.
op. cit.).
cit.). This
This has been
found true also
also for
for wildlife;
wildlife; ranch
ranchanimals
animals are
areconsidered
consideredan
anintermediate
intermediate step
step between
between wild
wild and
and
domesticated stock (Redford
domesticated stock (Redford etet al., 1995).
1995).
Domestication is therefore a tool

tool that is
is flexible
flexible to match communities' preferences for managing
match communities'
a species.
species.
Advantages and disadvantages

disadvantages
Domestication holds advantages and disadvantages.

disadvantages . Advantages include the
Advantages include the abilities
abilities to:
• help sustain steady and reliable

help reliable production to meet market demands;
• help relieve pressure on natural
help natural forest stocks;
stocks;
• provide local income
income and resources
resources for subsistence;
subsistence;
• facilitate easier collection
facilitate collection and
and harvesting;
harvesting;
• improve plant or animal
animal growth rates;
• offer a crop
crop of
ofcultural
cultural familiarity
familiarity and
and value
value (Wickens,
(Wickens, 1991).
1991).
of domestication
Disadvantages of domestication can
can include:
include:
• increased
increased species
species susceptibility to pests
susceptibility to pests and
and diseases (particularly in monoculture
diseases (particularly monoculture
plantations), often
often leading
leading to
to dependence
dependence on
on potentially
potentially harmful
harmful pesticides;
pesticides;
• loss of some
loss some ofofthe
the ecological
ecological functions
functions played
played by
by the
the forest
forest when
when plantations
plantations replace
replace
natural forests;
14
• heavy dependence
heavy dependence onon regular
regular infusion
infusion of
of seed
seed from
from wild
wild sources,
sources, for better
better yield
yield and
and
resistance to diseases and pests;
resistance
• concentration of income-generating
concentration potentialinin larger
income-generating potential larger corporate
corporate entities,
entities, often
often far
far from
the forest and the
the the communities,
communities, and
and causing
causing further
further disadvantages for poor households
disadvantages for households
and minority groups.
and groups .
Text box 22.1:

Text box . 1: Species
Speciesdomestication
domestication and
and
With an awareness
With awareness of these
these advantages
advantages and and
inequity .. disadvantages, aa community
disadvantages, community can better manage
manage
the domestication
the process. For example, LeCup
domestication process. LeCup
While
While domestication
domestication can give aa
can. initially give (1994) describes
(1994) describes aa medicinal
medicinal plant
plant programme
programme in
community
community more
more control over supply
supply of
of aa Nepal in which
Nepal which communities first assessed
communities first assessed thethe
market product (in terms oLharvest, of harvest, ecological
ecological impact
impact of harvesting, thenthen developed
developed
seasonality, etc.), itit.does
seasonality, does not
notguarantee
guarantee a strategy
strategy based on the the population
population density
density and
and
that the
the community
community can can maintain
maintain control
control
market value
market value ofof each
each species.
species. As
As land
land tenure
tenure
and gain benefits. HistoricalHistorical patterns
arrangements permitted, communities
the commurutles
suggest
suggest that domestication
domestication contributes
contributes to
boom-bust
the boom -bust pattern
pattern experienced by by established forest
forest gardens
gardens andand nurseries
nurseries for
NVVFF'sinin international
NWFPs international markets.
markets. In In this cultivating the high-value,
high-value, low-density
low-density plants.
plants. For
sequence,
sequence, the local local people
people often lose
lose their
their •. lower-value plants
lower-value plants that occurred more commonly
advantage. Rubber and
advantage. and quinine
quinine provide
provide twotwo in the
the wild, harvesters learned improved harvest
examples
examples of this this. When rubber's valuevalue on techniques
techniques andand placed
placed stricter
stricter limits
limits on harvest
harvest
the international market rose significantly in levels.. This approach improved
levels local
1800s, supply
the late 1800s, supply from
from cultivated
cultivated
management, maintained
management, maintained wild
wild genetic
genetic resources,
sources
sources in Asia began
in Asia began toto replace
replace wild
wild
sources in the the plant's
plant's native
native range
range of of
and
and helped
helped toto improve
improve thethe predictability
predictability and
and
Amazonia. The
Amazonia. The same
same pattern
pattern occurred
occurred with quality of
of supply.
supply.
quinine.. Producers
quinine Producers in in Asia
Asia were
were able
able toto turn
turn
this to
to their
their advantage
advantage because:
because: For wildlife species to be candidates for
domestication, they must
domestication, they must be
be amenable
amenable to some
some
• the species,
species, when introduced into a a new
new degree
degree of human
human handling and grouping
handling and grouping in
in a
region, escaped the pests
pests and
and diseases
diseases that limited space
limited space for
for feeding
feeding and
and handling, the young
had evolved
had evolved with
with itit (at
(at least
least temporarily);
temporarily);
must show fast growth, females
females must have aa high
high
• as
as a result,
result, the
the species
species could
could be
be planted
planted
reproductive output (live
reproductive output (live weight
weight of young
young per
per
in monoculture
in monoculture with (temporarily)
(temporarily) less
less risk
risk year),
year), and
and they
they must
must be
be amenable
amenable to reproduce
reproduce
of crop
of crop failure
failure and
and with
with greater
greater economic
economic on a fairly
fairly inexpensive diet (Redford,
inexpensive diet (Redford, op.
op. cit.).
cit.).
efficiency; See also Chapter 4 for
for domestication
domestication strategies.
strategies.
• genetic improvement
improvement programmes
programmes in
in Asia
Asia Agroforestry
led to further increases
led increases in yields.
Agroforestry offers a flexible technology system,
As aa result,
As result, wild
wild Amazonian
Amazonian sources
sources lost
lost
the international
the international market
market for rubber
rubber and
and
often indigenous,
indigenous, by which
which non-wood
non-wood products
products
quinine (Clay and
quinine and Clement,
Clement, 1993). can be domesticated gradually, in
domesticated gradually, in aa way
way that is
is
adapted to
adapted to local
local conditions and practices.
conditions and practices . This
has
has happened
happened in in Southeast
Southeast Asia
Asia withwith local
favourite species
favourite species such asas rambutan
rambutan (Nephelium spp.), mangosteen
(Nephe/ium spp.), (Garcinia mangostana)
mangos teen (Garcinia mangostana) and and
durian (Durio spp.), and in West Africa with bush mango (Irvingia gahonensis), African
durian (Durio spp .), and in West Africa with bush mango (lrvingia gabonensis), African pear
(Dacryodes edulis)
(Dacryodes edulis) and
and kola
kola (Cola
(Cola acuminata, C.
C. nitida)
nitida) (Leakey
(Leakey and Newton,
Newton, 1994).
1994).
For regionally important

important plant species, strategies
strategies for more intensive and systematic
systematic domestication
domestication
might include a sequence
might sequence of:
of:
• screening of candidate
screening candidate species
species through
through species trials on farmland
species trials farmland in collaboration
collaboration with
farm households;
households;
2. Resource
Resource assessment
assessment and
and development
development 15
• identificationof
identification of preferred
preferred characteristics
characteristicsofofchosen
chosenspecies
speciestotoform
formananideotype2.!
ideotypg for
for
improvement programmes;
• seed collection and distribution;

distribution;
• study of interactions
interactions between
between genotype
genotype and
and environment;
environment;
• establishment of seed orchards.

establishment
This
This type
type of
of strategy
strategy isis often
oftenbest
bestorganized
organized by
by aaregional
regionalresearch
research institution
institution (Leakey
(Leakey and
and
Newton, op.
Newton, op. cit.).
Summary
• Understand the rules of
of tenure
tenure and
and access
access that govern the non-wood
non-wood resource and its use.
Open-access resources
Open-access resources should
should be
be converted
converted toto a common-property regime for better
common-property regime better
management accountability.
accountability.
• Conduct a resource inventory

inventory to to identify
identify the
the ecological
ecological forest types, species
species and
and products
products
of interest. To
To reduce
reduce the
the costs
costs ofof forest
forest inventories,
inventories, plan
plan carefully,
carefully, and
and clarify
clarify the
the forest
forest
types and species
species of
of interest
interest through
through review
review of of existing
existing information,
information, including
including maps.
maps.
• For tree-based
tree-based products,
products, assess
assess the
the density
density and
and size-class
size-class distribution of preferred
preferred species.
species.
This provides gauge of the forest's general health against which to compare later
This provides a gauge of the forest's general health against which to compare later
management.
management. Wildlife population
popUlation sizesize and
and trends should be similarly
similarly assessed.
assessed.
• Assess
Assess each
each species'
species' ecological
ecological amenability for harvesting,
amenability for harvesting, local
local cultural
cultural and
and social
social
preferences for its
preferences for its products
products and
and the
the economic
economic trade-offs.
trade-offs. Higher-value
Higher-value products
products are
usually the first to
usually to be
be managed.
managed.
• Monitor forest dynamics

dynamics regularly
regularly using
using studies of
of yield, harvests and
and regeneration
regeneration rates.
rates.
When monitoring
monitoring tools indicate
indicate that
that harvest
harvest levels
levels exceed
exceed natural
natural regeneration,
regeneration, either
either
reduce the harvest level
level or
or begin
begin supplementary
supplementary measures
measures toto create
create new
new resources.
• Domestication
Domestication isis a tool
tool for
for communities
communities to supplement
supplement wildwild sources
sources of NWFPs.
NWFPs. Before
Before
intensifying species management through domestication, communities should consider the
trade-offs between more reliable
reliable supply
supply and
and increased
increased vulnerability
vulnerability to ecological
ecological decline
of the resource
resource material,
material, and
and equity
equity issues.
issues. AA local
local strategy
strategy can
can combine
combine production
production based
based
on domesticated
domesticated and wild
wild resources
resources toto best
best advantage.
advantage.
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1995. Non-timber
AT!. 1995.
ATI. Non-timber forest
forest products
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Appropriate Technology
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Clay,
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J.W. and
and Clement,
Clement, C.R.
C.R. 1993.
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species and
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ideotype is used
used by
by plant
plant breeders
breeders to
to define
define aa plant
plant model
model which
which then
then becomes
becomes
the target for
for aa breeding
breeding programme.
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1991).
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Unasylva 42
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For further
further reading
reading
Adlard, P.G.
Adlard, P.G. 1990.
1990. Procedures
Procedures for
formonitoring
monitoring tree
tree growth
growth and
and site
site change.
change. Tropical
Tropical Forestry
Forestry
Paper No. 23.
23. Oxford
Oxford Forestry
Forestry Institute,
Institute, Oxford,
Oxford, UK
UK
Avery, T.E.
T .E. 1983.
1983.Forest
Forestmeasurements,
measurements, 3rd
3rdedition.
edition. McGraw-Hill,
McGraw-Hill, New
New York.
York.
Booth, F.E.M.,
F .E.M.,and
andWickens,
Wickens,G.E.
G.E.1988.
1988.Non-timber
Non-timberuses
usesof
ofselected
selected arid
arid zone
zone trees and
and shrubs
shrubs
in Africa. FAO
FAO Conservation
Conservation Guide
Guide 19.
19. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Cunningham,
Cunningham, A.B.
A.B. 1993.
1993 . African
African medicinal
medicinal plants.
plants . People
People and
and Plants
Plants Working
Working Paper
Paper No.
No. 1.
UNESCO, Paris.
Paris.
Falconer, J. J. 1990.
1990.The
The major
majorsignificance
significance of
of "minor"
"minor" forest products.. the local
products: the local use
use and
and value
value of
forests in
in the
the West
West African humidforest
African humid forestzone.
zone.Community
CommunityForestry
Forestry Note
Note No.6.
No. 6. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
FAO. 1989.
1989. Community forestry..
Community forestry rapid appraisal
: rapid appraisal of tree
tree and land tenure.
tenure. Community
Community Forestry
Note No. 5. FAO,
No.5. FAO, Rome.
Rome. (Available
(Available in
in English,
English, French,
French, Spanish.)
Spanish.)
FAO. 1981.
1981. Manual
Manual of forest inventory.
afforest inventory. FAO Forestry Working Paper 27.
Working Paper 27. FAO, Rome.
Rome .
FAO. 1990.
FAO. 1990. Community
Community Forestry.. Rapid Appraisal.
Forestry : Rapid Appraisal, Community
Community Forestry
Forestry Note
Note 3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome .
FAO. 1994.
FAO. 1994. Tree
Tree and
and land
land tenure:
tenure: rapid
rapid appraisal
appraisaltools.
tools. Community
Community Forestry Manual
Manual No. 4.
No.4.
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
FAO. 1995.
1995 . Selecting
Selecting tree
tree species
species on
onthe
thebasis
basisofofcommunity
community needs.
needs. Community
Community Forestry
Forestry Field
Field
Manual
Manual No.5. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Forestry/Fuelwood
Forestry/Fuelwood Research
Research andand Development
Development Project. 1994. Selecting
Project. 1994. Selecting multipurpose
mUltipurpose trees
(module
(module 1) and Species
Species fact
fact sheets
sheets (module
(module 9).
9) . In
In Growing
Growing multipurpose trees on small
mUltipurpose trees small farms
(2nd ed.). Winrock
WinrockInternational-FAO,
International-FAO, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
United
United Nations.
Nations. 1990.
1990. Forest
Forest resources
resources of
of the
the temperate
temperate zones,
zones, the general
general forest resources
resources
information. UN-ECE/FAO Forest Resource
information. Resource Assessment, vol. 1.
Assessment, vol. 1. UN
UN Publications,
Publications , New
New York.
York.
18
Assessing
Assessing local use
use of the resource
resource 3
Why assess
assess local
local use?
use?
Having
Having completed
completed an inventory
inventory of the
the forest
forest resource,
resource, why
why dodo forest
forest managers
managers need
need to
to study
study
current
current forest
forest use
use by
by nearby
nearby communities?
communities? How How does
does this funds and
this justify using scarce funds and skills
skills that
otherwise might help develop
develop the
the resource?
resource?
There
There are
are two
two main
mainreasons.
reasons .First,
First,successful
successfulimprovements
improvements in
in forest
forestmanagement
management usually
usually
resemble and build
build on
on traditional
traditional activities
activities already
already practised
practised in
in the
the area.
area. Many
Many attempts
attempts toto switch
switch
suddenly to year-round, capital-intensive
suddenly capital-intensive activities
activities which differ drastically from local
local traditions
traditions
have failed (Poole,
(Poole, 1993).
1993).
Second, if innovators
Second, innovators do notnot understand
understand local
local practices
practices and
and know
know which
which local
local groups rely
rely on
on
which
which specific
specific products, they
they may
may introduce
introduce innovations
innovations that are
are technically
technically feasible
feasible but bring
bring
negative
negative socio-economic effects
effects.. Too often, the
the actual
actual value that communities place on their non-
wood resources is not
wood not fully
fully understood
understood until after the resource is gone (Wickens,
(Wickens, 1991).
1991).
This chapter surveys the more widespread rural uses of non-wood forest resources,
non-wood forest resources, and
and describes
describes
how
how toto determine
determine subsistence and market
subsistence and uses of NWFPs
market uses locality. It also
NWFPs in aa locality. also looks
looks at
at the
the
importance of local management systems and how
systems and how they
they can provide
provide aa basis
basis for sustainable
sustainable forest
use.
use .
Local importance
Local importance of non-wood forest products
products
The following
following paragraphs
paragraphs describe
describe groups
groups of NWFPs
NWFPs thatthat are
are commonly
commonly important
important to
to local
local
communities, particularly
communities, particularly those
those living near the forest.
living near forest. But
But importance
importance is
is location-specific
location-specific and
dynamic. The key
dynamic. key to
to good
good forest
forest management
management is to identify
identify trends in use, not
not merely
merely static
static facts.
facts.
Cultural values
values
Rural people
Rural use NWFPs
people use NWFPs for food,food, income
income and
and farm
farm inputs
inputs but
but also
also for social,
social, cultural
cultural and
and
religious functions.
religious functions . The intangible,
intangible, non-economic roles of NWFPs
non-economic roles NWFPs can be more more important
important and
and
even provide a foundation for the the economic roles that development programmes usually
development programmes usually address.
address.
cultures, communities
In many cultures, communities maintain certain areas as sacred groves where harvesting is banned
or carefully controlled (Arnold, 1995).
1995). Harvests
Harvests are,
are, in
in such
such cases,
cases, restricted
restricted to
to meet
meet the
the needs
needs
for religious/socio-cultural
for ceremonies. In
religious/socio-cultural ceremonies. In villages
villages of northern Thailand,
Thailand, for instance,
instance, sacred
sacred
groves
groves form an an integral
integral part
part of
ofan
anoverall
overallcommunity
community systemsystem that
that combines
combines farmfarm and
and forest
forest
management (Uraiwan, 1993).1993).
Certain species
species may play
play aa crucial
crucial role
role ininspiritual
spiritual ceremonies,
ceremonies, or or have
have taboos
taboos associated
associated withwith
them that forbid certain harvests.
harvests . In central Africa, parents plant a tree tree in the
the wild
wild for
for aa newborn
newborn
child, and the
the child's
child's growth
growth isis forever
forever linked
linked toto the
the tree's
tree's growth
growth (Vergiat,
(Vergiat, 1969
1969 in
inFalconer,
Falconer,
1990).
1990). Other
Other trees
trees figure
figure inin burial
burial rituals.
rituals . Forest
Forest foods
foods play
playa a part
part in
in wedding
wedding rites,
rites, initiation
initiation
ceremonies and
ceremonies and other events. In many places, these cultural
events . In many places, these cultural and spiritual roles
spiritual roles are losing their
losing their
importance, but
importance, but in other places
places they persist and are even even renewed
renewed in thethe face
face of
of encroaching
encroaching
values from outside
outside the
the community.
community.
3.
3 . Assessing
Assessing local
local use
use of
of the
the resource
resource 19
Table 3.1
3. 1 shows
shows that
that ininsouthern
southernGhana,
Ghana,people
peoplevalue
valueintangible
intangible cultural
cultural and
and spiritual
spiritual benefits
benefits
from the
from the forest as
as highly
highly asas physical
physical products
products and
and services.
services. It illustrates
illustrates the wide
wide variation of
local values within the same society. This variation occurs even at the household
household level,
level, and among
individuals within
individuals within households.
households. Men,Men, women
women and
and children in the
children in the same
same household
household often
often cite
cite
different
different uses forest products.
uses and needs for forest products.
Table 3.1:The
Table 3.1: Thehighest
highestvalued
valuedforest
forestbenefits
benefits in
in eight
eight villages
villages in
in South
South Ghana
Ghana
(figures represent percentage
(figures percentage of people
people who
who rank the benefit first).
Banso Betinasi Essamang Nkwanta

Betinasi Essamang Essuowin Koniyao
Nkwanta Essuowin Koniyao Kwapanin
Kwapanin Nanhini No. of people
No.
ranking product
product first
villages
- all villages
Benefit from
forest
Pestle 28 9 27 33 45 31 38 24 71
Bushmeat 40 9 27 38 37 26 36 13 68
Canes 48 18
18 33 48 29 15 15 10 56
Building
materials 24 18
18 13 33 8 15 30 10 43
43
Chewstick 40 9 13 38 18 55 15 7 39
Timber 20 9 27 32
32 21
21 19 39
Water 4 9 7 5 11 33 6 10
10 27
Medicines 16 9 13 10 5 55 6 27 24
Sponge 16 27 5 18 33 15 24
Gods - 16 - - 50 21
Land bank - 24 3 10 13 7 18
Wrapping
leaves - 5 3 - 32
32 17
17
Fuelwood 20 13 3 8 6 7 16
Mortar 12 55 10
10 11
11 7 16
Fertility 88 9 5 33 13
13 13
13 16
Rains 4 18 55 55 11
11 10
10 15
Forest food
food 16 14 33 33 11
11 14
Raphia 16
16 9 7 10 3 3 4 12
Others 88 18 77 10 24 18
18 17
17 33 25
Total no. of
Total no.
people 25 11 15
15 21 38 39 47 30
30 226
interviewed
Note:
Note : Some people named
named more than one
one benefit
benefit as most important
(Falconer, 1994
1994 in
in Arnold,
Arnold, 1995)
1995)
Household subsistence
Among all
Among all the
the many
many NWFPs, the most common worldwide
worldwide are
are used
used for
for food,
food, fodder,
fodder, medicine,
medicine,
and construction
and materials. Other
construction materials. Other uses include,
include, among
among others, farm
farm tools,
tools, household
household baskets,
baskets,
sleeping mats, pillows,
pillows, sponges
sponges and
and brooms
brooms (Arnold,
(Arnold, 1995).
1995).
Rural families
families provide for their
their needs
needs not
not just by
by growing
growing crops but also also with
with other
other household
household
income. Therefore
Therefore assessments
assessments of of local
local dependence on NWFPs for food food security must count local
local
product sales as
as well
well as
as direct
directcontributions
contributions to to food
food and
and nutrition.
nutrition. AAfamily
family often
oftenchanges
changes itsits
strategy for food
strategy food security
security asas its
its economic
economic options
options change.
change. This
This can have
have varying
varying effects;
effects; for
for
example, more
more labour-intensive
labour-intensiveharvesting
harvesting methods
methods forfor aa product
product could force women to spend less
time
time cooking and caring for their
their children
children (Longhurst,
(Longhurst, 19871987 cited in
in Arnold,
Arnold, 1995).
1995).
20
20
Food and nutrition
Food
Foods from the forest include

include fruits, leaves,
leaves, seeds
seeds and
and nuts, tubers
tubers and roots, fungi,
fungi, gum
gum and
and sap.
sap.
Beekeeping for
Beekeeping for honey
honey is
is often a forest-based activity. Wildlife
forest-based activity. Wildlife isis an
an important source of food,
important source food,
particularly in Africa. In
particularly In West
West Africa,
Africa, more
more than
than60
60wildlife
wildlife species
species are
are commonly
commonly consumed
consumed
(Falconer, 1990).
(Falconer, 1990). In parts
parts of
of Africa,
Africa, bushmeat
bushmeat provides
provides aa major source of protein
major source to people's
protein to
diets.
diets. Smaller animals and invertebrates are more important food food sources
sources than
than larger game
game (FAO,
1995)
1995)..
Forest foods often

often provide
provide essential
essential vitamins,
vitamins, minerals,
minerals, carbohydrates and protein
carbohydrates and protein (Table
(Table 3.2).
Besides direct
Besides direct nutritional
nutritional contributions, they provide
contributions, they provide variety
variety and
and taste.
taste. Even
Even where
where people
people
consume only small amounts
amounts of forest
forest foods,
foods, they
they play
play an
an important
important role
role by
by adding
adding variety
variety and
and
spice and
spice and encouraging children, in
encouraging children, in particular,
particular, to
to eat more
more ofof otherwise
otherwise bland foods
foods that their
their
bodies need.
need.
Table 3.2:
3.2: Contributions
Contributions of
of forest
forest foods
foods to
to human
human nutrition
nutrition
Type of forest food

food Nutritional contribution(s)
contribution(s)
fruits and berries carbohydrates (fructose and soluble sugars), vitamins

(especially C), minerals (calcium, magnesium,
potassium);
potassium); some
some provide
provide protein,
protein, fat
fat or starch
nuts oils and carbohydrates
carbohydrates
young leaves, herbaceous
herbaceous plants
plants vitamins (beta-carotene, C)
vitamins (beta-carotene, C),, calcium,
calcium, iron
gums and saps
saps minerals
proteins and minerals
invertebrates (insects, snails)
snails) vitamins
protein, fat, vitamins
vertebrates (fish, birds,
birds, mammals)
mammals) protein
Source: FAO, 1995.

1995.
Leguminous Parkia species

Leguminous species provides
provides popular foods
foods on three
three continents,
continents, yet
yet this
this important
impQrtant food
food
source is commonly
source commonly overlooked
overlooked in in assessments
assessments of of local
local resources
resources and
and nutrition.
nutrition. People
People inin
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia eat
eat the
the whole
whole pods
pods ofof Parkia
Parkia speciosa either raw
speciosa either raw or
or cooked
cooked as as a vegetable.
vegetable. In
West Africa,
Africa, people
people from
from the
the Gambia
Gambia to Cameroon
Cameroon ferment
ferment thethe beans
beans of the
the savannah Parkia
savannah Parkia
species to
species to make
make a nutritious
nutritious traditional food that
traditional food that provides protein and
provides protein and fat.
fat. Children eat the
Children eat
pericarp raw, and
and gain
gain vitamin
vitamin C.C. In
Inthe
the semi-arid
semi-arid Chaco
Chaco region
region of
of South
South America,
America, the fruit of of
the related
the related carob tree is made into a flour or beverage that provides important calcium
tree is made into a flour or beverage that provides important calcium (FAO, (FAO,
op. cit.).
cit.) .
Attempts to
Attempts to gauge local
local use of forest foods consider that
foods must consider that harvests
harvests are
are seasonal,
seasonal, and
and depend
depend
not just on when the forest species fruits but also
species fruits also on
on the
the farming
farming cycle.
cycle. For example,
example, harvests of
forest foods often peak not during thethe main fruiting season, but during the "hungry
"hungry season"
season" when
when
staple agricultural crops are
are not
not yet harvestable and food
food reserves
reserves and/or household cash
cash is
is scarce.
Within a single community,

Within community, different
different groups
groups rely
rely on forest foods
foods to varying degrees. Poor Poor and
and
landless people often depend
landless people depend more heavily
heavily on forest foods
foods than others.
others. In manymany areas,
areas, children
children
tend to snack on forest
forest fruits
fruits and
and seeds
seeds more
more than
than adults.
adults. This
This variation
variation isis important
important for
for gauging
gauging
local resource use. Identifying
Identifying key indicator groups
key indicator groups that
that depend
depend most
most heavily on NWFPs providesprovides
a tool for
for monitoring
monitoring resource
resource availability.
availability .
Gender
Gender and
and other variables
variables also
also influence the processing
influence the of forest
processing of forest and
and tree
tree foods.
foods. All
All family
family
members might help with collection, but it is
is usually
usually women who
who are responsible
responsible for processing
3.. Assessing
3 Assessing local
local use
use of
of the
the resource
resource 21
21
these items. In southwestern Nigeria, for
Text box
box 3.1:
3.1: Beekeeping
Beekeeping in
inZambia
Zambia
example,
example, women process parkia
women process parkia beans, palm oil
oil
In northwestern Zambia,
In Zambia, beekeeping
beekeeping is an
an and
and soap (FAO, op.
soap (FAO, op. cit.).
cit.).
integral
integral part
part ·of
ofrural
rural life
Jife and
andlivelihoods.
. livelihoods.
Nearly all
aU beekeepers are also farmers,
heekeepersarealso farmers, and
and Fodder and grazing
grazing
the time
time they
they spend
spend beekeeping
beekeeping isis dictated
dictated
by the farming
farm ing calendar.
calendar. Forest
Forest fodder for stall
fodder for stall feeding,
feeding , in
in addition
addition to
to
widespread forest grazing is very important in
widespread forest grazing is very important in
For a a long time, foresters considered
beekeepingto
beekeeping tO be
be damaging
darnaging to to forests
forests in in
many
many developing countries where rural families
developing countries families
northwestern Zambia,
Zambia, because
because many
many trees
trees keep
keep domestic animals, especially
domestic animals, especially in
in arid and
and
are felled to to make
make hives
hives and
and because
because semi-arid areas.
areas . While
While fodder,
fodder , almost
almost exclusive-
exclusive-
honey-hunters sometimes
honey-hunters sometimes cause ly, is
is used
used locally,
locally, uncontrolled
uncontrolled fodder
fodder collection
collection
indiscriminate burning
indiscriminate burning of the
the forests. In the and grazing often can lead to forest
forest depletion.
depletion.
1960s,
1960s, however,
however, foresters
foresters realized
realized that
that
beekeeping in the
beekeeping the woodlandS offered better
woodlands offeredbetter Medicinal uses
uses
livelihood than did timber production. production.
Furthermore, beekeeping
Furthermore, beekeeping does
does not cOnflict
conflict
with
with other
other land
land uses
uses in Miombo woodlands.
Use of medicines
Use from the forest often
medicines from often overlaps
overlaps
In some
some places,
places, beekeepers
beekeepers andand foresters
foresters with forest food use. People
food use. People add certain items
items toto
have recognized cornmon common management
management foods for the dual purpose of
of improving
improving taste
taste and
and
goals, for example, in preventing adding health
adding health tonic
tonic properties
properties (Arnold,
(Arnold, op.
op. cit.).
cit.) .
unmanaged fire
unmanaged fire (which
(which destroys
destroys flowers
flowers Often these
Often these uses
uses are closely
closely linked
linked to
to cultural
cultural
leading to
leading to reduced nectar flow).
reduced nectar flow). In In other
other values,, and integrate
values integrate traditional
traditional and
and Western-
Western-
areas, traditional
traditional beekeeping
beekeeping does
doesnotnot easily style medicine.
style medicine. In In Ghana,
Ghana, people
people in one
one study
study
harmonize
harmonize with increasing
increasing pressure
pressure on .the the regarded diseases as caused by either "natural" or or
forest. This
This requires
requires innovation to to integrate
integrate
"supernatural" problems,
problems , using Western
farming, beekeeping
beekeeping and and overall forest
management (Fischer,
(Fischer, 19931.
1993). medicines for
medicines for natural illness and traditional cures
for supernatural problems.
Local trade
In local
local trade
trade of
of NWFPs,
NWFPs, women
women often
often play
playaa major
major role.
role. In
Intwo
two out
outof
ofeight
eightvillages
villages studied
studied in
in
Ghana, collecting forest
forest leaves
leaves for
for wrapping
wrapping food,
food, sponge-making
sponge-making and and basket-weaving
basket-weaving (activities
(activities
mostly done by women)
women) provided the the main
main sources
sources ofof income (FAO, op.
income (FAO, op. cit.)
cit.).. Local
Local processing
and trade of
and of NWFPs
NWFPs is is often
often seasonal.
seasonal. These
These activities
activities offer
offer aa cushion
cushion of
of extra
extra income
income inin times
times
of hardship.
How to study
study local
local resource
resource use
use
Because local use of the non-wood forest

forest resource
resource varies
varies greatly
greatly,, prospective
prospective enterprise
enterprise managers
own assessments. This
need to conduct their own This assessment
assessment also
also provides an opportunity to learn
learn how
how
local communities manage key non-wood
non-wood resources and what what practices
practices they
they employ.
employ . Recording
Recording
and studying
studying this
this knowledge
knowledge helps
helps ensure
ensure that
that forest
forest management plans consider
management plans consider all
all relevant
relevant
information.
What information
information to
to collect
collect
A study in Ghana
Ghana illustrates
illustrates the
the types
types of
of information
information to look for (Falconer,
(Falconer, 1992):
1992):
• forest food consumption

consumption and its its importance
importance in
in the
the diet;
diet;
• local use ofof plant
plant medicines;
medicines;
• use of
of forest
forest products
products for
for house
house construction,
construction, tools,
tools, fuel
fuel and
and fodder;
fodder;
• relative use ofof on-farm
on-farm and
and village
village trees,
trees, and
and attitudes
attitudes toward
toward forests;
22
• use of NWFPs in
use in trade
trade and
and processing;
processing;
• consumer demand
consumer demand for for bustimeat and other
bushmeat and other items
items such
such as
as chewsticks,
chewsticks, baskets,
baskets, food-
food-
wrapping leaves and
and medicines.
medicines.
For each activity, itit isis necessary

necessary to
to estimate
estimate numbers
numbers ofofpeople
people involved,
involved, the
the quantities
quantities traded
traded or
used, purchase and selling
used, selling prices andand transportation
transportation costs.
How to collect
How collect the information
In the past decade,

decade , aa variety
variety of
of methodologies
methodologies have evolved for assessing rural community needs needs
quickly and
quickly and with their participation.
participation. These
These include
include Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory
Participatory
Rural Appraisal
Rural Appraisal (PRA),
(PRA) , andand Diagnosis
Diagnosis and Design
Design (D&D).
(D&D). A A number
number ofof excellent
excellent references
references
explain how
explain how toto use these information-gathering tools (see
information-gathering tools (see "For
"For further
further reading").
reading").
Text box
Text box 3.2: Women's involvement
3.2: Women's involvement in
These usually
These usually start
start with
with a background search of
background search
processing in Brazil
Brazil available
available literature
literature from local government offices
and other
and other sources,
sources, such such as as research
research institutes.
institutes.
In Acre,
In Acre, womenwomen have have responsibility
responsibility for for Studies that appear unrelated to non-wood
processing all
processing all plants
plants intended
intended for fo r hurnan
human products may still describe important local values values
and animal
and animal consumption
consumption:: foods,
foods, beverages,
peverages, concerning the forest or people's access
concerning the forest or people's access to it. Forto it.
spices,, medicines, and
spices and animal
animal feed. WornenWomen example, aa study
example, study on on the
the impact
impact ofof a pulp
pulp and
and
in the area
in area have
have refined
refined skills
skills inin managing
managing
fuelwood plantation
fuelwood plantation in in West
West Africa
Africa contained
contained
and exploiting some 150
and species. Plants
150species. Plants for
food include
food include wild and and domesticated
domesticated ·fruits fruits local
local people
people's' s complaints reduced availability
complaints of reduced availability
and nuts,
and nuts, and and field and and>garden
garden crops.
crops. of forest produce
produce and and listed
listed the most important
important
Processed products range from from jams,
jams, types: bushmeat,
types: bushmeat, chews chewsticks, canes, poles
ticks , canes, poles and
and
chocolate
choco and cooking
late and cooking oil oil,, to coffees
coffees and and other housing
housing materials
materials (Falconer, 1990). Studies
herbal teas
herbal teas.. The
The women
women use use overover 50 plants of nutrition,
nutrition, landland tenure
tenure and and agriculture
agriculture cancan
for medicines.
medicines . Pest Pest repellents
repellents also also come
come provide valuable indicators local
valuable indicators of local forest use.
from
from the the forest.
forest. Both
Both men men and and women
women
make baskets,
baskets , brooms, hats and other craft
hatsandothercraft
This background search is usually followed
followed by a
products.
products More than
. More than half
half of of aa group
group of of
women interviewed replied
women
combination of household
replied enthusiastically
enthusiastically
household and/or group
that ifif aa market
market existed,
existed, they
they wouldinterviews or
interviews
would make
make or surveys
surveys and
and mapping exercises. A
mapping exercises.
time
time to to regularly
regularly prepare
prepare items survey in six Asian countries asked households to
items for sale sale to
(Kainer and
(Kainer and Duryea,
Duryea, 1992).
1992) . the forest species
list the species they
.•. they used, rank the
the species
species
by preference
preference based
based on their use-value,
use-value, and
and list
list
the different plant parts
different plant parts used
used (Mehl,
(Mehl, 1991).
1991).
further help
Households can further help by
by keeping
keeping weekly
weekly estimates
estimates of the products they consume and sell,
in quantitative terms.
Local markets and prices

Local markets prices can
can help
help to
to indicate
~ndicate what
what non-wood
non-wood resources
resources are important.
important. Where
Where
local market information
local information systems exist (see
systems exist (see Chapter
Chapter 7),
7), they may,
may , with
with some
some adjustments,
adjustments, help
help
to gauge local harvest rates
rates for key products. Market figures alone, however, do not supply the
for key products. Market figures alone, however, do not supply the
full picture.
full picture . In
In Zaire,
Zaire, studies
studies found
found that
that most
most small
small game
game was
was traded
traded or
or exchanged
exchanged locally
locally or
or
consumed within
consumed within the
the household
household and and not
not recorded
recorded (Redford
(Redford etet aI.,
al., 1995).
1995).
Identifying target
target and
and indicator
indicator groups
groups
For an
an accurate
accurate picture
picture of
oflocal
local resource
resource use,
use, forest
forestmanagers
managers should
should identify
identify the
the groups
groups that
that
depend most on thethe resource
resource and
and monitor their use as a sensitive
sensitive gauge.
gauge. To optimize
optimize equity and
equity and
stability, the
the managers
managers should
should also
also consider
consider how
how proposed
proposed activities
activities would affect these groups.
groups.
3.
3 . Assessing
Assessing local
local use
use of
ofthe
theresource
resource 23
23
The importance of
of women's
women's concerns
concerns
Despite the fact that

that women
women tendtend to
to depend
depend more
more onon non-wood
non-wood resources
resources for household
household use use and
income than men, they
income they frequently
frequently have
have less
less voice
voice in
in resource
resource management
management decisions
decisions than
than men,
men,
and their priorities
priorities are
are often
often overlooked.
overlooked. In In Latin
Latin America
America women
women have
have large
large roles
roles in
inhunting
hunting
using certain technologies
using (nets, basket
technologies (nets, basket traps
traps and
and poison fishing) but
poison fishing) but not
not in others;
others ; in
in some
some
societies,
societies, women are the ones to identify and track
identify and track animals
animals (Redford,
(Redford, op.
op. cit.)
cit.).. Assessments
Assessments of of
local NWFP use use should
should recognize
recognize these
these variations
variations and
and make
make aa special
special effort
effort to
to include
include women
women
and address their
their needs.
needs.
Other indicator
indicator groups
groups
Other groups that tend

Other tend to
to rely
rely heavily
heavily on
on forest
forest products
products for food
food and
and other
other subsistence
subsistence needs
needs
include (FAO, 1989):
include 1989):
• the landless
the landless poor, who
who often
often depend
depend on
on common
common property
property resources
resources for fodder,
fodder, fuel,
fuel,
handicraft materials and other
other needs;
needs;
• forest dwellers
dwellers and
and shifting
shifting cultivators,
cultivators, who frequently lack secure
frequently lack secure land
land tenure
tenure and are
squeezed out when pressures increase
increase on
on forest
forest resources;
resources;
• small-farm families, who

small-farm families, who may
may lack
lack resources
resources for
for subsistence
subsistence production,
production, and who
who
experience declining fertility
fertility and
and shrinking
shrinking farm-size
farm-size through
through inheritance;
inheritance;
• pastoralists
pastoralistsand
andherders,
herders,who
whoare
arevulnerable
vulnerabletotodroughts
droughtsand
and encroachment
encroachment by
by cultivators
cultivators
government programmes;
and government programmes;
• young children, who

who depend
depend on forest
forest snacks
snacks for certain vitamins.
By identifying
By these vulnerable
identifying these vulnerable groups
groups and
and the
the non-wood
non-wood resources
resources on
on which
which they
they rely,
rely, forest
managers can
managers can anticipate and prevent
anticipate and prevent (or reduce)
reduce) conflicts and shortages
conflicts and shortages caused
caused by
by changes
changes in
in
forest management.
Subsector analysis for marketed

marketed products
products
products, subsector
For major marketed products, subsector analysis
analysis helps
helps in
in understanding the
the commercial
commercial processes
processes
at work. A
A full
full subsector
subsector study
study can
can take
take aa month
month or more
more toto complete,
complete, but
but parts
parts of
ofitit can
can be
be done
done
in several days
days and
and provide
provide useful
useful information
information on
on local
local market
market flows.
flows.
A full subsector
subsector analysis
analysis uncovers a range
range of
of information,
information, including
including (ATI,
(AT! , 1995):
1995):
• the local market's

market's main
mainfunctions,
functions, technologies,
technologies, participants
participants and
and product
product flows;
flows;
• a summary of participants
participants and alternative
alternative channels
channels for product flows,
flows, and trends
trends among
among
channels;
• regulations and policies

policies that
that influence
influence local
local product
product flows;
flows;
• the number of enterprises that

that market a product, sales
sales value amounts, employment levels
and increase in
in product
product value
value at
at each
each stage.
stage.
24
Text box 3.3: Adapting assessment methods: the example of mangroves
Assessing resources and hovv nearby communities use them is a site-specific task. Resources
range from desert oases and semi-arid savannas to montane forests, from herbs and vines to
wildlife. Resource managers rnust adapt the assessment methods to suit the local species,
ecosystem and human environment.
Mangroves and other wetlands,. for example, present a unique set of conditions for management
and are subject to different pressures than land forests.
In mangroves,
In mangroves , non-wood activities such as fisheries often generate much more income than.,.,
timber
t imber harvests.
h Mangroves can also create incierne through algae cultivation (for example, for
export) and producing salt from evaporating-seawater (FAO, 1989). Mangrove products include
tannin for leather curingt:!.:medicinest-boneVt.vinegar, cooking oil, wildlife and fermented drinks.
Mangroves contribute tei local food security partieelarly..ithrough their.StippOrt of coastal habitats.
for fish, shrimp, oysters, crabs, cockles and molluscs..They also provide plant-borne food, such
as nipa palm fruits, and high-protein fodder from Rhizophora leaves.
Pressures unique to mangrove ecosystems include land reclamation efforts, destructive and
unmanaged construction of fish and shrimp ponds, and harvesting for fuelwood and poles.
Mangroves are also very sensitive to pollution from urban wastes, food-processing industries,
power stations and dam construction.
To manage mangroves effectively, a manager needs to know the dynamics of water bodies and
manage mang
forest
forest cover.
cover. Assessment of mangrove ecosystems and their products requires more
interdisciplinary col
interdisciplinary collaboration than for dryland forests. This makes it especially important to
clearly define
clearly define data
data needs
need before starting to collect them.
The general types of data needed are still the same as described in Chapter 2 (resource biology,
socio-economic information, existing and future demand, and operational and institutional
information), but mangroves involve a variety of particular trade-offs. For example, there are
socio-economic trade-offs between fisheries and timber harvests. Additional logistical
considerations include river transportation and pond or canal construction (Vantomme, 1995).
Subsector analysis starts by defining the product's end market.

defining the market. In the case ofrattan,
of rattan, for example,
end market
end market products
products could
could be furniture
furniture and
and handicraft for both
handicraft for both local
local and export
export sale.
sale. After
After
identifying
identifying the main end markets, thethe analysis
analysis should describe each step from growth to to harvest
harvest
to final
final consumer; this sequence
sequence isis known
known asas the
the product's
product's value chain (ATI,
value chain (ATI, op.
op. cit.).
The analysis identifies the

the participants at each stage (collectors, processors, government
agencies,
NG0s,
NGOs, traders,
traders, market
marketagents,
agents, etc.).
etc.) .For
Foreach
eachstage,
stage, ititlists
lists all
all steps
steps involved:
involved: What is required
to complete each stage?
stage? What set of of skills,
skills, equipment,
equipment, and and capital?
capital? Which
Which participant performs
which step?
step?
When the information

information from this
this part
part of
of aasubsector
subsector market
market analysis
analysis is
is combined
combined withwith the
the results
results
of the rapid assessment
assessment of
of subsistence
subsistence use, aa picture
picture emerges
emerges of
of(1)
(1) who
who collects
collects and
and uses
uses NWFPs
NWFPs
locally, (2) who gains
locally, gains by
by them
them and
and (3)
(3) aa rough
rough estimate
estimate of
of what
what quantities
quantities are involved.
involved.
Learning
Learning about local forest
forest management
management
Few, ifif any, forest

forest resources
resources are
are entirely
entirely unmanaged.
unmanaged. Even
Even where the forest appears
appears undisturbed,
undisturbed,
some
some form of of management
management is is probably
probably taking
taking place.
place. For
For example,
example, the
the Kayapo
Kayapo Indians
Indians of
of the
the
Amazon basin plant species along forest paths and in natural forest openings for food, medicine,
medicine,
3.. Assessing
3 Assessing local
local use
use of
of the
the resource
resource 25
building materials, dyes and
and insect
insect repellent.
repellent. Damar
Damar forests
forests in
in Sumatra,
Sumatra, Indonesia,
Indonesia, appear
appear quite
quite
natural but have been
been managed
managed for
for generations
generations to obtain
obtain damar resin and other
other products.
products.
In many cases, local

local forest
forest management
management has increased
increased the diversity of forest species for non-wood
products.
products. In
In West
West Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, Indonesia,
Indonesia, Dalat
Dalat communities
communities havehave broadened
broadened distribution
distribution and
and
increased the abundance
increased the abundance of products,
products, including illipe nuts
including illipe nuts (Shorea
(Shorea spp.)
spp.) and
and fruits
fruits of
of durian
durian
(Durio zibethinus), rambutan
rambutan (Nephelium spp.) and
(Nephelium spp.) and mangosteen
mangosteen (Garcinia
(Garcinia mangostana),
mangostana), as well
as a timber
timber species,
species, Eusideroxylon
Eusideroxylon zwagerii.
zwagerii. In Brazil's eastern
eastern Amazon,
Amazon, in in the
the Ilha
Ilha das
das Onças,
On9as,
people
people have maintained
maintained a variety
variety of
of fruit
fruit and
and latex
latex species
species as
as well
wellasaswood-producing
wood-producing species
species
(Reis, 1995).
1995).
In these
these cases,
cases, local
local management
management strategies
strategies build
build on
on basic
basic practices
practices such
such as:
as: selective
selective weeding
weeding
around valued
valued plants;
plants; enrichment
enrichment planting,
planting, and
and occasional
occasional selective
selective harvesting of timber species
to open
open the
the canopy
canopy and
and stimulate
stimulate seedling
seedling growth.
growth. These
These elements form a sound
elements form sound basis
basis for
for
sustainable forest
sustainable forest management
management (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 4).
4). To learn what management practices exist
management practices exist in
in an
area, prospective
area, prospective forest
forest managers
managers should
should interview older local
interview older people and
local people and forest
forest dwellers
dwellers (both
(both
men and women), spending
spending time with them in the forest.
forest.
Summary
• Assess how communities
Assess how near the
communities near the forest
forest already
already useuse the
the forest
forest resource
resource for non-wood
non-wood
products, and
and the
the influence
influence of
of local
local cultural, spiritual,
spiritual, social
social and economic
economic values. This
This
helps
helps to fully
fully account
account for existing
existing demand
demand andand prevent over-harvesting.
over-harvesting. ItIt also
also helps to
identify the types
types of
of improvements
improvements most
most likely
likely to
to succeed
succeed locally.
locally .
• For this
this assessment,
assessment, examine
examine household
household subsistence
subsistence uses. Review
Review background
background materials
materials
and use rapid
rapid appraisal
appraisalmethodologies
methodologies to
to gauge
gauge the
the priority
priority household
household uses.
uses .
• Gauge the importance of

of NWFPs
NWFPs in
in local
local markets,
markets, for
for example
example using
using subsector
subsector analysis.
analysis.
This method helps identify who sells,
identify who sells, who buys,, and how
who buys how the products flow
the products flow through
through the
the
market.
• Investigate
Investigate local management systems for
management systems for the
the resource.
resource. Interview
Interview older
older villagers,
villagers, forest
dwellers and forest
forest medicine
medicine providers to uncover information
information on how people
people use these
products. These
These systems
systems can
can include
include selective weeding
weeding around
around valued
valued species,
species, enrichment
enrichment
planting of these species in the forest and selective felling. Even
selective felling. Even where
where the
the forest
forest appears
appears
unmanaged, local
unmanaged, local management systems can
management systems can bebe important
important and
and offer
offer keys
keys to sustainable
sustainable
management.
• Look for indicator

indicator groups
groups within
within the
the community - people
people who especially rely on NWFPs
especially rely
- ininorder
ordertotounderstand
understandpeople-resource
people-resource dynamics. This allows
dynamics . This allows a manager
manager to monitor
monitor
forest health and
and that
that of
ofnearby
nearby communities.
communities.
• Ensure
Ensure that women's
women's interests
interests and
and preferences
preferences receive
receive full
full weight
weight in plans for
for forest
forest
in recognition
management, in of their
recognition of their role
role in
in product
product collection,
collection, processing
processing and
and marketing.
marketing.
With a sound
With sound understanding
understanding of the
the biological
biological resource
resource and its relationship
and its to the
relationship to the human
human
environment,the
environment, the forest
forest manager
manageroror community
communityisisready
readyfor
for the
the next
next step
step -- identifying
identifying
opportunities for improvement.
improvement.
26
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assessment,
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Community Forestry
Forestry Field Manual 2.
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FAO. Community Forestry:
1990. Community Forestry: Rapid
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Note3.3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
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FAO. 1991.
FAO. 1991. Non-wood forest products:
Non-wood forest products..the
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FAO. 1995. The
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indigenous silviculture
silviculture to forestry
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1994. The
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28
Opportunities for
Opportunities for improved
improvedmanagement
management 4
Earlier chapters have
have described
described how
how toto understand
understand the current extent, use and and management
management of aa
locality's non-wood
non-wood forest resources.
resources. They
They have
have noted
noted that
that many
many traditional
traditional systems
systems that
that once
once
were environmentally
environmentally sound
sound must now be adapted to to handle
handle increasing
increasing pressure
pressure on
on these
these resources
resources
for livelihood and income.
income. This
This chapter
chapter begins
begins to
to address
address how
how communities
communities and
and enterprises
enterprises can
can
adapt systems for management
management that
that are
are culturally,
culturally, economically
economically and
and environmentally
environmentally sustainable.
This chapter explores

This explores the
the following
following forms
forms of
of adaptation:
adaptation:
• improving productivity;
• reducing waste in
in harvest
harvest and
and post-harvest
post-harvest treatments;
treatments;
• improving multiple-use forest
forest management;
management;
• domesticating key species;
domesticating
• innovations
innovations in management
management for production of goods
goods and services (e.g.
(e.g . medicinal
medicinal plants,
plants,
wildlife); and
wildlife);
• ecotourism.
Chapters 5-7
Chapters 5-7 will
will explore
explore the
the closely
closely related
related issues
issues of
ofbetter
bettermarket
marketlinkages,
linkages, processing
processing
techniques and
techniques and business practices for
business practices for adding
adding value
value locally (usually through
locally (usually through some
some form
form of rural
processing) to
to ensure that
that aa greater
greater portion
portion of
of aa product's
product's market
market value
value accrues to the people who
manage the
manage the forest resource.
resource .
For the options

options discussed
discussed in
in this
this chapter, some
some key
key principles
principles of
of management
management apply (Vantomme,
(Vantomme,
1995)
1995)::
• wood and
wood and non-wood resources should
non-wood resources shouldbe
be managed
managedinin an
an integrated way to
integrated way to meet
meet
subsistence and market needs;
needs ;
• harvests should
harvests should not exceed
exceed the resource's
resource's ecological
ecological carrying
carrying capacity,
capacity, and
and should
should be
planned to maintain
maintain the
the diversity
diversity of
of local
local biological
biological resources;
resources;
• planning is
planning is a continuous,
continuous, dynamic
dynamic process and must
process and must respond
respond to new opportunities
opportunities and
conditions, including
including improved
improved data
data collection;
collection;
• the process for

the for making
making decisions
decisions onon resource
resource management
management should be transparent
should be transparent and
equitable in order for
equitable for decisions
decisions to
to be
be effective.
effective.
Improving resource
Improving resource productivity
Chapter 33 identified
identified several
several measures
measures for
for improving
improving plant
plant productivity
productivity in forests,
forests, practised
practised by
by
some forest-dwelling
forest-dwelling groups. These
These were:
were :
• selective weeding around valued

valued species;
species;
• enrichment planting of these species in the forest;
• selective felling
selective felling of trees to open
open the
the canopy
canopy and
and stimulate
stimulate seedling growth.
seedling growth.
The three practices

practices are
are interdependent.
interdependent. For
For example,
example, selective
selective weeding
weeding (regular removal of all all
vegetation within
within aa radius
radius of
ofabout
about 11m
m of
ofthe
the desired
desired plants)
plants) succeeds
succeeds only
only when
when selective
selective felling
felling
has opened
opened the
the canopy
canopy overhead.
overhead.
4. Opportunities for
for improved
improved management
management 29
Enrichment
Enrichment planting
planting aims
aims to increase
increase the number of desirable
desirable plants
plants in the forest with
with minimal
minimal
disturbance to the
the forest
forest ecosystem.
ecosystem. Its
Its success
success depends
depends mainly
mainly on:
on:
• adequate opening
adequate opening of the overhead forest canopy early in in seedling
seedling growth;
• the amenability of the desired plant
the plant species:
species: fast-growing,
fast-growing, gap-filling
gap-filling species
species work
work well.
well.
Experience suggests
Experience suggests that
that the following (mainly timber)
following (mainly timber) species,
species, among
among others,
others, are
are amenable
amenable toto
enrichment planting:
enrichment planting: in
in West
West Africa,
Africa, Terminalia superba and
Terminalia superba and T. ivorensis; in
T. ivorensis; in East
East Africa,
Africa,
Maesopsis eminii;
eminii; in South America,
America, Cordia alliodora, Simaruba
Simaruba amara,
amara, Swietenia
Swietenia macrophylla,
macrophylla,
Cedrela odorata, Carapa
Cedrela Carapaguayanensis,
guayanensis, and
andVirola
Virola species;
species; and
and ininAsia-Pacific,
Asia-Pacific, Toona
Toona ciliata.
ciliata .
Locally preferred species
Locally species should
should naturally
naturally receive
receive priority
priority for
for testing.
testing .
Producers can
can improve
improve forest
forest plant
plant yields
yields by
by propagating
propagating seeds
seeds or
or cuttings
cuttings from
from individual
individual plants
plants
known to have good yields and superior
known superior growth.
The above measures

The measures can
can bring
bring about
about relatively
relatively small
small increases
increases in
in supply
supply from
from wild
wild sources.
sources.
Often, more significant
Often, significant gains are possible
possible by reducing waste harvesting, storage
waste in harvesting, storage and
and transport
operations.
Improving harvesting methods

methods
Harvesting - broadly
broadly including
including harvest
harvest planning,
planning, pre-harvest
pre-harvestand
and post-harvest treatments - isis the
post-harvest treatments the
most important process
process in managing
managing a resource.
resource. It directly affects both the
affects both the yield
yield and
and the health
of the living resource.
resource. Improvements
Improvements inin the
the harvesting
harvesting process
process can
can make
make the
the difference
difference between
between
healthy forest and degraded land; they can also decide
a healthy decide whether
whether anan enterprise
enterprise returns
returns aa profit
profit or
loss (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1:
4.1: Potential
Potential benefits
benefits to
to producers
producers of
ofimproved
improved harvest
harvest activities
activities
Activity Potential financial benefit

improve harvest techniques
techniques increase income
increase income 10
10 percent
percent or more
increase harvest efficiency in the
the forest
forest increase income
income 5-10 percent or more
more
reduce post-harvest losses
losses through
through improved:
improved:
forest storage and/or transport reduce losses by 5 percent
percent
local warehouses reduce losses
reduce losses of 25
25 percent
percent of product
transport to distant
distant processing
processing plants
plants reduce losses up to 35 percent of product
losses of up
Source: Clay, 1995)

1995)
Pre-harvest preparations
Good
Good harvesting
harvesting requires
requires good
good planning,
planning, linked closely to
linked closely to the
the resource
resource inventory.
inventory . Like
Like an
an
inventory, a good harvest strategy starts with a clear understanding
understanding ofof tenure
tenure and
and resource
resource rights
rights
(see Chapter 2). ItIt requires
requires careful
careful timing
timing to
to optimize
optimize yield taking into
into consideration the
the transport,
processing and marketing involved.
involved. For example,
example, many
many fruits transport with fewer losses if they
are harvested just before
are before they
they fully
fully ripen.
ripen. Sound
Sound harvest
harvest plarming
planning covers logistics,
logistics , training for
harvesters in
in efficient
efficient harvesting
harvesting techniques,
techniques, and
and financing
financing of
of operations.
operations.
Depending on the tenure regime, harvesting

harvesting is
is typically
typically arranged and funded in one of three ways
(Reis, 1995):
1995):
30
Post-harvest technologies
Post-harvest losses due

Post-harvest losses due to spoilage
spoilage are
are common
common and
and rob
rob producers
producers of
ofpotential
potential income.
income.
Fortunately, technologies
technologies that reduce
reduce these
these losses
losses are
are often
often available
available and economical, including
including
techniques
techniques for depulping fruits and drying plant materials
materials (see also Chapter
(see also Chapter 5).
Better post-harvest storage further reduces losses. In many

reduces losses. cases, research results
many cases, describe what
results describe
type of storage warehouse and conditions
conditions (temperature,
(temperature, airflow,
airflow, moisture
moisture levels,
levels, etc
etc.) are best for
.) are for
reducing spoilage.
spoilage.
Multiple-use management
management for wood and
and non-wood
non-wood harvests
harvests
Combining harvests
Combining harvests ofof a non-wood product with
non-wood product with other
other NWFPs,
NWFPs, or withwith timber
timber harvests,
harvests, can
can
optimize overall
optimize overall forest
forest management.
management. ThisThis type
type of multiple
multiple and
and diversified
diversified uses,
uses, traditionally
traditionally
practised by some
some forest
forest dwellers,
dwellers, can
can ease
ease the
the economic
economic pressures on both wood and non-wood
In planning,
resources. In planning, resource
resource managers
managers should
should analyze
analyze the inventory information to to determine
complementary
complementary harvest strategies
strategies and
and uncover
uncover potential
potential conflicts
conflicts between
between wood
wood and
and non-wood
non-wood
harvests.
harvests. The
The local
local community
community should
should participate
participate inin prioritizing
prioritizing harvestable
harvestable products
products and
and
strategies.
Strategies for domestication

Strategies domestication
Chapter 2 discussed
Chapter discussed advantages
advantages and disadvantages
disadvantages of species
species domestication.
domestication. InIn certain
certain cases,
maintaining the wild resource may require some
some kind of domestication strategy in order to reduce
pressure on such
pressure such wild
wild resources.
resources . In
In West
WestAfrica,
Africa, declining
declining forest
forest resources
resources and
and increasing
increasing
demand for
demand for certain
certain products
products isis causing people toto rely
causing people rely more
more on trees
trees growing
growing on farmland
farmland
(Falconer, 1990).
(Falconer, 1990). The
The same
same trend
trend appears
appears in Asia.
Asia.
Domestication can
Domestication can take
take place
place in several
several ways:
ways : (1)
(1) enrichment
enrichment planting
planting inin forest areas,
areas, (2)
smallholder cultivation, and (3) commercial or community
community plantations
plantations (Wickens,
(Wickens, 1991).
1991). The
The range
range
of combinations allows communities
combinations allows communities toto adapt
adapt aa domestication strategy toto suit
domestication strategy suit their
their needs
needs and
preferences.
Domestication helps to improve the NWFP resource resource inin quantitative and qualitative
qualitative terms.
terms. It is
is to
to
be noted,
be noted, however,
however, that that domestication
domestication calls calls for
for certain
certain research
research issues to be
issues to be addressed
addressed andand
information generated
information generated and and analyzed before it can be widely
analyzed before widely adopted:
adopted: can the species desired be be
domesticated?; if so, so, what
what are arethe
thespecifics
specificsinvolved? variation in
there variation
involved? is there in the
the desired
desired
characteristics?; ifif itit exists,
exists, isis this
this variation
variation genetic
genetic in
in nature
nature or
or caused
caused by
by environmental
environmental factors?;
factors?;
can improvement in desirable characteristics be best achieved achieved by genetic
genetic (phenotypic) selection,
(phenotypic) selection,
by silvicultural interventions, and/or and/or by by aa combination
combination of of both?; such improvement
both?; is such improvement
economically practical
economically practical and and feasible?;
feasible?; what parallel action
what parallel will be
action will be needed
needed to ensure
ensure thethe
conservation of the geneticgenetic resources
resources of of the
the species?
species? (Chandrasekharan,
(Chandrasekharan, 1994)
1994)
Community forests
Community forest
Community forest reserves
reserves of planted
planted and volunteer
volunteer species can provide
species can provide forest
forest products
products andand
relieve pressure on the natural
relieve natural forest. In
In Sumatra,
Sumatra, Indonesia,
Indonesia, farmers
farmers in the late
late 1800s
1800s planted
planted
areas with
areas with the
the resin-producing damar tree
resin-producing damar tree (Shorea javanica) and
(Shorea javanica) and fruit
fruit species
species (mainly Durio
(mainly Durio
zibethinus and Lansium domesticum).
domesticum). TheThe damar
damar produces
produces aa clear
clear resin which
which isis exported for use
in paint and
and varnishes.
varnishes. These
These agroforests
agroforests - now
now comprising
comprising roughly
roughly 65 percent
percent damar
damar trees,
trees,
25 percent fruit trees and
25 and the
the remainder
remainder wild trees forfor timber
timber - continue
continue to be managed
managed byby those
those
farmers' grandchildren.
grandchildren. Some
Some plantations
plantations contain 39 tree species
species at a mean
mean density
density of 245 trees
trees
32
• collectors with
collectors with extractive rights harvest,
extractive rights harvest, often
often with
with some
some kind
kind of patronage
patronage from
from a
purchasing agent;
• lease holders
lease holders with
with collection rights hire
collection rights hire contract
contract labourers
labourers to
to harvest
harvest the
the material
material for
for a
daily wage;
• resource- or lease-owners
lease-owners finance
finance harvest, using
using credit.
credit.
Secure tenure can provide

Secure provide means
means (collateral)
(collateral) by which
which collectors
collectors can obtain credit for for meeting
meeting
harvesting costs (see Chapter 10),
10), and
and incentive
incentive for
for using
using harvest
harvest techniques
techniques that maintain long-
term supply.
supply . Collectors
Collectors with
with only
only short-term
short-term rights
rights (or
(or no
no tenure
tenure rights)
rights) often
oftenfind
find ecologically
ecologically
destructive harvests easier
easier and
and more
more profitable
profitable than
thansustainable
sustainable techniques.
techniques .
To finance
finance future
future harvest
harvest operations,
operations, producer
producer groups
groups should
should seek
seek agreements
agreements with traders
traders or
or
manufacturers in order to establish
manufacturers establish and obtain royalty fees based
royalty fees based on
on product
product resale.
resale. Few groups
have already negotiated
have negotiated such agreements,
agreements, by which
which they
they receive
receive an
an environmental premium of
environmental premium
five percent
five percent of sales
sales or other
other royalties based on
royalties based on the
the value
value of sale
sale to
to the
the end
end user
user or consumer.
consumer.
Five percent
percent of
of the
the end-value
end-value received
received by
by traders
traders in
in New
New York
York or London
London markets
markets can
can mean
mean that
that
producers receive nearly
nearly a third more income
income from
from the product (Clay,
the product (Clay, op.
op. cit.).
Harvest techniques
Producers should
should learn
learn about
about all
all available
available harvest
harvest technologies.
technologies. They
They should
should assess
assess them
them (perhaps
(perhaps
with technical assistance) on the
the basis
basis of:
of:
• how much time

time and
and labour
labour they
they demand;
demand;
• a comparison of costs and
and returns;
• their environmental impact.
impact.
Improved
Improvedknowledge
knowledgeofofspecies.
species .Harvest
Harvestplanners
plannerscan
canuse
use knowledge
knowledge of of the
the species' biology
biology to
to
make harvests more efficient.
make harvests efficient. For example,
example, in
in Southeast Asia, harvest
Southeast Asia, harvest of the essence of gaharu
the essence
(Aquilaria malaccensis and
(Aquilaria malaccensis and related
related species)
species) depends
dependson on aa fungal
fungal infection
infection of the
the wood.
wood .
Experienced harvesters say
Experienced harvesters say they
they can determine
determine if a tree's
tree's wood
wood isis infected
infected without
without destructive
destructive
thereby saving
felling, thereby saving effort
effort and
and trees.
trees. Newcomers
Newcomerswhowholack
lackthis
this knowledge
knowledge have
have destroyed
destroyed large
large
forest areas by felling trees to determine if they are infected; this waste
infected; this waste can be
be reduced
reduced byby having
having
experienced harvesters train
train the
the newcomers.
newcomers.
Improved knowledge
Improved knowledge of technical
technical options.
options. For
Forsome
some products,
products, harvest
harvest efficiency
efficiency can be be
improved by
improved by harvesting
harvesting fewer
fewer plant
plant parts.
parts. In
In the
the Amazon,
Amazon, forfor example, harvest of
example, harvest of pau
pau rosa
(Aniba rosaeodora) for
(Aniba for its
its essential
essential oil
oil has almost
almost always entailed felling the
entailed felling the tree.
tree. However, the the
oil can be harvested
harvested efficiently
efficiently and
and sustainably
sustainably by removing only leaves and twigs, for for example
example
coppicing (Clay,
through coppicing (Clay, op.
op. cit.).
cit.). In
InIndonesia,
Indonesia, the
the State
State Forest
Forest Corporation, Perum Perhutani,
has improved the harvesting of of Melaleuca species
species for cayuput oil byby coppicing
coppicing trees
trees on a five-year
five-year
cycle, permitting
permitting economically
economically viable leaf harvests without killing killing the trees.
Improved equipment.
equipment. SimpleSimple changes
changes ofof equipment
equipment can reduce
reduce the
the impact
impact of harvest.
harvest. For
For
example, a common brace and and bit
bit can make it possible to harvest the the balsam
balsam of the
the same
same copaiba
copaiba
tree (Copaifera multijuga)
multijuga) for decades;
decades; by by contrast,
contrast, harvesting
harvesting with anan axe
axe causes
causes wounds
wounds that
that
can kill the tree (Clay
(Clay and Clement, 1993). 1993). In
In South
South America, buritf
buriti fruits (Mauritia flexuosa) are
(Mauritiaflexuosa)
often harvested
harvested by felling
felling the
the tree;
tree; "climbing
"climbing bicycles"
bicycles" could improve
improve access to the fruits
access to fruits for
for
harvest without felling
felling (Clay and Clement,
(Clay and Clement, op.op. cit.).
4. Opportunities
Opportunities for
forimproved
improvedmanagement
management 31
Text box 4.1:
box 4 .1 : Integrated
Integrated forest
per ha
per ha (Michon,
(Michon, cited
cited in de
de Foresta and
and Michon,
management in Mexico
management 1994).
The Plan
The Plan Piloto
Piloto Forestal
Forestal (PPF) project in
(PPF) project Household-based agroforestry
Household-based
Quintana Roo, Mexico, has adapted
Quintana
forest management
integrated forest
integrated management to local For small-farm households, agroforestry
socio-economic conditions.
conditions . Begun
Begun in 1983,
1983, (involving combinations
(involving combinationsofof trees
trees,, other plants,
plants,
the project has promoted forest
project
livestock and/or farm crops) offers viable way
livestock and/or farm crops) offers a viable way
conservation and
conservation and local
local development
development by by
involving nearby
nearby communities
communities in in rnanaging
managing
to manage
manage non-wood forest production
non-wood forest production on on farm
natural forest for for wood
wood and and non-wood
non-wood land. Throughout the
land. Throughout farmers have
the tropics, farmers have
products.
products The project
. The project focused
focused on on two
two incorporated trees
incorporated trees and
and other
other forest
forest plants
plants into
into
species: mahogany (Swietenia
(Swietenia their
their farming
farming systems
systems for
for centuries.
centuries. Besides
macrophylla) and and chicle
chicle gum
gum (Manilkara
(Manilkara being
being familiar
familiar in traditional
traditional forms, agroforestry
agroforestry
zapota).
zapota) . Chicle
Chicle latex
latex and
and honey
honey production
production makes effective
makes effective use
use of scarce resources
resources (Leakey
(Leakey
provide about half of
provide about of the
the total forest and Newton,
and Newton, 1994).
1994). It also
also can
can increase
increase farm
farm
income.
household security by diversifying on-farm
First, to ensure
ensure local participation, the
produce.
project had
project had logging rights
rights assigned
assigned to the
the
communities. PPF
ejidos, or local communities. PPF then
then Domestication
Domestication strategies
strategies should
should address
address farmers
farmers''
helped these communities to organize short-term needs by including proven
proven species
species that
that
themselves fo
themselves for
r managing
managing thethe forest
forest in a yield some sort of produce
yield some sort of produce fairly quickly.
way that
way that would
would ensure
ensure they
they received
received the
the Usually
Usually farmers
farmers decide
decide the
the composition
composition and and
economic benefits.
economic nature of their
nature their agroforestry
agroforestry systems
systems themselves
themselves
(Lescure et al., 1995).
1995). Support services should
should
Essentially, the PPF
Essentially, PPF applied:
applied:
be directed by
by farmer demand for planting stock.
• better harvest planning
planning and technology to
reduce destruction
reduce destruction of residual
residual trees
trees (e.g.
(e.g . Local domestication
Local domestication can
can start
start by studying
studying basic
basic
directional felling);
felling); seed storage options
options,, identifying promising
cultivars, and
and establishing
establishing nurseries. Simple
Simple
• enrichment planting
planting of
of logged
logged areas;
areas; techniques can
techniques can make
make big
big economic
economic differences.
differences. In
the
the Indian
Indian state
state of Andhra
Andhra Pradesh,
Pradesh, two
two small
small
• strictly controlled access to the
improvements inin nursery
improvements nursery procedure
procedure -- the
the use of
of
permanent forest
forest reserve
reserve (FAO,
(FAO, 1995).
1995).
root trainers in place of polybags
polybags and culling
culling of
seedlings - could
could have
have saved
saved tree-growing
tree-growing efforts
efforts
an estimated
estimated US$
US$ 73 to to $$127
127million
million (Contreras-Hermosilla,
(Contreras-Hermosilla, cited
cited in D'Silva
D'Silva and
and Appanah,
Appanah,
1993).
Selection and breeding for farmers'

Selection and farmers' preferences
preferences
In selecting
In selecting species
species for
for agroforestry,
agroforestry , farmers
farmers often
often aim
aim totomaximize stability - rather
maXlIlllze stability rather than
than
quantity -- of
quantity ofproduction.
production. They
They also
also often
often select
select species
species for
for characteristics
characteristics preferred
preferred for
for both
both
subsistence uses and marketable
subsistence marketable produce.
produce.
In one
one study,
study, farmers
farmers ininsix
sixAsian
Asiancountries
countries identified
identified breeding
breeding criteria for
for agroforestry
agroforestry species,
species,
according to
to their
their use
use of
ofeach
each species.
species .Where
Where one one species
species provided
provided several
several locally-used
locally-used products,
products,
farmers preferred
preferred aa combination
combination of of traits
traits that
that accommodated
accommodated all all uses
uses.. But for
for species
species that had a
clear primary
primary use,
use, farmers
farmers specified
specified the
the characteristics
characteristics of that
that use; farmers
farmers often
often ranked
ranked the
the
characteristics of most
most valuable
valuable market
market use
use as
asmost
mostimportant
important(Raintree
(Raintree and
andWickramasinghe,
Wickramasinghe,
1992).
Farmers'
Farmers' preferences for planting
preferences for planting material vary depending
material vary depending onon their
their farm
farm size,
size, cultural
background,
background, gender,
gender ,wealth
wealthand
andmarket
marketoptions.
options .Any
Any government
government or
or NGO
NGO strategy
strategy to
to support
supportthe
the
4. Opportunities
Opportunities for
forimproved
improvedmanagement
management 33
33
Text böx4.2:i
box 4.2: Joint
J()intforest
forestmanagement
management in
in India
India
India's Joint
Joint Forest
Forest Management
Management programme
programme has revitalized the management
revitalized the management of of that country's
country's
forests by
forests by involving
involving local
local communities,
communities. InIn the
the Gorela
Gorela village,
village, Rajasthan,
Rajasthan, this has
has allowed
allowed
integrated management for timber
integrated timber and two forest
and 'two forest products
products rarely
rarely considered
considered .by foresters - grass
and fodder.
and
In Gorela,
In Gorela, avariety
a variety of social
social groups
groups engage
engage inin subsistence
subsistence farming.
farming. At
At least
least 40 percent
percent of
of the
the
village households
village practice commercial
households practice commercialdairying,
dairying,with
withaa secure
securemarket
marketjust
just 10
10 km
km away.
away.
Livestock include cows,
cows, buffalo
buffalo and
and goats. Women collected fodder, fuelwood, gums
Women traditionally collected gums
and
and oils frorn the forest,
fromthe forest, and
andvillagers
villagers grazed
grazed their
their animals
animals on
on grasses
grasses there.
In 1980, the
In the villagers
villagers grew
grew concerned
concerned by
by increasing forage scarcity
increasing forage scarcity and
andbegan
beganworking
workingwith
with the
the
Forest Department (FD)
Forest to replant and
(FD) to and protect the
the resource.
resource. The table
table presents
presents planting
planting figures
figures
for six
six tree
tree. species
species in various campaigns,
invarious campaigns, and
and shows how how the
the. emphasis
emphasis on fodder species
species grew
as the
as the campaigns
campaigns involved villagers
villagers more in the choice
more in choice of species.
species.
Table 4.2.
4.2. Trends
Trends in
innumber
number of
ofseedlings
seedlings planted
planted for
for six
sixspecies
species in
in tree-planting
tree-planting campaigns
campaigns in Gorela
Gorela
Species Uses 1980

1980 1985
1985 1987 1990 1991 1992
Australian acacia
acacia timber 4 000
4000 9 090
9090
Inge
Inga dulce timber 40 000
40000 27 849
27849
khair (Acacia catechu) fuel, fodder
fodder 4 271
4271 15 000
15000 10 010
10010 10 000
10000 10 068
10068 70 000
70000
desi babul
desi babul (A.
(A. nilotica) timber, fuel, 14 750
14750 3 000
3000 5 010
5010 8 000
8000
fodder
amla (Emblicaofficinalis)
amla (Emblica officinalis) fruit, fodder,
fodder, 325 2 000
2000
smell timber,
smail
fuel
Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Neem indica) medicine, oil, 2 998
2998 2 500
2500 3 000
3000
timber, fodder
Sample survival
Sample survival rate
rate (percent)
(percent) 76 89 98 88
88 72 94
In 1992, the
In the village
village and
and FD
FD jointly
jointlyformed
formeda aForest
ForestProtection
Protection Committee,
Committee, which
whichorganizes
organizes
regular patrols, and
regular and meetings
meetings every
every other
other month.
month. TheThe FDFD manages
manages timber harvests
harvests and
and shares
shares
proceeds
proceeds with thethe village.
village. Unauthorized
Unauthorized felling
felling and
and illegal
illegal grazing
grazing is punished
punished with
with heavy
heavy fines,
fines,
but villagers can collect fallen
fallen wood,
wood, fodder
fodder and
and other
other non-wood
non-wood products.
products.
Despite the
Despite the diversity of social groups, they all agree on
all agree onthe
theneed
needfor
forfodder
fodderfrom
fromthetheforest.
forest. Joint
Joint
management
management is addressing
addressing this immediate
immediate livelihood
livelihood need
need for subsistence
subsistence and
and income
income (Zutshi,
(Zutshi,
1994).
local farmers
local farmers should
should be formed
formed in
In discussion
discussion with
with them,
them, focusing on the
focusing on the most
most desired
desired and
and
promising species first.
first.
Genetic conservation
Genetic
Domestication and
Domestication and cultivation
cultivation does
does not
not substitute
substitute for
for conservation
conservationof of genetic
genetic diversity.
diversity. If no
provision is made for preserving
preserving the
the genetic
genetic variation
variation found only in wild sources, domestication
domestication
is often followed
followed by the
the decline
decline and
and even
even disappearance
disappearance of wild
wild populations (Nair and Merry,
populations (Nair
1995).
1995). Because
Because genetic
genetic improvement
improvement of domesticated species requires
domesticated species requires infusions
infusions fromfrom wild
wild
populations, domestication programmes should maintain
maintain in
in situ
situ (natural
(natural or
or on site)
site) and/or ex situ
(planted
(planted elsewhere) stands of natural
elsewhere) stands natural varieties.
varieties. The
The agroforests
agroforests ofof Sumatra
Sumatra described
described above
above
combine the advantages ofof domestication
domestication with genetic conservation. So does the Nepalese project
for medicinal plant products described inin Chapter 2. Farm-based
Farm-based agroforestry
agroforestry can
can help
help to
to maintain
maintain
some portion of this
some this diversity
diversity by
by selecting
selecting genetic
genetic resources from a range of
resources from of wild
wild sources.
sources.
34
Commercial plantations
Commercial
Commercial plantations
Commercial plantations are a common
common avenue
avenue of promoting
promoting domestication. They often allocate
domestication. They allocate
resources effectively for
for selection
selection and
and improvement
improvement of of superior
superior individuals,
individuals, but
but their
their high
high capital
capital
requirements tend
tend to put them beyond the means
means of most
most rural
rural producer groups. Often commercial
plantations are managed and owned by large-scale entrepreneurs who
plantations who dodo not plan sufficiently
sufficiently for
local benefit-sharing, leading
leading to
to inequity
inequity and
and land-use conflicts.~' Furthermore,
land-use conflicts.41 Furthermore, thethe methods
methods and
equipment prevalent in commercial forestry tend to foster monoculture
monoculture stands, which erode forest
genetic diversity and greatly increase
genetic increase the risk ofof infestations by p
infestations by
ests and disease.
ests disease .
Innovative options in the

Innovative the use
use of
of medicinal
medicinal plants
plants
In recent years
years innovations
innovations in
in the
the promotion
promotion of
of the
the use of
of medicinal
medicinal plants have shown potential
potential
to generate income
income for
for local
local communities
communities and
and provide
provide for
for long-term
long-term forest
forest maintenance.
maintenance. These
These
include:
• commercial development of traditional

traditional herbal medicines;
medicines;
• research
research on
on bioactive
bioactive compounds
compounds for
forpharmaceutical
pharmaceutical products (often
(often somewhat
somewhat
inaccurately called biodiversity prospecting);
• ethnobotanical research (the

ethnobotanical research (the scientific
scientific study
study of
of traditional
traditional knowledge
knowledge and
and customs
customs
plants) .
concerning plants).
All three fields

All fields are still evolving, so their long-term prospects
prospects are
are not
not fully
fully known.
known. Yet
Yet their
their rapid
recent growth
recent growth suggests
suggests that
that they
they should
should be considered
considered as possible
possible components
components ofof an overall
overall
strategy for forest
strategy forest management.
management.
On a local
On local and
and national
national scale,
scale, traditional
traditional healing
healing is
is being
being re-appreciated
re-appreciated and offers an
an under-
under-
exploited market
exploited market for
for NWFPs.
NWFPs. The The traditional
traditional medicine project in
medicine project in Nepal
Nepal (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 2)
2) created
local markets and achieved a profit in just over two years. In Indonesia, companies like PT Jamu
local
Air Mancur,
Air Mancur, which
which cites
cites an
an annual
annual income
income of US$US$ 1010 million
million and
and employs 700 people,
employs 700 people, are
growing with rising urban
growing urban demand
demand forfor traditional
traditional herbal
herbal medicine
medicine (FAO, 1995).
1995).
Biological and
Biological and chemical
chemical compounds
The search for

The for useful
useful biological
biological andand chemical
chemical compounds has shown potential
compounds has potential to increase local
income and
income and in-country
in-country technical capability, and
technical capability, and reduce
reduce forest
forest destruction
destruction (see
(see text
text box 4.3).
4.3).
Collaborations in
Collaborations in this
this regard, ifif negotiated
negotiated properly, can develop
develop the source country's
country ' s capacity
capacity
to
to conduct sophisticated research on natural
sophisticated research natural resources.
resources. Prospecting
Prospecting of bioactive
bioactive material
material from
plant and animal species
plant species can also
also assign
assign monetary
monetary values
values to conservation
conservation of these
these resources to
counterbalance the tendency for resource degradation. Besides Costa Rica, such research is is being
started in Argentina, Cameroon, Chile, Mexico,Mexico, Nigeria,
Nigeria, Peru
Peru and
and Suriname
Suriname (Grifo, 1994).
1994).
if There
There are aa few
few notable
notable exceptions
exceptions to this
this pattern.
pattern. The
The Paper
Paper Industries
Industries Corporation of the
Corporation of the
Philippines and
Philippines and Sabah
Sabah Forest
Forest Industries
Industries ofof Malaysia
Malaysia provide
provide examples
examples ofofbenefit-sharing
benefit-sharing
agreements
agreements with local farmers (Awang
(Awang and Taylor, 1993).
1993).
4. Opportunities
Opportunities for
forimproved
improved management
management 35
Text box 4.3:
4.3: Biological
Biological resources
resources in Costa
Ethnobotanical research
Rican
Rican forests
mid-1980s, Western-style
Since the mid-1980s, Western-style medical
medical
In 1991
In the National
199 ltheN Biodiversity Institute
ationaLBiodiversity Institute research
research hashas rediscovered
rediscovered the usefulness of
the usefulness
of . Costa
Costa. Rica (INBio)
F~ica( signed
I NBio) )sig a two-year
nedatWo~year traditional healing systems as sources of
agreement
agreell1ent with the international
with knowledge on pharmaceutical products.
pharmaceutical producer Merck and
and Co.
Co. In
In Ethnobotanical research has
Ethnobotanical research has been enhanced due
exchange for preliminary research on
exchange forprelirninary/ to renewed
renewed fieldwork
fieldwork and
and the
the development
development of
biologically active
biologically active compounds
compounds from from forest
forest
plants, insects and
and micro-organisms
micro-organisms found
more
more sophisticated means of determining
sophisticated means determining the
the
in Costa Rican rainforests, Merck
Rican rainforests, Merck paid
paid bioactivity
bioactivity ofof plant
plant compounds.
compounds. This opensopens up
up
million to INBio.
US$ 11 million INBio. In
In addition,
addition, Merck
Merck possibilities for preserving local healers'
agreed to
agreed to return
return to
to Costa
Costa Rica
Rica aa percentage
percentage knowledge through linkage with scientific
of any royalties generated by
otany by drugs pharmaceutical research.
pharmaceutical research Because itit builds
. Because builds on
on
developedasa of the
result of
developed as a resLJlt research
the. research local knowledge
local systems that
knowledge systems that have
have developed
developed
(which probably couldtake1
could take 155 to 20 years
to2Qyears over a long time,
over time, ethnobotany represents aa more
ethnobotany represents
to realize). focused plant-surveying
focused plant-surveying method than prospecting
.....
for bioactive material.
Through another agreement,
Through agreement, Bristol-Myers
Bristol -Myers
Squibb
Squ ibb is supporting
supporting research
research by INBio and
byJNBioand
Cornell University
Cornell University that
that will study
study tropical
trop ical In the ethnobotanical approach, a professionally-
ethnobotanical approach,
insects and related species forfor compounds
compounds trained ethnobotanist
trained ethnobotanist works
works with
with aa local
local healer
that could
that. could provide
provide \potential
potential sources
sources of extended period.
for an extended period. With permission from the
drugs (Sittenfeldand
drugs (Sittenfeld and Lovejoy,
Lovejoy, 1994).
1994) . healer,
healer, village
village leader
leader andand other
other officials,
officials, the
ethnobotanist sends
ethnobotanist sends samples
samples of of selected
selected plants
plants to
These agreements include important a laboratory
laboratory for study.
study . Bioassays
Bioassays cancan quickly
quickly
provisions for developing Costa Rican
expertise
expertise in biochemical
biochemical prospecting
prospecting and
and
screen the
screen the effect
effect of
of aa plant
plant sample
sample onon up
up to 60
maintaining the biological conservation distinct types
distinct types ofof human
human tumour
tumour cells
cells (Cox
(Cox and
and
areas
areas where the research
research takes
takes place.
place. Balick, 1994). Scientists examine examine promising
promising
specimens to
specimens to compare
compare their molecular
molecular structure
structure
agreements, the concept of
these agreements,
In these with that of of known
known chemicals. Molecules
rights serve
property rights
intellectual property serve as
as an
an identified as
identified as lead compounds proceed through a
compounds proceed
increasingly important legal
increasingly important legal .•mechanism for
mechanism for series of evaluations
series leading toto approval
evaluations leading approval as as aa
returning
returning an appropriate share of
appropriate . share of value
value
medicine, which
medicine, which can
can take
take 15
15 to
to 20 years.
resulting such as
from discoveries such
resulting >lrorndiscoveries as new
drugs to source
source communities
communities and
and countries
countries
(see also
(see also Chapte(1
Chapter 10),
0) . Factors that
Factors that determine
determine aa locality's
locality's promise
promise for
for
international ethnobotanical study include:
include:
• a diverse flora (for

(for example,
example, tropical
tropical forest);
forest);
• permanent
permanent settlement
settlement for many
many generations (this suggests greater experimentation by local
people with
with local
local species);
species);
• a tradition of healers who transmit their knowledge from generation to generation, usually
usually
through apprentices (this offers effective screening through generations
generations of repetition).
repetition).
In realizing local benefits from

from ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical research, local
local healers and communities must rely
commitment and efforts of the ethnobotanical
on the comrnitment ethnobotanical researcher. important
researcher. In order to address the important
research can
question on how ethnobotanical research can be carried out
out as
as an
an equitable partnership,
partnership, guidelines
guidelines
for ethobotanists have been
been developed,
developed, and
and they
they have
have been
been endorsed
endorsed by
by the
the International
International Society
Society
of Ethnobiology. The
The research
research must
must respect
respect the
the following
following obligations
obligations (Cox,
(Cox, 1995):
1995):
• design and direct the

the research
research aim
aim accurately
accurately to the healer;
• respect the "sacred"
"sacred" or
or secret
secretinformation
information provided
provided by
by the
the healer;
healer;
36
• acknowledge the
acknowledge the healer
healer as source in
in academic
academic papers;
• for indigenous-language
provide for indigenous-language abstracts
abstracts of
of the
the research;
research;
• protect the financial
financial interests
interests of the healer, either through increased
increased return to the source
community from royalties
community royalties to the patent, or
or pre-payment;
pre-payment;
• help conserve important
important source
source habitats
habitats of
ofmedicinal
medicinal plants.
plants.
Ethnobotanical research also can help to restore or reinforce a group's

group's traditional
knowledge base:
base:
for example,
for example, the
the indigenous
indigenous San
San Carlos
Carlos Comanche
Comanche of of Arizona, USA, collaborated
Arizona, USA, in an
collaborated in an
ethnobotanical survey for this reason (Davis and Dunn, 1994).
ethnobotanical survey 1994).
International
International ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical research
research is
is still widespread because
still not widespread because few
few scientists
scientists are
are trained to
conduct ethnobotanical research, and itit requires
requires much
much fieldwork. But this field
field continues
continues to
to grow
with the increasing
with increasing global
global importance
importance ofoftraditional
traditional medicine.
medicine.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism
Ecotourism aims to to help
help local
local communities
communities generate
generate income
income with minimal
minimal impact on the
the local
local
environment
environment andand culture.
culture. In 1994,
1994, ecotourism was the
ecotourism was the fastest growing sector
fastest growing sector of
of the
the world's
world's
US$ 3.4-trillion
US$ 3 A-trillion dollar tourist
tourist industry
industry (IPS,
(IPS, 1995).
1995).
Text box 4.4: The Terra Nova

Ecotourism requires
Ecotourism requires disciplined
disciplined tour agencies to
ethnobiomedical reserve
reserve in
in Belize
Belize maintain strict
maintain strict practices
practices that
that limit
limit the impact on
ecosystems and ensure that funds contribute
ecosystems and ensure that funds contribute toto
The Belize Association of Traditional local employment
employment and and conservation.
conservation. InIn theory,
theory, its
Healers (BATH),
Healers (BATH),with with support from the
support from small-scale nature
small-scale nature makes
makes itit possible
possible for local
local
IxChel Tropical
IxChel TropicalResearch
Research Foundation
Foundation andand businesses to
businesses to retain control over its development.
the New
New York
York Botanical
Botanical Garden,
Garden, established
established
the world's
world's first
firstforest
forestreserve
reserve specifically
specifically
However, lack of long-term working models give
intended to ensure the availability of
medicinal plants
medicinal plants for
for local use.
use. BATH
rise to caution about ecotourism
rise
will .· ·
BA THwiU
ventures. Even
ecotourism ventures.
manage the 2,400-ha
2,400-ha Terra
Terra Nova
Nova reserve where pioneering efforts have developed a model
reserve in
in
the Yalbak region of Belize to obtain appealing to
appealing to local
local communities
communities and
and governments,
medicinal plants andand to
to teach
teach young
young people ecotourism
ecotourism can gain
people gain uncontrollable
uncontrollable momentum
momentum
about
about their uses
uses (Cox
(Cox and and Balick,
Balick, 1994).and lead
and
1994). lead to
to foreign buy-ups of land,
foreign buy-ups land, rising
rising land
land
Researcherswill
Researchers will work
work with the the healers
healers to
to
and
and food prices, destructive levels of tourist visits
food prices,
ensure
ensure that the
the plants
plants are
are harvested
harvested onon aa
and failure
and to comply
failure to with codes.
comply with codes. Examples
Examples in
sustainable basis. This arrangement
arrangement
Nepal and
Nepal and Thailand show that while ecotourism
Thailand show
represents
represents one
one way to to ensure
ensure preservation
preservation
of local knowledge systems
can
can generate
while
generate considerable income, itit can also
considerable income, also
maintaining the forest
forest base.
b~se.
serious problems
lead to serious problems of garbage,
garbage, waste
waste
disposal and
disposal and firewood
firewood shortages
shortages (Braatz
(Braatzetet ai.,
al.,
1992). Without
1992). Without careful
careful preparation,
preparation, villages can
easily find their lifestyles
lifestyles and values
values disrupted by powerful outside forces. The Kuna community
outside forces. community
of Panama
Panama managed
managed to to regain control
control over the tourist industry
industry in their territory only
only after
after the
the
destruction of two hotels
hotels that
that were
were built
built by
by outsiders
outsiders without
without Kuna
Kuna consent
consent (Poole,
(Poole, 1993).
1993).
For ecotourism toto achieve

achieve its
its potential,
potential, the
the local
local and
and provincial/national
provincial/national governments must show
strong political commitment to creating a working
working model
model andand enforcing
enforcing codes
codes needed
needed to
to handle
handle
the powerful
the powerful forces
forces which
which cancan lead
lead toto harmful
harmful effects
effects on
on local
local culture
culture and
and ecology
ecology (see
(see
Chapter 10).
10).
4. Opportunities
Opportunities for
forimproved
improvedmanagement
management 37
37
Local wildlife
local wildlife management
management
Local
Local wildlife
wildlife management can sustain
management can sustain village
village nutrition,
nutntIon, generate
generate local
local income
income and maintain
maintain
wildlife populations . Particularly in Africa, there
wildlife populations. there are
are many
many examples
examples of of good
good wildlife
wildlife
management.
management. In In Zambia,
Zambia, more
more than
than aa decade
decade of
ofgovernment
government attempts
attempts to
to limit
limit poaching
poaching by
by
enforcing punitive laws
enforcing punitive laws failed;
failed; but
but aa new
new policy,
policy, based
based on
on local
local participation
participation in
in wildlife
wildlife
management, reduced
reduced elephant
elephant poaching by over 90 percent in just three
injust three years
years.. In Zimbabwe, the
Communal Areas Management
Management Programme
Programme for for Indigenous
Indigenous Resources
Resources (CAMPFIRE) has enjoyed enjoyed
remarkable success.
success . In
In CAMPFIRE,
CAMPFIRE, rural ruralcommunities
communities took
took full
full control
control of
ofwildlife
wildlife management
management
conservation areas
in conservation areas (Reis,
(Reis, op.
op. cit.;
cit. ; see
see also
also text
text box
box 10.2).
10.2).
Redford et al. (1995)

(1995) describe
describe examples
examples of
ofcommunity-managed wildlife efforts
community-managed wildlife efforts in
in Africa,
Africa, Latin
America and Southeast Asia and the Pacific
Pacific (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 22 for
for the
the criteria
criteria developed
developed in in that
that report
report
for deciding
for deciding when
when improved
improved wildlife
wildlife management
management is feasible).
feasible). Many
Many wildlife
wildlife ventures
ventures yield
yield
overall benefits, but
but communities
communities should
should carefully
carefully consider questions such as the following:
following:
• does the
does the species
species biology,
biology, habitat
habitat needs
needs and
andlocal
localsocio-economic
socio-economic situation
situation permit
permit
management of
management of the
the species?
species? Wildlife ventures should
Wildlife ventures should focus
focus on
on species
species already
already in
in the
locality;
locality ; introducing
introducing wild animals
animals to new
new environments often leads
environments often leads to major ecological
ecological
problems;
problems;
• can the
the benefits
benefits be
be shared
sharedequitably
equitably among
among interested
interested groups?
groups? Domesticating
Domesticating certain
certain
animals with high reproduction rates could,
could, for
for example,
example, cause
cause damage
damage to
to home
home gardens
gardens
and therefore
therefore negatively
negatively affect
affect women,
women, who
who manage
manage the
the gardens.
gardens . Powerful
Powerful cash
cash incentives
incentives
to sell
sell game
game meat
meat previously
previously consumed
consumed in in the
the household
household can undermine
undermine the nutritional
nutritional
status
status of hunter
hunter groups
groups and,
and, perhaps
perhaps less
less noticeably,
noticeably, disrupt
disrupt their
their social
social customs
customs (for
(for
example, inin sharing
sharing hunted
hunted meat);
meat) ;
• will animal farming

farming encourage wise
wise management
management of of wild
wildpopulations
populationsof ofthat
that species,
species, or
or
overexploitation? Often captive
captive breeding, by opening legal trade
opening legal trade in animal
animal products of a
species,
species, has aa negative
negative effect on
on wild
wild populations
populations ofof that
that species,
species, byby lending cover to
lending cover
illegal hunting and
and rendering
rendering conservation
conservation efforts
efforts seemingly
seemingly less
less urgent.
urgent.
Some indigenous
Some indigenous groups have
have generated
generated income
income through
throughcontrolled
controlledsports
sportshunting
hunting.. In
InCanada,
Canada, for
for
example, the
example, the Inuit
Inuit have
have accommodated
accommodated sports hunters
hunters who
who want
want to
to experience
experience traditional
traditional Inuit
Inuit
hunting.
hunting. Regulations
Regulations enforce
enforce strict quotas
quotas and ensure
ensure that
that Inuit
Inuit guides
guides receive
receive reasonable
reasonable fees
fees
from sports
sports hunters.
hunters. AAsimilar
similarscheme
schemehas
has replenished
replenished snow
snow leopard
leopard populations
populations in
in aa mountainous
mountainous
area of Pakistan
area Pakistan (Poole,
(Poole, op.
op. cit.).
cit.) .
Farmer-led initiatives
Farmer-led
To help communities
To communities fullyfully explore
explore the
the range
range of their
their management options, there
management options, there is
is need
need for
for
research to look
look at
at problems
problems fromfrom aacomprehensive,
comprehensive, interdisciplinary
interdisciplinary perspective.
perspective. Researchers
Researchers
need to address
need address rural
rural problems
problems as as rural
rural people
people themselves
themselves perceive them, and consider
perceive them, consider the
people's preferred
preferred initiatives.
initiatives. By
By involving
involving rural people as research partners, the search for better
resource management
management options
options can go beyond
beyond conventional scientific research,
conventional scientific research, which
which has often
often
focused almost exclusively on increasing
focused increasing productivity.
productivity.
This participatory approach

approach has
has been
been gaining
gaining momentum.
momentum. Working with with local
local people
people on research
requires more time
time and
and resources
resources for
for training
training and data collection,
collection, but researchers find that if they
accurately explain research
accurately explain research objectives
objectives andand these
these are consistent
consistent with
with local
local interests,
interests, people
people
collaborate enthusiastically.
enthusiastically. In the
the Canadian
Canadian Inuit
Inuit example
example mentioned
mentioned above, local
local communities
communities
38
have
have conducted
conducted their
their own
own harvest
harvest studies,
studies, which
which have
have produced
produced valuable
valuable information
information on
on
environmental impact
impact and
and seasonal changes in wildlife
wildlife patterns
patterns (Poole,
(Poole, 1989; also Chapter 9).
1989; see also
This approach
approach requires
requires that
that research
research managers
managers make
make important
important changes in the nature of incentives
researchers. Typically,
for researchers. Typically,researchers
researchersare
arerewarded
rewardedmainly
mainlyfor
forpresenting
presentingtheir
theirwork
workininscientific
scientific
publications
publications or conferences.
conferences. These criteria do
These criteria do not ensure any link to rural
rural practices.
practices. Research
Research
institutes should reward time
institutes time and
and effort
effort dedicated
dedicated to:
to:
• involving rural people in the research process;

involving
• including them as co-contributors
including co-contributors to
to published
published results;
results;
• publishing abstracts in local-language
local-language and adapting techniques
techniques locally.
locally.
Research with
Research with community partners might
community partners might explore
explore a broader
broader range
range of
of subsistence
subsistence issues
issues and
and
strategies, multiple-use
strategies, management, development
mUltiple-use management, developmentofof new
new marketable
marketable products,
products, and
and market
market
research (Nair, 1995).
1995) . See
See Chapter
Chapter 99 for
for more
more on
on research.
research.
Summary
• Sustainable forest yield can be
Sustainable be improved
improved through:
through:
(a) better harvest planning

better planning and operations
operations - including
including selective
selective weeding,
weeding, selective
selective
felling,
felling, improved inventory and planning for integrated harvests of non-wood and
and
wood products;
(b) reduction of harvest and post-harvest losses - through

through better
better knowledge
knowledge of
of species
species
biology and available
available equipment
equipment and technologies;
technologies;
(c) enrichment planting

enrichment planting -- based
based on
on species
species amenability (for example,
amenability (for example, tolerance
tolerance of
shade);
(d) better market linkages

linkages - including
including scheduling of harvests to coincide
coincide with market
or processing
processing demand,
demand, more efficient
efficient transport
transport and
and storage
storage arrangements,
arrangements, and
provisions for an environmental premium to be paid to producers to support forest
management.
• When wild sources of aa product

product need
need toto be
be supplemented
supplemented with cultivated supply to
cultivated supply to meet
demand, ensure that
demand, that aa selection
selection and
and breeding
breeding program
program accounts
accounts for farmer-
farmer- and
and market-
market-
preferred traits.
traits. Agroforestry
Agroforestryspecies
species should
should be
be chosen
chosen to provide relatively quick returns
to farmers; activities
activities can start with
with community private nurseries.
community or private nurseries. Plan to conserve the
genetic
genetic variation of wild
wild populations
populations through in situ and ex situ measures.
measures.
• For wildlife management, considerations

considerations include
include the effects on other domesticated
domesticated species,
the effect of
of domestic
domestic breeding
breeding on
on wild
wild populations
populations and equitable
equitable sharing of benefits.
• Explore innovative approaches and new

approaches and new areas
areas of resource management.
management. Promising
Promising areas
include commercial development of traditional/natural medicines,
medicines, ethnobotanical research
and prospecting for
for bioactive
bioactive compounds.
compounds.
traditional medicine requires quality control

(a) Commercial processing of traditional control and
and cooperation
cooperation
with local
local healers
healers regarding
regarding the
the standards
standards and
and dosage;
dosage;
4. Opportunities
Opportunities for
forimproved
improved management
management 39
(b) Ethnobotanical research
research involves
involves inventory
inventory of
of traditionally
traditionally used
used medicines, scientific
scientific
study of physical and chemical properties, and
study and close collaboration between
between local
local healers
and
and professionally
professionally trained
trained ethnobotanists; and respect
ethnobotanists; and respect byby the
the researchers
researchers of
of certain
certain
obligations to
obligations to the local healers;
(c) Prospecting for bioactive materials generally

generally requires more centralized coordination
and more
and more resources
resources for
for long-term
long-term study,
study, but
but offers
offers potential
potential for
for improving
improving the
the
technological capacity
technological capacity of the source
source country.
country.
• For ecotourism
ecotourism to
to improve
improve long-term
long-term forest
forest management,
management, there
there should
should be
be strong
strong political
political
commitment for
commitment for creating
creating a working
working model
model and enforcing
enforcing codes
codes needed
needed to ensure
ensure itsits
proper functioning.
functioning.
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P.J . 1993.
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biodiversityprotection.
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1995.What
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wild animals?:
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wild animal
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Reis, M.
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and Lovejoy,
Lovejoy, A.
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1994. Biodiversity
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managing non-wood
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24083, Oklahoma
Oklahoma City,
City, OK
OK 73124,
73124, USA.
USA .
People and
People and Plants
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Forthcoming. People and Plants
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community development.
Paris.
Reid,
Reid, W.V.
W.V. Laird, S.A. Meyer,
Meyer, C.A ,, Gamez, R., Sittenfeld,
Gamez, R., A. Janzez,
Sittenfeld, A. Janzez, D.H., Gollin,
GoUin, M.A.
M.A.
and
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genetic resources
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sustainable
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Washington, D.C.
D.C .
42
Exploring commercial
Exploring commercial options 5
This chapter focuses

focuses onon characteristics
characteristics and
and strategies
strategies that help enterprises succeed, and onon how
how
to diagnose
to diagnose and address
address the
the common
common problems
problems that
that small-scale
small-scale producers face when
producers face when entering
entering
commercial trade. ItIt outlines
outlines an
an approach
approach for
for planning
planning an enterprise, reducing the risks involved
and
and improving entrepreneurial skills. Finally, itit looks
looks at credit needs and options for
for adding value
locally, often through local processing, for greater
locally, greater rural
rural income.
income.
Many small-scale
Many small-scale enterprises
enterprises start
start without
without adequate
adequateinformation
informationororplanning,
planning,and,
and,asas aa result,
result,
many
many of them
them fail.
fail. Small
Small (often
(often household)
household) enterprises can comprise
enterprises can comprise up
up to
to 70
70 percent
percent of aa
country's forest-based
forest-based manufacturers
manufacturers (Chipeta,
(Chipeta, 1995).
1995). But
But studies
studies have
have found
found that only
only about
about
20 percent of
of new
new small-scale
small-scale enterprises
enterprises succeed
succeed in the long run (FAO,
(FAO, 1995).
1995).
What do these statistics

statistics mean? In part, they
they signal
signal that
that small
small enterprises can enter markets
markets selling
selling
forest products relatively easily, but only a small portion of these enterprises manage
manage to
to adapt to
to
the changing circumstances ofof supply,
supply, market
market demand
demand and
and competition.
competition.
What types of
of enterprises
enterprises succeed?
succeed? What
What do
do they
they have
have in
in common?
common?
Characteristics of
of successful
successful small
small enterprises
enterprises
Successful
Successful forest-based small-scale enterprises generally
forest-based small-scale generally share the following characteristics:
• able entrepreneur
entrepreneur -- aaresourceful
resourcefuland
andcapable
capablemanager
manager can
canovercome
overcome many
many obstacles;
obstacles;
• marketable product - thethe entrepreneur

entrepreneur mustmust continually assess the
continually assess the future
future of
of the
the product's
product's
market: Will
Will price
price trends
trends for
for the
the product
product (and
(and its
its substitutes)
substitutes) cause its market to grow or
or
decline? What
decline? Whatnewnewproducts
products threaten
threaten to
to replace
replace it?
it?
• reliable supply
supply of
of materials -- processors
processorsand
and traders
tradersneed
need aapredictable
predictable and
and stable
stable supply
supply
for
for maintaining
maintaining markets.
markets . Forest
Forest degradation can threaten
degradation can an enterprise's
threaten an enterprise's supply
supply ofof
materials and its
its credibility
credibility with
with traders
traders and
and consumers;
consumers;
• favourable
favourable infrastructure
infrastructure and access
access to credit
credit -- access
access tototransportation,
transportation, utilities
utilities and
and
credit for capital
capital investment
investment heavily
heavily influence an enterprise's chances
chances for
for success.
success. Small
Small
enterprises can
enterprises can overcome
overcome the
the conditions
conditions that
that favour
favour larger
larger operations
operations byby grouping
grouping
together.
Elements of a successful enterprise

Elements enterprise strategy
With the factors

factors described
described above,
above, combined
combined with
with aa good
good knowledge
knowledge ofof the
the resource,
resource, producers
producers
can
can explore
explore ways
ways ofof increasing
increasing their
their income
income from
from NWFPs.
NWFPs. Figure
Figure 5.1 illustrates
illustrates how
how the
the
improvements
improvements outlined
outlined in Chapter
Chapter 4 contribute
contribute to an enterprise
enterprise strategy for increasing
increasing income.
income.
Experience with
with small
small enterprises
enterprises suggests
suggests the
the following
following lessons (Clay, in in press):
press):
• start
start with
with products for which
which aa local
local market
market already
already exists.
exists. Entering
Entering an
anexisting
existing market
market
allows
allows producers
producers to start
start repaying
repaying costs
costs immediately,
immediately, butbut creating
creating markets for new
markets for new
products takes
takes time;
time;
5. Exploring
5. Exploring commercial options
options 43
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1.Diagram
Diagramillustrating
illustratinghow
how small-scaleNWFP
small-scale NWFPproducers
producerscan
canincrease
increase their
theirincomes
incomes (adapted
(adapted from AT!, 1994)
from ATI, 1994)
t
Examples
Weeding, cultural Remove competing vegetation

practices
Harvest more selectly, learn
learn
Improve harvest about better equipment use
use
Increase production
Increase production techniques
Construct ventilated store
store room,
room,
Improve post-
dry fruits for shipping
harvest storage
stora e
Monitor insect damage, use
Pest control
bio-pesticides when needed
Improve quali
quality Sort produce by
by quality
quality grades
grades
Increase the
product value
Assess processing options,
options, install
install
Processing processing facilities, packaging
processing
Group sales to traders at

Group
standard prices based on
standard
Organize for greater
quality
strenath
stren th with traders
Obtain higher
Obtain
prices for
the product
the Collectively rent transport for
taking products to market;
market;
L Group marketing obtain credit for members; store
obtain
direct to consumers product for off-season price
benefits
• improve harvesting techniques
improve harvesting techniques and
and reduce
reduce post-harvest
post-harvest losses
losses (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 4).
4). This
This
includes storing a product until the "off" season, when it can fetch a higher market price,
and relatively low
low transportation
transportation costs;
costs;
• increase the
the product's
product's competitiveness by: (1) reducing costs
competitiveness by: production, (2) creating
costs of production,
a niche
niche market,
market, or
or(3)
(3)improving
improving management
management of the
the resource
resource (for
(for example,
example, by
by
enrichment planting for better
better yields
yields and
and easier
easier harvesting);
harvesting);
• adopt
adopt aa simple
simple strategy. Complex
Complex production/marketing
production/marketing strategies
strategies permit more unforeseen
difficulties.
difficulties. Management ability isis the
Management ability the biggest
biggest challenge for most rural entrepreneurs;
challenge for entrepreneurs;
simpler management
management strategies
strategies favour
favour them;
them;
• start
start with
with one product
product and
and gradually diversify.
diversify . First, choose
choose the easiest product that yields
yields
a good revenue for
for the
the time
time involved.
involved. Invest
Invest profits
profits in
in the
the processes required to produce
a second market item.
item. The income
income from
from the
the first product can
can also
also leverage
leverage credit
credit for
for a
larger operation;
• diversify the markets

diversify the markets for
for each
each product.
product. Before
Before expanding from local
expanding from local to
to regional
regional or
national markets, estimate
national estimate the
the added costs and benefits. Stay informed about research on
on
new products
new products and onon changes
changes in
in populations
populations and
and preferences.
preferences. Nostalgia
Nostalgia markets
markets are
are
growing in most countries (see Chapter 7);
growing
• add value
value locally,
locally, usually
usually through
through processing.
processing. Subsector
Subsector analysis
analysis (see
(see Chapter 3) helps
to identify
to identify how much
much value
value accrues
accrues at
at each
each stage
stage in
in the
theproduction-market
production-market chain
chain and
and
which stages are most
which most profitable;
profitable;
• continually study
continually study the available technology
technology for potential
potential improvements;
improvements;
• know the quality

know the quality standards
standards required by buyers,
required by buyers, and
and the
the standard
standard of the
the enterprise's
enterprise's
product. Products
product. Products such
such as
as food,
food, soap,
soap, shampoo
shampoo andand cosmetic
cosmetic products often must meet
health and safety requirements.
health requirements. Learn
Learn about
about those
those minimum
minimum standards, and decide
decide how
how
to have the
the product
product evaluated;
evaluated;
• organize with
organize with other
other producers
producers for
for collective strength. This
collective strength. This helps
helps to reduce
reduce each
each
producer's costs
producer's costs for
for transportation,
transportation, storage
storageorormaterials,
materials,and
andalso
alsohelps
helps in
innegotiation
negotiation with
with
manufacturers inin downstream
downstream processing
processing (See
(See Chapter
Chapter 8);
8);
• demonstrate the ecological viability the enterprise.

viability of the enterprise. Use
Use results
results of
of regular
regular harvest
harvest impact
impact
assessments (see Chapter
Chapter 2)
2) to
to appeal
appeal to
to environmentally-minded
environmentally-minded consumers.
consumers.
Problems commonly faced by

Problems by small
small enterprises
enterprises
In local
local markets,
markets, the
the most
most prominent
prominent NWFPs
NWFPs willwill usually
usually be readily
readily apparent.
apparent. Where
Where local
local
markets
markets are not
not developed,
developed, however,
however, aafirst
firstproblem
problem that
thatenterprises
enterprises encounter
encounter isis identifying
identifying aa
marketable product.
marketable
Other problems faced by rural producers

producers include
include the
the following
following (Pswarayi-Riddihough and Jones,
(Pswarayi-Riddihough and Jones,
1995; FAO,
1995; FAa, 1987):
1987):
• lack of
of marketing information. Producers often lack
marketing information. lack information
information on:
on: (1)
(1) the
the price
price of their
products, both in
products, in local
local markets
markets and
and as
as inputs
inputs to
to downstream
downstream processing,
processing, (2)
(2) product
product
the market
volume required by the market and how much competitors provide, and (3) quality standards;
Exploring commercial options

5. Exploring options 45
• unreliable source of
of raw
raw materials.
materials. Small-scale
Small-scale producers often have
have little
little land
land area and
poor-quality growing stock;
poor-quality
• post-harvest
post-harvest losses.
losses. Poor
Poor transport
transport and
and storage
storage facilities
facilities can
can cause
cause producers
producers to
to lose
lose 25-
25-
50 percent of
of aa harvest,
harvest, losses
lossescompounded
compounded by by wasteful
wasteful processing;
processing;
• of processing.
lack of processing. Many producers do not process their items
items further,
further, either because they
they
lack information
lack information oror equipment for processing
equipment for or they
processing or they doubt
doubt that
that processing
processing will
will
significantly improve their
their earnings;
earnings;
• transportation and
transportation and infrastructure. In remote
infrastructure. In remote areas,
areas, high
high transport
transport costs
costs and
and poor
poor
infrastructure (for example,
example, roads or inter-island ferry service)
inter-island ferry service) reduce many producers'
reduce many
ability to compete
compete in
in markets;
markets;
• lack of
of effective
effective credit. Lacking
Lacking collateral
collateral or flexible
flexible lending
lending terms,
terms, many
many producers
producers
cannot get credit for working capital from formal financial institutions. They
financial institutions. They then
then rely
rely on
informal channels, such as
informal as local
local merchants,
merchants, who
who usually
usually command
command high interest
interest rates;
rates;
• unfavourable policies. Policies

unfavourable policies. Policies governing imports, exports
governing imports, exports and
and pricing
pricing can create high
high
economic barriers for producers.
producers.
Many
Many of these
these problems
problems are
are due
due to
to information
information gaps that producers
producers can bridge.
bridge. Others
Others require
institutional changes
institutional changes that only a committed
committed government can bring about.
about.
An example from Indonesia: Rattan

example from Rattan
Forest dwellers in
in Indonesia
Indonesia have
have traded
traded rattan
rattanthrough
throughcharmels
channels leading
leading to
to international
international markets
markets
for nearly
for nearly fifteen
fifteen centuries.
centuries . Until
Until the
the mid-1960s,
mid-1960s, East
East Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, on the the island
island of
of Borneo,
Borneo,
exported more rattan
rattan than
than timber.
timber. Rattan
Rattan continues
continues to
to be
be Indonesia's
Indonesia's most
most important
important NWFPs.
NWFPs.
In East
In East Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, hundreds
hundreds of of small-scale
small-scale rattan
rattan enterprises trade with
enterprises trade with exporters.
exporters. Rural
Rural
households work in in rattan
rattan and
and rattan
rattan handicrafts
handicrafts because
because these
these enterprises
enterprises use
use relatively
relatively simple
simple
technology, rely on
on raw
raw materials
materials that
that have
have traditionally abundant, require little
traditionally been abundant, little capital, and
provide jobs for
for skilled
skilled and
and unskilled
unskilled labour
labour (Hadi,
(Radi, 1991).
1991).
Most of the island's

island's interior
interiorlowland
lowland forests
forests are
are divided
divided among
among more
more than
than 100
100 timber
timber concessions
concessions
(Peluso, 1991).
1991). Rattan
Rattan collectors
collectors pull
pull the
the rattan
rattan from the treetops, then
then use machetes to cut it and
remove the thorny
remove the thorny sheath.
sheath. Next,
Next, they
they fold
fold it in
in bundles
bundles of 4-6 mm lengths,
lengths, pack
pack the
the bundles
bundles in
units of about 28 kg
kg each
each and
and air-dry
air-dry them,
them, sometimes
sometimes removing
removing the stem's outer
outer coating.
coating. Each
Each
generation of
of forest
forest dwellers
dwellers has
has passed
passed onon the
the knowledge
knowledge ofof how
how to
to collect
collect and
and cultivate
cultivate rattan.
rattan.
The collector sells his produce

produce to aa river
river trader,
trader, who
who takes
takes itit by
by boat
boat to
to aafirst-stage
first-stage processing
processing
centre. Processors
Processors wash
wash and
and sand
sand the
the rattan
rattan and
and then
then air-dry itit in
in the
the sun
sun for 1-21-2 weeks.
weeks. ItIt isis then
then
size and
graded by size and treated
treated (either
(either by
by smoking
smoking or or boiling)
boiling) to improve its colour and protect against
pest damage. Wholesalers
Wholesalers andand retailers
retailers then
then buy
buy the
the sorted
sorted rattan.
rattan. At At aa further
further processing
processing stagestage
(either in East Kalimantan
(either Kalimantan or on on Java),
Java), cottage
cottage industries
industries work the rattan
rattan into
into handicrafts
handicrafts and
furniture. Furniture isis also
also produced
produced in in large
large scale
scale mechanised
mechanised units.units.
The rattan trade

trade as
as itit has
has evolved
evolved tends
tends to
to dictate
dictate specific
specific niches
niches for
for the
the ethnic
ethnic groups
groups involved.
involved.
The collectors are mostly
mostly tribal
tribal groups
groups such
such asas the
the Dayaks
Dayaks andand Kenyahs,
Kenyahs, mainly rural swidden
swidden
agriculturalists.
agriculturalists. In the
the river
river trade,
trade, Muslim
Muslim groups
groups such
such asas the
the Bugis
Bugis and
and Banjars
Banjars predominate.
predominate.
Chinese-Indonesian traders dominate
dominate the
the coastal,
coastal, inter-island
inter-island and
and international
international trade.
trade.
46
The rattan industry
The industry continues
continues to
to keep
keep rural
rural collectors
collectors involved,
involved, but
but even
even in
in this
this well-established
well-established
sector they
sector they encounter
encounter most of thethe problems
problems mentioned above. Table
mentioned above. Table 5.1
5.1 illustrates
illustrates how these
these
problems can be diagnosed,
problems diagnosed, and
and what
what measures
measures might
might address
address each
each problem.
problem.
Table 5.1:
5.1: Problems
Problemsininrattan
rattanproduction
productionininEast
EastKalimantan,
Kalimantan, with
with possible
possible improvements
improvements
Problem type
Problem Specific situation
Specific situation Possible
Possible remedy
Low production
Low Over-exploitation: rampant
Over-exploitation: rampant over-harvesting,
over-harvesting, Rattan
Rattan garden
garden cultivation,
cultivation, as
as initiated
initiated
traditional checks
traditional checks have
have lost
lost their
their force,
force, and
and by Dayak and Kutai;
Kutai; creation
creation of
misuse of logging concession rights that
misuse more
more diverse
diverse village agroforestry
wastefully destroy rattan-growing systems
wastefully systems systems;
systems; better
better enforcement
enforcement and/or
and/or
coordination with logging operations
Seasonality: only collected between
Seasonality: Improve
Improve storage
storage (see
(see below)
below)
agricultural activities;
agricultural activities; can
can be
be transported
transported by
river only during certain seasons
river seasons
Post-harvest losses Discoloration of

Discoloration of rattan
rattan and
and fungal
fungal growth Improve
Improve storage
storage through
through collective
caused by immersion
caused by immersion in river or exposure
exposure to organization; create first-stage
organization; first-stage
rain;
rain; other losses caused
losses caused by powder post-
powder processing centres closer to
processing to
beetle,
beetle, black water spots, rot and
spots, rot and uneven
uneven sites
collection sites
colour
Lack
Lack of processing
processing Access
Access to more
more advanced
advanced technologies
technologies limited
limited Create processing
processing centres
centres upriver at
by ethnic connections
connections bulking villages,
bulking villages, closer to collection
sites; obtain instruction in furniture-
sites;
making skills
Weak managerial
Weak managerial and
and Varies
Varies by
byethnic
ethnic tradition:
tradition: Bugis,
Bugis, Banjar
Banjar and Increase
Increase marketing contacts with
trade skills Chinese have strong trade
Chinese trade experience;
experience; overseas importers,
overseas importers, for example
example
Kenyah, Busang
Kenyah, Busang andand Pasir are uncomfortable
uncomfortable through trade showsshows
in business environment
environment due due to a more
more
democratic social
democratic social tradition, not profit-oriented
profit-oriented
Market information Downstream preferences

preferences not known
known Increase
Increase marketing contacts
Labour costs Wages are relatively

relatively high
high (3
(3 times
times Java
Java Increased
Increased local processing would
wages), competing
competing with sawmills
sawmills and plywood make
make high
high wages
wages effective
effective
factories
Transportation Dominated by
Dominated by traders; competes
competes with less
less Higher-value processed products will
bulky, higher-priced cargoes such
higher-priced cargoes such as
as plywood
plywood be
bebetter
betterable
able to
tocompete
compete
Credit Obtained mainly through shopkeepers, setting

setting Create credit alternatives
alternatives
up ties of long-term
up long-term obligation
Source:
Source: Peluso (1991).
(1991).
Planning NWFP enterprises

Planning
Planning is a major part

part of
of modern
modern approaches
approaches to
to management. Planning builds on the assumption
that anticipating
anticipating a range
range ofof possible
possible events
events enables
enables the
the manager
manager toto respond
respond to events
events as they
they
occur. In
In some
some traditional
traditional cultures,
cultures, however,
however, long-term
long-term planning is a foreign
planning is foreign concept,
concept, and can
be considered
considered arrogant
arrogant oror presumptuous.
presumptuous. The
The Navajo
Navajo language
language contains
contains nono word for planning.
Attempts
Attempts to build
build commercial
commercial enterprises
enterprises in NWFPs
NWFPs must consider
consider this cultural
cultural issue
issue and
and its
its
influence.
influence.
5. Exploring
options 47
People starting an enterprise
enterprise (particularly
(particularly a group
group enterprise)
enterprise) should clearly
clearly identify their short-
identify their
and long-term
long-term goals for
for the
the enterprise,
enterprise, and
and then
thenreview
review what
whatexperience
experience and
and resources
resources (cash,
(cash,
credit, equipment,
equipment, land)
land) each
each person
person brings to the
the enterprise.
Next, the
the entrepreneurs
entrepreneursshould
shouldreview
review their
theirpast
pastexperience
experience for
for activities
activities that
that have
have made
made up
up their
their
strengths, and
and weaknesses
weaknesses that
that need
need improvement. What problems have have the
the members
members encountered
encountered
in previous production,
production, harvesting,
harvesting, processing
processingand
and marketing
marketing activities?
activities? How
How have
have they
they dealt
dealt with
with
them?
Prospective entrepreneurs
Prospective entrepreneurs should
should particularly
particularlyconsider
considertheir
their experience
experienceand
and lessons
lessons in
in the
the
following areas (ATI,
following (ATI, 1995):
1995):
• raw material supply

supply - How
How will
will the
the enterprise
enterprise ensure
ensure an
an adequate
adequate supply of materials to
meet buyers' demands?
demands? Can
Can sustainable harvests from
sustainable harvests from wild
wild sources
sources meet
meet this
this demand,
demand, as
as
estimated by
estimated by subsector
subsector analysis
analysis (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 3)
3) and
andmarketing
marketing information?
information? (see
(see
Chapter 7)
• legal control/access to the

the natural
natural resource
resource -- What
Whatother
othercommunities/organizations
communities/organizations or
individuals access to the resource?
individuals claim access By what
resource? By what arrangements
arrangements will
will the
the enterprise
enterprise share
share
benefits with them, and
benefits and among
among enterprise
enterprise members?
members?
• markets for
markets for the forest product - What
What markets
markets exist
exist for
for the
the product
product as
as harvested?
harvested? WhatWhat
are other markets
markets for
for possible
possible processed
processed products?
products? (See
(See Chapter
Chapter 6)
6) What
What is
is the
the level
level and
and
nature of access
access to
to each
each market?
market? Who
Who are
are the
the competitors?
competitors? (See Chapter 7); 7) ;
• appropriate processing technology

technology -- Which
Which technologies permit the
technologies permit the enterprise
enterprise to start
start
simple and then
simple then become
become more
moresophisticated?
sophisticated? Which
Which are
are adequate/efficient?
adequate/efficient? What
What
equipment is
equipment is needed?
needed? What energy
energy and/or water
water sources
sources does
does the
the technology
technology require?
require?
What skills? What storage and
and transport
transport facilities?
facilities?
• good management
management - Who
Who has
has experience
experience with
with management
management of similar
similar ventures?
ventures? What
What
roles do
do deal-making
deal-making and
and record-keeping
record-keeping skills
skills play?
play?
• financial requirements
requirements - What
What capital
capital does
does the
the enterprise
enterprise possess? What isis required
possess? What required for
for
the first six
six months? What formal (banks, extension services)
services) and
and informal
informal credit
credit sources
exist?
exist? What are their
their terms?
terms?
Finally, when
when enterprise
enterprise has
has identified
identified the areas where it lacks experience,
experience, it should explore what
outside
outside services
services can help
help improve
improve skills
skills in
in these
these areas.
areas. Government
Government and
and university
university extension
extension
services,
services, agricultural
agricultural marketing
marketing services,
services, NGOs
NGOs and and development
development agencies
agencies are
are all
all potential
potential
sources of training and other
other forms
forms ofof assistance.
assistance.
Managing risk
Before embarking on aa commercial
commercial enterprise,
enterprise, everyone
everyone involved
involved should
should clearly
clearly understand
understand the
the
risks and have a plan that would address them.them. Four measures for managing risk in
managing risk in an enterprise
were mentioned earlier: (1)(1) start
start with
with products
products for which a local market already exists; (2) adopt
already exists;
(3) start
a simple strategy; (3) start with
with one
one product
product and
and gradually
gradually diversify; and (4) diversify the markets
for each product.
An enterprise can
can minimize
minimize risk
risk by
by starting
starting with
with small,
small, pilot-scale
pilot-scale commercialization,
commercialization, based on
known markets
markets and
and their
their preferences
preferences for
for the
the specific
specific product.
product. Pilot-scale
Pilot-scale production
production and sale
sale
48
allow the
allow the enterprise to
to get
get aa more
more accurate
accurate picture
picture of
ofthe
the market,
market, make
make adjustments
adjustments while
while costs
costs
are relatively low, and
and refine
refine its
its marketing
marketing plan.
plan.
The level
The level of risk
risk varies
varies with
with the
the nature
nature of the
the enterprise
enterprise and
and the
the type
type of markets.
markets. In general,
general,
distant markets
distant markets involve
involve greater risks to the
the producer than nearby markets (see Table 5.2).
Table 5.2:
5.2: Comparison
Comparison of
ofrisks
risks and
and benefits
benefits of
of three
three levels
levels of
of NWFP
NWFP trade
trade
Type of market
Type Relative risk to producer
Relative Nature of trade
Local rural
Local Low: low transport costs; market
Low: market Can experience slow growth,
experience slow growth, linked to
markets preference information
information easily agricultural activity; demand for
accessible NWFPs declines with with increased
increased
exposure to cheap
cheap manufactured
manufactured
products
Urban and Medium: transport costs
Medium: costs higher; Potentially fast
fast growth, due
due to
to
national markets information on market preferences
preferences growing urban migration of rural
growing
less accessible people who
people who bring customary tastes to
customary tastes
the city; for traditional
traditional products,
markets can
urban markets can be
be larger than
international ones
Regional markets Somewhat higher:
Somewhat higher: higher transport Potentially
Potentially strong within regions with
(neighbouring costs; more information
information needed
needed shared ecological and cultural
countries) not only on regional
regional markets
markets but
but characteristics;
characteristics; deserve more studystudy
on export-import regulations
regulations and
and
duties
International High: frequently requires
High: Historically, tend to experience
experience boom-
boom-
markets intermediaries to gain information bust sequences
intermediaries sequences of quickly rising
rising
on product standards; more demand, followed
followed by swift
swift decline
decline as
as
sophisticated market preferences technologies for making
making cheaper
cheaper
(which often cause higher
higher substitutes become available
production costs) and international
international
trade rules
(Source: FAO, 1995)

(Source: 1995)
As
As Table 5.2 indicates,
indicates, international
international trade in NWFPs involves more risk.
involves more risk. Historically,
Historically, NWFPs
that attract international
international markets
markets have
have quickly
quickly become
become the focus of
of intensive
intensive efforts
efforts to
to replace
replace
forest sources
forest sources with
with domestic
domestic sources
sources and/or
and/orcheaper
cheapersynthetic
syntheticsubstitutes.
substitutes. ThisThis risk
risk is
compounded by
compounded by the greater
greater need
need to
to meet
meetinternational
international standards,
standards, ensure
ensure reliable
reliable high-volume
high-volume
supply,
supply, track distant
distant market trends and cover high advertising costs. Figure
advertising costs. Figure 5.2 illustrates
illustrates the
fluctuations for three internationally
fluctuations for traded NWFPs:
internationally traded NWFPs: gumgum arabic,
arabic, lac and rattan.
To reduce the
the risk
risk of
of producing
producing anan export
export item,
item, an
an enterprise
enterprise could
could select a product
product that
that the
the
source
source country
country currently
currently imports. This strategy
imports. This can divide
strategy can divide the
the risk
risk between
between two
two markets,
markets,
assuming
assuming that the export
export and
and national
national markets
markets have
have comparable
comparable preferences and standards (De
Silva and Atal, 1995).
1995).
5. Exploring
options 49
Figure 5.2
5.2 Exports
Exports of
ofSudanese
Sudanese gum
gum arabic,
arabic, Thai
Thai lac
lac exports
exports and
and Indonesian
Indonesian rattan
for the period 1981-1988
for 1981-1988
160 -
160~---,----~--~r-"---r----'r----'----'----'
150+----4----~·----f----_+----+---_+--4Tr_--~
150
140
1404-----~--~---~_r----_r-----i-·--·~--_1 · ~----~
U 130+"--~~--'-~----+~'----r---'-r----~-~-i
130 r-----4
1204-----~---~-----r----~----+---~--~.··. ~--~
SS 120
110+----+----~---+----+----+----+-~· r--~
$$ 110
100+-----~---~·-----r----~-··---1~~--I>
100 f ~--~ . · •. I~--~
m 90 90 4-- - -.j-.--...-:-...--.~--_i' : tt- -f ··H-- ---I

804-----~-~ · :
80 ~·--~ ····· ~--~ > I~--I .I <f---I . f~---1
fit Gum
Gum arabic
70 ~ la
lacc products
produ cts
604---C.
60
50+---i
ll]rattan
0 rattan
50 I~--~ :· I ~-- I
oo 40
n 30 -
ss 20
10 -
oo
1981 1983 1985 1987
Year
Source:
Source: Lintu
Lintu 1995; Durst et ai.,
1995; Durst al., 1994)
1994)
Building entrepreneurial
Building entrepreneurial and management
management skills
In aa commercial
commercial venture,
venture, good
good management
management andand entrepreneurial
entrepreneurial skills are as
as important
important as
as good
good
planning. Plans are useftil as reference points and for clarifying goals. Good management
Plans are useful as reference points and for clarifying goals. Good management adaptsadapts
plans to respond
respond toto changing
changing conditions
conditions and
and opportunities.
opportunities.
Entrepreneurial ability is rarerare among

among small-scale
small-scale NWFP producers entering
entering the business world.
This is aa problem
problem in
in all
all countries;
countries; small
smallenterprises
enterprises in
inindustrialized
industrialized countries
countries such
such asas the
the United
United
States fail
States fail as frequently
frequently as as enterprises
enterprises in
in Botswana
Botswana - around
around 8080 percent
percent over
over aa five-year
five-year period
period
(FAO, 1995).
(FAO, 1995).
Entrepreneurial training
training for
for producers
producers
Some development
Some development agencies
agencies and
and NGOs
NGOs offer training
training in
in deal-making
deal-making and other
other entrepreneurial
entrepreneurial
skills for NWFP enterprises.
enterprises. The
The USAID-funded
USAID-funded Biodiversity
Biodiversity Support Program has linked
linked small-
small-
scale
scale enterprises
enterprises and cooperatives
cooperatives in southern
southern India withwith sources
sources of
of information
information on on business
business
management, biological
management, biological resources
resources and
and social
social issues
issues (FAO,
(FAO, 1995).
1995). The
The international
international NGO,
NGO,
Conservation International, has
has a group
group ofof experienced
experienced business
business professionals who help
professionals who help local
enterprises get established
enterprises established and make
make market
market linkages
linkages for forest-based
forest-based products, including
including oils,
palm products,
palm products, nuts
nuts and
and foods.
foods. In particular, they help
particular, they help local
local enterprises
enterprisesinin the
the areas
areas of
management, market
market development
development and
and finance
finance (Conservation
(Conservation International,
International, 1994).
1994).
Marketing training
training for
for producers,
producers,extension
extension workers
workers and
andpolicy-makers
policy-makers
Among
Among enterprise skills, marketing
marketing is often a serious blind spot.
serious blind spot. This
This is
is because: (1) more than
because: (1)
other
other activities,
activities, marketing
marketing requires
requires information from outside
information from outside the
the producer's
producer's domain,
domain, (2)
(2) in
in
extension, marketing
marketing has received
received less
less emphasis
emphasis than production,
production, and (3) many
many rural
rural producers
producers
have little
little experience
experience in
in aa market
market economy.
economy.
50
50
(]'I
m
x
~
§t
:J
10
n
o
3
3
CD
....
n
[
o
"C
.-+
o·
:J
C/)
5.
5. In Indonesia,
In leaflets of
Indonesia, leaflets of nipa
nipa palm
palm are
are made into roofing
made into roofing material
material by
by an
an 6. 1/ex paraguayensisleaves
/lex paraguayensis leavestotobe
bedried
driedand
and grounded
groundedto to produce
produce "mate",
"mate", aa
elderly
elderly lady
lady who would
would otherwise
otherwise bebe unemployed.
unemployed. (Photo:
(Photo : FAO)
FAO) popular drink in Argentina and
popular drink and southern Brazil.
Brazil. (Photo:
(Photo : T. Frisk)
Frisk)
en
(71 7.
7. Balanites
Balanites aegyptiaca
aegyptiaca nuts,
nuts, oil
oil extraction in Burkina
Burkina Faso.
Faso . (Photo: S. Guinko)
(Photo: S. Guinko) 8. Rattan processing
Rattan processing in
in West Malaysia. (Photo:
(Photo: M. Kashio)
Kashio)
~
Text box 5.1: Matching technology and markets: Examples in Brazil and Kenya
.BtifrOle:oil 'production in Brazil

.
Beazilian Amazon shows how to reduce flik:,:by identifying an appropriate

,Procesejog:::::rnetihod and market$:::::.à.ti,:the,::::S.anie.::::#00::::::Witil.::iresearCh .suppOrt frorwthe::::Natural
fieS.otfif,po*::::InOtute of the u..K.,;00,ppe..0.1è.ct-OyilitjAteg::,:rtatlye:--artIr.'natic !Stints as candidates for
agrOforeStry systems.::The project used
oils as ingredients-:__for the internationaf:ipetfume

complex qUality-etendards and competitive]- pricing
H'f...4p,),q,A,0:000.-et.::¡:etiitibi(ypor:::til,tplditiètvium) showed promise for malqn9 .Produots with less-

potential The shruVS:::::::leafeciriteined high
the ma:terial for two prodticii:...- an-.iindustrial
fragrance::':::Materief:?:tiieljOroOne1sientf::::a startinginsecticide...ingredient, piPeronyf:
butoxide
#'1:ethe.tiniJEté;::::th. :_i::iitiO(:00:01:;c:,,oiotdédùittito,,I,.p,. a mOre-::--00:iftitirrierttally soundTnianner than.
ildti*e::lier'Vete'tif:,.riettitet.forests in Brazil'. ffOr..0co'tea
Nam atjd:::: hitieffte,'COnamomum cefilp: bet a). From the market point of
acce4,:tio an existint::::market without--majortisk of being replaced by a
.:synthetieei.ib
...FrorttEtheporsoectliteof ePing it '1.-oiot.o!',. the pepper :shrub ..scored highlyfor

red highly forthree
three reasons
reasons::
IVlclOltieShca1~edf()r repeated
.(1:).:iti.:WeiiitHike::¡¡:rOWtfiA46ested it cOUtdi:beasiN*donleSticated,for repeated harvests, (2)(2) the
the
__ . _~._ a valued
Plent's essehtiali:O.W.Coul&00(extracted relatiVeteaeilY'end sold-_as a valued industrial industrial chemical
for)ts safrole::.coritont::::.di product qualitidepended:ortjfie genetic trait of leaf-oil content,
..!end-nOt<on Three.-years of cultivation and pilot-scale
::prOcessingtörnipir::CLilthiatiön,enOifferveetteCnniUU64.
(MCI' mg market teSting of th-e,'Oit) have yieltled:j'proMising results.
,Gunarehicprocessing. in Kenya__
NGO interested in prdducing oducing value-added
value-added gum arabic arabic
:!.o:d4ots-:!or.:.:::.!the:.::ipterilptionat:,;pirintjpg,,i,aritt,':PhartnaceultideFindustries. :Discussions
es. Discussions with these with these
::!Odustriet:hthei!!.4.K ,:v?.. .'0100.,.0..4. ::pi....o.00.c.#9:0:::ié'chtlotod:ié::-fbr:--SP.t.ay-dried-or y-dried or formulated formulatedproducts
products
'yútli,oh:::*Old:::re,dupe....: · Iargerlumps
.... " , .•"_..,. . ...,, . .,._._r"' ·.Tn.:>the larger lumps of gum
of gum
W4Oirld.:.:1Aeid of its through
-profits' 'through value
value
:adiditf4r1:::t0:::.:trie'Kenvo:0:0;i0:0,00.itp:::!:17:to!iiiti tt*t.'p.'t.hditiEistitt-th'ati::the:,:pribcessing nrl1,,,c''"''ing approach
'approach that
that
-efirit-ap'Oears most atitreòtiVe-rive+triot be the 6OOietirlate-optionitopOerveta/. et et,,1995).
1995).
this , producers
To address this, producersand
andextension
extension workers
workers should
should receive
receive training
training in
in marketing
marketing skills
skills (see
(see
Chapter 7).
7). To
Toimprove
improvegovernment
governmentsupport
supportforforenterprises,
enterprises,middle-
middle~ totoupper-level
upper-levelofficials
officials
should receive training inin providing incentives
incentives and market information links. Surveys of training
information links.
needs can pinpoint
pinpoint offices
offices and
and training
training topics
topics that
that will
will produce
produce the
the greatest
greatest effect, as
as they
they have
have
in Indonesia
Indonesia (011ikainen, 1991) and
(Ollikainen, 1991) and the
the Philippines (Lintu, 1991).
Philippines (Lintu, 1991). The
The Regional
Regional Community
Community
Forestry Training
Forestry Training Centre
Centre (RECOFT'C)
(RECOFTC) in in Thailand offers short-term
Thailand offers training courses
short-term training courses in the the
marketing of NWFPs.
marketing NWFPs .
Training successful
Training entrepreneurs in
successful entrepreneurs in other
other fields
fields toto make
make them
them aware
aware about
about the benefits
benefits from
linkages with NWFP enterprises
enterprises can
can improve
improve the
the entrepreneurial
entrepreneurial capability in the NWFP sector.
sector.
An example ofof this
this comes
comes from
from India
Indiawhere
wherethetheCanadian
CanadianInternational
Development Research
Research
Centre (IDRC)
(IDRC) has
has sponsored
sponsored such
such linkages
linkages with
with entrepreneurs
entrepreneurs in
in the
the medicinal
medicinal products
products sector
sector
(IDRC, 1994).
1994).
52
Credit support for
Credit for small
small enterprises
enterprises
To understand the high failure

failure rate
rate for
for small
small enterprises,
enterprises, one mustmust distinguish between lack
distinguish between lack ofof
skills and lack of conditions that permit enterprise
enterprise success.
success. AnAn underlying
underlying factor
factor in
in the
the failure
failure of
of
many small
many small enterprises
enterprises is their narrow margin
margin for
for absorbing
absorbing risk.
risk. In Africa,
Africa, for example,
example, small-
scale
scale ventures
ventures may fail inin situations
situations where
where aa minimal
minimal infusion
infusion of credit could
could lead
lead toto success.
success.
Credit for rural
Credit rural enterprises
enterprises can
can bebe made
made more
more flexible
flexible (for
(for example,
example, in in terms
terms of ofcollateral
collateral
guarantee), and development
guarantee), agencies supplying
development agencies supplyingcredit
credit for
for new
new enterprises
enterprises should
should share
share the
the
financial Credit institutions
financial risk as partners. Credit institutions should also
also offer
offer greater
greater support
support toto women's
women's groups,
which frequently
which frequently lack
lack access
access to to credit. Chapter
Chapter 1010 explores
explores forms
forms of institutional support that
institutional support that
promote growth.
Overview of
of processing
processing options
options
NWFPs offer the the full

full range
range of
of processing
processing options,
options, from little
little or no
no processing
processing (fresh foods, nuts
nuts
to relatively
and spices), to relatively simple
simple technologies
technologies (preserved
(preserved foods
foods and
and handicrafts),
handicrafts), to
to intermediate
intermediate
processing (traditional
(traditional medicines,
medicines, vegetable
vegetable oils, sweeteners, dyes, waxes and tannins) to more
oils, sweeteners, more
complex, expensive processes (such as for essential oils, gums, and and balsams) that usually require
centralized facilities
facilities (De Silva and Atal,
Atal, 1995).
1995).
To choose
To choose the
the right
right processing
processing technology,
technology, an an entrepreneur
entrepreneur needs
needs information on (1) the
information on the
of the
characteristics of the resource
resource and
and the
the raw
raw material,
material, (2)
(2) potential
potential markets and (3) the enterprise's
enterprise's
capacity and technology. Chapter
capacity Chapter 66 looks
looks at
at processing
processing options
options in
in more
more detail.
detail.
Summary
• To increase
increase the
the competitiveness
competitiveness of small
small rural
rural enterprises
enterprises in
in NWFPs,
NWFPs, entrepreneurs
entrepreneurs
should:
improve production and itsits reliability;

reliability;
reduce losses through
reduce through improved
improved harvest
harvest and
and post-harvest
post-harvest techniques,
techniques, including
including
transport;
inform themselves of marketing and processing
processing options;
start with an existing
existing product and aa simple
simple strategy.
strategy.
• Review the strengths,

strengths, weaknesses
weaknesses and sources
sources of
of support
support for
for the
the enterprise.
enterprise.
• Keep
Keep risks
risks to
to an
anacceptable
acceptable minimum
minimum with
with aaconsidered
considered management
management strategy
strategy that
that
monitors the risks associated with different markets, and
and starts with
with pilot-scale production.
production.
• Improve skills and capabilities

capabilities through training and
and review
review of
of experience.
experience.
• Improve profitability and

and sustainability
sustainability with some form of local processing, or local
local value
value
addition.
addition. The key
key factors
factors in
in this
this decision
decision are:
are: (1)
(1) know
know what
what processing
processing options
options are
feasible
feasible for the
the given
given resource
resource and
and abilities,
abilities, (2)
(2) know
know what
what market
market opportunities
opportunities exist,
exist,
and (3) match the processing technology
and with the
technology with the market
market prospect,
prospect, perhaps
perhaps starting
starting on a
pilot-scale basis.
basis.
5. Exploring commercial options 53
53
References
ATI. 1995. Non-timber
ATI. 1995. forest products
Non-timber forest products manual.
manual. Draft
Draft version.
version. Appropriate Technology
D.C.
Chipeta, M.
M. 1995.
1995 .Making
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what lessons
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the small-
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Clay, J.W.
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and Clement,
Clement, C.R.
C. R. 1993.
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Green, C.L.,
C .L. ,Gordon,
Gordon,A.,
A.,and
andHone,
Hone,G.A.
G.A.1995.
1995.Markets
Markets and
and the
the public/private
interface:
interface: their
their importance
importance in
in NWFP
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wood forest
forest products,
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3. FAO,
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De T. and
and Atal,
Atal, C.K.
C.K.1995.
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Processing,refinement
refinementand
and value
value addition
addition of
of non-wood
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RAPA
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Publication FAO-RAPA, Bangkok.
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non-wood forest
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Hadi, S. 1991.Forest-based handicraftsinin Indonesia.
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reading
ATI. 1994.
AT1. 1994. Evaluating
Evaluating the
the management
management of groupgroup enterprises.
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In Opportunities
Opportunities in the
the coconut
coconut
subsector:selected
subsector: selectedcoconut
coconutprocessing
processingoptions
optionsfor
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small-scale producers
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Technology
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F AO. 1991.
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uppage and lacquerware
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Community Forestry Case Study No.. 3. FAO,
Study No FAO, Rome.
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Iqbal, M. 1993.
1993 . International
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non-wood forest products: an overview.
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Working Paper FAO, Rome.
Rome .
Richards,
Richards, E.M.
E.M. 1993.
1993 .Commercialization
Commercialization of
ofnon-timber
non-timber forest
forest products
products inin Amazonia.
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Socio-
No.2
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5. Exploring commercial options 55
Processing ventures
Processing 6
This chapter gives an illustrative

This illustrative overview
overview of the
the range
range of
of processes
processes by
by which
which enterprises
enterprises can
convert non-wood forest resources into into market items,
items, proceeding
proceeding from
from less
less complex
complex teclmologies
technologies
to more sophisticated,
to sophisticated, capital-intensive processes. Readers
capital-intensive processes. Readers should
should explore
explore references
references in "For
"For
further reading"
further reading" for more
more possibilities.
possibilities.
Evaluating options for processing

Evaluating options processing requires
requires up-to-date
up-to-date information
information on on the natural
natural resource,
markets, processing
processing technologies,
technologies, and trade practices
practices and regulations.
regulations. It also
also requires
requires aa review
review
of access
access to
to the
the resource
resource for
forharvesting
harvestingdifferent
differentproducts
products and
and the
therelative
relativesocio-economic
socio-economic and and
environmental impacts of different harvesting
environmental impacts harvesting combinations
combinations (Lintu, 1995). For example,
(Lintu, 1995). example, neemneem
(Azadirachta indica) can be managed for leaves and seeds to produce many
(Azadirachta many marketable
marketable products
products
from soap
soap to
to bio-insecticide;
bio-insecticide; cultural
cultural preferences
preferences and
and the
the biological
biological resource
resource might
might dictate
dictate an
an
product combination.
optimal product combination.
Simple-technology processing:
processing: foods and
and handicrafts
handicrafts
Food processing
Food processing and
and handicraft
handicraft production can employ
production can employ local
local skills
skills and
and require
require low
low capital
capital
investments.
Foods
Forest fruits, nuts,

nuts, tubers,
tubers, palm
palm heart,
heart, tender
tender shoots,
shoots, wildlife
wildlife and
and insects
insects provide many
many foods
foods for
for
which little
which little or no
no processing
processing isis required
required for
for local
local sale.
sale. But
But with
with relatively
relatively simple techniques for
techniques for
drying, preserving,
preserving, shelling,
shelling, storing,
storing, etc.,
etc., producers
producers can
can increase
increase the
the value
value of
of these
these items
items and
and
reduce seasonal fluctuations
fluctuations in supply.
These processes also permit a rural enterprise to reach urban markets

markets (see
(see text
text box
box 6.1).
6.1). In cities
where consumer's environmental
where environmental awareness allows niche
awareness allows niche markets
markets to
to develop,
develop, anan enterprise
enterprise can
can
increase
increase its revenues
revenues by
by demonstrating
demonstrating the
the ecological
ecological soundness
soundness of its operation
operation and
and meeting
meeting
market preferences.
Handicrafts
The
The example
example of rattan
rattan handicrafts
handicrafts in
in Chapter
Chapter 55 showed
showed how
how local
local processing
processing can
can improve
improve
producers' return
return from
from these
these products.
products.
Silk-making from silkworms

Silk-making from silkworms raised
raised on
on leaves
leaves from
from mulberry
mulberry (Morus
(Morus alba)
alba) and
and other
other trees
trees is aa
widespread cottage industry
widespread cottage industry (Iqbal,
(Iqbal, op.
op. cit.). Raw
Raw materials
materials are
are tree-leaf
tree-leaf fodder
fodder and
and the
the worms
worms
themselves
themselves (for mulberry silk,
silk, Bombyx moil). Silk production
Bombyx man). also opens
production also opens a wide
wide range of other
other
products:
products: mulberry produces edible
edible fruits, a fine
fine wood
wood and branches useful
useful for basketry. Other
Other
silkworms include eri
silkworms include eri (Philosamia ricini and
(Philosamia ricini and P.P. cynthia)
cynthia) raised
raised on castor
castor leaves,
leaves, and
and tassar
tassar
silkworms (Antheraeaspp.)
silkworms (Antheraea spp.) raised
raised on
on Terminalia
Terminaliasp.,
sp., oak
oak and
and other
other species. Silk and
species. Silk and silk
products make
make upup aa significant
significant international
international trade, with
with China
China being
being the
the largest
largest exporting country.
country.
Some Asian
Some Asian silk industries
industries are
are seeking
seeking new
new sources
sources of
of raw
raw silk
silk inindeveloping
developing countries,
countries,
particularly in Africa (Iqbal,
(Iqbal, op. cit.).
cit.).
6. Processing
Processing ventures
ventures 57
57
. .. ... . - ,,',' ... .. . . ... .. " ,' .. '.' .... .
Text box 6.1:
6.1: Processing
Processihg forest fruits for
forestfrLJits .urb~nmarkets
for urban markets ··
The Kalahan Educational Foundation of northern Luzon,

KalahanEducaticmalFoundationof Luzon, Philippipes,
Philippines,foundedinl
founded in 1973, represents
973, represents
mernbers of the lkalahan
me.fl1bers9fth~ ( lkalahan . tribal communities. Through
tribalcpmmunities. Through the
the .·.first-ever
first-ever community
corprnuniW )forest
forest
stewardship agreement with the Philippine
st~ward shipagr~~rl1entwitQthePhilippi government, the .Foundation
ne .gpveJl1went,the Foun.dation •. secured
s~cur~.ci.}legal rights to
~gClLrightsto
Ikalahan ancestral forest lands. With
Ikalahanancestralfore§tJands; this .incentiveforforestpfotection,
Withthis incentive for forest protection, the
the community
community decided
decided
to produce needed cash from the forest rather
producepeededcashJromtheforest than convert
ratherthc3n .convertit to agriculture.
·itto agriculture ; . .
:::: /:::-:::::::::> -::.- ---:::::::::-><: ...... :.' :-.- .. .
The
Thefoundation ~electedtW()WildJOr~st
foundation. selected two wild forest fruits to develop into three •.products:
fruitstodeveloPintolhree • products;· jelly, jarn and
jelly, jam and ·
butter. From
.
that start they have developed
From thatstarttheyh;:lve
>:>:>: ::
.developed1
-:-:
15.5recipes ofpreserves
recipes of
:,:::-:.,::, ..
preserves of
ofwild
wild and cultivated
cultivated fruits.
,>:.)::::::::- -.:-: . ,:'. ,. :::<:,:,:<:,}}>::::::<-:::::::: ."--::::»<::<:-< . --: -: : - ,. ',' "-' -" -' - :- - :' .::::' :-: >:
With the
With .. elp~ftheAsian
the ih
help,...
of the Asian
--... .. < lnstitute()f
Institute of Management,
.. . . . . Managem
-
. . ent, they
they..identified mar~e... ts inin Manila
· id.ent.ified markets Manila/ and
and
consumer preferencesJor
consumer preferences for packaging, container size;
packaging, .container size, and
and volume.
volume . Their Theirproduct
product line line grew
grew toto
include a jelly
include made from a small grape~
jelly madefrorna grape-like likefruit
fruitasweli
as well as as ginger,tClmarind;:lnd
ginger, tamarind and passion fruit. fruit.
The processing operation

The requires iTluch
operatiqnrequires much pianniD9,capital,
planning, capital, storage
storage space
space andcarefuf
and careful attention
to quality control and product standardisation.
standardisation. Recipe
Recipe development varied from
development varied from year
year to
to year
year as
variable weather
variable weather conditionscausedifferences
conditions cause differences in
in acid;
acid, sugar
sugar and
and pectin
pectin contents.
contents of
of the
the fruits.
fruits .
The enterprise
The enterprise has enhanced
enhanced the
the forest's
forest' slocal value, encouraged enrichment
'9CCllvalue,t3nC9uraged .enrichment planting,
planting, and
provided
provided local employment for skilled labour
fotskiHed labour (Rice,
(Rice,J1994).
994). .
Intermediate processing:
Intermediate processing: medicines, vegetable oils,
medicines, vegetable oils, food colorants,
colorants,
tannins and
and gum
gum naval
naval stores
stores
With
With somewhat
somewhat more investment
investment and skills,
skills, rural
rural processing
processing centres
centres can
canproduce
produce medicines,
medicines ,
vegetable
vegetable oils, food
food colorants,
colorants, dyes
dyes and
and tannins.
tannins.
Medicinal
Medicinal plant products
than 80
More than 80 percent
percent of
of the
the world's
world'speople
peopledepend
depend on ontraditional
traditional medicinal
medicinal plants
plants for
for their
their health
health
care. Furthermore,
Furthermore,about
about20 20 percent
percent of
ofthe
the drugs
drugs in
in modern
modern allopathic
allopathic medicine
medicine are derived from
plant sources.
plant sources . Most
Most plants
plants used
used in
in traditional
traditional medicinal
medicinal systems are still collected
systems are collected from wildwild
sources. In some
sources. some cases,
cases, this
this industry
industry has
has caused
caused local
local extinction
extinction of species
species (De Silva and Atal,
Atal,
op.. cit.
op cit.;; Zuhud,
Zuhud, 1995).
1995). Where
Where communities
communities taketake steps
steps toto improve
improve and
and control
control harvesting
harvesting
practices, however,
practices, however, medicinal
medicinal plants
plants can
can provide
provide sustainable
sustainable employment
employment and and improved
improved
community health.
Traditional medicines
Traditional medicines for ingestion are usually prepared using the simple methods
methods of (De Silva
Silva
and Atal,
Atal, op. cit.):
cit.) :
• extraction in hot or cold

cold water;
water;
• crushing an item to express
express the
the juice;
• powdering dried material;
material;
• formulating powders into pastes using water, oil
oil or
or honey;
honey;
• fermenting.
fermenting .
In preparing dosage forms, itit isis important

important to
to control
control quality
quality and
and document
document traditional
traditional healers'
healers '
standards (see Chapter 4).
standards
Plants
Plants with
with medicinal
medicinal properties
properties can
can also
also provide
provide raw
raw materials
materials for
for downstream
downstream processing
processing
operations
operations in the
the pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical industry.
industry. Rawolfia
Rawolfia serpentina
serpentina and
and Strychnos
Strychnos nuxvomica
nuxvomica are
examples.
examples. The resin
resin of
of Virola
Virola species
species in
in the
the nutmeg
nutmeg family
family is used
used in
in Colombia,
Colombia, Ecuador
Ecuador and
and
58
Text box 6.2: The package is the product: leaves and cane baskets in West Africa
Producers explore all options for non-wood items, including packaging for other products. In
Ghana, leaves for wrapping food and cane baskets as container for other products are important
commercial items.
Food-sellers and other traders commonly use leaves from three main species of herbaceous
eCiesof herbaceolls
forest plants as packaging. They are preferred for their strength, . ..durability, impermeability and
~. ~.. ~._ ..,ity,impermeabilityand
ability to withstand heat. Fish, vegetables, cola nuts, soap and salt, allI come come wrapped
wrapped in in these
these
leaves. They are also the exclusive wrapping material for cooked rice, yams, beans and
yams,<beans and fried
fried
plantains. Gathering these leaves offers a means of cash for surviving hardships, as
ngbardships, as ititrequires
requires
little investment and has a ready market. In some villages, leaf-collecting ctirigis is thernainsource
the main source of
income for most households. Women dominate the trade at all levels.
Cane baskets also have a strong and growing demand as containers, both in local subsistence
and commercial use, by rural and urban people alike. Most traded cane goes to processors in
cities and neighbouring countries. In Kumasi, cane processors provided full-time jobs for 70
people in 1992. In a village of 720 people, basket weaving was a major source of livelihood for
more than 100 households..VVornen dominate the cane trade, although most gatherers, weavers
nd furniture rnakers are men.
Demand for baskets fluctuates seasonally. In urban markets, demand can depend on markets for
other products, such as fish. Rural markets for baskets fluctuate with the farming calendar,
increasing during cocoa harvests. While overall demand continues to grow, little has been done
to manage the resource (Falconer, 1992).
Surinam to
Surinam to treat
treat fungal
fungal infections
infections for
for which
which modern
modern allopathic
allopathic medicine
medicine has has no
no real
real cures
cures
(Shultes, 1992).
(Shultes, 1992). Research
Research suggests
suggests that Virola
Virola may provide
provide the basis
basis of
of an
an international
international anti-
anti-
fungal ointment.
Vegetable oils
Many forest trees

trees produce
produce seeds
seeds that
that contain
contain fatty
fatty oils; these
these can be processed into vegetable oils
for use in
in cooking,
cooking, food
food industry
industry and
and soap-making,
soap-making, andand also
also as fuel.
fuel. Producing
Producing fixed
fixed oils is
is aa
simple
simple process and can be done done locally,
locally, with
with locally
locally made equipment.
equipment. In the first stage,
stage, the
the oil
oil
is extracted from thethe seeds
seeds by
by dry
dry expression
expression or byby boiling
boiling the crushed raw material
material in water.
Vegetable oils also provide

Vegetable oils provide inputs
inputs to
to the
the more
more complex
complex detergent
detergent industry,
industry, which
which uses fatty
fatty
alcohol
alcohol derivatives
derivatives of lauric oils,
oils, which
which currently
currently come
come mainly
mainly from
from palm
palm kernels
kernels - primarily
coconut (Cocos nucifera) and African
African oil
oil palm
palm (Elaeis
(Elaeis guineensis),
guineensis), with
with smaller
smaller amounts
amounts from
from
wild stands
wild stands of babassu palm
palm (Orbignya
(Orbignya sp.)
sp.) (De
(De Silva
Silva and
and Atal,
Atal, op.
op. cit.).
cit.) .
Dyes and
Dyes and food colorants
As with many processed NWFPs, synthetic synthetic substitutes restricted the

substitutes have restricted the use
use of natural dyes and
colorants. Still, markets
colorants. markets for
for certain
certain natural
natural food
food colorants
colorants have
have increased
increased (De
(De Silva
Silva andand Atal,
Atal,
op.
op. cit.).
cit.). The
Theannatto
annatto plant
plant (Bixa
(Bixa orellana)
orellana) produces
produces aa seed
seed from
from which
which aa reddish-orange
reddish-orange food food
colorant,
colorant, bixin, is derived. The international market for annatto has fluctuated widely recent
is derived. The international market for annatto has fluctuated widely in recent
years but consumption
years consumption in in Japan,
Japan, for
for example, has increased
example, has increased steadily
steadily(Iqbal,
(Iqbal,op.
op. cit.).
cit.). Native to
Native to
tropical America,
tropical America, annatto is now
annatto is also grown
now also for export
grown for export in Africa
Africa and
and Asia.
Asia. It
It is
is important
important toto
know market
market quality standards: the the international
international annatto
annatto market
market demands seeds with bixin contents
of 2.7-3.5
2.7-3.5percent,
percent,which
whichdisappointed
disappointedmanymany growers
growers ofofvarieties
varieties with
with lower
lower bixin
bixincontents.
contents.
6. Processing
6. Processing ventures
ventures 59
Tannins
Besides curing
Besides curing leather,
leather, tannins also go into
tannins also into dyes,
dyes, inks,
inks, antioxidants,
antioxidants, drugs
drugs and
and lubricants
lubricants
(including aa viscous
(including viscous agent
agent in oil drilling).
drilling) . Processing
Processing tannin extracts and
tannin extracts and powder
powder from
from beans,
nuts, fruits, galls,
nuts, galls, barks
barks and
and stems
stems is
is not
not complex,
complex, but it requires careful monitoring and control
monitoring and control
of conditions.
conditions . Important
Important tannin-producing
tannin-producing treetree species include: Terminalia
species include: Terminalia chebula,
chebula, Rhus
Rhus sp.,
Cassia auriculata and
Cassia and Uncaria
Uncaria gambier
gambier in in Asia;
Asia; mangrove
mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) in
(Rhizophora mangle) in west
west Africa
Africa
and Latin America; Schinopsis lorentzii and Caesalpinia spp. in Latin America and the Caribbean;
and Acacia species worldwide.
and worldwide .
Turpentine and other

other naval
naval stores
stores
Naval stores is
is the
the broad
broad term
term covering
covering pine
pine oleoresins
oleoresins and their derivatives, such as turpentine.
turpentine .
(The term comes from centuries when pine resin and pitch prevailed prevailed in ship
ship building
building and
and repair.)
(a solid
rosin (a
Turpentine and rosin solid resin)
resin) are
are two
two constituent
constituent of pine oleoresins obtained
obtained by
by tapping
tapping of
living pine
living pine trees. Producing
Producing gumgum naval
naval stores
stores requires
requires plentiful
plentiful labour (which
(which comprises 50-80
comprises 50-80
percent of production costs); this this particularly
particularly favours
favours developing
developing countries.
Carefully tapped
Carefully tapped treestrees can yield exudate
exudate for for 15-20
15-20 years
years before
before being
being harvested for wood.
harvested for wood . In
In
some developing
some developing countries,
countries, pine plantations
plantations and distillation
distillation facilities have been
facilities have been developed
developed to
produce gum
produce gum rosin and turpentine.
turpentine. In one type of processing facility,, pine
processing facility pine resin
resin is placed
placed in a
tank, where itit isis mixed
tank, mixed with
with solvents
solvents and
and poured
poured into
into decanters,
decanters, after which
which it proceeds to anan
evaporator. The rosin is
evaporator. is then
then packed
packed inin aluminum drums. The portion intended
aluminum drums. for turpentine
intended for turpentine is
is
passed through
passed through a separator and on to to aa storage
storage tank.
tank.
In most countries, these

these products are mostly
mostly for national markets, with
national markets, with about
about aa third
third of all
all rosin
going to international
going international trade.
trade. If
If supply
supply and
and stable
stable prices
prices can
can be
be ensured,
ensured, natural
natural rosin
rosin products
products
appear safe from the
appear the threat
threat of
of synthetic
synthetic substitutes (Iqbal, op. cit.).
substitutes (Iqbal, cit.) .
Complex
Complex processing:
processing: essential oils, waxes and
essential oils, and other products
products
Essential oils, balsams,

balsams, sweeteners,
sweeteners, gums
gums and
and waxes
waxes'are
are all
all produced
produced with more complex, capital-
capital-
and technology-intensive
technology-intensive processes.
Extraction processes for these products favour centralized, large-scale operations that use use products
products
from intermediate processing operations, as as inputs.
inputs . Because
Because they remove operations further away
away
from the household level
level and require
require full-time
full-time employment and specialized
specialized skills, such processing
operations tend to
to disfavour
disfavour women
women compared
compared to to the
the processes
processes mentioned
mentioned above.
above.
Essential oils
oils
Essential oils are volatile aromatic

aromatic compounds
compounds located in many plant parts. They are used in many
industries
industries for adhesives,
adhesives , pharmaceuticals,
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and toiletries,
cosmetics and toiletries, paints,
paints, paper andand printing,
printing,
insecticides, textile making,
insecticides, textile making, polishes,
polishes, solvents,
solvents, rubber
rubber and
and plastic
plastic products,
products, and
and food
food and and
beverages (De Silva and Atal, op. op . cit.).
cit.).The
Thecommon
commonmethod
method forfor extracting
extracting essential
essential oils
oils isis steam
steam
distillation,
distillation, although some, like like citrus
citrus oils,
oils, are
are processed
processed by
by cold
cold expression.
expression. Steam
Steam distillation
distillation
involves generating steam with a separate boiler and passing passing itit through
through the
the plant
plant material
material in in order
to carry off
offthe
the volatile
volatile constituents.
constituents.
Extraction with solvents

solvents or
or essential
essential oils
oils from
from flowers,
flowers, ororoleoresins
oleoresins from
from spices
spices (for
(forexample,
example,
ginger, pepper
pepper and
and cardamon)
cardamon) requires
requiresananadditional
additional step
step of
ofseparation.
separation.
60
A plant's yield
A yield of
ofessential
essential oil
oildepends
dependson
onharvesting
harvesting and
andpost-harvest
post-harvest operations,
operations, including
including
(De Silva
(De Silva and
and Atal,
Atal, op. cit.):
• stage of harvesting
harvesting (maturation,
(maturation, flowering
flowering stage);
stage);
• time of day when
time when harvested;
harvested;
• rate of drying;
rate
• temperature of drying;
• moisture content after drying;
drying;
• storage conditions;
conditions;
• storage time before
before processing.
processing.
The
The requirements are beyond
requirements are beyond the
the means
means of most
most rural
rural enterprises,
enterprises, but
but in
in some
some developing
developing
countries the government operates processing centres to
processing centres to feed
feed national
national industries
industries (Table
(Table 6.1).
6.1).
Table 6.1:
6.1: Essential
Essential oils
oils obtained
obtained from
from wild
wild and
and cultivated
cultivated forest
forest species,
species,
in main producing countries
Product Botanical source Main origin

Amyris Amyris
Arnyris balsamifera Haiti
Anise/star anise
anise Pimpinella anisum Spain, Poland, former
Spain, former Soviet
Soviet Union
Union
Anise, star
Anise, Anisum verum Viet Nam
China, Viet Nam
Bay/laurel
Bay /laurel leaf nobilis
Pimenta racemosa/Laurus nobilis Dominica, Turkey,
Dominica, Turkey, Italy,
Italy, Cote
Côte d'Ivoire
Cabreuva Myrocarpus frondosus Brazil
Caraway
Caraway seed Carum carvi Many Asian,
Many Western European
Asian, Western European and
and North
African countries, USAUSA
Cedarwood Cedrus spp.1Juniperus
spp./Juniperus spp.
spp . India, Sri Lanka, Guatemala,
India, Guatemala, USA, China,
China,
Kenya
Cinnamon/ cassia Cinnamomum
Cinnamomum verum/C.
verum/C. cassia Sri Lanka (cinnamon), China (cassia)
(cassia)
Citronella Cymbopogon spp. Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, India, Taiwan,
Indonesia, China, Taiwan,
Guatemala
Davana Artemisia
Artemisia pallans
pallans India, Pakistan
Pakistan
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
spp . China,
China, Portugal,
Portugal , Spain, South
South Africa, Brazil,
Brazil ,
Australia
Lavender Lavendula spp.
spp . France,
France, Italy, Spain,
Spain, Hungary
Hungary
Lemon
L,emon grass Cymbopogon flexuosus
flexuosus India, Guatemala, China
China
Litsea Litsea cubeba China
Muhuhu Brachylaena hutchinsii Tanzania UR
Nutmeg/mace Myristica fragrans
Myristica Indonesia, Grenada, Sri Lanka
Lanka
Palmarosa Cymbopogon martinii
Cymbopogon India
Patchouli Pogostemon
Pogostemon cablin Indonesia, China
(allspice)
Pimento (allspice) Pimenta dioica Jamaica,
Jamaica, USA
USA
Rosewood Aniba rosaeodora Peru
Brazil, Peru
Sandalwood album
Santalum album India, Indonesia
Indonesia
Sassafras Ocotea pretiosa Brazil
Brazil
Tagetes Tagetes glandulifera
Tagetes Eastern and Southern
Southern Africa
Africa
Thyme Thymus vulgaris
Thymus Spain
Vetiver Vetiveria
Vetiveria zizanioides Haiti, Indonesia,
Indonesia, China,
China, Reunion
Reunion Is.
Is.
Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata Comoro Is.,
Is ., Madagascar,
Madagascar, Indonesia
Indonesia
(Source: Iqbal,
Iqbal , 1993)
1993)
For example,
example, inin Indonesia cayuput oil
Indonesia cayuput is extracted from the leaves of Melaleuca
oil is Melaleuca sp. (cayuput) for
sale as a medicinal unguent, mainly
mainly within
within Indonesia. The State Forest Enterprise in in Java (Perum
(Perum
Perhutani) manages
Perhutani) manages 12 12 distillation
distillation centres
centres forfor extracting
extractingthe
the oil,
oil, and
and 9 000
000 ha
ha of Melaleuca
ofMelaleuca
plantations.
plantations. In 1993,
1993, cayuput
cayuput oil
oil production
production was was 279,800
279,800 kg,
kg, accounting
accounting for
for aaconsiderable
considerable
portion of
of the
the State
State Forest
Forest Enterprise's
Enterprise's total
total income.
income.
6. Processing
Processing ventures
ventures 61
Farmers manage cayuput trees in in agroforestry
agroforestry systems. Starting in the fourth year,
systems. Starting year, the farmers
coppice the
coppice the trees, strip
strip the
the leaves
leaves from
from branches
branches and bag them for for transport to
to a nearby facility.
There the leaves
leaves are
are boiled
boiled and
and the
the leaf
leafoil
oil passes
passes through
through separators.
separators. Waste
Waste leaves
leaves are used to
fuel the boilers, and
fuel and for
for organic
organic matter.
matter. An
An eight-boiler
eight-boiler cayuput
cayuput distillation plant produces
distillation plant produces about
about
78000 litres of oil
78000 oil annually,
annually, from
from almost
almost 99 thousand
thousand tons
tons of
of cayuput
cayuput leaf (FAO,
(FAO, 1995).
1995).
Waxes and
Waxes and other products
Natural waxes
Natural waxes from forest
forest sources
sources are
are used
used in
in making
making candles,
candles, varnishes,
varnishes, pharmaceuticals
pharmaceuticals and
and
cosmetics. Some waxes
cosmetics. Some waxes are collected,
collected, melted
melted and
and shaped
shaped into
into cakes.
cakes. Others
Others are obtained
obtained by
by
solvent extraction.
solvent extraction. Natural
Natural waxes
waxes suffer
suffer from
from heavy
heavy competition
competition with
with cheaper
cheaper synthetic
synthetic
substitutes, but some of its specific properties
substitutes, properties help
help to
to maintain
maintain aa demand.
demand. Processing
Processing of
of wax oils
simple, but
can be simple, but requires
requires rigorous
rigorous quality
quality control.
control.
Some plant residues can be used to produce market items.

Some items. For example, in
in the
the Himalayan
Himalayan region
of India pine needles
needles under natural
natural pine
pine forests are collected,
collected, baled
baled and processed as boards (De
(De
Silva and
Silva and Atal,
Atal, op.
op. cit.).
Steps in processing
processing
steps involved
The steps involved in
in developing
developing aa processing
processing operation
operation are
are the
the following:
following:
• Select
Select non-wood product(s) for
non-wood product(s) for processing based on available
processing based available resources,
resources, facilities
facilities and
and
marketability .
marketability.
• small-scale pilot
Start small-scale pilot production
production to to test
test the
the feasibility
feasibility of
of the
the process,
process, product
product quality
quality and
and
market preferences.
preferences . Gain a clear understanding quality goals.
understanding of quality goals. For
For pilot-scale
pilot-scale testing
testing of
of
medicinal
medicinal and aromatic
aromatic plants
plants and
and spices,
spices, producers can use aa transportable,
transportable, small-scale
small-scale
such as
plant, such as the
the polyvalent
polyvalent pilot plant designed
designed by by UNIDO
UNIDO (De (De Silva
Silva and Atal, op. cit.).
and Atal, cit.).
This portable
This portable plant
plant is
is intended
intended asas aatool
toolfor
forcollaboration
collaboration between
between researchers
researchers and
and
producers (Figure 6.
producers (Figure 6.1).
1). At this
this pilot
pilot stage,
stage, facility
facility design
design should
should consider how to
consider how
accommodate production of
accommodate production of several
several products
products (for
(for example,
example, from
from plant
plant parts
parts produced
produced in
different seasons).
seasons).
• Determine the
Determine the cultivation,
cultivation, harvesting
harvesting and/or post-harvest treatments best
post-harvest treatments best suited
suited for the
the
enterprise and to
to ensure
ensure sustainable
sustainable supply
supply (see
(see Chapters
Chapters 44 and
and 5).
5).
• Make
Make or purchase
purchase equipment and arrange
equipment and arrange for the space, utilities
utilities (water
(water and energy) and
human resources for production. Plan for storage and transport. This
human resources for production. Plan for storage and transport. This step
step often
often entails
entails
preliminary
preliminary estimation
estimation of production volume
volume and
and unit
unit price,
price, and
and arrangements
arrangements to obtain
obtain
credit for
for capital
capital investments.
investments.
• arrange for training staff

staff in
in processing methods and quality
quality control.
control. Establish
Establish measures for
continual monitoring
ensuring continual monitoring ofof these.
these .
• start processing
processing operations
operations with
with technical
technical assistance as needed.
assistance as needed. Continue
Continue to
to review
review
estimates of production
production capacity, costs
costs and
and product
product price.
price.
Processing requirements can includeinclude steady supplies

supplies of water (for example, in in steam
steam distillation
distillation
or cooling engines)
engines) and/or energy. Where running water water is
is scarce,
scarce, condensers
condensers cancan be
be air cooled
instead.
instead. Where electricity
electricity is
is not
not available,
available, alternatives
alternatives may include
include fuelwood
fuelwood or or other material;
if so, the
the enterprise
enterprise should
shouldpromote
promote fuelwood
fuelwood plantations
plantations early
early to
to supply
supply its
its needs.
needs.
62
Ol
Figure 6.1.UNIDO
Figure 6.1. UNIDOpolyvalent
polyvalentpilot
pilotplant
plantfor
forprocessing
processingmedicinal
medicinal and
and aromatic
aromatic plants
plants and
and spices
spices
~
....
o
o Condenser IIII
Condenser
I»
en
en
:i"
IC @
<
(I) Condenser II venl
Air vent
:J
"*
C
Cil
en @
TI
Flellux divider
Cooler
Phase separator
Phase Florentine
\flask
VI
S81ely vel ve
V4
Flexible
!,Iexibls hose
00'8
V9
Lc?
Evaporator
filters
V6 V7 Solvent
tank
V21
V3 1~
Li ~~x:mJ' , ?J
or ~;4
V14 II Iv
V17A '< 7.'~
11-
V170 J
V3
'-' j V5 r-1 vio
Receivers
Peceivers
0) - Circulation pump
w
(De
(De Silva and Atal, 1995).
1995).
Quality standards
standards
Processed products
Processed products are frequently
frequently subject
subject to
to national
national (and
(and sometimes
sometimes international)
international) minimum
minimum
standards
standards for quality. Particularly for items
for quality. items intended
intended for
for personal
personal use
use or
or ingestion,
ingestion, such as
as soaps
or medicines, these standards are important.
important. They
They often cover processing operations and screening
of raw materials (for example, to ensure good-quality genetic
genetic stock and
and post-harvest
post-harvest treatment
treatment that
that
prevents contamination).
contamination).
For products
products destined
destined for
for international
markets, the
the norms
norms of ofthe
theInternational
International Standards
Standards
Organization (ISO) apply,
Organization (ISO) apply, usually
usually the ISO 9000
9000 series of specifications,
specifications, which
which aim to to ensure
ensure
safety
safety for workers,
workers, the
the environment
environment and
and consumers.
consumers. Compliance
Compliance alsoalso has
has benefits
benefits for the
the
processing enterprise: companies
processing enterprise: with ISO
companies with ISO 9000
9000 certification
certification report
report that
that this
this has
has saved them
them
money and yielded marketing
money benefits (De
marketing benefits (De Silva
Silva and
and Atal,
Atal, op.
op. cit.).
cit.) .
Producers intending
intending toto sell
sell to
to urban
urban and
and national
national markets
markets should
should consult
consult governrnent
government agencies and
regulatory
regulatory institutions concerning specifications, including limits on pollutants emitted
institutions concerning specifications, including limits on pollutants emitted by the
by the
facility .
processing facility.
The World Health

Health Organization
Organization has
has prepared
prepared international
international guidelines
guidelines for countries
countries to
to evaluate
evaluate
quality,
quality, safety and
and effectiveness
effectiveness of long-term
long-term use of of herbal
herbal medicines.
medicines. The
The guidelines
guidelines cover
cover
pharmaceutical assessment, crude
pharmaceutical assessment, crude plant
plant material,
material, plant preparations such as
preparations such as powders, extracts,
extracts,
tinctures and oils, descriptions of the
descriptions of the finished
finished product, testing
testing of stability and safety in long-term
toxicology , and
use, toxicology, and assessment
assessment of efficacy. They
They also suggest criteria for product labelling
labelling and
promotion (WHO,
(WHO , 1991).
1991) .
New product development

development and
and research
research support
support
Research for identifying

identifying good
good processing
processing options
options for non-wood resources can proceed in in several
several
For aromatic
ways. For aromatic andandmedicinal
medicinal plant
plantproducts,
products, one way isis the
oneway the kind
kind of
ofcollaboration
collaborationmentioned
mentioned
earlier
earlier for
for trial
trial distillation
distillation and
and chemical
chemical analysis.
analysis . Other
Other international
international agencies
agencies can similarly
similarly
support research and collaborate with entrepreneur
collaborate with entrepreneur groups.
groups. Text
Text boxbox 5.1
5.1 illustrated examples of
illustrated examples of
such support
such support forfor studies
studies ononprocessing,
processing, export
export marketing,
marketing, product
product quality
quality and
and laboratory
laboratory
evaluation.
In South
South Asia,
Asia, the
the Medicinal
Medicinal Plants
Plants Network
Network established
established by the
the Canadian
Canadian International
International
Development Research Centre
Centre (IDRC)
(IDRC) supports
supports research
research and small-scale
small-scale activities
activities related
related to
to
The Network
medicinal plants. The Network aims to document
aims to document traditions
traditions in
in plant-based
plant-based health care, protect
protect and
and
conserve medicinal plants (including cultivation), and share technology, standards, quality-control
measures and studies on the
measures the impacts
impacts of
of medicinal
medicinal plant trade (IDRC, 1994).
1994).
In many
many countries,
countries, consortiums
consortiums of NG0s,
NGOs, universities
universities and thethe private
private sector
sector are
are evolving
evolving to
to
bridge the information gap between forest-product research and producers. These consortiums can
help evaluate
help evaluate new
new processing
processing opportunities
opportunities and
and disseminate
disseminate valuable
informat!on onon new
new
technologies - those
those that
that rural
ruralenterprises
enterprisescan
canuse
use and,
and, equally
equally important,
important, those
those that
thatmay
may compete
compete
with them.
them. Effective
Effective consortiums
consortiums have
have grown
grown up
up in
in Australia,
Australia, the
the Philippines
Philippines and
and Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (see
(see
Chapter 9 and 10).
10).
As regional centres of
of excellence
excellence emerge,
emerge, they
they should
should further
further help
help to
to explore
explore processing
processing options
options
for key
key species
species common
common to to several
several countries,
countries, with
with reduced
reduced burdens
burdens toto each
each country's
country's scarce
scarce
research resources (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 9).
9) .
64
Summary
• If there
there isis predictable
predictable resource
resource availability
availability and
and good
good marketing
marketing information,
information, explore
explore
processing options near the the location of forest
location of forest resource
resource to
to increase
increase the
the value
value that
that producers
producers
receive for
receive for their product.
product. For
For urban
urban markets,
markets, explore
explore market
market niches
niches that
that aa processed
processed
product might fill.
• Identify the
Identify the scale
scale of processing appropriate to
processing appropriate to the
the resource,
resource, product and
and enterprise
enterprise skills.
Household-scale
Household-scale processing options include food-drying
processing options food-drying and -packaging
-packaging and
and handicrafts.
handicrafts.
Community-scale
Community-scale operations can process medicinal products, vegetable oils, soaps, dyes
operations can process medicinal products, vegetable oils, dyes
and tannins processing centres can produce turpentine, waxes
tannins.. Still more complex rural processing waxes and
and
inputs for downstream industries.
inputs industries.
• the process,
Start with pilot-scale production to test the process, product quality
quality and
and market
market preferences.
preferences.
A pilot trial can
can also
also help
help in
in designing
designing flexible
flexible facilities for processing
facilities for several products,
processing several products,
reducing costs for each one.
reducing
• Before starting a processing

Before processing venture,
venture, learn
learn about
about the
the regulations
regulations and
and quality
quality standards
standards to
to
which processed goods are subject. Establish means for monitoring product quality. Public-
Public-
private consortiums
private can transfer
consortiums can transfer important
important information
information on standards
standards and
and processing
processing
technologies from
technologies from researchers
researchers to producers.
producers .
• Stay informed
Stay informed on processing
processing research
research relating to the enterprise's product
relating to product and
and substitute
substitute
products
products.. Pilot
Pilot processing
processing plants, information
information networks, national consortiums
consortiums and
and regional
regional
research centres all provide
provide options
options for this.
this.
References
De Silva, T. and
De and Atal,
Atal, C.K.
C.K.1995.
1995.Processing,
Processing,refinement
refinementand
and value
value addition
addition of
of non-wood
non-wood forest
products.
products . In
In Report
Report of
ofthe
the expert
expert consultation
consultation on
on non-wood forest products.
non-wood forest products. FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Falconer, J.
J . 1992. Non-timberforest
forestproducts
products inin southern
southern Ghana:
Ghana: a summary
summary report. ODA
ODA
Forestry Series No. 2. UK
No.2. UKOverseas
OverseasDevelopment
Authority, London.
London.
FAO. 1995.
FAO. 1995. Report
Report of
ofthe
theexpert
expertconsultation
consultation on
onnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, 17-27
1995. Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products 3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome .
IDRC. 1994.
1994. Medicinal
Medicinal plants
plants network
network information.
information. Xerox.
Xerox. International
Centre, New
New Delhi.
Delhi.
Iqbal,
Iqbal, M.
M. 1993.
1993. International
Internationaltrade
tradeininnon-wood
non-woodforest
forest products..
overview. Forest
Forest Products
Products
Working
Working Paper 11.11. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Lintu,
Lintu, L.
L. 1995.
1995 . Trade
Tradeand
andmarketing
marketing of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products.
products. In
In Report
Report of
ofthe
the expert
expert
consultation
January 1995.
1995. Non-
Non-
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Rice, D.
D. 1994.
1994. Marketing
Marketingmultipurpose
mUltipurpose tree
tree products:
products: the
the Ikalahan
Ikalahan experience. In Raintree, J.B.
J.B.
and Francisco,
and Francisco, H.A., eds.,
H.A., eds ., Marketing
Marketing of multipurpose tree products
multipurpose tree products in
in Asia.
Asia. Winrock
Bangkok.
6. Processing
6. Processing ventures
ventures 65
Shultes, R.E. 1992.
Shultes, 1992. Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany and
and technology
technology in
in the
the Northwest
Northwest Amazon:
Amazon: a partnership.
partnership. In
In
Plotkin,
Plotkin, M. and Famolare, L., eds., Sustainable harvest and marketing of rain forest products.
and Famolare, L., eds., Sustainable harvest and marketing of rain forest products.
Conservation International, Washington, D.C.
WHO. 1991.
WHO. 1991. Guidelines
Guidelines for
for the
the assessment
assessment of
of herbal
herbal medicines.
medicines. Programme
Programme on
on Traditional
Traditional
Medicines, World
World Health
Health Organization,
Organization, Geneva.
Geneva.
Zuhud, Ervizal
Ervizal A.M.
A.M. 1995.
1995 .Sustainable
Sustainable utilization
utilization of
of medicinal
medicinal plants and animals
animals diversity inin
Indonesian tropical
Indonesian tropical forests.
forests. Paper contributed
contributed to to an
an FAO
FAO Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation on
on Non-Wood
Non-Wood
Forest Products,
Products, 17-27
17-27 January
January 1995,
1995, ininYogyakarta,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Indonesia. Indonesian
Indonesian Tropical
Tropical Institute
Institute
Secretariat, Bogor,
Bogor, Indonesia.
Indonesia.
For further reading

For reading
ATI.
ATI . 1994.
1994. Opportunities
Opportunities in
in the
the coconut
coconut subsector:
subs ector: selected
selected coconut processing options for
for small-
small-
scale producers. Appropriate
Technology International
International and
and the University
University of the Philippines
Philippines at
Los Baños,
Banos, Washington,
Washington, DC.
DC.
Coppen, J.J.W.
J.J .W.and
andHone,
Hone,G.A.,
G.A .,eds.
eds.1992.
1992.Eucalyptus
Eucalyptusoils..
oils: aareview
review of
ofproduction and markets.
Bulletin
Bulletin 56. Natural
Natural Resources
Resources Institute,
Institute, Kent,
Kent, UK.
UK.
FAO. 1987.
1987. Small-scale forest-based processing enterprises.
Small-scaleforest-basedprocessing enterprises. Forestry Paper No.
No. 79. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 1988.
FAO. 1988. Silkworm
Silkworm rearing.
rearing. Agricultural
Agricultural Services
Services Bullettin
Bullettin No. 73/1.
FAO, 1988.
1988. Silkworm
Silkworm rearing.
rearing. Agricultural
Agricultural Services
Services Bullettin
Bullettin No.
No . 73/2.
73/2.
FAO. 1993.
1993 . Chemical
Chemical processing
processing and utilisation of Acacia
utilisation of Acacia catechu.
catechu. FAO/RAPA,
FAO/RAPA, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
UNIDO.
UNIDO. 1991.
1991. Design
Design options
options for aa polyvalent
polyvalent pilot plant unit for the distillation and extraction
of medicinal
medicinal and aronuItic
aromatic plants.
plants. Department
Department for
for Industrial
Industrial Promotion,
Promotion, Consultations
Consultations and
Technology.
Technology . UNIDO,
UNIDO, Geneva.
Geneva.
Zinkel,
Zinkel, D.F.
D.F. and
and Russell,
Russell, J.,
J .,eds.
eds 1989.
. 1989.Naval
Navalstores:
stores:production,
production,chemistry,
chemistry, utilization.
utilization. Pulp
Pulp
Chemicals Association, New
Chemicals Association, New York. 1,060 1,060 pp.
pp.
66
Markets, marketing and trade
Markets, 7
This chapter takes a closer look at two

This two major
major forces
forces playing in any effort to link rural economic
economic
development to
development to non-wood forest resources:
non-wood forest resources: markets
markets and
and the
the means
means toto reach them. For this
reach them. this
chapter, marketing is defined as an information-based
is defined as an information-based technology that producers can use to (Lintu
(Lintu,,
1995):
1995):
• identify market opportunities

identify opportunities in the form of
of market
market needs
needs and
and wants;
wants;
• analyze competition;
• develop appropriate approaches to reach identified
develop identified markets;
• make a profitable income.
make income.
Proper marketing starts

starts with
with linking
linking the
the resource and product development to to market preferences.
preferences.
In sustainable
sustainable forestry,
forestry, the role
role of
ofmarketing
marketing isis totocreate
createeffective
effective linkages
linkages between
between resource
managers, processors,
managers, processors, and end users.
This chapter will

will discuss
discuss the
the basic
basic aspects
aspects of
of marketing
marketing to
to meet
meet customer
customer preferences:
preferences : product,
product,
place (channels
place (channels of distribution), promotion and price. It It will
will look
look at the
the role
role of
of intermediaries
intermediaries in
in
distribution channels, and
and the
the trade
tradeenvironment
environment formed
formed byby social
social and
and economic,
economic, technological,
technological,
political, regulatory, legal,
political, legal, and
and institutional
institutional factors,
factors, particularly
particularly for
for national
national and
and international
international
markets.
Markets
NWFPs
NWFPs are soldsold in
in various
various markets:
markets: local,
local, urban,
urban, national,
national, regional
regional and
and international.
international. In
In Costa
Costa
Rica,
Rica, products from the the bitterwood
bitterwood tree (Quassia
(Quassia amara) are are marketed
marketed in
in local
local markets
markets (as
(as a
medicinal substance),
medicinal substance), national markets (processed
national markets (processed as as herbal
herbal teas
teas or medicinal drops), and
medicinal drops), and on aa
pilot scale in international
international markets (as
(as a pesticide).
pesticide). In
In many
many places, daily
daily markets focus
focus on
on local
local
demand,
demand, while weekly
weekly markets can address
address both rural
rural retail
retail and
and wholesale
wholesale demands
demands (Falconer,
1992).
Each
Each market
market holds
holds a different
different set of values,
values, even
even for
for the
the same
same product.
product. Consumers
Consumers in an
an
industrialized country may
may purchase
purchase canecane baskets
baskets from West Africa
Africa for their
their environmental
environmental value
value
if they know that the
the cane harvest
harvest did
did notnot destroy the forest, or
or for
for their
their aesthetic
aesthetic value
value as
as "exotic
"exotic
objects". An
An urban
urban consumer
consumer inin West
West Africa
Africa may
may purchase the basket for for its
its functional
functional value,
value, or
if cheaper than
than plastic
plastic baskets,
baskets, for
for its
its economic
economic value.
value . Good
Good marketing
marketing involves
involves knowing which
values
values a particular
particular market
market seeks,
seeks, and
and making
making one's
one'sproduct
productmore
moredesirable
desirablethan
thancompeting
competing
products based on
on that
that information.
information.
Each market place also

also involves
involves different influencing factors relating
influencing factors relating to
to the
the product, promotion,
and price. (See
(See Chapter
Chapter 55 onon the
the relative
relative risks
risks associated
associated with
with each type of market.) For
For example,
example,
selling herbal
herbal medicine
medicine inin aa local
local market
market may
may involve no packaging, broad quality categories, and
few
few transport
transport costs.
costs . However,
However, marketing
marketing the the same
same product
product inin a city
city can
can require
require precise
precise
identification of quality
quality standards,
standards, more packaging and advertising, and
more sophisticated packaging
incorporating transport costs into the product's price. price.
In many countries, urban

urban markets
markets for
for traditional
traditional rural products
products are growing as people move move to
the city, but
but retain
retain rural
rural customs.
customs. Markets
Markets for
for traditional
traditional forest-based
forest-based medicines in Indonesia, for
example,
example, have grown;
grown; the
the number
number of
ofcompanies
companies producing
producing these
these items
items has
has doubled
doubled in
intwenty
twenty
7. Markets, marketing
7. marketing and
and trade
trade 67
years.
years. To
To exploit
exploit this
this trend
trend of
ofnostalgia
nostalgia markets,
markets, producers must identify
identify which
which customary
customary
products are in
in demand
demand and in in what
what form
form (package
(package size,
size, packaging, etc.) they
packaging, etc.) they are desired.
desired .
Each market also entails

entails different
different levels of ecological constraints. For example,
ecological constraints. example, plant species
species in
tropical
tropical forests
forests that occur
occur at at very
very low
low densities
densities may
may yield
yield enough
enough material
material to support
support local
local
demand for aa product,
demand for product, but
but not
not the
thevolume
volume needed
needed to
to cover
cover costs
costs of
ofprocessing
processing for for national
national
marketing.
marketing. InIn this
this case,
case, producers
producers should recognizeatat the
should recognize the start
start that
that itit is
is not
not financially
financially or
ecologically
ecologically feasible
feasible for them
them toto expand
expand their
their market.
market.
Downstream processingcan
Downstream processing can serve
serve as
as markets for primary
markets for products. The
primary products. The same
same principle
principle of
learning conditions and demands applies
applies to them.
them. If
If aa soap
soap manufacturing
manufacturing firm is the market
market for
for
coconut, coconut
coconut producers
producers must
must know
know what
what quantities the soap factory
quantities the factory requires, its production
production
schedule and what criteria the
schedule the manager
manager uses
uses to
to buy
buy coconuts
coconuts for
for soap-making.
soap-making .
Neighbouring countries
Neighbouring countries may
may share cultural
cultural oror ecological
ecological features
features that
that make
make regional
regional markets
markets
worth
worth exploring.
exploring. InIn Asia,
Asia, for
forexample,
example, the therattan
rattanfurniture
furnituremanufacturing
manufacturing industry
industry in
in the
the
Philippines and
Philippines and India's essential
essential oils
oils industry benefit from
industry benefit from the
the existence
existence ofof a regional
regional market
(Cubberly,
(Cubberly, 1995).
1995). The Costa
Costa Rican
Rican tea
tea industry
industry hashas begun
begun small-volume
small-volume exportation
exportation of aa
packaged
packaged tea toto other
other Central
Central American
American countries
countries using
using plants
plants valued
valued throughout
throughout the
the region
region
(Ocampo, 1994).
1994). In
In West
West Africa,
Africa, regional
regional markets
markets areare important
important in the trade of cane baskets (see
text box 6.2).
International markets require more complex research on preferences, prices and trends. They They also
also
typically
typically have more exacting standards and
and require
require stable
stable supply
supply of
of at
at least
least aa specified
specified minimum
minimum
volume.
Table 7.1 presents

presents several
several methods
methods for
for evaluating
evaluating markets. Producers
Producers should
should also
also talk
talk with private
firms
firms and
and NGOs
NGOs that
thathave
haveexperience
experienceininmarketing
marketingrelated
relatedproducts,
products,development
development agencies,
agencies,
and other
universities and other information
information clearinghouses.
clearinghouses.
Table 7.1:
7.1: Methods
Methods for
for evaluating
evaluating markets, by type of product
Type of product Type of Method of evaluation

market
Established Local Conduct aa simple
Conduct simple survey
survey of of shops
shops (at
(at least
least 5-10)
5-10) toto identify
identify current
current
products being
products being sold
sold and
and their prices. Shopkeepers
Shopkeepers might indicate how
much they sell each month.
month .
Established Local households in
Survey households in the
the target area (preferably at least 30-50
consumers) to
consumers) to find
find out
out how
how much
much of of various
various products
products they
they use
use in
in aa week
week
or month. Speak
Speak to people
people who
who actually
actually do thethe buying
buying (often
(often women).
women) .
Note household size and
household size and income
income class
class (high,
(high, middle, low). Use Use local
local
government statistics
statistics to determine number of of households
households and and income
income
levels. Then multiply
levels. the average
multiply the average usage
usage per household by by the number of of
households (per income
households (per income class)
class) to
to get a rough estimate of the the total
total local
local
demand.
Established Manufacturing Survey industry
Survey industry representatives
representatives (3-5)
(3-5) to
to find
find out
out product
product demand
demand and and
industry and/or prices. Ask them
prices. them if they
they would consider purchasing
would consider purchasing from
from aa new
new supplier,
supplier,
export and under
and under what
what terms
terms of price, payment,
payment, quantity,
quantity, quality and packaging.
quality and packaging.
Not established Local Identify who
Identify who would
would be be most
most likely
likely to
to buy
buy the product. Interview
Interview them
them to to
consumption gauge their potential
gauge potential interest andand what
what level
level of price, quality,
quality, packaging
packaging
and quantity they desire.
Not established
Not established Manufacturing Identify who
Identify who would
would be be most
most likely
likely to
to buy the product. Inquire
Inquire from
from thethe
industry and/or agency
agency concerned with with trade
trade about
about what
what companies
companies might
might be
be interested
interested in
export the product, and what quality regulations apply,
quality regulations apply, if any.
any. Then contact
those companies directly to
companies directly to learn their potential interest and preferences.
(Based on
(Based on AT!,
ATI, 1995)
1995)
68
Texfbox1.EW0rt1eflinilieffi~rketPlace
Text box 7.1 Women in the marketplace Once an enterprise has learned about a
ill
in Ghana prospective market
prospective market and and its requirements, it
.• • •.•. ......•... •< > . .• • •. .• • .•. . < should should further
further narrow
narrow the the scope
scope to aa targettarget
In <3 hap(i'siargest qaUYLJrp80 f11ar ket,more
Ghana's largest daily urban market, more market
market (ATI,
(AT!, op.
op. cit.).
cit.) . How
How large
large is
is the
the target
tharl90per(;enhol
than 90.percent.of..t.he
.::. th~trad~rw
:::......:.......::.......:.....,,. traders::are ~rew().f11ew
::.:.......:.:::..:::::.:...
worryen. market? Who
market? Who areare the competitors for that
There,tradein~WFPSlnv()lyes .700people
.
There; trade in
....
:NWEPsinvolves/00 people product?
product? What
What is their
is their current
current share
share of the the
>orlon. afull ~timebasis ~ including; il1cluc:lirlg : ·
.
a fu ktime:basis,
.
..... .
market and how fast do they plan to expand?
market and how fast do they plan to expand?
. . • .100traderspfieavesforwrappingfoods Answering
Answering thesethese questions
questions may may identify ways to
identify ways
100 traders of leaves for.wrapping foods.•.
raise the product's value. For
For example,
example, a
(monthly :sale .Valyé
(momhlys(ileval u~.·. ~x.cee.exceeds dsl)§$AZ/OOO) U.S 47,000)
~lO()I11~didnetr
1Q0,:rnecliCine,#aders, ~ders , lT1()stIY mostly \Noine women n .• purchaser may
purchaser may bebe willing
willing toto pay
pay aa higher price
> . i 2. 255 > fuu~tnne
full-time .·. basket basket traders traders < {selnng (selling... for
for a product
product sorted
sorted by
by grading
grading categories
categories thatthat
J1,000,-5;000-
,OOO-5,QOQbasketslrrionth) batketalmoryth): · . .•. .i«·· guarantee consistent quality , and this
consistent quality, and this may may require
>. 50 i:full-time uIHirnetraders()rsmok~dbushmeat
treders...ptstnoked bushmeat:. . packaging packaging and and storage.
storage . Purchasers
Purchasers of morel morel
· · andj$f()rf,.e!iH
and '1:5::for freshm~at Meatlarinual f~rlflUaL!ialeNalueof sale Value of mushrooms
mushrooms,, for for example,
example, can can be willing to
be willing to pay
Q$$Z09,OOO}.
US$ 209,000). . ... higher price
a higher price for morels
morels that have been cleaned
: "':-: .»:::::.:>: :->:::;::::::: :» ::::::::::::::::::;::::::>>;:::::::>>>>:::>::::>.:-:. .. ::. ::::: ',' .','
::::::" ',',
market for blJshmeat(6ft~nidel1tified

(Iqbal
(Iqbal,, 1993).
1993) .
In the
In the marketfor bushmeat (often identified
as.the
.as rl1()~t important
the most important forest
fo rest pr()duct),
w6m.
women ~n · are trader~ ; <
main traders;
are / the..main men Once
Once an
rn en are
product)' an enterprise
are enterprise has
has identified
identified aa target market
involved mainly as hllhters,
involvedrl1ainlyas< hunters,<butchers and the
and
butchers and the scale
and scale of production,
production, it may
may choose
choose toto
chop bar owners,
Ghop owners . Wholesalers control the
.Wholesalers control the local groups
organize local for processing and/or
groups for processing and/or
trade and ·set.prices
tr<!deand set prices for
forboth
bothsuppliers
suppliers and
marketing
marketing into
and into cooperatives (see Chapter
cooperatives (see Chapter 8).8) .
retailers,. . A\JVholesal.er
retarters J~nsures continual
A wholesaler ensures sontinual
Collective
Collective organization
organization cancan also
also be effective at
be effective at
supplies
supp by providing
Iiesbyprov erv i<;:~st() J he
credit services
id ingcfedits the national
the national level,
level, where
where producer
producer associations
associations
..BUhtEl~stFal.con~U
hunters (Falconer, 1~92).1992). t° he
can together
together supply
supply the high volumes
volumes needed to
enter international markets, organize trade
trade shows
shows
and exchange information on international
international trade.
trade .
Key factors in
Key in marketing
marketing non-wood
non-wood products
products
This section provides aa quick

quick review
review of
of the
the most
most essential
essential aspects/factors
aspects!factors that producers need
need toto
understand in
understand in selling
selling their
their product
product -- the
the "Four
"Four P's"
P's" of
ofproduct,
product, place,
place, promotion
promotion and
and price.
price.
Producers should determine
Producers should determine these
these factors
factors at at the
the beginning
beginning of of an enterprise,
enterprise, and
and develop
develop aa
marketing mix that balances the four factors to strengthen their enterprise to be capable of meeting
any competition. This
This evaluation
evaluation should
should be
be repeated
repeated regularly
regularly once
once thethe business is under way,
way , and
and
the marketing mix adjusted
adjusted in response
response to changes (ATI,
(ATI , op.
op . cit.).
cit. ) .
Product
Selling
Selling a product
product requires
requires the
the producer
producer toto understand
understand the
the values
values that a buyer
buyer attaches
attaches to
to the
the
product. From
From the
the buyer's
buyer' sviewpoint,
viewpoint, the
theproduct
productincludes
includes not
not just
just the
the physical
physical product
product but also
also
the economic, moral,
moral, aesthetic,
aesthetic, and
and other
other values
values associated
associated with it, as as mentioned
mentioned above;
above; these
these
values vary depending on how it is is marketed
marketed (Lintu,
(Lintu, op. cit.).
cit.).
The first
first question
question that
that aa producer
producer should
should ask
ask is:
is : isis the
theproduct
productalready
already established
established in
in the
the market
market
or not?
not? InIngeneral,
general,established
established products
products involve
involve less less risk
risk than
than new
new products.
products . Also,
Also, more
more
marketing information
information will
will exist
exist for
for established
established products.
products .
A product that is
is established
established in one
one country or even
even locality
locality may
may not be desired or demanded in ih
another place. If
If several
several traders
traders already
already deal
deal in
in the
the product,
product, then
then itit isis most
most likely
likely an
an established
established
product (ATI,
(AT!, 1995).
1995).
7. Markets,
Markets,marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade 69
Other questions
Other questions about
about the
the product,
product, among
among others,
others, are:
are: is it available throughout the
available throughout the year
year or
or only
only
during a certain season?
during season? In what
what quantities
quantities is it produced
produced in the area? What are the the factors
factors that
that
determine its
determine its quality
quality as
as perceived
perceived by
by customers
customers-- are
are these
these factors
factors in
in producer's
producer's control, or not?
not?
Place and the role of

Place of intermediaries
intermediaries
Place refers
refers to
to channels
channels of
ofdistribution
distribution and
and marketing
marketing through
through which
which products
products and
and information
information
move between
move between producers
producers and
and consumers
consumers (Lintu, 1995). This
(Untu, 1995). This factor
factor of
of marketing
marketing involves
involves
transportation and intermediaries
intermediaries in distribution.
Intermediaries, or middlemen
Intermediaries, middlemen cancan serve important roles that
important roles that can either help or hurthurt small-scale
small-scale
producers of
of forest
forest products.
products. In
In many
many places
places middlemen
middlemen keep a strong grip grip on
on markets
markets because
because
they provide producers
they producers with
with three
three essential
essential services:
services: quick
quick credit,
credit, quick
quick and
and non-bureaucratic
non-bureaucratic
payment for products and good organization (Pswarayi-Riddihough
(Pswarayi-Riddihough and and Jones,
Jones, 1995).
1995). Middlemen
can also be essential for centralizing supply among
among dispersed
dispersed producers
producers and helping to
and helping to absorb
absorb risk
risk
in markets
markets that
that require
require product
product volumes
volumes too largelarge for
for individual
individual producers
producers to to provide
provide (e.g.
industries for gums, resins
resins and
and essential
essential oils).
oils).
On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, middlemen
middlemen can,
can, and
and often
often do,
do,unfairly
unfairly exploit
exploit producers'
producers ' weakness
weakness and
and
ignorance of market factors in order to
to claim
claim aa disproportionate share of the
disproportionate share the product'
product'ss value
value for
for
themselves.
themselves .
An example
example from
from Peninsular
Peninsular Malaysia
Malaysia illustrates
illustrates both situations.
situations. In one
one village,
village, coconut
coconut and and
cocoa
cocoa producers had had difficulty
difficulty entering
entering the
the market
market directly
directly because
because this
this involves
involves large
large initial
initial
(for aa van
capital investment (for van or
or other
other form
form ofoftransport)
transport) and
and heavy
heavy competition.
competition. This
This competition
competition
kept middlemen's profits
profits relatively
relatively low,
low, and
and producers
producers did
did not
not complain
complain of being exploited. On On
the other
the other hand,
hand, in
in the
the village
village ofofKampung
Kampung Bandar
Bandar Terai,
Terai, producer-gatherers
producer-gatherers of durian
durian fruits
fruits
(Durio zibethinus)
(Durio and petai
zibethinus) and petai (Parkia speciosa)
speciosa) found
found that
that entering
entering the
the market
market required
required little
little
investment for
investment for them andand offered
offered significantly
significantly greater returns
returns than
than dealing
dealing through
through middlemen
middlemen
(Table 7.2).
(Table
Producers can avoid

avoid unfair
unfair exploitation
exploitation by middlemen
middlemen by:
• educating themselves about market

market conditions;
conditions;
• organizing themselves
organizing into groups
themselves into groups for greater collective
collective strength; and
• pressing for market channels
channels that
that are
are transparent
transparent (that is, traceable terms of transactions
traceable in terms transactions
and profit margins).
margins) .
Table 7.2:
7.2: Farmers'
Farmers'access
accesstotomarkets
marketsinintwo
twolocations
locations of
ofPeninsular
Peninsular Malaysia
Malaysia in
in 1990
1990
Sungai Burung
Burung Kampung
Kampung Bandar Terai
Products Coconut, cocoa

cocoa Durian, petai
Investment Overhead, manpower
manpower Minimal
Product price Relatively fixed Flexible
Marketing channel
channel Well established
Well Loose
Average selling price
Average coconut cocoa seed durian petai
to middleman ea.
US$ 0.06 ea. US$
US$ 0.24 /kg US$ 0.40 ea.
US$ US$
US$ 5.60/100
to urban consumer US$ 0.20-0
US$ .24 -
0.20-0.24 US$ 1.60
US$ US$
US$ 7.20
Market entry Difficult
Difficult Easy
Potential
Potential for direct farmer
farmer Poor Good
involvement in marketing
marketing
(Adapted
(Adapted from Lim and
and Woon,
Woon, 1994)
1994)
70
Promotion
Promotion involves
Promotion involves advertising or other ways
advertising or ways of raising
raising purchasers' awareness
awareness of the
the product.
product.
Key questions in promotion
Key promotion for
for aa target
target market
market include:
include:
• Why would
Why would consumers buy the
consumers buy the enterprise's
enterprise's product
productinstead
insteadofof aa competitor's,
competitor's, or
or a
substitute?
• How will purchasers

purchasers learn
learn of
of the
the product?
product? What
What are
are the
the costs
costs and
andexpected
expected effectiveness
effectiveness
of advertising options
options for
for reaching
reaching the
the target
target market?
market?
• Should any labelling or brand

brand name
name be
be used
used to
to identify
identify the
the product?
product?
• Do purchasers expect a certain kind of packaging (size, durability,

packaging (size, durability, attractiveness)
attractiveness) or
or other
characteristics?
In rural markets,
markets , word-of-mouth
word-of-mouth recommendation
recommendation cancan be
be the
the most effective promotion. Urban
Urban and
and
national marketing likely require more formal campaigns. New
national New products, oror established
established products
products
new niches, require
in new require more
more resources
resources for promotion.
promotion. For example,
example, an effort in Nepal to create
create
a larger
larger market
market for
for Ayurvedic
Ayurvedic medicine
medicine required
required aa great
great deal
deal of
of advertising
advertising to
to overcome
overcome
consumer bias in favour
favour of
of Western-style
Western-style medicine (LeCup, 1994).
medicine (LeCup, 1994). A supplier's reputation
reputation for
reliability is also a favourable
reliability favourable factor
factor for
for promotion.
promotion.
Price
To arrive at
at aacompetitive
competitive price
price that
thatcompensates
compensates production
production effort (including promotion), an
(including promotion),
enterprise must consider a variety
variety of
of questions,
questions, including
including (ATI, op. cit.):
cit.):
• What is the
the local
local availability
availability and
and cost
cost of
of raw
raw materials,
materials, including
including packaging?
packaging?
• What is the
the cost
cost of
ofequipment
equipment and
and operations
operations (including
(including maintenance
maintenance and repair) needed
needed
to produce
to produce the item
item ? What
What are
are the
the labour
labour costs?
costs? What
What are the
the infrastructural costs of
infrastructural costs
energy, workshops
workshops and storage?
storage?
• What
What are the
the costs
costs associated
associated with
with maintaining
maintaining market
market specifications of quality
specifications of quality (for
(for
example, inspectors,
inspectors, testing
testing equipment)?
equipment)?
• How much transportation

transportation cost is required? How far away
away are
are the
the target
target markets?
markets?
• What costs are

are involved
involved in
in product
product marketing
marketing and
and promotion?
promotion? Who will
will bear
bear these
these costs
costs
- the
the producer
producer or
or distributor?
distributor?
• What are the

the costs
costs and
and benefits
benefits of
of using
using intermediaries
intermediaries for
for marketing?
marketing?
• What are the

the financing
financing costs
costs (for
(for example,
example, loan
loan repayment)?
repayment)?
• How many days per yearyear will

will the
the enterprise
enterprise operate
operate with
with available
available supplies of labour, raw
raw
materials, product
product demand,
demand, energy
energy andand water?
water? How
How much
much time
time will equipment repairs and
maintenance take?
take?
• In view of
of the
the above
above expected
expected costs and the volume of demand,
demand, can the products
products be sold
sold
at a competitive price?
7.
7 . Markets,
Markets,marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade 71
Once
Once the costs are calculated, the
the enterprise
enterprise should
should again
again compare the benefits of the production
effort
effort with alternatives, to
with alternatives, make sure that the venture
to make venture offers
offers the
the best return to its
its labour
labour and
and
Producers should
resources. Producers should regularly
regularly calculate
calculate the enterprise's
enterprise's profitability
profitability compared to other
other
investments.
investments. This highlights
highlights the
the need
need for
for good
good record-keeping
record-keeping of costs
costs and
and transactions.
transactions.
Text box 7.2: Matching markets and processing technology
As with matching appropriate technology to market demand (see text box 5.1)0 producers must
learn to recognize prOceSsing solutions to marketing problems. Decentralized shelling and grading
of Brazil nuts, for example, reduces production and transport costs and can therefore increase
the product's competitiveneSs in the international market.
Countries can improve their producers' ability to meet international-scale market demands for
NWFPs by providing incentives for investing in crop management and new plantings. Clear and
secure land-use rights is a particularly effective incentive (LaFleur, 1992).
At the enterprise level, producers should maintain a marketing strategy that considers the four
areas of: (1) grovving/managintraw-.:material resource, (2) enterprise organization, (3) market
environment, and -(4) marketing- plan effectiveness (Charit, 1994). Questions to consider in a
marketing checklist include the following:
Raw material resource Market environment
What is the outlook for the next 10-20 What changes in market prices should
years for resource availability, (based on the enterprise consider in its marketing
soil fertility, rainfall and other factors)? plan?
What changes are likely in growing Is competition among buyers likely to

patterns and use of differentvarieties? increase?
What new cost-effective processes can
ncrease productiVity? Marketing plan effectiveness
What new laws or regulations might Does the enterprise know why buyers
affect production (e.g. price controls, buy its products?
subsidies, tax incentives)?
Do the marketing objectives cover
What does the nearby community think everything from species selection to
of the enterprise? Can anything be done to product delivery?
improve its involvernent?
Do the marketing objectives match
Enterprise organization resources and market opportunities?
Arathere problems with the enterprise's Are adequate resources allocated to

cash. flow or accesS to credit? marketing?
Are any significant obanget,taking place Is the costing of the product accurate?
in ho.w::.:.: .the ehterprise obEtains raw Is labour included?
materials?
Placing a value
value on
on sustainable
sustainable supply
supply
Proper valuation
Proper valuation of long-term
long-term supply poses a problem
supply poses problem in sustainable forestry. Producers
sustainable forestry. Producers who
who
employ wise management willwill often have to compete with others who do not. This This can
can mean
mean that
that
the sustainable
sustainable enterprise must:
must: (a)
(a) distinguish
distinguish itself
itself from
from others
others through
through promotion
promotion andand public
public
education efforts on environmental problems, or (b) find other ways to reduce costs so that it can
72
sell the
sell the product
product at the
the same
same or
or lower
lower price
price asastheir
theircompetitors.
competitors. The
The decision
decision depends
depends on
consumer attitudes
attitudes and public awareness of the
the importance
importance of sustainable
sustainable forest utilization.
utilization.
Market information systems

Market systems
Effective marketing depends on reliable, up-to-date

up-to-date marketing information on the
the Four
Four P's. Once
Once
an enterprise
an enterprise is started, how does it update information on market
market demand,
demand, competition
competition and
and trade
trade
factors on a regular
factors regular basis?
basis? Market
Market information
information systems
systems are the answer.
National and regional

regional systems
systems
Market information systems for agricultural products are better established

established than
than those
those for
for NWFPs
NWFPs
and some efforts to provide
provide NWFP
NWFP producers
producers with
with market
market information have started through the
information have
agricultural sector. Examples
Examples include
include (Lintu,
(Lintu, op. cit.):
cit.):
• Tribal Cooperative Marketing

Marketing Development
DevelopmentFederation
Federationof
ofIndia,
India, Ltd.
Ltd. (TRIFED).
(TRIFED). TRIFED
TRIFED
disseminates price
disseminates price information
information from
from Indian
Indian national
national and
and export
export markets
markets to member
member
cooperatives in a bi-weekly mimeograph. It focuses
focuses on agricultural
agricultural products
products but also
also covers
some NWFPs;
• Indonesian Agricultural
Agricultural Market
Market Information Service.
Service. This service gathers price information
at markets throughout Indonesia, enters itit into
into computers
computers and
and disseminates it by radio
radio and
and
local blackboards;
• Marketing Information System of Ghana.

System of Ghana. This government-run system provides wholesale
wholesale
and retail
and retail prices
prices for
for 30
30agricultural
agricultural commodities on a bi-weekly
commodities on bi-weekly basis,
basis, mainly
mainly for
for
government use.
In India, an
an ambitious
ambitious plan
plan byby the
the National
National Wastelands
Wastelands Development Board uses
Development Board uses regional
regional radio
and
and television
television centres to to provide
provide farmers
farmers with
with information
information on
on agricultural
agricultural commodity
commodity prices
prices
(Issar, 1994).
1994). All
All Indian
Indiannewspapers
newspapers now now devote
devote one
one page
page each
each week
week toto agricultural
agricultural commodity
commodity
prices and articles
articles on
on trends.
trends. States
States such
such as
as Haryana
Haryana and
and Punjab
Punjab have
have organized
organized state
state marketing
marketing
boards that provide
provide intra-state
intra-state price
price information.
information.
Government trade offices and

and universities
universities may possess information on
on market factors
factors which are
less
less accessible
accessible to entrepreneurs.
entrepreneurs. Where
Where market
market research
research services exist, producer
services exist, producer groups may
organize collectively to commission a market study and share the
the cost.
FAO has published

published aa Compendium
Compendium of of computer-based
computer-based databases of relevance to forest-products
marketing,
marketing, and is currently
currently testing
testing it with
with potential users with
potential users with the
the aim
aim of revising
revising it for
for wider
wider
distribution (FAO, 1995).
1995).
Local market
market systems
systems
Producers
Producers can create
create information
information systems
systems for
for tracking
tracking local
local markets
markets relatively
relatively easily
easily with
with
assistance from extension
extension workers.
workers. FAO
FAO has
has developed
developed aa method
method for
for developing
developing such
such aa system
system
in collaboration with the Philippines
Philippines government
government for use by local producers, extension
extension workers,
and NGOs
and NGOs involved
involved inin community
community forestry.
forestry. The
The guidelines
guidelines were
were tested
tested inin the
the Philippines,
Philippines,
Uganda, Peru
Peru and
and the
the Solomon
Solomon Islands,
Islands, and
and are
are now
now being
being published
published by thethe Community
Community Forestry
Forestry
Unit of FAO. InInoutline,
outline,the
theprocess
processconsists
consistsofofthe
thefollowing
following steps,
steps, to
to be
be adapted
adapted toto each
each local
local
situation:
7. Markets,
Markets,marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade 73
73
• a pre-feasibility
pre-jeasibility study
study assesses
assesses the
the appropriateness
appropriateness of
of aa market
market information
information system
system based
based
on local
local perceptions,
perceptions , existing
existing information
information sources,
sources, products
products and
and market
market access;
access ;
• a local
local situation
situation analysis
analysis identifies
identifies local
local markets
markets and current sources and uses of
of market
market
information;
• system establishment determines

system establishment determines thethe system's
system's scope,
scope, selects
selects and trains
trains data
data collectors,
collectors,
prepares guidelines for record-keeping, and selects the the most
most appropriate
appropriate media
media
(blackboards,
(blackboards , newsletters,
newsletters, radio
radio broadcast);
broadcast);
• monitoring and
and evaluation
evaluation seeks
seeks input
input from
from people
people who
who use the system and from those who
do not use
use the
the system,
system, and
and evaluates
evaluates the
the use
use of
of the
the information.
information.
Data gathering
Data gathering for market
market information
information systems,
systems, like other NWFP
NWFP research,
research, should
should account
account for
for
the effects
the effects of non-economic factors, such as cultural
non-economic factors, cultural preferences,
preferences, taboos
taboos and the
the existence
existence of
of
ethnic or kinship links in market chains.
kinship links in market chains.
Information on international markets

markets
In international
markets , accurate
accurate information vital because
information is vital because more
more variables
variables are beyond
beyond
producers' control
control and
and trade
trade fluctuations
fluctuations for commodities
commodities can can be
be more
more pronounced
pronounced and and faster
faster
paced. Information
paced. Information onon international markets isis more
international markets more difficult
difficult to
to obtain
obtain because sources of
because sources
consumer preferences, import
import regulations
regulations and
and policies
policies are
are more
more distant
distant and
and often
often closely
closely guarded
guarded
by agents or intermediaries. Some this information for NWFPs is available from the
by agents or intermediaries. Some of this information for NWFPs is available from the
International Trade
International Trade Centre, FAO,
FAO, and
and others
others listed
listed in
in Appendix
Appendix 1. 1.
Green marketing
Green marketing
marketing is is an
an environmental
environmental niche
niche in
in NWFP
NWFP marketing
marketing that has grown
grown inin recent
recent years.
years .
Green marketing is is based
based on
on the
the understanding
understanding that a growing number of consumers (particularly
in industrialized countries) are more
more likely
likely to
to purchase a product if they know that its production
is environmentally
environmentally sustainable (see text
sustainable (see text box 7.3). Generally,
Generally, green
green marketing
marketing ventures
ventures require
require
rural
rural producers
producers to
to work
workthrough
throughinternational
international intermediaries
intermediaries with
with offices
offices in
in the
the destination
destination
countries,
countries, which can
can more
more easily
easily collect
collect market
market information and promote
information and promote the
the product in these
these
markets. Some
Some mail-order
mail-order catalogues
catalogues managed by non-profit organizations
organizations also
also link
link producers
producers in
in
developing countries with
developing countries with overseas
overseas consumers
consumers of
of environmentally-safe
environmentally-safe products
products with
with lower
lower
transaction costs.
It is too early to know if optimism about green marketing isis entirely

entirely justified,
justified, but public
public education
about the need
need for
for sustainable
sustainable forest
forest management
management can help improve
improve its prospects.
prospects .

Market transactions
Market are influenced
transactions are by trade
influenced by trade regulations and other related
regulations and related factors
factors and
and trends.
trends .
Although a full discussion of these factors is beyond the scope of this
this volume, this section briefly
reviews
reviews their effect
effect on
on producers
producers entering
entering NWFP
NWFP markets.
markets .
National
National and local
local trade
Policies
Policies and regulations
regulations governing
governing NWFPs
NWFPs are are often
often confusing.
confusing. Because
Because these
these products
products can
can
originate from either
either domesticated
domesticated sources
sources or natural forests,
forests, they can come under agricultural,
forestry
forestry and/or
and/or other
other government
government policies
policies (see Chapter 10).
10). In
In India,
India, tree-farmer
tree-farmer cooperatives
cooperatives
74
Text box
Text box 7.3:
7.3: Some
Some lessons
lessons in
in green
green enterprises should
5. Local enterprises should be supported
marketing with loans
loans rather
rather than
than grants,
grants, wherever
wherever
possible, to encourage
possible,to encourage focus and
and aa sense
sense
The ''Tagua
"Tagua Initiative" managed by of ownership.
Conservation International aims aims at
marketing "vegetable ivory" from
marketing from the the Options for local
6 . Options local processing
processing should be
be
tagua palm of
taguapalm of Ecuador
Ecuador andand Colombia
Colombia to pursued..
pursued
garment manufacturers in the United
States for
States for use as buttons.
use as buttons. In its first
first year,
year, Opportunities
Opportunities in local and
in local and national
national
the project generated sales of markets, in
in addition to international
US$
US $ 500,000.
500,000.TheTheproject
projectpromoted
promotedtaguatagua markets should
markets be explored
should be explored (Tangley,
(Tang ley ,
as
as a high-quality
high-quality material
material and its sale
and.its sale as
as aa 1993).
1993).
way toto conserve
conserve tropical
tropical forests
forests through
through
Sustainable
sustainable community development.
development. Cultural Survival Enterprises,
Enterprises , also
also begun
begun inin
After almost
almost three
three years,
years, lessons
lessons learned
learned 1990, has
1990, has worked with groups
worked with groups in in the
the
included: Brazilian Amazon
Brazilian Amazon toto market NWFPs
NWFPs in the
States. In its
United States.
United its first
first two
two years
years it
The conservation
1 . The conservation impact
impact is
is greatest
greatest averaged400
averaged 400 percent
percent growth.
growth. Further
Further
when integrated with community lessons in green marketing
marketing from f om its
scientific research,
development, scientific experience
experience include:
education,
education, and policy work,
and policy work.
Start with
• Start products already
with products already on
on the
the
2. International marketing
International marketing of of NWFPs
NWFPs market. Introducing
market. new products
Introducing new products can
can
brings together at least two
brings together at least two very different take up
take up to
to five
five years for foods,
years for foods, 10 for
for
cultures andand economies.
economies. To To succeed,
succeed, personal-care products,
products , and 20 for
projects must be carefully designed tO
projects must be carefully designed to pharmaceuticals.
accommodate the distinct needs of these
accommodate the distinct needs of these
worlds, and
disparate worlds, and good communication • Organize for strength in numbers.
Organize for numbers .
among all
among all parties
parties is a must.
• Monitor the sustainability of production.
3. Community-level enterprise Green-market consumers are
Green-market consumers are interested
interested in
development must
development must be
be geared
geared to local protecting
protecting ecosystems, not the
ecosystems, not the people
people
development. who live in
who live in them
them (Clay
(Clay and
and Clement,
Clement,
1993).
1993).
The products
4 . The must be
products must be profitable
profitable for
every player in the economic
every chain,.
.economicchain
knew the obstacles posed by laws forbidding

forbidding transport of tree products across state borders,
borders , and
and
managed to negotiate
managed negotiate better legal
legal terms (see Chapter 8).
Regional and
Regional and international trade
Neighbouring countries in a region

Neighbouring countries region often
often llave
have similar resources
resources and markets.
markets. Table
Table 7.3
7.3 shows
shows
some internationally
some traded species
internationally traded species common
common to to Latin
Latin American
American countries
countries and
and the
the non-wood
non-wood
products they yield.
products they yield. Producers of NWFPs
Producers of NWFPs in in Asia
Asia have
have begun
begun to
to explore
explore the
the species
species and
and
technologythey
technology they use
use in
in common (Durst et
common (Durst ai., 1994).
et al., Where this
1994). Where this kind
kind of
of overlap
overlap exists,
exists,
neighbouring countries can benefit from collaborative
collaborative research
research in
in harvesting
harvesting and
and processing,
processing, and
in negotiating
negotiating trade terms.
terms .
7. Markets,
Markets,marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade 75
Table 7.3:
7.3: Amazonian
Amazonian forest
forest species
species with
with market
market potential
potential in agroforestry and
sustainable NWFP management
sustainable management systems
systems
Species name
Species Uses' markets 2
Current markets2
Assaf (Euterpe
Assai (Euterpe oleracea) F,B,Ph,H F,L,N,I
F ,L ,N,I
Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa)
Buriti F,B,H F,L
Patauá (Jessenia
Pataua (Jessenia bataua) F,B,O
F,B4O F
Pejibaye (Bactris
Pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) F,B4O,
F,B,O, Ph F,L
Piqui (Caryocar
(Caryocar villosum)
villosum) F,O,T,Ch F
Brazil nut (Bertholletia
(Bertholletia excelsa)
excelsa) N,O,T,Ch,H,N F,L,N,I
Pendula nut (Couepia longipendula)
Pendula N F
Bacuri (Platonia insignis)
Bacuri F,N,T,Ch F,L
Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) F F,L
Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) F,O,C F,L,R,N,I
Copafba (Copaijera
Copaiba (Copaifera inultijuga)
multijuga) 0,P,M
O,P,M F,L,R,I
JJatobá
atoba (Hymenaea
(Hymenaea courbaril) F,R,T F
Andiroba (Carapa guianensis)
Andiroba 0,M,T
O,M,T F,R
Babassu (Orbignya
Babassu (Orbignya phalerata)
phalerata) 0,Ch
O,Ch F,L,R,N
Uctulba (Virola surinamensis)
Ucuuba T,0
T,O ?
Cumaru (Dipteryx
(Dipteryx odorata) 0,E,P,T
O,E,P,T F,L,I
Rosewood (Aniba duckei) E,P,T,H II
Sacaca (Croton
Sacaca (Croton cajucara) M,E F,L
Tagua (Phytelephas
Tagua (Phytelephas aequatorialis) N,H F,N,I
'Uses:: BB=beverage
IUses =beverage;; CC=cosmetic;
= cosmetic; Ch = charcoal; E
Ch=charcoal; =essential oil; FF=fruit;
E=essential = fruit; HH=handicrafts;
=handicrafts;
M =rnedicinal;NN=nut;
M=medicinal; P=perfume; Ph=palm
= nut; P=perfume; Ph=palm heart;
heart; R=resin;
R=resin; T =timber; O=other.
T=timber; 0=other.
'Current
2Current markets:
markets : F=family;
F=family; L=local;
L=local;R=regional
R=regional(subnational);
(subnational); N=national;
N = national; I= international.
I=international.
(Clay and Clement, 1993)

(Clay 1993)
Trends in international NWFP

Trends NWFP trade
Table 7.4 summarizes

Table summarizes thethe most
most economically
economically important NWFPs in
important NWFPs in world
world trade,
trade, totalling
totalling about
US$ 11
US$ 11 billion
billion annually.
annually . These products originate
originate from aa wide
wide variety
variety of
of geographic
geographic sources,
sources ,
but a significant portion come
come from
from the forests
forests of Southeast
Southeast Asia,
Asia, especially
especiallyfruits,
fruits, resins,
resins, fungi,
fungi,
wild honey, medicines, aphrodisiacs,
wild aphrodisiacs, sandalwood,
sandalwood, bamboo
bamboo and rattan ware. China China processes
processes and
and
trades in more products
trades products from
from wild
wild sources
sources than
than probably
probably any
any other
other country,
country, and
and now
now dominates
dominates
world trade
world trade in
in NWFPs
NWFPs (Iqbal,
(Iqbal, 1995).
1995). Other
Other major
major suppliers
suppliers to
to world
world markets
markets include
include India,
India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand
Thailand and
and Brazil.
Brazil.
76
Table 7.4:
7.4: NWFPs
NWFPs most
mostprominent
prominent in
in world trade *,with
world trade*, with three
three main
main markets
markets
Item Total imports EEC USA Japan

(US$
(US$ million)
Other plants
Other plants used in pharmacy
pharmacy 689.92 171 .23
171.23 88.59 91.96
91 .96
Other fresh fruits (including,
Other (including, i.a.jujubes)
La.jujubes) 685.22
685 .22 263 .22
263.22 51.30 127 .91
127.91
Natural rubber latex in primary forms
Natural 519.92 109.24 84.08 37.09
Essential oils
Essential oils,, resins 312 .52
312.52 95.53 108 .54
108.54 22.43
Ginseng roots
Ginseng 389.34 11. 90
11.90 11.10 39.89
Mats, mattings and screens of of vegetable
vegetable 215.95 22.03 17 . 13
17.13 135 . 12
135.12
materials
Other live animals 183 .92
183.92 61.67 43.48 8.05
Natural honey
Natural 268 . 18
268.18 143.39 53 .92
53.92 35 . 12
35.12
Edible products of animal origin
Edible origin 80.38 6.75 4.02 1.46
Ambergris, castoreum,
Ambergris, castoreum, civet, musk 134.08 44.48 3.02 42 .92
42.92
Brazil nuts
Brazil nuts,, fresh or chilled
chilled 44 .34
44.34 22 . 11
22.11 16.78 0.20
Walnuts in shell
Walnuts 115.33 91.11 0.03 1.26
Walnuts without shells
Walnuts 100.56 37 .68
37.68 0.27 13 .03
13.03
Chestnuts 109.95 2.01 10.46 64.14
64 . 14
Other nuts 222 .91
222.91 21.01 91.68 24.39
Mucilages, thickeners derived from
Mucilages, from locust
locust 141. 33
141.33 34.02 45 .35
45.35 25 .95
25.95
beans, locust bean seed or guar
beans, guar seeds
seeds
Cinnamon and cinnamon-tree flowers flowers 95 .62
95.62 10.05 28.91 2.58
Nutmeg 24.16
24 . 16 12.56
12.56 2.51 2.58
Other spices 48 .34
48.34 5.65 20.85 2. 22
2.22
Flour and meal of of sago
sago 18 .06
18.06 0.77 0.92 0. 33
0.33
Liquorice roots
Liquorice 33.45 5.74 9.39 7.54
Locust beans 22 .39
22.39 18 .30
18.30 0.45 0. 18
0.18
Lac 25 .28
25.28 4.67 9.37 22.38
.38
Gum arabic 101.31 53 .74
53.74 18 .89
18.89 6. 18
6.18
Other natural
natural gums,
gums , resins, balsams
balsams 92.75
92 .75 29 .95
29.95 11 .00
11.00 2.14
2. 14
Liquorice sap 57.27
57 .27 22.79
22 .79 15 .48
15.48 5.38
Bamboos 37.56
37 .56 12.57
12.57 3.13
3. 13 7.58
Rattans 118.98 13.75
13.75 5.44 6.53
Other vegetable materials for for plaiting
plaiting 39.67 20.90
20 .90 4.73 8.33
Kapok 11.92 1.45 0.73 5.23
Vegetable materials
Vegetable materials esp esp.. for brooms,
brooms, brushes
brushes 28 . 11
28.11 10.20 8.59 3.96
Raw veg.
Raw veg. materials esp. for for dyeing,
dyeing , tanning
tanning 31.06 9.40 2.03 2.48
Other vegetable products (doum (doum palmpalm flour,
flour , 63 .85
63.85 18.43
18.43 11.49 20.29
20 .29
Panama bark, bidi leaves,
Panama bark, leaves, etc.)
Tung oil and its
Tung its fractions
fractions 49.59
49 .59 4.53 9.36 11 .86
11.86
Jojoba oil
Jojoba oil and its fractions
fractions 11.59 7.61 2.29 0.42
Other fixed vegetable fats and fractionsfractions 98.90 33.73
33.73 8.67 10 .06
10.06
Vegetable waxes 44.02
44 .02 13.49 13 .08
13.08 6.13
6. 13
Beeswax,
Beeswax, other insect wax wax 19. 14
19.14 8.65 2.38 2.77
Maple sugar and and maple
maple syrup
syrup 43.63 9.64 28.09 1.30
Quebracho extract
extract 51 .93
51.93 20.66
20 .66 6.36 0.98
Wattle extract 63.87
63 .87 15.41 8.07 5.49
Tanning extracts of of vegetable
vegetable origin
origin 20.51 1.54 7.59 0.66
Colouring matter
Colouring matter of veg.
veg . and
and animal
animal origin
origin 152.08
152.08 32.21 31.80
31 .80 12.94
Resinoids 61.35 7.92 34.88 3.01
3.01
Concentrates
Concentrates of essential
essential oils in fats
fats 39.95 9.23 7.30 3.71
Gum, wood or sulphate
sulphate turpentine
turpentine oils 31.23
31.23 12 . 16
12.16 2.12
2. 12 7.84
Balata, gutta-percha
Balata, 26.72
26 .72 5.25 4.87
4 .87 6.71
6.71
Corks and stoppers of of natural
natural cork
cork 157.16 17.45 59.26 6.18
6. 18
Other articles
Other articles of natural
natural cork 13.71 2.81 3.05 1.30
1.30
** Categorized by
by Harmonized
Harmonized Commodity
Commodity Description
Description and
and Coding
Coding System
System (HS)
(HS) codes.
codes.
(Source:
(Source: Iqbal,
Iqbal, 1995)
1995)
7. Markets, marketing
7. marketing and
and trade
trade 77
A striking
A striking pattern in
in international
international trade
trade of NWFPs
NWFPs is is that
that developing
developing countries are the
countries are the major
major
producers and
producers and exporters
exporters of of raw
raw ororsemi-processed
semi-processed products;
products; and
and developed,
developed, industrialized
industrialized
countries are the
countries the major
major importers
importers (Iqbal,
(Iqbal, 1995).
1995). Just
Justthree
three markets
markets (the
(the European
European Community,
Community,
the
the United States and Japan)
United States Japan) comprise about 60
comprise about 60 percent
percent of thethe world
world trade. shows the
trade. Table 7.5 shows the
direction of trade for some
direction some ofof the
the most-traded
most-traded products.
products .
Table 7.5:
7.5: Directions
Directions of
of international
international trade for major NWFPs
Product Main source countries Main markets

Brazil nuts Brazil, Bolivia,
Brazil, Bolivia, Peru USA,
USA, UK, Germany,
Germany, Australia,
Australia,
Canada
Pine nuts China, Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan
Pakistan Middle Eastern countries
Pignolia nuts Spain, Portugal USA,
USA, Canada, Hong Kong,
Canada, Hong Kong, Japan,
EEC
Walnuts China, India, Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan
Pakistan EEC,
EEC , Japan,
Japan, Canada,
Canada, Switzerland
Switzerland
Mores
Morels Pakistan,
Pakistan, India, Afghanistan
Afghanistan Switzerland, Germany
France, Switzerland, Germany
Pine mushrooms
mushrooms Chile USA, France,
USA, France, Peru, Netherlands,
Netherlands,
Switzerland
Bamboo shoots China, Thailand, Indonesia
Indonesia USA,
USA, Japan, UK, UK, Germany,
Germany,
Australia, the Netherlands,
Australia, Netherlands, France,
France,
Korea
Sago Indonesia, Malaysia Japan, Hong Kong,
Japan, Kong, Singapore
Singapore
Shea nuts
nuts West and central African
African countries
countries Japan,
Japan, Sweden, EEC EEC
Nutmeg and macemace Indonesia, Grenada
Grenada USA, EEC, Japan
USA,
Cinnamon and cassia
cassia Sri Lanka,
Lanka, Seychelles,
Seychelles, Madagascar
Madagascar USA, EEC, Japan
USA,
Gum arabic
Gum Sudan, Nigeria
Nigeria USA,
USA, EEC (UK and and Germany),
Germany),
Switzerland, Scandinavia,
Switzerland, Scandinavia, Japan
Gum tragacanth
Gum Iran, Turkey
Turkey EEC, USA,
EEC, USA, Japan, CIS*CIS*
Gum karaya
Gum India USA,
USA, Japan,
Japan, France, Germany,
Germany, UK,
UK,
Belgium,
Belgium, UAE, Netherlands
Netherlands
Carob gum Spain,
Spain, Italy,
Italy, Portugal
Portugal Western
Western Europe,
Europe, USA, JapanJapan
Annatto Peru, Kenya, Brazil
Peru, Brazil USA,
USA, EEC,
EEC, Japan
Japan
Gum rosin
Gum China, Indonesia, Portugal
China, Portugal Japan, Western Europe
Europe
Rattan Malaysia,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Viet
Viet Nam,
Nam, China
China Europe, USA,
USA, Egypt,
Egypt, Japan,
Japan,
Thailand
Bamboo China, Southeast Asian countries
countries France, Germany,
Germany, Netherlands
Netherlands
Cork Portugal, Spain, Morocco
Portugal, Morocco EC countries
countries
Lac India, Thailand
India, Germany, Egypt,
Egypt, Indonesia,
Indonesia, USA
USA
Natural honey
honey CIS, China, USA,
CIS, USA, Mexico,
Mexico , Turkey
Turkey Germany,
Germany, USA, UK, UK, Japan
Japan
Beeswax China, Tanzania,
China, Tanzania, NewNew Zealand,
Zealand, Canada,
Canada, EC countries
countries
Netherlands
Mulberry and
and non-
non- China, India, Brazil
Brazil EC
EC countries, Japan, Korea,
countries, Japan, Korea, Hong
mulberry silk Kong
Liquorice roots
roots Russia USA,
China, Western Asian countries, Russia USA, Japan,
Japan, EEC
EEC
Ginseng roots Japan, China, Taiwan,
Japan, Singapore, EEC USA,
Taiwan, Singapore, USA, Korea, Canada,
Canada, China
China
Medicinal plants China,
China, Korea,
Korea, USA, India,
India, Chile, Egypt, Japan,
Chile, Egypt, Japan, USA,
USA, Gennany,
Germany, France,
France,
Argentina,
Argentina, Greece, Poland,
Poland, Hungary,
Hungary, Italy,
Italy, Malaysia,
Malaysia, Spain, UK UK
Zaire, Czech
Czech Republic,
Republic, Albania
Albania
Essential oils
oils China, India,
India, Indonesia,
Indonesia, Brazil
Brazil EEC, USA,
USA, Japan
Japan
Cochineal Peru, Canary
Canary Islands
Islands EEC, USA,
USA, Japan
Japan
Truffles France, Italy
Italy USA
Birds' nests
nests Malaysia Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Japan,
Taiwan
Bidi leaves India Pakistan,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka
Lanka
* Commonwealth of Independent States

States (part of States
States of the fomier
former USSR).
USSR).
(Source:
(Source: Iqbal, 1995)
1995)
78
..J
s:
Q)
~
CD
r+
In
3Q)
~""
CD
r+
:r
(Q
Q)
::J
Co
r+
""
Q)
Co
CD
10. Non-wood handicrafts in

in Iran.
Iran. (Photo:
(Photo: L.
L. Gronchi)
Gronchi)
11. Sugar
Sugar tapped
tapped from sugar palm is
is widely used in Myanmar.
Myanmar.
..... 9. Cosmetics from NWFPs
Cosmetics NWFPs in Myanmar. (Photo:
(Photo: M.
M. Kashio)
Kashio)
(Photo:
(Photo: M.
M . Kashio)
Kashio)
<0
Importing and exporting countries use tariffs and other measures
measures to influence trade. Developing
influence trade. Developing
countries commonly tax exports to raise government revenue. revenue. Industrialized
Industrialized countries
countries use
use tariffs,
tariffs,
standards and safety
safety regulations
regulations toto control
control NVVFP imports. In general, industrialized
NWFP imports. industrialized countries
keep
keep tariffs on NWFPs
NWFPs veryvery low
low inin order
ordertotoensure
ensure aasustained
sustained supply
supply for
for their
their markets.
markets. These
These
countries usually feel no
no need
need for
for "protection"
"protection" against
against competition because
because they
they do
do not produce
these products and
and because
because collecting
collecting andand processing
processing NWFPs
NWFPs is is often
often aa labour-intensive
labour-intensive sector
sector
for which they do not
not aim
aim to
to protect
protect jobs
jobs (Iqbal,
(Iqbal, 1995).
1995).
International trade
trade agreements
agreements
International agreements have

International agreements have a great
great effect
effect on
on the
the international
international market
market prospects
prospects for
for certain
certain
products.
products. So far, only
only one
one study
study has
has addressed
addressed these
these impacts
impacts on producers (Iqbal, 1995).
producers (Iqbal, 1995). Key
conventions are described
described below.
below.
• General
General Agreement on Trade
Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
Tariffs (GATT). This series
(GATT). This series of agreements aims to
agreements aims
deregulate international
international trade by reducing
reducing tariffs and encouraging
encouraging multilateral
multilateral negotiation
of trade issues.
issues. ItIt paved
paved the
the way
way for
for establishment
establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
in 1995
1995 as
as aamore
morepowerful
powerfulorganization
organization for
for resolving
resolving disputes.
disputes. WTO
WTO aimsaims to
to provide
provide
intellectual property rights
intellectual property rights (patents,
(patents, trade
trade secrets,
secrets, trademarks,
trademarks, etc.),
etc.), and measures
measures for
enforcing these rights (see(see Chapter
Chapter 10).
10).
• In 1987,
1987, the
the Bnindtland
Brundtland Commission
Commission called for reform of GATT for greater environmental
equity and sound
equity sound management,
management, noting
noting that the
the goal
goal ofofunregulated
unregulated international
international trade
trade
conflicts
conflicts with
with national
national policies
policies that would
would account
account for environmental
environmental costs costs of resource
resource
Some claim
degradation. Some claim that
that "a
"a country
country that
that internalizes
internalizes environmental costs into its prices
will be at aa disadvantage,
disadvantage, at least
least in the
the short
short term,
term, in
in unregulated
unregulated trade"
trade" with countries
that do not
not (Daly
(Daly and
and Goodland,
Goodland, 1994).
1994). This
This argues,
argues, for
for instance,
instance, in
in favour
favour of
of applying
applying
import tariffs
import tariffs on products from countries that would
countries that would price
price their
their forest
forest resources
resources low,
low, in
order to
to be
be capable
capable ofoffacing
facing external
external competition.
competition.
• Conventionon
Convention on International
International Trade
Trade inin Endangered Speciesof
Endangered Species of Wild
Wild Fauna
Fauna and Flora
Flora
(CITES). Ratified
(CITES). Ratified by
by more than 111 nations, CITES establishes lists of of endangered
endangered species
species
international trade is
for which international is either prohibited or strictly regulated. Examples
Examples ofof NWFPs
which
which are restricted
restricted are ivory
ivory and
and rhino
rhino horn.
horn. Placing
Placing aa species
species in
in the
the most
most restrictive
restrictive
approval by
categories requires approval by two-thirds of
of the signatories; the least restrictive categories
can be
be made
made byby aasingle
singlesignatory.
signatory.Each
Eachsignatory
signatorynation
nationdesignates
designates management
management andand
scientific authorities
authorities forfor granting
granting andand reviewing
reviewing the
the Convention permits. The
Convention permits. The UNUN
Environment Programme
Environment Programme (UNEP)
(UNEP) hosts the CITESCITES Secretariat.
Secretariat. TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC International,
International,
a monitoring body of the the World
World Conservation
Conservation Union (IUCN) and
Union (IUCN) and WWF,
WWF, coordinates
coordinates an
international network to track wildlife trade and compliance
international with CITES, and produces aa
compliance with
journal, TRAFFIC
journal, TRAFFIC Bulletin.
Bulletin.
• The Agreement on
The Agreement on Trade-Related
Trade-Related Intellectual
Intellectual Property
Properly Rights (TRIPs). Like
Rights (TRIPs). Like WTO, TRIPs
TRIPs
provides more enforceable protection for trade-related intellectual property rights. In this,
intellectual property this,
it encourages
encourages developing countries to
developing countries to conduct more research and innovation,
conduct more innovation, and helps
helps
better access
better access to
to new
newtechnology,
technology, including
including environmental
environmental technology.
technology. An important
important
provision permits aa country
provision permits country to exclude
exclude anan invention
invention from
from patent
patent protection
protection if that
that
invention's commercialization
commercialization seriously endangers the environment.
• Convention on
Convention on the Conservation
Conservation ofof Migratory
Migratory Species
Species of
of Wild
Wild Animals. Convention
Animals. This Convention
obligates countries
obligates countries protect endangered migratory species and precludes commercial
to protect endangered migratory species and precludes commercial
trading of some 51 listed species, including
including antelopes, 24 bird species
species and 6 marine turtles.
turtles.
80
It encourages species conservation and international
international action. UNEP provides the Secretariat
(Braatz et
(Braatz et ai.,
al., 1992).
1992) .
Summary
• Use market studies as aa tool

tool to identify commercial opportunities in resource utilisation and
match supply
match supply toto demand.
demand . Used
Used properly,
properly, marketing tools can
marketing tools can improve an enterprise's
improve an enterprise' s
potential for economic
economic and
and environmental
environmental sustainability.
sustainability.
• Develop a proper plan for

Develop for marketing
marketing a product
product based on study
study of key market
market factors
factors (the
(the
"Four Ps"):
Ps") : product, place
place(that
(that is,
is, channels
channels of
ofdistribution
distribution and marketing),
marketing) , promotion and
price.
price.
• Use information on markets

markets and
and transport
transport costs
costs to
to assess
assess and
and decide
decide when
when intermediaries
intermediaries
(middlemen) are
(middlemen) are useful.
useful. Where an intermediary is useful
useful (for example,
example, in helping
helping to
to absorb
absorb
risk or
risk or coordinating
coordinating transport),
transport), producers
producers should
should use use market
market information
information and
and group
group
organization to prevent unfair exploitation.
prevent unfair exploitation.
• Use market
market information
information available
available from
from existing
existing agricultural
agricultural marketing
marketing systems.
systems. Where
Where
necessary, organize
organize marketing
information systems for local markets.
• International marketing requires

International marketing requires more specialized information which
specialized information which isis often
often difficult
difficult to
obtain.
obtain. Rural
Rural producers
producers can
can reach
reach foreign
foreign markets
markets by
by joining
joining national
national associations
associations (for
(for
trade
trade fairs,
fairs , etc.)
etc.)and/or
and/orgreen
greenmarketing
marketingventures
ventureswith
withinternational
international non-governmental
non-governmental
organizations.
• Obtain
Obtain information on trade
information on trade regulations
regulations and
and the
the trade
trade environment
environment (national
(national and
and
international), which affect commercial options in all markets. Both producers and support
support
service staff
staff (extension
(extension agents
agents and
and others)
others) need
need familiarity
familiarity with these.
these .
References
AT!. 1995.. Non-timber
ATI. 1995 forest products
Non-timber forest products manual.
manual. Draft
Draft version. Appropriate Technology
D.C.
Braatz, S.,
Braatz, S. , Davis,
Davis, J,J, Shen,
Shen, S.,
S .,and
andRees,
Rees, C.
C.1992.
1992.Conserving
Conserving biological
biological diversity:
diversity : a strategy for
for
protected areas
areas in
in the
theAsia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific Region.
Region. World
World Bank Technical Paper No. 193.
Technical Paper 193 . World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
D. C.
Charit Tingsabadh. 1994.

1994. Selling
Selling tree
tree crops.
crops . Module
Module 77 of
ofGrowing
Growing multipurpose
mUltipurpose trees on
on small
small
farms. Winrock
Winrock International-FAO,
International-FAO, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
Clay,
Clay, J.W.
J.W. and
and Clement,
Clement, C.R.
C.R.1993.
1993.Selected
Selected species
species and
and strategies
strategies to
to enhance
enhance income
income
generation from Amazonian forests.. Forestry
Amazonian forests Forestry Working
Working Paper
Paper FO:Misc/93/6
FO:Misc/93/6.. FAO, Rome.
Cubberly, P.
Cubberly, 1995. Value
P. 1995. Value chain
chain information.
information. ATI
ATI Bullettin
Bullettin 26.
26. Appropriate
Technology
Daly, H., and

Daly, and Goodland,
Goodland, R. 1994. An ecological-economic
R. 1994. assessment of
ecological-economic assessment of deregulation
deregulation of
GATT. Ecological
international commerce under GATT. Ecological Economics
Economics 9:73-92.
9:73-92 .
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marketing and
and trade
trade 81
Durst, P.B., Ulrich,
Durst, Ulrich, W.,
W.,and
andKashio,
Kashio,M.,
M.,eds.
eds.1994.
1994.Non-wood
Non-wood forest
forest products in
in Asia. RAPA
RAPA
Publication 1994128. FAO-RAPA,
Publication 1994/28. FAO-RAPA, Bangkok.
Bangkok.
Falconer, J.
Falconer, J. 1992.
1992. Non-timber forest products
Non-timber forest products in
in southern
southern Ghana:
Ghana: aa summaty report. ODA
summary report. ODA
Forestry Series No. 2. UK
No.2. UKOverseas
Overseas Development
Authority, London.
London.
FFAO.
AO. 1995.
1995. Compendium
Compendium of
of computer-based databases
databases for relevance to forest products marketing.
FO:Misc/94/10. Working
FO:Misc/94110. Paper. FAO, Rome.
Working Paper. Rome.
FAO. Forthcoming.
FAO. Forthcoming. Guidelines
Guidelines for
for the
thecreation
creationofofcommunity-managed
community-managed marketing
information
systems for non-timber forest
systems for forest products. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Iqbal, M. 1993.
1993. International
International trade
tradeininnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products: an overview.
overview. Forest Products
Products
Working Paper
Working Paper 11.
11. FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Iqbal, M. 1995.
Iqbal, 1995. AAstudy
studyofoftrade
traderestrictions
restrictionsaffecting
affecting international
international trade
trade in
in non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
products. FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Issar, R.
R. 1994.
1994. Development
Development of ofmarket
market intelligence
intelligence and infrastructure
infrastructure for agroforestry in India.
India.
In Raintree,
Raintree, J.B.
J.B.,, and Francisco, H.A.,
H.A., eds.,
eds.,Marketing
Marketing of
ofmultipurpose
mUltipurpose tree
tree products
products in
in Asia:
Asia:
Proceedings ofof an international
workshop held in Baguio
Baguio City, Philippines, 6-9 December,
City, Philippines, December, 1993.
Winrock International, Bangkok.
LaFleur, J.R.
J.R. 1992.
1992.Marketing
Marketingof
ofBrazil
Brazil nuts:
nuts: aacase
casestudy
study from Brazil. Forest
Forest Products
Products Division,
Division,
FAO, Rome.
FAO, Rome.
Le Cup, I.I. 1994.

1994. The
The role
roleof
ofmarketing
marketing of
ofnon-timber
non-timber forest
forest products
products inin community development
projects:
projects: Ayuverdic medicinalplants
Ayuverdic medicinal plantsininNepal.
Nepal.InIn Raintree,
Raintree,J.B.,
J.B., and
and Francisco,
Francisco, H.A.,
H.A., eds.,
Marketing of of multipurpose
mUltipurpose tree products in Asia: Proceedings of an international workshop
workshop held
in Baguio City,
City, Philippines,
Philippines, 6-9
6-9December,
December, 1993.
1993. Winrock
WinrockInternational,
Bangkok.
Lim Hin Fui and Woon Weng Chuen. 1994.1994. Marketing of agroforestry products: some Malaysian
experience. In
experience. In Raintree,
Raintree, J.B., and
and Francisco,
Francisco, H.A.,
H.A., eds.,
eds.,Marketing
Marketing of
ofMultipurpose
Multipurpose Tree
Tree
Products in
in Asia.
Asia. Winrock
Bangkok.
Lintu,
Lintu, L. 1995.
1995. Trade
Trade and
andmarketing
marketing of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products.
products. In
In Report
Report of
ofthe
the expert
expert
consultation on non-wood
consultation on forest products,
January 1995.
1995. Non-
Non-
Wood Products 3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Ocampo, R.A.
R.A. 1994.
1994. The
Thepresent
presentsituation
situationof
ofnon-timber
non-timber forest
forest products
products in
in Costa
Costa Rica.
Rica. Working
Working
Document
Document No.
No.7,7, Project
Projectfor
forConservation
Conservationand
andSustainable
Sustainable Development
Development in in Central
Central America.
America.
CATIE, Turrialba,
Turrialba, Costa
Costa Rica.
Rica.
Pswarayi-Riddihough,
Pswarayi-Riddihough, I., I., and
and Jones,
Jones, N.
N. 1995.
1995. Some
Some marketing
marketing problems
problems faced by agroforestry
agroforestry
farmers in
in Asia.
Asia. InInReport
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theexpert
expertconsultation
consultationononnon-wood
non-woodforest
forestproducts ,Yogyakarta,
products,Yogyakarta,
Indonesia,
Indonesia, 17-27
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January 1995,
1995. Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products 3.
3. FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.
Tangley, L. 1993. Marketing biodiversity products: the

biodiversity products: the tagua
tagua initiative. Conservation
82
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For further reading
reading
IFPRI. Forthcoming.
IFPRI. Proc. of
Forthcoming. Proc. of aaworkshop
workshop on
onNon-Timber
Non-Timber Tree
Tree Product
Product (NTTP)
(NTTP) Market
Market
Research, held December
December 12-14,
12-14, 1994,
1994, Annapolis,
Annapolis, Maryland,
Maryland, USA.
USA. International
International Food Policy
Policy
Research
Research Institute, Washington, D.C
Institute, Washington, D.C..
Lewington, A.
Lewington, A. 1993.
1993. Medicinal plants and plant extracts:
Medicinal plants extracts: a review
review of
of their
their importation
importation into
Europe. A TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC Network
Network Report.
Report. TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC International,
International, Cambridge,
Cambridge, UK.
7. Markets,
Markets, marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade 83
83
Organizing
Organizing producer groups 8
Previous chapters
Previous chapters have
have mentioned advantagesthat
mentioned advantages thatrural
rural producers
producerscan
cangain
gain through
through organized
organized
efforts. The
The three
three main
main advantages
advantages are:
are:
• greater
greater leverage
leverage for
for enterprise
enterprise success, including: greater
success, including: greater economies
economies of scale
scale in
production, transport
transport and
and marketing;
marketing; aa stronger
stronger basis
basis for
for negotiating
negotiating with
with middlemen
middlemen andand
others the processing-market chain; and
others in the processing-market chain; and a better basis for competing with larger-scale
competing with larger-scale
producers;
• better prospects for sustainable

sustainable harvesting
harvesting through agreementby
through agreement by all
all local
local users
users of the
the
forest resource, thus
thus helping
helping to
to ensure
ensure sustainable
sustainable supply;
supply;
• more equitable sharing of

ofbenefits
benefits from common property resources.
common property resources. This
This is important to
foster the general perception of fairness
fairness in using
using a resource
resource traditionally
traditionally viewed
viewed as
as "open
"open
access"..
access"
This chapter describes factors

factors involved
involved in successful local organization
organization for
for resource use and
and some
tools for organizing
tools organizing communities
communities for processing,
processing, marketing
marketing and
and resolving
resolving conflicts.
Factors in successful organization

Factors organization
Successful community organizations

Successful community organizations for
for natural
natural resource
resource management
management often
often share
share similar
similar
characteristics related
characteristics related to
to the
the local
local user group and the
group and the natural
natural resource
resource (ATI,
(ATI, 1995).
1995). User group
here means the community
community with local access rights to the forest resource.
access rights
The user group
The characteristics ofof user

user groups
groups that
that generally
generally promote
promote good
good community
community organization,
organization, which
which
are often found
found in
in indigenous
indigenous systems
systems for
for common
common property
property management,
management, include
include (ATI,
(ATI, 1995):
1995):
• identification
identification as a group.
group. The
The group
group recognizes
recognizes its
its members,
members, and
and outsiders
outsiders see
see the
the group
group
as distinct. Not all the group's
group's members
members may
may actively use the
actively use the group's access rights; in this
sense there may be "user
"user sub-groups";
sub-groups";
• group size. The

The group
group should
should bebe large
large enough
enough toto support
support harvesting
harvesting and processing at thethe
threshold
threshold of economic sustainability.
economic sus On the
tainab ility . On the other
other hand,
hand, itit should
should be small
small enough
enough to
manage common property resources effectively.
effectively. In
In shifting
shifting from subsistence to commercial
resource
resource use,
use, the
the sub-groups
sub-groups thatthat use
use access
access rights
rights may
may change
change size.
size. This
Thisinvolves
involves
important dynamics of sustainable
important dynamics harvest rate
sustainable harvest rate and
and the
the threshold
threshold atat which
which a member's
member's
participation in
benefits make participation in the
the group
group worthwhile;
worthwhile;
• control
control over resource.
resource. The
The group
group must
must have
have access
access to
to the
the non-wood
non-wood resource
resource that
that is
is
recognized by legal
legal rights
rights or
or customary
customary law.
law. The
The group
group should
should be
be able
able to
to enforce
enforce exclusive
exclusive
authority over the
the resource
resource and
and guarantee
guarantee continued
continued rights for subsistence
subsistence uses even when
it acquires commercial value;
• mitigating income
income effects. Poorer
Poorer community
community members
members should
should be represented
represented inin any
any change
change
in resource use. Poorer households should
Poorer households should have equal rights to participate in the enterprise
participate in the enterprise
and receive their fair share
share of
of benefits;
benefits;
8. Organizing
Organizing producer
producer groups
groups 85
• recurrent interaction.
recurrent interaction.Frequent
Frequentmeetings
meetings of
ofgroup
group members
members promote
promote cooperative
cooperative behaviour
behaviour
and adherence
and adherence toto the
the group's rules.
rules. They
They also make
make it more
more likely
likely that the group
group will
will
identify and penalize violations;
identify
• reciprocity. Group members realize that they will receive benefits

reciprocity. only if they fulfil their
benefits only
obligations to
obligations to the
the group. This condition, particularly in smaller
smaller groups, promotes
promotes internal
internal
self-monitoring;
• disciplinary mechanisms.
disciplinary The group
mechanisms. The group can
can impose
impose sanctions or penalties
sanctions or penalties that have aa real
deterrent effect.
effect.
The natural resource

The
In general, the
the forest
forest resource
resource managed
managed by
by the
the group
group should
should be:
be:
• clearly defined.
defined. Clearly
Clearly defined
defined systems
systems are easier
easier to
to manage
manage sustainably;
sustainably;
• recognized by
by the
the community
communityas as valuable.
valuable. Often,
Often, user groups will agree to the added effort
of sustainable management only if they see that destructive over-use threatens the resource.
There is generally
There generally aa time
time lag
lag between
between when
when resource
resource degradation starts and
degradation starts and when itit is
is
noticed by the community. Organizing for sustainable
sustainable use should be based on the perceived
value of the resource to
value to the
the community.
community .
Some tools for organizing

Some organizing
A number ofof references

references describe
describe how
how toto organize
organize communities
communities to manage
manage their resources
resources (see
(see
"For further reading").
"For reading") . The
The tools
tools include
include group
group meetings,
meetings, land
land use
usemapping
mapping and
andcommunity
community
education.
Community meetings
meetings
Repeated group interaction

interaction develops
develops aa forum
forum that
that builds
builds cooperation
cooperation and
and common
common values.
values. As
As this
this
forum develops through
through repeated
repeated meetings,
meetings, shared
shared problems
problems can
can be
be identified
identified and
and discussed
discussed and
and
possible solutions proposed.
possible solutions proposed. Depending
Depending on
on an
an area's social
social norms
norms regarding
regarding gender
gender roles
roles and
and
public
public gatherings,
gatherings, special
special arrangements may be
arrangements may be needed to ensure that women's
needed to women's concerns
concerns are
are
represented in such forums.
represented forums .
Land-use mapping
Mapping is a tangible tool that community groups frequently

frequently find
find useful in organizing themselves.
Maps of local
Maps local land
land use
use capture
capture geographic
geographic information
information that
that communities often need
communities often need to assess
assess
efficiency of management
efficiency management and and plan adjustments.
adjustments. Chapter
Chapter 2 explained
explained how mapping
mapping helps
helps in
in
inventories of non-wood forest resources. MappingMapping can also
also help to identify
idehtify potential conflicts
conflicts in
land-use claims before they become confrontations.
confrontations . Furthermore, mapping can help help forge a clear
political and social identity for community members (Brown
community members (Brown etet al.,
al., 1995).
1995). Local
Local groups
groups often
often can
can
use maps to to plan
plan and
and defend
defend their
their land
land use
use with
with government
agencies, funding
funding organizations
organizations and
and
credit institutions.
institutions.
In some countries,
countries, satellite
satellite images
images of
oflocalities
localities are
are available
available from
from government
government agencies
agencies in
in charge
charge
of cartography
cartography or natural
natural resources.
resources. Using
Using images
images of of particular
particular infrared
infrared bands,
bands, communities
communities or
supporting agencies can identify the forest and and its
its borders
borders with
with community
community oror household
household clearings,
clearings,
86
water courses, etc. Once
water Once these
these clearings
clearings are
are identified,
identified, residents
residents can help
help in naming
naming them
them and
matching land-use units with the
matching the image.
image.
Community education
Community education
Community education develops
develops future
future capacity
capacity for
for informed
informed participation.
participation. InIn Colombia,
Colombia, forfor
example, an NGO
example, NGO worked
worked withwith conununities
conununities near thethe La
La Planada
Planada Wildlife
Wildlife Refuge
Refuge to manage a
curriculum for
for practical
practical instruction
instruction on
on community-scale
community-scale development and and a mobile
mobile environmental
environmental
educational unit.
educational unit. The
The education
education was
was designed
designed for
for adults,
adults, children,
children, indigenous
indigenous Amerindians
Amerindians andand
recent settlers (Poole, 1989).
recent 1989). If
Ifpublic
public education
education successfully changes attitudes
successfully changes attitudes of
of those
those in
in and
and
around the
around the reserve
reserve (and
(and in
in the
the national
national government),
government), itit can
can reduce
reduce the
the long-term costs of
long-term costs
protecting an extractive reserve.
protecting
Where itit is
is promoted
promoted by
by anan outside
outside organization,
organization, public
public education
education efforts must avoid eroding local
language
language andand culture, for
for example
example byby providing
providing bilingual
bilingual instruction Efforts should achieve
instruction. Efforts achieve
technical
technical and scientific advances
advances that are in
in tune
tune with
with local
local world
world views,
views, and
and appropriate
appropriate to
to the
the
student groups (IAITPTF,
(lAITPTF, 1992).
1992).
Organizing producers
Organizing producers for marketing
marketing and
and processing
processing
Organizing
Organizing groups to market
market non-wood
non-wood products employs
employs thethe same
same tools
tools used
used in organizing
organizing for
resource management or enterprise formation
formation (see Chapter 5). 5) . Often,
Often, aa shared
shared problem
problem provides
provides
the
the focus
focus for group
group formation;
formation; for
for example,
example, aa desire
desire to
to reduce
reduce unfair
unfair treatment
treatment from
from market
market
intermediaries. In respect of
intermediaries. of each
each problem,
problem, the
the new
new group
group should
should clarify
clarify (ATI,
(ATI, 1994):
1994):
• why the
the current
current situation
situation isis unacceptable;
unacceptable;
• the root causes,
causes, including
including those which are in the group's control;
which are control;
• options,
options , obstacles
obstacles and
and trade-offs
trade-offs toto be
be considered
considered in
in deciding
deciding how to change
change the
the situation;
situation;
• resources and
and information
information needed
needed for
for individual
individual and group
group action.
action.
Experience from tree-growing and marketing cooperatives

cooperatives in
in India
India (Pati!,
(Patil, 1992;
1992; see
see text
text box
box 8.1)
suggests the following
suggests following factors for
for ensuring
ensuring success
success of
of producers'
producers' organizations:
organizations:
• cooperative
cooperative discipline
discipline among
among members.
members. Often
Often this emerges from village or ethnic traditions
collective organization;
of collective organization;
• credible leadership.
credible leadership . Group
Group leaders
leaders should
should have
have expertise
expertise in
in management,
management, consensus-
consensus-
building and entrepreneurship.
entrepreneurship. They
They should
should also
also recognize the interests of poorer members;
• credible and
and efficient
efficient marketing
marketing sy,stem.
system. A
A group's marketing structure/arrangement
structure/arrangement must
must
ensure compensatory prices to to its
its members;
members;
• appropriate technical
appropriate support. The
technical support. The group
group should
should have
have access
access to
to enough
enough technical
technical
knowledge to advise members and
and to
to enable them to make informed choices on species and
products;
• pragmatic and
and prompt
prompt institutional
institutional support.
support. In
In particular,
particular, producer
producer groups
groups need
need to
to find
find
flexible
flexible credit
credit sources.
sources. InIn groups,
groups, producers
producers are
are better
better able
able totonegotiate
negotiate customized
customized
mechanisms for collateral
collateral guarantee,
guarantee, for
for example.
example. The
The group
group should
should identify
identify other groups
groups
with shared interests and
and join
join with
with them to advocate for unbiased production incentives and
harmonized regulations;
regulations ;
8.
8 . Organizing
Organizing producer
producer groups
groups 87
• demonstrable success. Clearly
Clearly observable
observable success
success in
in aa resource
resource management
management oror marketing
marketing
strategy builds confidence in the group venture, ensures unified
unified effort and makes
makes members
members
comfortable with justified
comfortable with justified risk-taking
risk-taking later.
later. A group
group should
should carefully
carefully choose
choose its
its first
activities for greatest chance of success.
greatest chance of success.
Text box
box 8.1:
8.1: Tree-growing
Tree-growingcooperatives
cooperatives in
in India
India
The Agroforestry Federation

The Federation of Maharashtra, based inin Nasik,
Maharashtra, based Nasik, consists
consists of of 25
25 district-level
district-level tree-
growers cooperatives.
growers' cooperatives. ItItprovides
providesmarketing
marketing and
and technical
technical support
support to
to its
itsmember
member cooperatives
cooperatives
and individual farmers,
and farmers, mainly for marketing
marketing eucalyptus
eucalyptus wood and oil oil seeds
seeds of of Jatrophacurcas.
Jatropha curcas.
To join a cooperative, farmers pay an
To an entry fee
fee of about US$
US $ 100
100 per
per hectare
hectare ofof land
land they farm;
farm;
poor farmers pay aa reduced
reduced fee of about
about US$
US$ 55 per
per ha.
ha.
The Nasik
The Nasik Tree
Tree Growers'
Growers' Cooperative
Cooperative Society
Society obtains
obtains for
for its members
members aa 30
30 to
to 40 percent higher
return than what
what they
they could
could get
getindividually.
individually. Other
Other benefits
benefits to
to members
members include:
include:
• advice on
advice on market
market conditions at the district,
district, region,
region, and
and national
national levels
levels
• lower transportation costs
costs through
through combined
combined loads loads
• technical advice
technical advice on
on harvest
harvest timing
timing and
and methods
methods
• greater responsiveness
responsiveness to changes
changes in regulations
• economies of scale for storage
economies storage ofof produce
produce at at optimum
optimum locations
locations
• collective bargaining
bargaining and
and even
even cash
cash advances
advances during periods of storage
storage
The
The cooperative
cooperative coordinates members' harvests
coordinates members' harvests for
for bulk transport and
bulk transport and efficient use
use of
of labour.
labour.
Records document
Records document each
each member's
member's harvests
harvests and
and the return. The
The cooperative
cooperative manages
manages a sales
sales
depot, where products
depot, products are
are sorted by
by several
several grades
grades ofof quality and sold at
and sold at a fixed
fixed price for each
each
grade. This
grade. This standardization benefits members,
standardization benefits members,who who receive
receive US$
US$80 80 per
per tonne
tonne of produce
produce
compared to
compared to US$
US$ 28 per
per tonne received
received by individual farmers at
individual farmers at auction.
auction. It also
also benefits local
local
retail consumers. Wholesale traders have
have slowly adjusted to the reduced
reduced profit
profit margins
margins resulting
resulting
from this arrangement
arrangement (Issar,
(Issar, 1994).
Organizing producers for

Organizing producers for processing
processing ventures makes possible
ventures makes possible similar
similar gains
gains for
for producers.
producers. In
Xapuri,
Xapuri, Brazil,
Brazil, producers
producers in 1990
1990 organized
organized the
the first shelling
shelling factory owned by
factory owned by Brazil
Brazil nut
collectors. Credit
Credit arrangements
arrangements included
included US$ 60,000 for
for the
the factory
factory plus salaries for the
the factory
factory
manager and
and technical
technical assistance
assistance (which
(which in
in many
many processing
processing ventures
ventures costs
costs more
more than
than the
the facilities
facilities
and equipment). The factory
factory has
has made
made aa tremendous
tremendous difference by (Clay and Clement, 1993): 1993):
• reducing spoilage
reducing spoilage of the nuts;
nuts;
• eliminating intermediaries' profits;
profits;
• providing local employment;
• dramatically increasing
dramatically increasing the price paid to nut
nut collectors.
collectors.
Organizing for
Organizing for conflict
conflict management
management
Conflicting demands
Conflicting demands onon a resource
resource can emerge
emerge when
when different groups compete
different groups compete for
for the
the same
same
resource (for
(for example,
example, loggers
loggers competing
competing with
with gatherers
gatherers of
of non-wood
non-wood products), or when
when people
people
interested in a resource are unable
interested unable to
to participate
participate in managing.
managing. Such conflicts
conflicts can
can occur
occur within
within a
community, between neighbouring
neighbouring communities,
communities, or between communities and outsiders.
communities and
Conflict management,
Conflict management, alternative
alternative dispute
dispute resolution
resolution and
and resource
resource sharing
sharing are
are all
all terms
terms that refer
to a strategy that has
has developed
developed in
in the
the last
last few
few decades
decades as
as a way
way to address conflicting claims
claims over
over
natural resource use.
use. Conflict
Conflictmanagement
management in in managing
managing forest
forest resources
resources offers
offers aa means
means by
by which
which
community groups can
community can peacefully
peacefully resolve
resolve land-use
land-use conflicts.
conflicts.
88
societies have
Different societies have different ways
ways for
for dealing
dealing with
with conflict.
conflict. In
In conflict
conflict management,
management, the aim
is to reach
is reach aa mutually
mutually agreeable
agreeable solution
solution byby using
using the
the institutional
institutional means
means available
available within
within that
society together
society together with
with an
an understanding
understanding of of the
the interests
interests of everyone
everyone involved in the conflict. In
involved in the conflict.
general, conflict management employs negotiation and/or mediation mediation byby a neutral third party using
the following
the following principles
principles (Pendzich
(Pendzichetet al.
al.,, 1994):
1994):
• any attempt to resolve conflicting

conflicting claims must include the informed participation of
of all who
have a stake in how the forest resource is used;
have
• identify the true source of the conflicts. This permits a better understanding of each party's
party's
interests and the
interests the incentives
incentives that could lead
lead to
to resolving
resolving the
the conflict;
conflict;
• each side involved

each involved in negotiating
negotiating a solution
solution must believe
believe that negotiating is in their
negotiating is their best
best
interest and should do so in
in good
good faith.
faith .
The example
The example in in the
the following
following paragraphs,
paragraphs, summarized
summarized from
from Villareal
Villareal (in
(in Pendzich
Pendzich op.
op. cit.),
cit.),
illustrates the
illustrates the role and
and importance
importance of
of community
community organization
organization in resolving
resolving land-use disputes. It
land-use disputes.
also shows how local
also local organizations
organizations can develop
develop from
from very little
little formal
formal foundation.
foundation. Chapter
Chapter 99
describes sources of of technical
technical and information
information support that groups should seek and and use
use to
to develop
their strengths.
strengths .
Example: Creation
Example: Creation of the Awtl
Awá Indian
Indian territory
territory in
in Ecuador
Ecuador
The Awd
The Awa people
people inhabit
inhabit a forest
forest that
that straddles
straddles the the border
border between
between Ecuador
Ecuador and
and Colombia.
Colombia. In
Ecuador, the
the Awds'
Awas' biologically
biologically rich
rich forest
forest isis highly
highly coveted by the surrounding communities
communities of
of
poor farmer groups
groups and
and lumber
lumber and
and mining
mining companies.
companies . In 1984
1984 a process known as Plan Awá
known as Awa
began to help Awd
Awa people
people secure
secure rights
rights to
to the
the area
area for
for their
theirmanagement.
management.
Plan Awd
Awa faced enormous
enormous obstacles,
obstacles , including:
including:
• lack of formal
formal Amid organization for
Awa organization for defending
defending their
their rights
rights from outside threats;
• high illiteracy among Awd 63 percent, compared to a national rate of 14.8 percent);
Awa (nearly 63
• competing claims
competing claims on Awd
Awa lands
lands by poor
poor peasant
peasant communities,
communities, commercial interests,
interests, and
and
conflicting government
government interests
interests (particularly
(particularly for
for road
road construction
constructionand
andmining);
mining);
• lack of recognition for the

the Awd
Awa by the
the national
national society,
society , and lack
lack of
of social
social or
or biophysical
biophysical
information;
• a tendency by the MO
Awatotoabandon
abandon their
their language
language and
and culture
culture in
in the
the face
face of
of pressures
pressures from
from
the dominant national
national society.
society.
Yet despite
despite these,
these, aastrategy
strategy ofofconflict
conflictmanagement
management and
and gradual
gradual organization by the
organization by the Awá
Awa
successfully helped them to secure
secure their
their rights
rights to
to manage
manage the
the forest.
forest.
A commission
commission formed
formed by by the
the Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian government
government to coordinate
coordinate support activity
activity in the Awd
Awa
region, financed
financed byby aa small
small grant
grantfrom
from the
the US-based
US-based group
group Cultural
Cultural Survival,
Survival, began
began toto develop
develop
a plan
plan for
for conserving
conserving and and developing
developing the
the Awd
Awa region.
region. The
The first
first goal
goal was
was totoestablish
establishananAwá.
Awa
Indian territory,
territory, with
with the
the longer-term
longer-term aim
aim ofofconserving
conserving the
the natural
natural resource
resource andand alleviating
alleviating the
the
poverty in the area.
the area.
8 . Organizing
8. Organizing producer
producer groups
groups 89
89
The National Board for for Coordination
Coordination of
of Indian
Indian Nations
Nations ofof Ecuador
Ecuador (CONACNIE),
(CONACNIE), later
later called
called
the Federation of
of the
the Indian
Indian Nations
Nations of
of Ecuador,
Ecuador, became
became involved.
involved. CONACNIE
CONACNIE provided
provided aa voice
voice
of advocacy
advocacy for thethe Awá
Awa and
and helped
helped totoguide
guidethe
thecommunities
communities toward
toward forming
forming their
their own
own
organization.
organization. Important elements and lessons from that five-year process are described below.
five-year process
Prioritize aa strategy.
strategy. Plan
PlanAwá
Awaidentified
identified three
three priorities:
priorities: (1)
(1) generate
generate public and political
political support
for recognition
recognition of thethe Awá's
Awa's rights,
rights, (2)
(2)demarcate
demarcate and
and gain
gain legal
legal appropriation
appropriation of
of the
the Indian
Indian
territory and
and (3)
(3) strengthen
strengthen Aw6
Awa capacity
capacity for
for participation
participation in the
the process.
Build institutional
institutional support.
support. Plan
PlanAwáAwa launched
launched aa campaign
campaign among
among government agencies to include
the project in the strategies for
for stronger
stronger national
national sovereignty
sovereignty inin border
border regions.
regions. By
By identifying
identifying the
the
Plan with this government
Plan government goal, itit gained
gained support
support and
and aa basis
basis for
for inter-agency
inter-agency cooperation.
cooperation. A A
census of
of the
the Awá
Awa confirmed
confirmed an an overwhelming
overwhelming majority
majority liad
had been born in in Ecuador
Ecuador (counter
(counter toto
opposing arguments). This led
opposing led to
to steps
steps to
to get
gettheir
theircitizenship
citizenship officially
officially acknowledged.
acknowledged.
Demarcate and gaingain legal

legal appropriation
appropriation of
ofAwá
Awd lands.
lands. First,
First, the
the commission
commission outlined
outlined the Awá
Awa
territory on aa map
territory map ininits
itsoffice.
office .Correcting
Correcting flaws
flaws in
in that
that information
information required
required two
two years
years of
of
fieldwork
fieldwork in difficult terrain.
During
During this time, the
the Awd
Awa faced
faced four
four main
main conflicts
conflicts over their land:
land: (1)(1) with
with an
an association
association of
outside farmers, (2)
outside (2) with
with aapre-cooperative
pre-cooperative ofofwealthy
wealthy landowners,
landowners, (3) (3) with
with lumber
lumber companies
companies
and (4) with government
government in in creating
creating aa basis
basis for
for an
an Indian
Indian territory.
territory . In
In managing
managing these
these conflicts,
conflicts,
the Avid
Awa learned to:
to:
• define the source of

define ofconflict.
conflict. In
In one
one case,
case, Awá
Awa prevented
prevented neighbouring
neighbouring cornmunities
communities from
panning for gold
gold in
in Awd
Awa lands
lands because the outsiders (lid not abide
did not abide by
by Awa
Awá rules
rules prohibiting
prohibiting
sale of
of timber, animals
animals or
or fish
fish in
in outside
outside markets.
markets. The
The two
two sides
sides sat
sat down
down with
with aa facilitator
facilitator
and defined
defined the
the problem
problem from
from both
both perspectives.
perspectives. They
They reached
reached a solution
solution in which
which the
miners were allowed
allowed to pan for goldgold on Awá
Awa lands
lands provided they abide
provided they abide by
by Awa
Awá rules
rules of
resource use.
use . This
This simple
simple solution
solution averted
averted an
anescalation
escalation of
ofconflict;
conflict;
• use the
the power
power of ofinformation
information in
in an
anunfavourable
unfavourable negotiating
negotiating environment.
environment. When
When timber
timber
companies violated
violated agreement
agreement conditions
conditions of offorestry
forestry management
management on onAmid
Awa lands, the the Awá
Awa
brought forth
forth compelling
compelling documented
documented evidence
evidence ofof negative
negative impact
impact caused
caused byby companies'
companies'
activities on
activities on the
the region's
region's ecosystems,
ecosystems, exploitation
exploitation of indigenous people, violations
indigenous people, violations of
national policies and blackmail of of officials.
officials. The
The evidence
evidence convinced
convinced authorities
authorities to
to suspend
suspend
logging in the area
area and
and helped
helped to
to turn
turnpublic
public opinion
opinion against
against the
the guilty
guilty companies;
companies;
• separate conflicts.
separate conflicts. By
By dealing
dealing with
with each
each competing
competing land claim in
in separate negotiations,
negotiations, the
the
Awd
Awa achieved
achieved greater success than if they
they had
had attempted
attempted to settle
settle all
all at
at once.
once.
Strengthen
Strengthen Awd Awd participation.
participation. At the start,
start, the
the Awá
Awa had
had nono clearly
clearly identifiable
identifiable leaders
leaders and
and no
no
process for involving
involving ail
all of
ofthe
the community
community in in analyzing their problems, except for certain spiritual
spiritual
rites that gathered small
small groups. The The non-Awá
non-Awa commission
commission members promoted large meetings meetings of
the
the Awá
Awa Pre-federation
Pre-federation to to raise
raise awareness,
awareness, buildbuild local
local capacity,
capacity, andand provide
provide aa way
way for the
the
commission to consult with
commission with the
the Awá.
Awa. TheTheANA
Awa developed
developed capacity
capacity for participating
participating in
in conflict
conflict
resolution by debating the need need for forming
forming a representative
representative organization. This debate took place
at the
the local
local level
leveland
andininlarge
largemeetings
meetingsof of
thetheANA/A. Pre-federation,In
Awa Pre-federation. In these
these meetings,
meetings, a group
group
decision
decision emerged to defenddefend their
their lands
lands against
against competing claims, creating
competing claims, creating a focus
focus and purpose
for their
their organization.
organization. Until
Until their
their own
ownorganizational
organizational structure
structure developed,
developed, they
they adopted
adopted the
the
guardianship of of CONACNIE,
CONACNIE.
90
Later,
Later, the
the Awd
Awa elected
elected aaDirector
Director forfortheir
theirPre-federation
Pre-federation and
and the
the organization
organization developed
developed a
stronger parliamentary
parliamentary practice.
practice. Gradually
Gradually thethe Awd
Awa population
population recognized
recognized the
the pre-Federation's
pre-Federation's
its leaders
authority and its leaders no
no longer
longer relied
relied on
on the
the advice ofintermediaries.
advice of intermediaries.
Summary
• Organize
Organize local groups
groups to
to provide
provide the
the NWFP
NWFP producers
producers the
the benefits
benefits of
of greater
greater economic
economic
leverage, better
better means
means for
for ensuring
ensuring wise
wise forest
forest management
management and and more
more equitable
equitable sharing
sharing
of benefits
benefits from
from commercial
commercial enterprise.
enterprise. Organizing
Organizing is easier
easier in
in communities
communities where there
there
is a clear group
is group sense
sense of
of identity,
identity, patterns
patterns ofof cooperative
cooperative behaviour
behaviour and established rights
to a clearly
clearly bounded
bounded resource.
resource.
• Use the tools of regular group

group meetings
meetings and mapping
mapping of local land-use patterns
local land-use patterns.. These can
form a basis
basis for
for group
group planning,
planning, action
action and
and dealing
dealing with
with outsiders.
outsiders.
• Depending on
Depending on the
the situation,
situation, producers may first
producers may first need
need to organize
organize to
to obtain
obtain harvesting
harvesting
rights.
rights . Where
Where local
local organizations
organizations are not
not well
well developed,
developed, intermediaries
intermediaries such
such as
as NGOs
NGOs
may help the community build its own organization.
organization. Producer groups should develop good
management skills
management skills and access to technical
technical information,
information, training and resources.
References
Selected coconut
ATI. 1994. Selected coconut processing
processing options
options for small-scale
small-scale producers.
producers. Appropriate
Appropriate
Technology International
International and
and the
the University
University of
of the
the Philippines
Philippines at Los Barios (UPLB), Washington,
Banos (UPLB),
D.C.
D .C.
A 1995. Non-timber
TI. 1995.
ATI. forest products
Non-timber forest products manual. Draft version.
manual. Draft Appropriate Technology
Brown, I.F., Alechandre,

Brown, Alechandre, A.S.,
A.S., Sassagawa,
Sassagawa, H.S.Y.,
H.S.Y., and
and Aquino,
Aquino, M.A. de.
de. 1995.
1995. Empowering
Empowering
communities in land-use management:
local communities management: the
the Chico
Chico Mendes
Mendes Extractive
Extractive Reserve,
Reserve, Acre,
Acre, Brazil.
Cultural Survival
Survival Quarterly Winter
Winter 1995:54-57.
1995: 54-57.
IAITPTF. 1992.
IAITPTF. 1992. Charter
Charter of
ofthe
theindigenous-tribal
indigenous-tribal peoples
peoples of
of the
the tropical
tropical forests.
forests. International
International
Alliance
Alliance of the Indigenous-Tribal
Indigenous-Tribal Peoples of the
the Tropical
Tropical Forests,
Forests, Penang,
Penang, Malaysia.
Malaysia.
Issar, R.
R. 1994.
1994.Development
Development of ofmarket
marketintelligence
intelligence and
and infrastructure
infrastructure for agroforestry
agroforestry in
in India.
India.
In Raintree, J.B.,
] .B., and
and Francisco,
Francisco, H.A.,
H.A.,eds.,
eds.,Marketing
Marketingofofmultipurpose
multipurpose tree
tree products
products in
in Asia.
Asia.
Bangkok.
Patil, V. 1992.
Pati!, 1992. Farm
Farm forestry
forestry cooperatives
cooperatives in
in Maharashtra:
Maharashtra: reasons for success
reasons for and failure.
success and failure. In
Taylor, D.
Taylor, D .A., ed.,NGOs
A., ed., NGOsand
andtree-growing
tree-growingprograms..
programs:working
working between
between farmers and
andgovernments.
governments .
Winrock-IDRC-FAO/RAPA, Bangkok. Bangkok.
Pendzich, C.,
C., Thomas,
Thomas, G.,
G.,and
andWohlgenant,
Wohlgenant, T.T.1994.
1994.The
Therole
roleof
ofalternative
alternative conflict
conflict management
in community
in communityforestry.
forestry. Forests,
Forests, Trees
Trees and
and People
People Programme
ProgrammeIIII Working
WorkingPaper
PaperNo.No. 1.
1. FAO,
FAO,
Rome. (Contains
Rome. The creation
(Contains The creation ofof the
the Avid Indian Territory
Awa Indian Territory -- Ecuador,
Ecuador, byby Carlos
Carlos Villarreal,
Villarreal,
1993.)
Poole, P.J.
Poole, P.]. 1989.
1989. Developing
Developing aa partnership
partnership of
ofindigenous peoples, conservationists,
indigenous peoples, conservationists, and land-use
planners in
in Latin
Latin America.
Environment Policy,
Policy, Planning
Planning and Research Working
Working Paper. World
World
Bank, Washington,
Bank, Washington, D.C.
8. Organizing
8. Organizing producer groups
groups 91
For further reading
For reading
Clay, J.W. and
Clay, and Clement,
Clement, C.R.
C.R. 1993.
1993 .Selected
Selected species
species and
and strategies
strategies to
to enhance
enhance income
income
generation from
from Amazonian
Amazonianforests.
forests. Forestry
Forestry Working
Working Paper
Paper FO:Misc/93/6.
FO:Misc/93/6. FAO, Rome.
Rome .
Davis, R., and

Davis, and Dunn,
Dunn, W.W.1994.
1994.Report
Reportofofthe
theinternational
workshop on
on natural
natural resource
resource
management on
management on tribal
tribal lands,
lands, January 1994.
1994. US
US Forest
Forest Service,
Service, Washington, D.C..
Washington, D.C
FAO. 1990.
1990. The
The community's
community's toolbox.. the idea,
toolbox: the idea, methods tools for
methods and tools for participatory assessment,
assessment,
monitoring evaluation in community forestry. Community
community forestry. CommunityForestry
Forestry Manual
Manual No.2.
No. 2. FAO,
FAO,
Rome ·(English-French-Spanish).
Fisher,
Fisher, R.J.
R.J. 1994.
1994. Indigenous
Indigenous forest
forest management
management inin Nepal: why common
Nepal: why property isis not
common property not a
problem.
problem. In Allen,
Allen, M.,
M.,ed.,
ed.,Anthropology
Anthropology of
ofNepal:
Nepal: people,
people, problems
problems and processes.
processes. Mandala
Mandala
Book Point, Kathmandu.
Kathmandu.
92
Research and
Research and extension
extension 9
In this chapter
In chapter and
and thethe next,
next, the
the focus
focus shifts
shifts from
from local
local producers'
producers' activities to the kinds
actlvitles to kinds of
technical support, infrastructure
infrastructure and
and policy
policy that
that can
can meet
meet their
their needs.
needs. These
These two
two chapters
chapters are
are thus
thus
intended
intended primarily for researchers and policy-makers, and describe approaches by which they can
collaborate with local producers
collaborate producers toto improve
improve forest
forest management.
management.
Although research on non-wood

non-wood forest resources and products is growing, this this field
field still
still receives
receives
little support in most national institutes. In an informal survey in the the Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific region,
region, less
less than
4 percent of
of forestry
forestry researchers
researchers cited
cited NWFPs
NWFPs as as an
an area
area of
oftheir
theirspecialization
specialization (Nair,
(Nair, 1995).
1995).
Less
Less than 1717 percent
percent of
of 137
137 research
research institutions
institutions responding
responding to to aa separate FAO survey
separate FAO survey in that
region cited NWFPs
region NWFPs as as aapriority
priority area
areaofofresearch.
research.Among
Amonginstitutions
institutions working
working on onnon-wood
non-wood
products, coverage
coverage isis extremely
extremely skewed
skewed toward
toward major
major international
international commodities.
commodities.
The scarcity of
of research
research resources
resources dedicated
dedicated to
to non-wood
non-wood resource
resource management
management makes
makes itit essential
essential
to involve local producers in in focusing
focusing on the
the most
most urgent
urgent problems
problems and the search
search for
for technical
technical
solutions.
solutions. This isis an
an opportunity
opportunity for
for innovative
innovative partnerships
partnerships between researchers and producer-
clients, and among
clients, among government
agencies, NGOs
NGOs and the private sector.
Involving producers
producers in
in problem-solving
problem-solving research
research
Collaboration between
Collaboration between local
local groups
groups and
and supporting
supporting agencies
agencies starts
starts by
by clearly
clearly recognizing
recognizing that
that local
local
producers are
are the
the clients
clients of
ofresearch
researchandand partners
partners in
inmanaging
managing thethe resource.
resource. Scientists
Scientists conducting
conducting
research on rural areas
research areas should
should make
make itit aa point
point to
to consult
consult with
with rural
rural people
people to
to identify
identify problems
problems
or priorities.
priorities. InIn this
this regard,
regard,researchers
researchers cancan facilitate
facilitate discussion,
discussion, but should
should be attuned
attuned to to
producers' points
points andand refrain
refrain from
from imposing
imposing their
their own professional interests. (See
professional interests. (See "For
"For further
further
reading" on rapid rural appraisal,
reading" appraisal, following
following Chapter 3.)
Scientists should
Scientists should also
also review
review the
the literature
literature for
for existing research findings
existing research findings that
that might
might relate
relate to
to the
the
communities' problems, and
communities' problems, and identify
identify gaps
gaps where
where small-scale studies could
small-scale studies could lead
lead to potential
potential
solutions. In situations
solutions. situations where the
the priorities
priorities are
are socio-economic
socio-economic in nature itit could
could be
be beneficial
beneficial to
to
involve sociologists and economists in defining
involve defining research
research problems
problems and
and approaches.
approaches.
In building the researcher-producer collaboration, producers should be involved in data collection

and analyzing observations (for example, in in harvest assessments
assessments as in Chapter 2).
2). Public-private
Public-private
coalitions can
coalitions can help supply
supply communities with support
communities with support services for building
services for building local
local capacity
capacity for
for
adaptive research, and
adaptive and influencing
influencing policy
policy decisions.
Technical support should aim to build

build local
local capacity to the point where local groups can conduct
conduct
their own studies on topics
topics that
that serve
serve their
their interests
interests (see
(see text
text box
box 9.1).
9.1).
National research
National research efforts
Adaptive
Adaptive research
research depends
depends on
on high-quality
high-quality support
support from
from national
national and
and sub-national
sub-national research
research
institutes. The
institutes. The resources
resources dedicated to research
dedicated to research related
related to NWFPs
NWFPs areare extremely
extremely limited.
limited. The
The
research that is underway can be
be generally
generally categorized
categorized asas (Nair, op. cit.):
cit.):
• status
status surveys
surveys to
to gauge
gauge the
the understanding,
understanding, uses
uses and
and availability
availability of
of various
various products
products
(including ethnobotanical studies);
studies);
9. Research
Research and
and extension
extension 93
Text box 9.1:
9.1: Local
localresearch
researchcapacity
capacity ininCanada
Canada
In 1982, the
In the Makivik
MakivikResearch
Research Laboratory
Laboratory in Kuujjuac,
Kuujjuac, Arctic
Arctic Quebec,
Quebec, came
came about as a result
of the
the Inuit
Inuit Land
Land .Claim
Claim Settlement.
Settlement. Its
Its objectives
objectives were
were to:
• develop indigehOusscientificcapacity
indigenous scientific capacity for conducting wildlife research
conducting wildlife research and
and management,
management,
.incorporating ·locaJknowledge;
local knowledge;
• collect,
collect, .analyze
analyze and
and disseminate relevant scientific
disseminate relevant scientific and
and technical
technical inforrnation
information to Inuit
Inuit
communities;
• provide aa base
provide for training Inuit
base fOltraining communities in wildlife research
Inuitcommunitiesinwildlife research and
and management;
management;
• provide an information centre

provide centre on
on.environmental and wildlife
enviJonmentaland wildliferesearch
research and
and management
management
issues.
Now called
called the
the Kuujjuac
Kuujjuac Research Centre, itit monitors
Research Centre, monitors subsistence
subsistence and
and commercial
commercial fisheries,
fisheries,
conducts community harvest studies to
conducts>communityharveststudies to record
record individual hunters
hunters' takes
takes and
and assesses populations
assesses populations
of salmon, ducks
of ducks and
and caribou.
caribou. The
The centre
centre produces
produces management
rnanagement manuals
manuals in English
English and
and in the
the
local language.
local language. Staffed .byby non-Inuit
non-Inuit scientific
scientific instructors
instructors and
and Inuit
Inuitmanager/technicians,
manager/technicians, thethe
centre·has
centre has trained
trained young
young Inuit
Inuit to
to conduct
conductfield
fieldmeasurements,
measurements, laboratory
laboratory analysis
analysis and
and rnap-
map-
making.
Inuit-conducted field surveys

Inuit-.conductedfield surveys of
ofeider
eider duck
duck have
have produced valuable information on environmental
impact and
impact and seasonal changes in patterns of wildlife harvest.
seasonaLchangesinpatternsotwildlife Study results
harvest. Study results are
are entered
entered into
into aa
computer-based geographic information
information system
system (GIS). Current information
(GIS). Current information technologies
technologies are
are well-
well-
suited to
to such
such local
locaLresearch
research efforts.
TVIany developingcountries
Many developing countriescould
couldbenefit
benefitby
bysharing
sharingwith
with Inuit
Inuit researchers their expertise
researchers their expertise in
in
capacity-building and local research (Poole,19.8.9;.1993).
capacity-buildin~landlocalresearch (Poole, 1989; 1993).
• technology
technology development
development studies production (including
studies for better production (including domestication
domestication of
species), utilization
commercial species), utilization and
and processing;
processing;
• socio-economic studies, including

including marketing
marketing..
Of these,
these, socio-economic studies tend
socio-economic studies tend to
to suffer
suffer rnost
most neglect,
neglect, with
with market
market research
research severely
severely
lacking.. Information
lacking on trading
Information on channels and
trading channels and pricing
pricing atat each
each stage
stage in
in the
the chain
chain - information
information
which would greatly enhance
enhance producers' bargaining power -- is
bargaining power is rarely
rarely available.
available. Because
Because of this,
many developing countries forfeit aa sizable
sizable advantage
advantage to industrialized
industrialized countries that import raw
raw
materials.
National research
research bodies
bodies should
should seek
seek to
to address other imbalances
imbalances in the current research situation,
situation,
including
including (Nair, 1995):
1995):
• neglect of
o/traditional sector. Research
traditional sector. Research agendas
agendas tend
tend to
to be
be determined
determined by national economic
development goals
development goals (vs.
(vs. actual
actual local
local use).
use). For
For NWFPs,
NWFPs, thisthis can skew research away
skew research away from
from
sustainable systems for local subsistence
sustainable subsistence and local
local markets;
markets;
• over-emphasis
over-emphasis on on commercial products and under-emphasis
commercial products under-emphasis on sustainable
sustainable production
production
systems. Most research
systems. research has
has understandably
understandably focused on improving commercial production,
often using
often using the model
model of
of the
the plantation
plantation system.
system. However
However support services could better
services could better
appreciate all options and resource potentials
appreciate the goal
potentials if the were a more self-sufficient
goal were self-sufficient rural
system that optimizes
optimizes subsistence
subsistence with marketable surplus;
94
94
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(.0
:0
(!)
CD
en
cn
(!)
CD
III
o:::T
III
::J
0..
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CD
....
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CD
::J
en
o·
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o
7
::J
12.
12. Wild
Wild animal
animal farming
farming can
can provide
provide off-farm income
income to farmers,
farmers , like
like in
in the
the 13. Mangrove ecosystems
Mangrove ecosystems areare habitat
habitat for
for aa great
great variety of marine
marine life,
life , and
and
case of
case of this deer farming in
in Thailand.
Thailand . (Photo:
(Photo : M.
M. Kashio)
Kashio) provide many NWFPs.
provide NWFPs . (Photo:
(Photo : C.
C. Chandrasekharan)
Chandrasekharan)
(0 14. In drylands
In drylands of Northern
Northern Peru,
Peru, the leguminous
leguminous species
species Prosopis pallida is
Prosopis pal/ida is Local management
15. Local management for NWFPs
NWFPs hashas increased
increased the
the diversity
diversity and distribution
U1 also an
also an important
important source
source for
for honey
honey production
production from
from its flowers (Photo:
(Photo: T.
T . Frisk)
Frisk) of products
of products like in the case
case of durian,
durian, in
in West
West Sumatra.
Sumatra . (Photo:
(Photo : de
de Foresta)
Foresta)
• lack of
lack of problem-solving orientation. Research
problem-solving orientation. Research tends
tends to focus
focus almost
almost exclusively
exclusively on
increasing production.
increasing production. As
As a result, much
much national
national research neglects
neglects producers' important
important
questions, such as: How
questions, How to
to best
best manage
manage forest
forest resources
resources for
for multiple
multiple uses?
uses? How
How to select
best alternative from processing options? What dynamics
best affect product markets?
dynamics affect markets?
• lack of linkages
lack linkages between institutions. This
between institutions. This results
results in unnecessary
unnecessary duplication
duplication of
of research
and under-utilization
and under-utilization of research findings.
findings.
Research organizations
Research organizations need
need clear
clear goals
goals for assigning
assigning priorities. Such
Such a priority system
system should
should
employ criteria of
employ of usefulness
usefulness of
of research
research results
results and
and responsiveness
responsiveness of itit to
to problems
problems perceived
perceived
by producers.
Responding to farmers' problems

Responding problems and
and their
their complex
complex trade-offs
trade-offs requires
requires more
more cross-disciplinary
cross-disciplinary
thinking. It also
thinking. also requires
requires more
more linkages
linkages like
like those
those fostered
fostered through
through the
the consortiums
consortiums described
below.
For research findings

findings to be
be more
more applicable,
applicable, they
they need
need to
to be
be available
available to
to the
the communities
communities that
need them.
need them. Local-language abstracts and
Local-language abstracts and manuals
manuals are
are essential
essential to
to reach
reach rural audiences.
audiences. Short
Short
radio and television
radio television programmes
programmes can also
also be
be cost-effective
cost-effective ways
ways of communicating
communicating withwith rural
groups (Mody, 1991).
groups 1991).
National extension services

services
At one
At one time,
time, forest
forest services
services in
in many
many countries
countries had
had mainly
mainly an
an enforcement
enforcement role.
role. Foresters
Foresters
protected state-owned
state-owned forests
forests and this was done
done through
through a system of fines
system of fines and
and penalties.
penalties. Now,
Now,
however, foresters in
however, in some
some cases
cases have
have assumed
assumed the
the role
role of
of extension
extension workers,
workers, helping
helping farmers
farmers
to adapt technological innovations
innovations from research.
This shift is
is improving
improving the
the relationship
between forest
forest services
services and
and rural
rural communities
communities inin many
many
countries. In this
countries. this new
new role,
role, foresters
foresters work
work with
with communities
communities as partners
partners and advisors
advisors in
in forest
forest
management, rather
management, rather than
than as adversaries.
adversaries. Foresters
Foresters are
are becoming
becoming extension workers also
extension workers also in
in
agroforestry, which
which previously
previously was
was left
left neglected
neglected in
in between
between agriculture
agriculture and
and forestry.
forestry.
Besides technology transfer, forestry's

forestry'srapid
rapidevolution
evolutionhas
has involved
involved field
field foresters
foresters in
in documenting
documenting
indigenous technologies, developing
developing new
new technical
technical solutions with farmers, communicating policies
and resolving land-use conflicts.
conflicts. Field foresters
foresters now
now need to to understand
understand disciplines that earlier
disciplines that
generations of foresters did not, including
including anthropology, economics and and conflict
conflict resolution.
resolution. When
forestry projects began using terms like people's participation and and community organizing, neither
community organizing, neither
forestry officials nor villagers
villagers knew what they meant (Shrestha, 1993).
meant (Shrestha, Table 9.1
1993). Table 9.1 shows several
ways of providing the
the needed
needed training
training for foresters
foresters in
in the
the area
area of
of NWFPs.
NWFPs.
This gap between what

what forestry
forestry training
training schools
schools have
have traditionally
traditionally offered
offered and
and what
what field
field foresters
foresters
now
now need
need creates
creates aatremendous
tremendous challenge
challenge and
and some
some confusion.
confusion. InIn this
this transition,
transition, non-wood
non-wood
products have generally suffered neglect, but the transition itself signals
signals better
better prospects
prospects that
that rural
rural
producers will
will receive
receive the
the type
type of
oftechnical
technical support
support that
that non-wood
non-wood forest
forest enterprises
enterprises require.
require.
Training
Training centres, such
such as
as the
the Regional
Regional Community
Community Forestry
Forestry Training
Training Centre in in Thailand,
Thailand, are
are
equipping field foresters
equipping field foresters with
with new
new tools
tools of
of rapid
rapid rural
rural appraisal
appraisal and
and techniques
techniques for
for conflict
conflict
resolution and market
resolution and market research.
research. These
These skills
skills make them better
make them better able
able to
to support
support the range
range ofof
activities involved
involved inin developing
developing all
all forest
forest resources,
resources,including
includingnon-wood
non-woodproducts.
products.
96
Table 9.1:
9.1: Suggestions
Suggestions for
for enhancing
enhancing forestry
forestry education
education and
and training in NWFPs
training in NWFPs
Education/ Training
Education/ Suggestions
Level
Specialization Increase the

Increase the areas
areas of specialization to include
specialization to include NWFP
NWFP topics
topics and
and interrelationships
interrelationships
Promote research related to NWFPs
NWFPs in in universities
universities
Support multidisciplinary approaches
approaches and programmes in in specializations
specializations
Encourage pre- and in-service
Encourage in-service specializations
specializations in NWFP areas
Pre-Service Incorporate relevant NWFP

NWFP topics
topics
Professional/ Establish facilities
Establish facilities for
for teaching NWFP-related subjects, including materials,
Managerial improved methods and qualified
improved qualified teachers
teachers
Widen
Widen the base for student
student selection,
selection, allowing
allowing diverse
diverse skills
skills into
into forestry
forestry
As part of instruction,
As instruction, incorporate
incorporate NWFPs in planning
planning and policy analysis at the
the
sectoral level
sectoral level and in studies
studies related to inter-sectoral
inter-sectoral linkages
linkages
Establish
Establish new facilities for training in aspects
new facilities aspects of
of NWFP
NWFP management
management and
and
Technical and
Technical utilization,, and
utilization and for specific products
products in the area
Vocational Improve existing
Improve existing facilities
facilities in polytechnic
polytechnic institutes
institutes and
and forestry
forestry schools,
schools, incorporate
courses on NWFPs
courses NWFPs
In-Service
Professional/ Upgrade training to keep up with
Upgrade with technical
technical and
and methodological
methodological developments
Managerial Refresher training
Technical and
Technical Short
Short training
training programmes
programmes onon specific
specific aspects
aspects of
of NWFP
NWFP or technology
technology related
related to
to
Vocational specific non-wood products
Retraining in the use of
Retraining of tools
tools and
and techniques
techniques
Extension and Public

Extension Strengthen the
Strengthen the system of extension
extension and
and information
information dissemination
dissemination including
including
Information materials and methods related to
materials to conservation
conservation and
and sustainable
sustainable development,
development ,
cultivation and
cultivation and management,
management, harvesting,
harvesting, processing,
processing, marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade of
of
NWFPs.. Target groups include
NWFPs include rural producer groups, processors,
processors, trading
trading
organizations and
and academic
academic community
community
(Chandrasekharan, 1993)
1993)
National programmes in
National programmes in countries such as
countries such as Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe and and Indonesia are addressing
Indonesia are the gap
addressing the
between conventional
between conventional training
training and
and practical
practical needs
needs in collaboration with NGOs
collaboration with NGOs that
that have
have
experience in providing training
experience training in these areas (see text box 9.2).
Consortiums for
for research
research and
and training
training
Consortiums
Consortiums of public and
and private
private institutions
institutions have emerged in recent
recent years
years as
as powerful
powerful forces
forces
for linking rural producers
producers to
to the
the technical
technical information
information they can use to
to better manage
manage their
their natural
resources.
These consortiums have

have emerged
emerged inin various
various ways.
ways. In
In the
the Philippines,
Philippines, the
the Upland
Upland NGO
NGO Assistance
Assistance
Committee (UNAC) resulted
Committee (UNAC) resulted from
from a 1990
1990 meeting
meeting of organizations
organizations on on Problems
Problems and
and Issues
Issues of
Upland
Upland Development.
Development. Member
Member groups included
included NG0s,
NGOs, professional
professional organizations
organizations of
of business
business
people and lawyers,
lawyers, four
four university
university institutions
institutions and
and aa government
government agency.
agency. The
The discussions
discussions at
at the
the
1990
1990 meeting
meeting identified
identified three
three major
major priority areas for for upland
upland farmers:
farmers: agroforestry
agroforestry (including
(including
technical
technical information, transfer of skills
information, transfer skills and
and financial
financial resources),
resources), land
land tenure,
tenure, and
and marketing
marketing
(including producers' organizations
(including organizations and post-harvest technology). These
post-harvest technology). These three
three areas
areas became
became thethe
9. Research
Research and
and extension
extension 97
97
basis
basis for UNAC's
UNAC's agenda.
agenda. UNAC's
UNAC'smembers
members identified
identified their
their relative
relative strengths
strengths for
for training,
training,
information and research
research support.
support. The
The lawyers
lawyers association
association developed
developed training for NGOs on
on land-
land-
tenure issues; the business people's foundation provided training in entrepreneurship and
tenure issues; the business people's foundation provided training in entrepreneurship and
management.
In addition to collaborative research and training, UNAC provides a forum for

for grassroots dialogue
dialogue
with government officials. These activities, coordinated by UNAC, received funding
funding support from
international development agencies (Bafiez,
(Banez, 1992).
The consortium
consortium approach
approach has
has also
alsoproven
provensuccessful
successfulfor
forsupporting
supportingcommunity-based
community-based wildlife
wildlife
management in Zimbabwe (see text box 10.2)
10.2) and
and elsewhere.
elsewhere.
As they develop,
As develop, these
these consortiums
consortiums sometimes
sometimes discover the need
discover the need to create
create provincial
provincial oror state
state
subgroups to provide training to communities
communities andand groups
groups far
far from
from national
national centres
centres.. The
The state
state or
provincial level is the crucial
provincial crucial one
one for
for policy
policy and
and programme
programme implementation.
implementation. It is also
also the
the level
level
where ecological differences can be be clearly
clearly recognised
recognised (Haeruman,
(Haeruman, 1995).
1995).
Scope
Scope for regional
regional and
and international
international research
research
Collaboration among neighbouring

Collaboration among countries can
neighbouring countries can give
give a boost to national
national and private
private research.
research.
This collaboration can:
can:
• distribute the cost of

of research
research among
among thethe client
client countries;
countries;
• reduce duplication of research
research effort;
effort;
• foster
foster collaboration in other areas,
collaboration in areas, such
such asas policy
policy readjustment
readjustment and
and communication
communication of
results.
Regional
Regional centres
centres of excellence
excellence could
could emerge
emerge from
from among
among existing
existing research
research institutions.
institutions. With
With
supplemental resources
supplemental resources from
from donors and
and member
member governments,
governments, these
these can
can develop
develop regionally
regionally
appropriate inventory
inventory methods,
methods, processing
processing techniques
techniques and/or
and/or market
market research
research studies.
studies. They
They could
could
also be focal points for North-South
also North-South transfer ofof sophisticated technologies, such
sophisticated technologies, such as
as those
those used in
bioprospecting for pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical products in Costa
Costa Rica
Rica (FAO,
(FAO, 1995).
1995) .
International research centres in the

International the Consultative
Consultative Group for International
International Agricultural
Agricultural Research
(CGIAR)
(CGIAR) havehave a mandate
mandate toto work
work through
through regional
regional research
research networks.
networks. These
These could
could delegate
delegate
regional studies
regional studies to national
national research institutions based on
institutions based on a review
review of each institution's
institution's relative
relative
strengths. International developmentagencies
International development agenciesshould
shouldseriously
seriouslyconsider
considersupport
support for
for such
such
networking arrangements.
International organizations could

could support
support non-wood
non-wood forest
forest resource
resource development
development by:
by:
• compiling and disseminating directories of

of available databases on non-wood
non-wood forest resource
development (including marketing and processing) and environmental
environmental dimensions;
• funding research
research onon methodologies
methodologies for internalizing
internalizing environmental costs and
environmental costs and benefits
benefits of
of
developing forest resources, and for conducting cost-effective inventories of plant
developing forest resources, and for conducting cost-effective inventories of plant and
animal resources, as as well
well as
as ecotourism
ecotourism options;
options;
• refining policy
refining policy guidelines
guidelines and policy-related
policy-related linkages,
linkages, including
including efforts
efforts for
for classifying
classifying
NWFPs in in international
international systems
systems of
of statistics
statistics and
and systems
systems of national
national accounts.
98
Text box
Text box 9.2:
9.2:
. . . .. . .. ..
for
In-service training for
In"service
A number
A number of industrialized countries are
foresters in Indonesia
Indonesia providing specialized bilateral technical and
networking support
networking for NWFP
support for NWFP development
development
Perum Perhutani,
Perum Perhutani, a State Forest
Forest Enterprise,
Enterprise, (Doran, 1995).
1995).
manages forest
manages forest areas in Java,lndonesia,lt
areas ill Java, Indonesia. It
also manages many
also non-vvood enterpriSes
manynon-wobd >enterprises
that produce
Some priority research
Some research areas
areas
that produce silk, turpentine, medicinalmedicinal
extracts and
extracts and honey.
honey. In the the.. mid-1980s,
ffiid." 1980s,
Perhutani recognized
Perhutani recognized the
the needlo
need to lin~f()rest
link forest While priorities for technical support and
management with irnproved opportunities
managementwithirnproved opportunities research vary
research vary with
with local
local needs,
needs, the
the following
following
for nearby communities. Perhutani
Perhutani launched general priorities
general priorities emerged
emerged at the
the international
international
aa programme
programme called
called Java Social Forestry,
SoclaLForestry, Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest
which involves communities
which more actively
communitiesrnore actively Products held in Y ogyakarta, Indonesia in
Yogyakarta,
in forest
in forest management
management through
through forestfarmer
forest farmer January 1995 (FAO,
January 1995 (FAO, 1995):
1995):
groups. Forest
groups. farmer groups
Forest farmer.. work with
groups work
field foresters to ..improve
field improve community
community self- self-
reliance and
reliance and income.
• develop mechanisms
develop mechanisms for
for involving
involving local
local
producers/stakeholders in planning,
In launching
launching Java
Java Social Forestry, the the implementing
implementing and
and monitoring
monitoring research
research on
Indonesian government had to grapple with
Indonesian NWFPs. These should reward local
the obstacle
the obstacle of
of earlier
.earlier forest-use
forest-use conflicts . •. know-how and
technical know-how and facilitate its
between Perhutani
between Perhutani and and communities.
communities. In refinement;
1986, Perhutani
1986, Perhutani engaged
engaged a a national
national NGO,
NGO,
Bina Swadaya,
Bina Swadaya, to to provide training for
provide training for its • document and disseminate fast-
field foresters
field foresters in
in community
community development.
development.
disappearing local
local knowledge
knowledge of non-wood
The
The courses
courses instructed
instructed fieldfield foresters
foresters inin
rapid rural appraisal and design design of
resources;
community projects.
community projects. OtherOther courses
courses for
forest
forest farmer
farmer groups,
groups, forest
forest guards
guards and
and • conduct inventories
conduct inventories of non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
foremen, and administration
adrninistration assistants resources and practices governing
covered topics of organizing farmers' production, processing and marketing;
marketing;
groups for self-sufficiency,
self-sufficiency I community
motivation and
motivation and management
management procedures
procedures • increase product
increase product quality
quality through
through better
better
(Yuniati, 1993).
(Yuniati,
harvesting,
harvesting, processing and handling,
processing and handling, and
and
identify opportunities for local processing;
• study management systems and their

their environmental
environmental and socio-economic impacts on local
socio-economic impacts
communities;
• improve methodology
improve for valuation
methodology for all benefits
valuation of all benefits of NWFPs
NWFPs and their trade
trade in
in informal
informal
and formal markets;
and
• pay more
more attention
attentiontotosocio-economic,
socio-economic,cultural
culturaland
andspiritual
spiritualissues
issuesassociated
associatedwith
withNVVFPs
NWFPs
in all areas,
areas, including
including marketing
marketing and
and technology;
technology;
• communicate research findings to producers and

communicate and other interested
interested parties
parties in
in local-language
local-language
formats.
For better
better research-policy
research-policy linkages,
linkages, market
market researchers,
researchers, for
for example,
example, need
need aa clear
clear idea
idea of
ofpolicy-
policy-
makers' priorities
priorities and
and should
should review
review these
these in
in an
an iterative
iterative way.
way. Empirical
Empirical tools
tools of
of rapid
rapid appraisal
appraisal
can make
make market
market studies
studies more
more situation-specific
situation-specific and valuable for policy (Vosti and Witcover,
valuable for Witcover,
1995).
At the Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation in
in Indonesia,
Indonesia, the
the following
following emerged
emerged as important
important regional needs
needs (FAO
(FAO
op. cit.):
cit.):
9. Research
Research and
and extension
extension 99
Asia-Pacific
• Conduct research on local (formal and informal), national

national and regional markets;
• study technologies
study for improved
technologies for improved natural
natural regeneration
regeneration and sustainable
sustainable cultivation
cultivation of key
key
species identified
species identified through assessments
assessments of community
community perceptions, biological
biological amenability
amenability
and market demand;
and
• translate research
translate research abstracts and relevant
abstracts and manuals into
relevant manuals into local
local languages
languages for
for use
use by local
local
producers;
• use geographic
geographic information
information systems (GIS) to
systems (GIS) to map resource
resource patterns
patterns and to
to coordinate
coordinate
research;
• in Asia-Pacific
in Asia-Pacific (and
(and other
other regions),
regions), an overriding equity
equity issue
issue isis the
the need
need for
for greater local
local
involvement in
involvement in decisions
decisions on resource management.
management. Policy
Policy research should address means
for gaining
gaining greater
greater local
local participation
participation in
in these
these decisions
decisions and
and implementation,
implementation, including
including
tenure policies.
policies.
Some of the
Some the plant
plant species
species of
ofregional
regional importance
importance for
for NWFPs
NWFPs ininAsia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific are
are Artocarpus
Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Acacia catechu, A.
heterophyllus, A . nilotica, Aegle
Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica,
marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Bambusa
Bambusa spp.,
Ceiba pentandra,
Calamus spp., Ceiba pentandra, Cinnamomum spp., Dendrocalamus
Dendrocalanzus spp., Diospyros
melanoxylon, Juglans regia,
melanoxylon, Juglans regia, Madhuca
Madhuca spp.,spp., Morchella
Morchella spp.,
spp., Moringa
Moringa oleifera,
oleifera, Nephelium
Nephelium
lappaceum,
lappaceum, Nypafruticans,
Nypa!ruticans, Parkia
Parkia speciosa,
speciosa, Pinus
Pinus roxburghii,
roxburghii, Pterocarpus spp., Shorea robusta,
Tamarindus indica,
Tamarindus indica, Terminalia
Terminalia spp., Toona
Toona ciliata and
and Zizyphus spp. (Durst
Zizyphus spp. (Durst et
et al.
al.,, 1994).
1994).
Latin America
America
• Forest
Forest products
products harvested
harvested from
from the
the wild
wild have
have been
been subjected
subjected to international market boom-
bust patterns,
patterns, causing
causing destruction
destruction of
of resources
resources and
and cultures.
cultures. Improved
Improved classification
classification of
these products
products can
can facilitate better marketing
marketing studies
studies at the national and international levels;
levels ;
• develop
develop more appropriate
appropriate harvesting
harvesting and
and processing
processing options for adding
options for adding value
value locally,
locally,
perhaps through
through South-South
South-South cooperation;
cooperation;
• ethnobotanical studies should

ethnobotanical studies should further
further explore
explore the
the region's
region's rich
richindigenous
indigenousknowledge
knowledge
systems as a basis
basis for
for integrated,
integrated, sustainable
management of of non-wood
non-wood forest resources.
resources.
See Table
See Table 7.3 for
for aa partial
partial list
list of
ofimportant
important NWFP
NWFP species
species in
in Latin
Latin America.
America.
Africa
• Conduct
Conduct research
research on
on grazing/pastoral
grazing/pastoral and
and wildlife systems, which
which are particularly important
in the region;
• the fragility of
of semi-arid
semi-arid ecosystems
ecosystems in Africa
Africa make
make itit important
important for research
research to
to improve
improve
strategies for avoiding
avoiding risk,
risk, both
both economic
economic and
and environmental;
environmental;
• Africa
Africa has a proportionately larger rural population
proportionately larger than other
population than other regions,
regions, reliying
reliying more
more on
on
subsistence uses of NWFPs
subsistence uses NWFPs than
than onon marketing
marketing the
the products.
products. Research
Research studies
studies should
should
recognize this in
in assigning
assigning priority;
priority;
100
• research should
research should not assume privatization of
assume privatization of resources,
resources, as
as common property regimes
common property regimes are
widespread in Africa.
Africa.
Some of the plant

Some plant species
species of regional
regional importance for NWFPs
importance for NWFPs in in West
West Africa are Aftelia
Africa are Afzelia spp.,
spp.,
spp., Anacardium
Alchornea spp.,
Alchornea Anacardium occidentale,
occidentale, Brachystegia spp., Ceiba
Brachystegiaspp., Ceibapentandra,
pentandra, Cola spp., Elaeis
Cola spp.,
guineensis, Ficus spp., Garcinia
guineensis , Ficus Garcinia spp.,
spp., Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis,
gabonensis, Gnetum
Gnetum spp., Maesobotrya spp.,
Maesobotrya spp.,
Monodora spp., Parkiaspp.,
spp., Parkia Pterocarpusspp.,
spp.,Pterocarpus Tamarindusindica
spp.,Tamarindus indicaand Terminalia spp.
andTerminalia spp. (Falconer,
(Falconer,
1990).
1990).
Gender-sensitive research
Gender-sensitive research and extension
Research and extension efforts can show greater impact

Research impact if they consider the effect of gender
gender onon
activities related
activities related to NWFPs. If If aa programme's
programme's design
design gives
gives full
full weight
weight to
to gender
gender considerations,
considerations,
will more
its implementation will more likely
likely support
supportwomen's
women's actual
actualroles
rolesasasNWFP
NWFPproducers,
producers, processors,
processors,
traders and household food providers. For instance,instance, women
women often notice
notice pest and insect damage
damage
earlier than men, who
who are
are sometimes
sometimes involved
involved only
only in
in harvesting and planting (Stoney, 1992). In
that case, aa programme
programme that
that aims
aims toto improve
improve monitoring
monitoring ofofplant
plant health
health would
would show
show best
best results
results
if it identified women as a target group.
Gender-sensitive research
Gender-sensitive research can
can also
also help
help to select
select species
species or
or cropping
cropping systems
systems that
that minimize
minimize
additional drain
additional drain on
on household
household resources.
resources. In
In noting
noting desired
desired plant
plant traits,
traits, plant-breeding
programmes should seek the preferences of women and men, and understand who is responsible
for harvesting, processing and trade (see text box in 3.2).
Designing gender-sensitiveresearch
Designing gender-sensitive researchrequires
requiresresearchers
researcherstotobe
be aware
aware of
of cultural
cultural barriers
barriers to
women's participation
participation in
in research
research studies.
studies . For
For example,
example, restrictions
restrictions on
on male
male field workers'
workers' ability
ability
to
to interview
interview rural
rural women
women frequently
frequently makes
makes itit necessary
necessary toto employ
employ female
female researchers
researchers and
and
extension
extension workers.
workers. Other
Other constraints
constraints usually
usually dictate
dictate that
that the
theNVVFP
NWFP activities
activities where women
women
participate mostly take place close to the households.
participate mostly Training in participatory
households. Training participatory research
research is
is more
effective when carried out in a village (Stoney,
effective when op. cit.).
(Stoney, op.
Gender-sensitive research also

Gender-sensitive research also benefits
benefits researchers
researchers by making
making their
their findings
findings more
more applicable.
applicable.
Research managers, however, should
Research should ensure that
that researchers
researchers receive
receive more
more immediate
immediate incentives
for any added time and
for and costs
costs involved
involved (Warren, 1992).
1992).
Summary
• In view
view of
of the
the scarcity
scarcity of
ofresearch
research resources,
resources, itit isisespecially
especially important
important that
that research
research on
on
NWFPs:
• involve producers in
in clearly
clearly defining
defining research
research problems;
problems;
• focus problem-solving; and
focus research on problem-solving;
• communicate results
communicate results to the target rural groups,
groups , in
in local
local language.
language.
• Establish collaborative modes of consortiums and centres

centres of excellence
excellence for
for interdisciplinary
interdisciplinary
research and reduced
reduced duplication
duplication of
of effort.
effort.
• Customize in-service training and improve forestry

forestry curricula to provide field
field foresters and
other extension workers with the skills they need to work with communities and producer
communities and
groups .
groups.
9. Research
Research and
and extension
extension 101
• For results that are
are applicable
applicable for rural
rural target
target groups,
groups, ensure
ensure that
that studies
studies take
take the
the gender
issues into account design, data collection and analysis. This requires training and
issues into account in design, data collection and analysis. This requires training
appropriate incentives for the
the staff
staff involved.
involved.
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9.. Research
9 Research and
and extension
extension 103
Institutional and policy support
support 10
Although the
Although the topic appears last
last in
in this
this volume,
volume, the
the policy
policy and
and institutional
institutional environment is often
often
the most influential force shaping the potential for for sustainable
sustainable resource
resource management.
management. This chapter
suggests how the institutional
suggests institutional background which shapes local enterprises can promote improved improved
management of
management of non-wood
non-wood forest
forest resources.
resources. This
This is
is the
the area where
where rural
rural producers
producers have
have least
least
control; however, by
control; by informing
informing themselves,
themselves, combining
combining their resources
resources and forming
forming themselves
themselves
into producer groups,
groups, they
they can
cansometimes
sometimes influence
influence policy
policy changes.
changes.
This chapter describes

This describes actions that governments
actions that governmentscan can take
take toto promote
promotebetter
betteruse
use of
of NWFPs.
NWFPs. It
examines (1)
examines (1) patterns
patterns inin the
the growth
growth of of NWFP
NWFP sector
sector and and their
theirimplications
implications for
for policy
policy
(2) areas
interventions, (2) areas for
for direct
direct institutional
institutional support
support and
and (3)
(3) areas
areas for
for international
international support.
support.
Public education
Public
A first obstacle to
A to the
the improving
improving the
the prospects
prospects ofof NWFPs
NWFPs isis aa widespread
widespread negative
negative view
view about
about
traditional ways. Because
traditional rural ways. Because many
many non-wood
non-wood forest products are linked
linked to
to customs
customs that
that have
have
conflicted with "modern" development, they are often considered "backward". This bias
conflicted with "modern" development, they are often considered "backward". This bias
influences institutional
influences institutional responses
responses at
at all field foresters,
all levels: field foresters, government
government officials,
officials, credit
institutions, politicians and
institutions, and development
development agencies.
agencies.
Public-awareness campaigns, tailored for target audiences, can change these these negative
negative views.
views. Radio
Radio
and television
and television spots
spots can
can dramatize
dramatize the
the environmentally
environmentally "progressive",
"progressive", cultural
cultural and
and economic
economic
benefits of
benefits of NWFPs
NWFPs to to aasociety.
society. Campaigns
Campaigns forfor consumer
consumer education
education cancan raise
raise products'
products'
environmental value and foster wise resource management.
management. Nutrition programmes should consider
the role of local
the local forest
forest foods
foods and
and promote
promote their
their use
use to
to reduce
reduce reliance
reliance on
on foods
foods which
which may
may not
not
be available locally (FAO, 1995a).
1995a). Programmes
Programmes that
that provide
provide credit
credit and
and technical support
support for small
enterprises should
enterprises should distribute
distribute posters
posters and
and brochures,
brochures, explaining
explaining thethe benefits
benefits of
ofwell-managed
well-managed
NWFP enterprises.
To give forest produce

produce and
and traditional
traditional customs
customs greater value in the eyes of thethe public, campaigns
campaigns
might employ
employ traditional/cultural
traditional/cultural asas well as audio-visual
well as media to
audio-visual media to highlight
highlightthe
theforest's
forest's values
values -
for
for sustenance,
sustenance, health,
health, shelter,
shelter, income, food security
income, food security -- in
in aanew
newcontext
context of
ofenvironmental
environmental
awareness.
Patterns of economic
Patterns economic change
change and
and implications for policy
policy
In many
In many countries,
countries, policies
policies governing
governing NWFPs
NWFPs are are scattered
scattered over
over many
many sectors:
sectors: agriculture,
agriculture,
forestry, health and
forestry, and industry.
industry. Because
Because these
these policies
policies were often
often not formulated
formulated to address
address non-
non-
wood forest enterprises or
or rural
rural livelihood,
livelihood, they
they often
often fail
fail to
to provide
provide adequate
adequate incentives and often
provide disincentives, often
often conflicting
conflicting in
in ways
ways that
that cause
cause stagnation.
stagnation.
If policies are harmonized and

and redefined
redefined with
with an
an aim of
of stabilizing rural economies and promoting
rural enterprise, communities
communities could
could become
become more self-reliant and generate
generate surplus for export.
Policy reformulation to to promote

promote non-wood
non-wood forest
forest enterprise
enterprise should
should be
be guided
guided by
by the
the experiences
experiences
of local
local groups
groups and
and enterprises,
enterprises, and
and good
good market
market information
information (FAO,
(FAO, 1995b).
1995b). The
The following
following
paragraphs trace
trace several
several common
common patterns
patterns of
ofcommercialization
commercialization in
in NWFPs
NWFPs and
and their
their implications
implications
for policy adjustment.
adjustment.
10. Institutional and

and policy
policy support
support 105
Changes in
Changes in local
local and
and urban markets
People's involvement
involvement in
in non-wood
non-wood forest
forest enterprises
enterprises changes
changes as
as economies
economies grow and
and opportunity
opportunity
costs change (Arnold, 1995).
costs 1995). Small
Small processing
processing enterprises
enterprises predominate
predominate in
in conditions
conditions where:
where:
• factors favour
favour local
local processing
processing (e.g.
(e.g. widely-scattered
widely-scattered raw materials,
materials, small markets
markets or high
transport costs);
• economies of small
economies small scale exist, asas in
in handicraft
handicraft production;
production;
• subcontracting isis preferable
preferable to
to integrated
integrated operations.
operations.
Rural markets for non-wood

non-wood products are linked to to the
the rate
rate of agricultural
agricultural change.
change. These
These markets
markets
are large in
in aggregate,
aggregate, tending
tending toto grow
grow slowly.
slowly . AA more
more significant
significant source
source of
of growth
growth in
in the
the NWFP
NWFP
sector is growing
growing urban
urban demand.
demand. Urban
Urbanmarkets
markets for
for these
these products
products inin developing
developing countries
countries tends
tends
to grow quickly
quickly as rural
rural people
people migrate
migrate to
to cities
cities and
and bring
bring preferences
preferences for customary
customary products
products
of their rural
rural background
background (nostalgia
(nostalgia markets)
markets) (Arnold, 1995).1995).
Inequities. Unmanaged
Inequities. Unmanagedcommercialization
commercialization tends tends to
to work against small
small enterprises,
enterprises, disadvantaged
disadvantaged
groups, and women.
women. As As the
the value
value of
of trade
trade grows, urban traders seek to gain more control over
supplies through vertical
vertical integration,
integration, by-passing
by-passing ruralrural gatherers
gatherers (Arnold,
(Arnold, op.
op. cit.)
cit.).. Likewise, men
men
tend to take over
over trade
trade from
from women
women asas itit becomes
becomes more
more commercialized.
commercialized. Small enterprises find
themselves unable to
themselves unable to obtain credit and other services, which often favour favour larger operations.
Growth
Growth in forest-product
forest-product trade increases
increases pressure on a resource
resource and
and tends
tends to
to restrict
restrict traditional
traditional
rights of access to that resource. InIn some
some cases, however,
however, communities
communities have reinforced traditional
common property systems
systems in
in the
the face
face of
ofintensifying
intensifying pressure.
pressure. Conditions
Conditions that
that help
help community
community
groups maintain collective
collective control against
against mounting pressures include (Arnold, op. cit.):
include (Arnold, cit.):
• a legal system
system which
which isis able
able to
to help
help the
the group
group enforce
enforce its
its rights;
rights;
• strong social
social institutions;
institutions;
• well-defined
well-defined rights of use;
• small homogeneous
homogeneous groups of users;
• rapid returns
returns toto investment
investment inincollective
collective management.
management.
Increased competition.
Increased competition.Improvements
Improvementsin inrural
ruralinfrastructure
infrastructure are,
are, for
for rural
rural producers
producers ofofNWFPs
NWFPs
a double-edged sword. Roads
double-edged sword. Roads and communication linkages improve
communication linkages improvethe the flow
flow of
of their
their goods
goods to
urban markets, butbut also
also cause
cause competition
competition inin local
local markets
markets from
from urban
urban manufacturers.
manufacturers. Cheaper
Cheaper
factory-made items
factory-made items begin
begin toto replace forest-based products
replace forest-based productsinin rural
rural markets.
markets. InIn Indonesia, for
Indonesia, for
example, Hadi (1986)
example, (1986) found
found that
that mass-produced
mass-produced metalmetal and
and synthetic
synthetic products
products quickly
quickly displaced
displaced
home-made bamboo
home-made bamboo umbrellas
umbrellasand and wooden
woodenclogsclogswhich
whichwere
were once
once sold
sold in rural
rural markets.
markets.
Commercializationalso
Commercialization also attracts
attracts new
new producers
producers toto compete
compete in in the
the market;
market; crafts
crafts that
that require
require
complex skills,
complex skills, such as wood-working,
wood-working, are are less affected than sectors
affected than sectors that
that use
use basic
basic skills,
skills, such
such
as mat-weaving
as (Arnold, op.
mat-weaving (Arnold, op. cit.).
cit.) .
Types of
of change.
change.InIngeneral,
general,small
smallenterprises
enterprisesgain
gainimportance
importance in
in three
three types
types of
of economic
economic change
(Arnold,
(Arnold, op. cit.):
cit.):
• where per
per capita
capita income
income isis effectively
effectively declining,
declining, people with fewer employable skills turn
to low-return,
low-return, labour-intensive
labour-intensive tasks
tasks in
in cottage
cottage industries
industries such
such as
as mat-making;
mat-making;
• where
where per capita
capita incomes
incomes are rising,
rising, small
small enterprises
enterprises are likely
likely to emerge
emerge inin growth-
growth-
related,
related, higher-return
higher-return ventures;
ventures; small
small enterprises in low-return
enterprises in activities are
low-return activities are likely
likely to
decrease;
106
• in times
in times of growth
growth and
and change,
change, small enterprises play an
enterprises play an important
important buffer
buffer role,
role, providing
income for
income for facing
facing natural or economic crises.
Disruption in
Disruption inresource
resourcesupply.
supply.When
Whenharvest
harvestrates
ratesoutstrip
outstripnatural
naturalregeneration/replenishment
regeneration/replenishment
satisfy growing
rates to satisfy growing market
market demand,
demand, the the supply
supply in in natural
natural forest
forest declines.
declines . Without
Without
timber harvests
coordination, timber harvests in
in natural
natural forests
forests will likely disrupt harvests of non-wood products.
will likely
This disruption can be compounded
This compounded by policies
policies and enforcement that favour
enforcement that favour timber
timber production,
or by complicated
or complicated license requirements.
license requirements As aa result,
. As result, NWFP
NWFP producers
producers are
are likely
likely to
to shift
shift their
their
harvesting operations to forest fallow
fallow and domesticated sources (Arnold,
domesticated sources (Arnold, op. cit.).
cit.).
Boom-bust patterns in international and export markets

Boom-bust patterns
Chapter 5 showed how NWFPs that that attract

attract international
international markets tend to experience
markets tend experience a boom-bust
pattern. This
This can
can have
have particularly
particularly damaging
damaging long-term effects
effects. the Amazon in
. In the Amazon the 1890s, for
in the
rubber from
example, rubber from natural
natural forests
forests experienced
experienced aa tremendous
tremendous growth
growth in
in trade
trade before
before ultimately
ultimately
being
being replaced
replaced byby domesticated
domesticated sources
sources elsewhere.
elsewhere. This
This short-lived,
short-lived, unmanaged
unmanaged exploitation
exploitation
proved to benefit
benefit only
only urban-based traders. In the the forest areas where rubber was native, land-use
land-use
conflicts ravaged the resource and caused many deaths
conflicts deaths among
among Amazonia's
Amazonia's indigenous population
indigenous population
(FAO, 1995b).
(FAD, 1995b). AA sound
sound policy
policy framework
framework could
could have promoted balanced rural and urban growth.
Effects of
of subsidies.
subsidies.When
Whenexports
exportsofofforest
forestproducts
products (both
(both wood
wood and
and non-wood)
non-wood) command high
command high
prices in
prices in international
markets, government
government forest
forest services
services often
often become
become producers
producers to earn
earn
government revenue. ThisThis can
can interfere
interfere with
with local
local forest
forest use. In
In effect,
effect, the
the forest
forest service
service becomes
becomes
a subsidized
subsidized competitor of private
private producers;
producers; andand this
this discourages
discourages private
private enterprise
enterprise (Arnold,
(Arnold,
op. cit.).
In many
many developing
countries, national
national policies
policies promote
promote industrial
industrial investment
investment by
by providing
providing
subsidy incentives to companies
companies that
that exploit
exploit natural
natural resources.
resources. In doing
doing this,
this, they
they assume
assume thatthat the
the
country's short-term
short-term competitive
competitive advantage
advantage is worth thethe risk
risk of
of environmental
environmental damage
damage thatthat the
the
subsidy may cause by supporting short-sighted production methodsmethods (Haeruman,
(Haeruman, op. op. cit.).
cit.). Policy-
Policy-
makers should question this underlying
underlying assumption, particularly for
assumption, particularly for fragile
fragile ecosystems.
ecosystems . Rather,
Rather ,
taxes
taxes on exports
exports ofofunprocessed
unprocessed rawraw materials
materials can
can encourage
encourage local
local processing
processing andand provide
provide
investment
investment funds
funds for sustainable
management (FAO,
(FAD, 1995b).
1995b) . Long-term
Long-term subsidies
subsidies for NWFP
NWFP
development programmes generally can not prove sustainable
sustainable in a market
market situation.
situation.
Implications for
for policy-making
policy-making
In view of
of the
the above,
above, policy-makers
policy-makers committed
committed to
to healthy and equitable economic
economic growth in rural
areas should:
should:
• enact clear tenure

enact tenure policies
policies by which
which rural
rural producers
producers can secure
secure access
access to the
the forest
forest
resource, so that
that they
they are
are not
not forced
forced out
out of
of production
production as markets prosper;
• ensure that producer

producer groups
groups receive
receive information
information on resource and market conditions,
conditions, and
environmental guidelines; this should
should include
include support for problem-focused
problem-focused research;
• promote
promote flexible
flexible credit
credit mechanism,s for small producers and processors;
mechanisms for
• remove
remove size-scale biases against
size-scale biases against small
small enterprises
enterprises inincredit
creditprogrammes,
programmes ,licensing
licensing
arrangements and and other
other mechanisms
mechanisms (many(many of
of which result from the
the fact
fact that
that agencies
agencies find
find
it costly
costly to
to support
support small
small enterprises
enterprises on
onan
anindividual
individual basis);
basis);
1 O. Institutional and
10. and policy
policy support
support 107
107
• avoid subsidizing
avoid subsidizing low-return
low-return enterprises
enterprises when
when opportunities
opportunities for higher-return
higher-return activities
activities
become available;
• formation of local producer groups, which

support formation which increase the overall
overall competitiveness
competitiveness of
of
the sector;
• foster transparent
transparent transactions
transactions in
in market
market chains,
chains, with
with better
better price
price and
and trade
trade information
information
throughout the chain and economic incentives like those
incentives like those used
used in agriculture;
agriculture;
• correct gender
gender discrimination
discrimination where itit displaces women's roles in
in production, harvesting,
harvesting,
processing and marketing products;
• recognize that policy

recognize policy responses
responses to
to actual conditions and producers' needs are likely
conditions and likely to
to be
be
more effective than
than generalized
generalized approaches.
approaches .
To ensure that the overall policy environment provides incentives

incentives for
for wise
wise forest
forest use,
use, government
offices should:
• ensure that tenure

ensure tenure policies
policies decentralize
decentralize resource
resource management and encourage
management and encourage people's
participation in sustainable
sustainable forest management;
management;
• properly account for the

the contribution
contribution of
of NWFPs
NWFPs to
to the
the national
national economy;
economy;
• remove subsidies for wasteful

wasteful enterprises, both
both large
large and
and small;
small;
• fully recognize traditional

fully traditional rural knowledge
knowledge and social and cultural
cultural practices,
practices, and
and secure
secure
appropriate rights
rights for
for rural
rural communities,
communities, that
that acknowledge
acknowledge and
and compensate
compensate this
this knowledge
knowledge
(intellectual
(intellectual property);
• effectively put into

effectively into practice mission
mission statements and plans
statements and plans that explicitly
explicitly strengthen their
commitment to stewardship of non-wood forest resources
resources and
and partnerships with
with local users
of the resource.
resource.
Policy
Policy reform is
is only
only as
as good
good as
as its
itsimplementation.
implementation. To To be
be effective,
effective, policies
policies must
must provide
provide for
for
regular monitoring
monitoring and
and refinement
refinement of ofincentives,
incentives, and
and leaders
leaders must
must show
show commitment
commitment toto the
the goals
goals
embodied in those policies.
policies.
Better national accounting

accounting
Improved definition
Improved definition and
and classification
classificationofof NWFPs
NWFPs andand incorporating
incorporatingthem
theminin the
the System
System of
National Accounts mark early
National early steps
steps toward
toward achieving
achieving the
the policy
policy adjustments
adjustments described
described above.
above.
By clearly grouping the variety

By variety of
of non-wood
non-wood products that originate from forest sources,
sources, officials
officials
and programme managers can:can:
• call attention
attention to
to the
the collective
collective importance
importance of
ofthese
these items;
items;
• highlight the need
need forfor policy
policy coordination;
coordination;
• generate
generate the
the political
political and
and administrative support needed
administrative support neededfor
for more
more direct
direct support
support for
producers.
producers .
108
Definition
For international
international classification
classification and
and accounting,
accounting, FAO has recommended
recommended adoption of the the definition
of NWFPs given in Chapter
Chapter 1: 1: goods
goods ofof biological origin
origin other than
than wood,
wood, as well as services,
services,
derived from
derived from forests
forests and allied land
land uses.
uses. For
For gaining
gaining recognition
recognition of
of these
these products'
products' economic
economic
importance, it is
importance, is hoped
hoped this
this definition
definition can
can be
be generally
generally followed.
followed.
Classification
A system of
A of classification
classification for NWFPs
NWFPs was was proposed
proposed at at the
the Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation on on Non-Wood
Non-Wood
Forest Products held in in Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Indonesia in January
January 1995, as a means to incorporate
incorporate these
products into
into the
the existing
existing international
international systems
systems of of classification
classification for economic
economic activity
activity and trade
(Chandrasekharan, 1995). These systems include: the International Standard Industrial
Classification of All Economic
Economic Activities
Activities (ISIC), the Standard
Standard International
International Trade Classification
(SITC), the Harmonized
(SITC), Harmonized Commodity
Commodity Description
Description and and Coding
Coding System
System (HS)
(HS) and
and the
the Provisional
Central Product Classification (CPC) system.
Classification (CPC) system. (The
(The trade
trade data
data in
inTables
Tables7.37.3 and
and 7.4
7.4 are
are based
based on
on
HS classifications
HS classifications.).) To create a clear
clear economic
economic identity
identity for NWFPs, itit is is proposed
proposed that
that an
an annex
annex
be added to ISIC
be ISIC that
that will
will group
group together
together all
all forest
forest products,
products, wood
wood and
and non-wood.
non-wood. A A similar
similar
approach has
approach has helped
helped unify
unify coverage
coverage forfor the
the diverse
diverse components
components of of the
the international
international tourism
tourism
industry.
The classification
The system proposed
classification system proposed would
would provide
provideaa basis
basis for
for better
better statistical coverage of
statistical coverage
NWFPs, whichwhich in
in turn
turnwould
would improve
improve the
the market
market and
and trade
trade information
information available
available to
to producers
producers
and
and policy-makers
policy-makers (Padovani,
(Padovani, 1995).
1995). Statistical coverage provides
Statistical coverage provides aa foundation
foundation for for a policy
policy
constituency that
constituency that can bolster
bolster producer
producer groups
groups and
and researchers
researchers seeking
seeking support
support forfor sustainable
sustainable
forest
forest management.
management. It It is toto be
beensured
ensuredthat
thatstatistical
statistical information
information is
is readily
readily available
available and
and
accessible.
access ible .
National governments
National governments may may choose
choose other appropriate
appropriate classification schemes that
classification schemes that fit
fit the specific
specific
nature
nature of NWFP
NWFP use use inintheir
theircountry.
country.For
Forbetter
betterinternational
internationallinkages,
linkages, though,
though, governments
governments
should aim
should aim to
to clarify
clarify how
how the
thecustomized
customized national
national system
system correlates
correlates with
with an
aninternationally
internationally
accepted one, in
accepted in order
order totofacilitate
facilitate comparisons
comparisons and
and aggregations.
aggregations.
Economic classification alone cannot adequately recognize the

adequately recognize the non-economic
non-economic values
values of
of non-wood
non-wood
products and
products and services;
services; complementary effortsneed
complementary efforts needtoto better
better account
account for
for the
the "external"
environmental functions (unquantifiable benefits)
benefits) of forest resources.
Economic valuation of environmental functions

Economic functions
In many markets there

there is
is aa sizable
sizable gap
gap between
between a NWFP's
NWFP's financial
financial value
value and its
its real
real economic
economic
resource degradation
value. Similarly, resource degradation does
does not appear in most
most governments' calculations of
governments' calculations of Gross
Gross
National Product
National Product (GNP).
(GNP). These
These cause
cause governments and the
governments and the private
private sector
sector to
to act onon incorrect
incorrect
market signals. For
For example,
example, the thedisastrous
disastrousEXXON-Valdez
EXXON-Valdez oil oil spill
spill in
in Alaska
Alaska increased
increasedthethe US
US
GNP calculation because billions were spent on clean-up but resource losses did not appear in the
accounts (WRI-IUCN-UNEP, 1992).
accounts 1992).
Informed policies
Informed policies can reduce these distortions.
distortions. Using improved methods for
improved methods for assigning value to
assigning value to
resources, planners
planners can
can compare
compare benefits
benefits of
of conservation
conservation measures with costs costs suffered if no such
measures are undertaken. National
National governments
governments should
should incorporate values of biological resources
and revise
revise official
official cost-benefit
cost-benefit formulas
formulas toto recognize
recognize resource
resource degradation.
degradation. Economic
Economic values
values
cannot reliably
reliably be assigned to all factors,
factors, but
but itit isis possible
possible to
to estimate
estimate relative
relative costs
costs of
of species
species
10.
and policy
policy support
support 109
109
disappearance,
disappearance, soil loss
loss and
and carbon
carbon emissions
emissions based
based on
on key
key ecosystem
ecosystem parameters
parameters (Vosti
(Vosti and
and
Witcover, 1995).
1995) .
For the
the public
public sector
sector to
to value
value forests
forests most
most effectively,
effectively, itit must
must first
first sort
sort out
out the
the values
values attached
attached
to forests by the different
different groups
groups with
with interests
interests in the forest, and define the policy
policy context
context for
for any
any
proposed change
change in forest use (Gregersen
(Gregersen et al.,
al., 1995).
1995). The
Therelevant
relevantcosts
costs and
andbenefits
benefits should
should
then be assigned to different situations.
situations. The
The value
value for the
the case with the proposed change can then
be compared with
with the
the values
values for
for the
the case
case without
without the
the change.
change. The
The results
results should
should bebe adjusted
adjusted toto
account for uncertainties in information on forest systems and future values; and this should form
the basis for policy
policy decisions.
decisions.
Intellectual property rights

Intellectual
In recent years,
years, intellectual
intellectual property
property rights
rights (IPR)
(lPR) have
have emerged
emerged as an
an important
important mechanism for
mechanism for
securing an
securing an equitable
equitable share
share of
of benefits
benefits from
from forest
forest activities
activities to
to developing
countries and
and
coinmunities.
communities. Particularly
Particularly with the
the dramatic
dramatic growth
growth of
of forest-based
forest-based medicines
medicines and
and biomedical
biomedical
research (see Chapter 4), securing
securing intellectual
intellectual property rights is a priority issue for some national
governments.
The concept of intellectual property originated centuries

The centuries ago
ago in western
western legal
legal systems
systems to
to provide
economic rewards
economic rewards for
for individual
individual creativity.
creativity . Patents
Patents reward
reward newnew knowledge
knowledge (inventions
(inventions or
discovered techniques) for aa fixed
fixed period
period of
of time.
time . There
There are
are difficulties
difficulties in
in adapting
adapting IPR toto reward
reward
long-standing traditional knowledge, but itit contributes an important early step toward refining that
recognition and providing rewards.
The patent protection offered by

The by national
national governments varies widely.
governments varies widely. The United
United States
States grants
grants
patents on novel
patents novel genetic
genetic sequences,
sequences, plant
plant parts, plant
plant or
or animal
animal varieties
varieties and
and biotechnological
biotechnological
processes. On the
processes. the other
other hand,
hand, European
European countries
countries have
have only
only recently
recently extended patent protection
extended patent protection
to plant varieties
to varieties (Reid
(Reid et
et al., 1993).
1993).
Another variable is that

Another that different
different stages
stages of
of product
product development
development require different types
types of
of IPR.
IPR.
For example, where
where patenting
patenting is premature,
premature, trade
trade secret
secret protection
protection may be applicable.
applicable. In other
other
cases,, the
cases the relationship
between traditional
knowledge andand the
the product may justify
product may justify trademark
protection (Grifo, 1994).
protection 1994).
The International Convention

Convention on Biodiversity
Biodiversity protects property rights
rights of
of developing
countries to
to
native plants and other
native plants other species.
species. Signed
Signed by more
more than
than 160
160 countries,
countries, the
the Convention
Convention calls
calls on
national
national governments
governments to to create
create aa framework
framework for for regulating
regulating biological
biological resources,
resources, IPR andand
environmental protection. ItIt also
also calls
calls on
on governments
governments to to harmonize
harmonize commercial
commercial laws
laws with
with local
local
goals and the
the equitable
equitable sharing
sharing ofofbenefits
benefits from
from sustainable
sustainable resource
resource management
management (Sittenfeld
(Sittenfeld and
and
Lovejoy, 1994).
1994) .
The 1994
1994 Marrakesh agreement
agreement on international trade and
international trade and the related TRIPs agreement are two
related TRIPs
other key conventions
conventions relating
relating to IPR. TRIPs
TRIPs mandates patent or other IPR coverage for plant
mandates patent plant
varieties
varieties in international
international trade
trade and stipulates
stipulates that
that the procedures
procedures should
should bebe fair, equitable
equitable and
and
effectively enforced. Developed
effectively enforced. countries are
Developed countries are expected
expected toto adjust
adjust their
their laws
laws and
and practices
practices to
to
conform with TRIPs withinwithin one
one year;
year; developing
developing countries and countries
countries in transition have five
years to
to make
make this
this adjustment;
adjustment; and
and least-developed
least-developed countries have 11 11 years.
years.
With this mandate, national

national governments
governments can can use
use case
case study
study experience
experience to
to formulate
formulate mechanisms
mechanisms
for ensuring IPR protection
protection to
to local
local groups.
groups. One
One factor
factor in
in determining
determining appropriate
appropriate compensation
compensation
for traditional
for traditional knowledge is the
knowledge is the community's
community's value
value system.
system. For
For some
some traditional
traditional healers,
healers,
110
compensation entails
entails respect
respect for
for the "sacred" or secret
secret nature
nature of
of the
the information
information provided. This
spiritual value can be as
as crucial
crucial as
as financial
financial compensation
compensation (Cox, 1995).
1995).
Intellectual property
Intellectual property rights do not
not substitute
substitute for secure
secure tenure
tenure over
over local
local resources.
resources. Developing
Developing
non-wood forest resources still requires
requires that (1)
(1) tenure
tenure policy be clear and consistently enforced,
consistently enforced,
(2)
(2) communities
communities participate
participate in decisions
decisions governing
governing local resource management,
local resource management, and and (3)
communities
communities are able to to weigh
weigh the
the trade-offs
trade-offs involved
involved in economic
economic development (Davis, 1993).
development (Davis,
Nor do IPR
IPR mechanisms
mechanisms replace
replace technical
technical or
or credit
creditassistance
assistance that
that communities
communities need
need to
to develop
develop
their traditional resources.
resources .
...... ..
Text box 10.1:
Texfbox 10.1:IPR,
IPR,national
nationalpolicy and INBio's prospecting
policyandlNBio's prospectingresearch
research
The INBio-Merck agreement,

The agreement; by which
which Costa
CostaRica received
received several million dollars
several million dollars from the Merck
Merck
pharmaceutical company
pharmaceutical companytoto prospect
prospectJor
for bioactivematerials
bioactive materials(Section
(Section4.6),
4.6),did
did not
not occur
occur in
in a
policy vacuum.
vacuum . Policy
Policy measures
measures paved way..
paved the way
The Costa Rican

The Rican government
government established
established a clearly
clearly defined
defined National
National System
System of of Conservation
Conservation
Areas, covering
Areas, covering 27 27 percent
percent ofof the
the country's area. It created
country's area. created INBio as an
INBio as an instrument
instrument for
inventorying biological
biological resources and encouraging
resources and encouragingwwise use oLthe
ise use of the country's biodiversity.
biodiversity. The
The
clear definition of
clear ofprotected
protected areas
areas helped
helped to justify
justify the
the investrnent
investment needed
needed for
for the
the inventories.
inventories .
In 1992, aanew
In nevv law
law protected
protected resources
resources from
from over-exploitation
over-exploitation by by requiring
requiring bioprospectors
bioprospectors in in
conservation areas to have
areas to a permit from the
haveapermitfr'om MinistryofofNatural
the Ministry NaturalResources.
Resources .
Social policies
Social policies also
also c.ontributed
contributed....Costa
Costa Rica's large investment
Rica'slarge investment in
in education has created
education has created aa pool
pool
of skilled technicians
techniciansand the university laboratories needed
andtheuniversitylaboratories needed for the
the complex
complex process
process of
of collecting
collecting
biodivers ty information.
biodiversity
IPR and
IPR and the
the determination
determination of of royalty rates
rates were
were major
major business
business issues
issues in negotiating
negotiating INBio's
INBio's
contracts. AA team
team of INBio representatives
oflNBio representatives and
and Costa
Costa Rican environmental lawyers
Rican environmental lawyers worked
worked with
management consultants and
management pro bono corporate lawyers from developed
andpio developed countries
countr ies to negotiate
negotiate
royalty rates.
rates . Bargaining
Bargaining povver required good
power required good knowledge
knowledge ofof the
the pharmaceutical industry,, the
pharmaceutical industry
biological resource, legal precedents in other
legaLprecedents other industries
industries and
and conservation
conservation needs
needs (Sittenfeld
(Sittenfeld and
and
Lovejoy, 1994).
Lovejoy, 1994) .
Direct support from national-level

Direct national-level institutions
With sound policies

policies in place, government
government services can
can offer effective
effective support
support to to producers
producers.. The
Joint Forest Management
Joint programmeinin India
Management programme India (see
(see text
text box
box 4.2) illustrates
illustrates one
one mode
mode ofof
government collaboration
government collaboration with
with communities
communitiestoto manage
manageresources
resourcesand
and share
share benefits.
benefits. In
In other
other
cases, governments
governments provide technical
technical support with less managerial involvement. At
managerial involvement. At a minimum
minimum,,
key areas for institutional
key institutional support are information,
information, education, training, credit and
education, training, and promotion of
local
local organizations.
As with policy, direct

direct institutional
institutional support
support requires coordination among the agencies that deal with with
non-wood
non-wood resources and NWFP NWFP producers,
producers, usually
usually including:
including: forestry
forestry departments,
departments, veterinary
veterinary
and
and livestock
livestock services,
services , food
food crop
crop services,
services, health
health and
and medical
medical services,
services, and
and industry
industry and
and
commerce agencies.
agencies. Coordination
Coordination should
should emphasize clear identification
emphasize clear of areas
identification of areas where support
is needed and the
is the major
major steps/actions
steps/actions for
for addressing
addressing these
these through
through cooperation
cooperation (Sène,
(Sene, 1995).
1995).

1 O. Institutional and policy
policy support
support 111
Information, training and education
Information, education
Producers need information from support

support services
services on:
on:
• techniques for more

techniques more efficient
efficient harvesting
harvesting and
and post-harvest
post-harvest treatments;
treatments;
• marketing and processing options;
• conditions throughout the market/production
market/production chain;
• policies and
policies and rules
rules regulating NWFP utilisation,
regulating NWFP utilisation, i.e.
i.e. tenure,
tenure, access, transport,
transport, processing
processing
and trade.
Programmes for training should be closely linked

Programmes linked to research and
and technical
technical support
support (see
(see Chapter
9), and
and specific
specific training
training needs
needs should
should be identified
identified and courses developed
and courses developed for
for different
different levels
levels of
personnel involved
personnel involved in in NWFP
NWFP development:
development: policy-makers,
policy-makers, programme
programme administrators
administrators and
and
managers, local support
support workers
workers and
and producers
producers (FAO,
(FAO, 1995b).
1995b).
Local knowledge
Local knowledge is
is the starting point for solutions
solutions to producers'
producers' problems;
problems; therefore
therefore assessing
assessing
local knowledge
local knowledge and
and presenting
presenting itit in training courses is
training courses is vital.
vital. Without this, training
training efforts can
can
result in top-down transfer of generalized
transfer of generalized concepts
concepts that could squelch the local innovations, rather
rather
than promoting it.
than
Training should also provide information

information on networks
networks that exist in
in the
the local
local and
and national
national context
context
of the trainees. Materials
Materials should
should describe
describe relevant
relevant cooperative
cooperative programmes
programmes amongamong forestry
forestry and
agriculture departments,
departments, universities
universities and
and the
the private
private sector.
sector. National
National forestry
forestry education
education institutions
institutions
should develop
should develop and
and offer courses on products for which
which they
they have particular capacity and topics
particularly important to the country or region.
region.
Education and
Education and training
training programmes should employ
programmes should employ aa wide
wide range
range of channels,
channels, including
including (Sene,
op. cit.):
cit.):
• public awareness raising

raising on
on the
the vital
vital importance
importance of existing resources and
existing resources and the
the value
value of
traditional skills
skills and
and knowledge
knowledge for
for managing
managing these
these resources;
resources;
• local transfer
transfer of
oftechnologies
technologies and
and skills
skills regarding
regarding utilisation of resources that may
may be
be well
well
developed in one locality but totally in another,
totally ignored in another, through farmer-to-farmer exchange
visits and/or seminars;
seminars;
• primary education,
education, including
including exposure
exposure toto natural
natural sciences,
sciences, geography
geography and
and knowledge
knowledge of
of
local resources and their
local their contribution
contribution to
to local
local economy;
economy;
• secondary
secondary education,
education, continuing the work
continuing the work started
started at
at primary
primary school,
school, dealing
dealing with
with the
the
environment and the
the economic
economic potential of all local
local resources;
resources;
• job-oriented
job-oriented technical,
technicaL, vocational
vocational and
and professional
professional training in
in forms
forms outlined in Table 9.1.
Credit
Governments possess a variety of means for improving availability to

improving credit availability to rural
rural producers. For
For
example, clear
clear land
land tenure
tenure policies
policies and
and secure
secure title
title can
can provide
provide aa farm
farm family
family with
with loan
loan collateral
collateral
for investing
investing in
in production/processing
production/processing equipment.
equipment. Credit
Credit programmes
programmes can can increase
increase flexibility
flexibility by
by
(Clay, 1995):
1995):
• using aa producer's
producer'sproduction
production history
history as
as aabasis
basis for
for forecasting
forecasting production;
production;
112
112
• allowing physical
allowing physical product stock to guarantee
guarantee loans
loans for working capital;
• counting forest inventories of
counting of economically
economically valuable
valuable species
species as
as collateral.
In the
In the 1950s,
1950s, the
the Kenyan
Kenyan government
government recognized
recognized black wattle trees (Acacia
(Acacia mearnsii)
mearnsii) as
as a form
of farm
farm loan guarantee in view of the
the species' value for tannin,
tannin, charcoal, building poles and other
uses (Dewees,
uses (Dewees, 1991).
Credit programmes could

could usefully
usefully distinguish
distinguish between new new enterprises
enterprises and
and existing enterprises
seeking to
seeking to expand.
expand. New
New enterprises
enterprises show high attrition
attrition and are less efficient
are often less efficient than
than small
small
enterprises seeking to grow.
grow. This
This suggests
suggests that
that scarce
scarce credit
credit funds
funds may
may be
be more effectively used
if focused on enterprises seeking
seeking incremental
incremental expansion (Arnold, op. cit.), cit.), even
even though
though they
they may
may
require more customized
customized services
services than
than new
new enterprises.
enterprises.
Support for
for NGOs
NGOs
NGOs have played a key

NGOs key role
role in
in improving
improving local
local forest
forest management.
management. NGOs
NGOs vary widely
widely in their
attributes and
attributes and abilities,
abilities, but many have proven that they can (Sène,(Sene, 1995):
1995):
• document local knowledge

knowledge and
and traditional
traditional technologies;
technologies;
• promote traditional
traditional and
andincome-generating
income-generating activities
activities using
using NWFPs;
NWFPs;
• organize producers
producers and
andmarketing
marketing channels;
channels;
• advocate for policy reform.
Their pivotal role

role in
in the
the future
future of
ofsustainable
sustainable forest
forest management
management has been widely recognized.
their efforts
National governments can further their efforts by
by working
working with
with NGOs
NGOs as partners
partners and
and by
by offering
offering
training that strengthens
strengthens NGOs'
NGOs' technical
technical and
and institutional
institutional abilities.
abilities. Technical needs range
Technical needs range from
production, harvesting
harvesting and
and marketing
marketing toto collective
collective organization.
organization. Institutional needs range
Institutional needs range from
management and record-keeping to policy
policy research
research and
and analysis.
analysis .
Consortiums of government,
government, private sector, and NGOs
NGOs
Chapter 9 described
Chapter described how
how public-private
public-private consortiums
consortiums can provide technical support for local forest-
based
based enterprises.
enterprises. Such
Such consortiums
consortiums can also
also arrange
arrange services
services such
such as
as credit
credit and
and managerial
managerial
(see text box 10.2).
support (see 10.2).
Regional and
Regional and international support
support
Chapter 9 described some opportunities for collaborative

collaborative research at
at the
the regional
regional level.
level. A
A regional
regional
resource centre for
for neighbouring
neighbouring countries
countries can
can also:
also:
• act as
as an
an information
information clearinghouse;
clearinghouse;
• preserve the
the region's
region'smain
mainindigenous
indigenous knowledge
knowledge systems;
systems;
• identify knowledge gaps best addressed
addressed through
through collaborative
collaborative research.
research.
A regional
regional resource
resource centre or centre
centre or centre of
of excellence can also
excellence can also act
act as conduit
conduit for transfer
transfer of
of
sophisticated technologies from industrialized
industrialized countries to
to developing
developing countries.
countries.
Countries that share

Countries that share similar
similar resources
resources (cultural
(cultural and/or
and/or biological) and problems
biological) and problems can
can also
also
collaborate through
through twinning
twinning arrangements
arrangements and and cosponsored
cosponsored activities.
activities. Twinning
Twinning involves
involves short-
short-
and long-term
long-term exchange
exchange of
of experience
experience between universities or research organizations through staffstaff
visits, collaborative
collaborative research
research and
and training,
training, and
andexchange
exchange of
ofpublications.
publications. FAO
FAO has
has supported
supported such
such
110.
O. Institutional and
and policy
policy support
support 113
11 3
Text box 10.2: Support for local wildlife exchanges through the
the Forestry Research Support
management in Zimbabwe for
for Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific (FORSPA)
(FORSPA) and and the
the Forestry
Forestry
Research and Forest
Research and Forest Research
Research Networking
Networking in
The Communal Areas Management Sub-Saharan Africa (FONESSA) (Sène,
Africa (FONESSA) (Sene, 1995).
1995).
Programme for Indigenous Resources
(CAMPFIRE) started in 1988 to rnaintain Agencies
Agencies of the United Nations,
Nations , the
the Consultative
Consultative
wildlife resources through local Group
Group for
for International
International Agricultural
Agricultural Research
Research
management and use. The legislation that (CGIAR)
(CGIAR) andand the
the Global
Global Environment
Environment Facility
Facility
most promoted CAMPFIRE was Zimbabwe's
Parks and Wildlife Act, which facilitated (GEF)
(GEF) support
support programmes
programmes thatthat relate
relate to their
their
decentralization. mandates
mandates of alleviating
alleviating poverty
poverty and improving
improving
food security for
food security for the
the poor. International NG0s,
International NGOs,
CAMPFIRE consists of the Zimbabwe such as the World Conservation Union (IUCN),
Department of National Parks and .Wildlife support efforts to promote sustainable
Management, the University of Zimbel3WW:s.::::
Management,! management
management of of the
the world's ecosystems.
ecosystems .
Centre for Applied
CentreforApp Social Science Researdh:
an",..",'"
and
and two NGOs
NG0s: World Wide Fund for Nature..
\fHr,,,,,
Among
Among UN UN agencies,
agencies, FAO has taken the lead on
and the Zimbabwe Trust. CAMPFIRE:
provides communities with managerial
NWFPs
NWFPs per se se by
by exchanging
exchanging information
information on on
support and technical assistance for wildlife sustainable
sustainable production,
production, harvesting,
harvesting, marketing,
marketing,
management. FAO is
community organization, etc. FAO is also
also leading
leading
efforts to:
to :
CAMPFIREdistrict
CAMPFIRE district councils manage and
effectively own the wildlife resources in • harmonize the trade classification of
their areas, employing hunting quotas, NWFPs;
strategically located water pumps and fire
management. Economic evaluations have
• develop methodologies for analyzing
focused on the programme's financial
impact at the household level (IFPRI, in market
market chain
chain interactions
interactions and resource
resource
press). The programme arid its assessments;
interdisciplinary support system, with policy
support from the relevant government • compile
compile trade statistics and
trade statlstlcs and assess
assess the
the
department for promoting community regulations.
impact of trade regulations.
participation,, has
participation shown success and
has / shown
flexibility (Erdmann,
(Erdmann, 1993).
1993).
A volume
A volume of of guidelines to support
guidelines to support national
national
biodiversity policy reform resulted from from a
collaboration
collaboration of UN
UN Agencies,
Agencies, the
the World
WorldResources
Resources Institute
Institute and
and IUCN
IUCN(WRI-IUCN-UNEP,
(WRI-IUCN-UNEP,
1992).
In the CGIAR
CGIAR system,
system, the research
research centres that deal
centres that deal most
most with
with NWFPs
NWFPs are: are: the
the Centre
Centre for
International Forestry
International Forestry Research
Research (CIFOR)
(CIFOR) in in Bogor,
Bogor, Indonesia; the International
Indonesia; the Centre for
International Centre for
Agroforestry Research
Research (ICRAF)
(ICRAF) based
based in
in Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya;
Kenya; the
the International
International Institute
Institute for Tropical
Tropical
Agriculture (IITA)
Agriculture (IIT A) in Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria;
Nigeria; and
and the
theInternational
International Food
Food Policy
Policy Research
Research Institute
Institute
(IFPRI)
(IFPRI) in Washington,
Washington, D.C.,
D.C. , USA.
USA .
The Centro Agronómico

Agron6mico Tropical
Tropical de Investigación
Investigaci6n yy Enseñanza (CATIE)
Ensefianza (CA in Turrialba,
TIE) in Turrialba, Costa
Rica, carries out
out research
research and
and training
training related
related to
to various
various aspects
aspects of
of NWFPs
NWFPs in
in Central
Central America.
America.
The
The GEF
GEF isis aarelatively
relativelynew
newsource
sourceofofinternational
international support
support for
for local
local forest
forestmanagement
management
helping developing
initiatives, helping countries protect
developing countries protect biodiversity and other
biodiversity and other resources.
resources . Jointly
Jointly
implemented by
implemented by UNDP
UNDP (technical assistance), UNEP
(technical assistance), UNEP (policy
(policy guidance)
guidance) and and the
the World
World Bank
Bank
(trustee and
(trustee and investment), GEF supports
investment), GEF projects in
supports projects in various
various countries
countries that
that expand
expand the
the roles
roles of
indigenous communities
indigenous communities in environmental
environmental research
research and
and management
management (Poole,
(Poole, 1993).
1993) . The Facility
Facility
is committed to working
working with
with community-based NGOs on projects
community-based NGOs projects of up to US$
US$ 50,000
50,000 (Braatz
(Braatz
et al.,
al. , 1992).
1992).
114
114
The international
The international Expert
Expert Consultation on Non-Wood
Consultation on Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products held
held in
in Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta,
Indonesia in January
Indonesia January 1995
1995 recommended
recommended that,
that, to
to provide
provide institutional
institutional support,
support, international
international
organizations should
organizations should (FAO,
(FAO, 1995b):
1995b):
• make NWFP activities

make activities an important
important component
component of their
their policies
policies and
and programmes,
programmes, with
with
more support for
for national
national institutions
institutions and
and programmes;
programmes;
• compile and disseminate

disseminate industrialized-country
industrialized-country experience
experience with non-wood forest resource
resource
management and use;
management use ;
• support interdisciplinary
interdisciplinary composition
composition of
of international
international programme
programme management
management teams;
teams;
• further examine
further examine the
the implications
implications of
of international
international agreements
agreements and
and conventions
conventions (CITES,
(CITES,
GATT and others) on on local
local development
development of non-wood
non-wood forest resources and refine them
them to
to
foster wise resource use;
use;
• disseminate existing information relevant to

to producers'
producers' needs more broadly (in
(in proceedings,
proceedings,
published research
published research and extension
extension materials)
materials) through
through national
national information
information centres
centres and
and
networks;
• support
support South-South cooperation through
South-South cooperation through collaborative
collaborativeactivities
activitiesi.e.:
i.e.: studies
studies,, research
research
programmes, seminars, etc.
programmes,
In this
this way,
way, international
international agencies
agencies can reduce
reduce the
the burden
burden on
on developing
countries , where
where the
the
potential for sustainable
potential sustainable utilization
utilization of NWFPs and the
the danger
danger of
of over-exploitation
over-exploitation of resources
resources
are the greatest.
greatest.
Summary
• Use
Use awareness
awareness campaigns to reverse
campaigns to reverse negative
negative attitudes about rural
attitudes about rural traditions
traditions in which
which
NWFPs play a role.
playa role.
• Implement policy
policy adjustments
adjustments for for developing
developing the
the NWFP
NWFP sector.
sector. Key changes should:
Key changes should: (1)
clarify
clarify tenure
tenure and
and access
access rights,
rights, (2)
(2) review
review trade
traderegulations
regulations toto promote
promote long-term
long-term
investment and ensure scale-neutrality for small enterprises and (3) (3) refine mechanisms such
as intellectual property
property rights
rights (IPR)
(IPR) to
to compensate
compensate communities
communities and protect their
their interests.
interests .
• Maintain community control against outside

outside commercial
commercial pressures
pressures using
using legal
legal enforcement
of clearly defined
defined rights
rights of
of use
use and
and strong
strong social
social institutions.
institutions .
• Government agencies should ensure that producers receive receive better information
information and
and guidance
guidance
on: resources
on: resources and
and tenure;
tenure; techniques
techniques forfor harvesting,
harvesting, processing
processing and marketing;
marketing; and the
the
effects trade regulations.
regulations. Innovative
Innovative governrnent-NGO collaborations can
government-NGO collaborations can enhance
enhance support
support
for education and training
training on
on these
these topics.
topics.
• Use flexible credit

credit mechanisms (including
(including acceptance of physical product stock to guarantee
loans, and
and forest
forest inventories
inventories of
ofeconomic
economic species
species as
as collateral)
collateral) to
to extend
extend credit
creditavailability
availability
and improve rural
rural productivity.
productivity.
• Secure
Secure intellectual property rights
intellectual property rights for forest/rural
forest/rural communities in the
communities in the national
national legal
legal
framework.
10. and policy
policy support
support 115
11 5
• Improve
Improve public
public accounting
accounting of
ofNWFP
NWFP contributions
contributions to
to local
local and
and national
national economies
economies by
by using
using
comprehensive classification systems, better information on NWFPs and improved systems
for estimating environmental assets, gain and losses.
losses.
• Establish regional
regional collaboration
collaboration on technical
technical issues
issues and international support for sharing
international support sharing
experience and strengthening
strengthening institutions.
institutions.
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118
Appendix 1
CONTACTS FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

CONTACTS INFORMATION
No
No list
list of
ofcontacts
contacts ininthis
thisdynamic
dynamic field
field could
could be
becomplete.
complete. The
The following
following provides
provides aa
"snapshot" of research sources on NWFPs,
"snapshot" NWFPs, to
to complement
complement the "For
"For further
further reading"
reading" lists
lists that
that
follow
follow each chapter.
General Dr. John

John Dransfield
Dransfield Mr. Don
Don Gilmour
Gilmour
Herbarium Coordinator
Programme Coordinator
Dr. Yaa
Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu
Ntiamoa-Baidu Royal Botanical Gardens
Gardens Forest Conservation
Conservation Programme
Programme
Zoology Department
Department Richmond
Kews, Richmond IUCN
IUCN
University of Ghana
Ghana Surrey TW9 3AE
3AE Mauvernay 28
Rue Mauvernay 28
Legon, Accra
Legon, United Kingdom CH-1196 Gland,
CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland
Ghana
Mr. Patrick
Patrick Durst
Durst Ms. Rietje
Rietje Grit
Grit
Dr. Kamaljit
Dr. Kamaljit S. Bawa
Bawa Regional Forestry Officer, Asia-
Regional Asia- Netherlands
Netherlands Conunittee
Committee for
for IUCN
Professor, Biology
Biology Department
Department Pacific Plantage 2B
Plantage Middenlaan 2B
University of Massachusetts/
University Massachusetts/ FAO RAPA
RAPA 1018 DD
1018 DD Amsterdam
Boston Mansion
Maliwan Mansion Netherlands
The Netherlands
100 Morrissey Blvd.
100 Blvd . Phra Atit Road Fax: 31-20-627-9349
31-20-627-9349
Boston, MA
Boston, MA 02125,
02125, USA.
USA. Bangkok, 10200
Bangkok, 10200
Fax: 1-617-287-6650
1-617-287-6650 Thailand
'Thailand Prof Herman Haeruman
Haeruman Js
Js
Fax: 66-2-280-0445
66-2-280-0445 Deputy
Deputy Minister
Dr. Gerard
Gerard Budowski
Budowski E-mail: rapa@fao.org
E-mail: rapa@fao.org Ministry of
of Development
Development Planning
Planning
Aptdo 198 2300 Curridabat
Aptdo National
National Planning Development
Development
San José
Jose Environment and Natural
Environment Natural Agency
Costa Rica Resources Division
Resources Division 2 Jl.
J1. Taman
Taman Surapati
Surapati
International Development Jakarta 12515
12515
Dr. C.
C. Chandrasekharan
Chandrasekharan Research Centre Indonesia
Chief, Non-Wood
Non-Wood Products
Products P.O. Box
Box 8500
8500
Branch Ottawa, Ontario K1G
Ottawa, Kl G 3H9
3H9 Mr.
Mr . Alan
Alan Hamilton
Hamilton
Forest Products
Products Division
Division Canada WWF International
International
Forest Department,
Department, FAO
FAO Panda House
Viale
Viale delle Terme di
di Caracalla
Caracalla Ms Julia Falconer Weyside
Weyside Park
00100 Rome
Rome Technical Cooperation Officer
Technical Officer Lane
Catteshall Lane
Italy Collaborative Forestry Management
Collaborative Management Goldaming, Surrey GU7
Goldaming, Surrey GU7 1XR,
1XR, UK
UK
Fax: 39-6-5225-5618
39-6-5225-5618 Unit
Forest Resource
Resource Management
Management Dr. M.R.
M .R. Javed
Javed Hussain
Hussain
Dr. Narong
Narong Chomchalow
Chomchalow Project 32 Fernow
Fernow Hall
Hall
RAPA Forestry Department
Department Cornell University
University
Maliwan Mansion P.O. Box
P.O. Box 1457,
1457, Kumasi,
Kumasi, Ghana
Ghana NY 14853
Ithaca, NY 14853
Phra Atit Road
Road USA
Bangkok 10200 Mr. Torsten Frisk
Mr.
Thailand Regional Forestry
Regional Forestry Officer,
Officer, Latin
Latin Dr.
Dr. Marilyn
Marilyn Hoskins
Hoskins
America Director, Forests,
Forests, Trees
Trees and
and
Dr. Bhaarat
Bhaarat P.
P. Dhital
Dhital FAO RLAC People
People Programme
Programme
GPO Box
Box 4218
4218 Santiago, Chile
Santiago, FAO
FAO
Kathmandu Fax: 56-2-218-2547
56-2-218-2547 Viale
Viale delle
delle Terme di Caracalla
Caracalla
Nepal
Nepal E-mail: torsten.frisk.@fao.org
E-mail: torsten.frisk.@fao.org Rome
Fax: 39-6-5225-5618
39-6-5225-5618
E-mail : marilyn.hoslcins@fao.org
E-mail: marilyn.hoskins@fao.org
Appendix 11 119
119
Dr. Norman
Norman Jones
Jones Dr.R.R.B.. Leakey
Dr.R.R.B Leakey Mr.. Peter May
Mr May
Senior Forestry Specialist
Senior Specialist Director of Research Division
Director Division Pojeto Eco-Brasil
Pojeto
AGRNR ICRAF ABDLIFunda!;ao
ABDL/Fundaç5o Rockefeller
The World Bank
The United Nations
United Nations Avenue Av. Presidente
Av. Presidente Vargas, 417
417
1818 H
1818 H.. Street NW
NW Gigiri 8o andar,
80 andar, 20071-003
20071-003 Rio de
Washington DC 20433
Washington 20433 P.O. Box
Box 30677
30677 Janeiro RJ,
Janeiro RJ, Brasil
Brasil
USA Nairobi, Kenya
Nairobi,
Mr Anupam
Anupam Kumar
Kumar Mukerji
Mukerji
Mr.. John Joseph
Mr Ms.. Anna
Ms Anna Lewington
Lewington Vice Chairman
Chairman
Director, Community
Community Biodiversity
Biodiversity Cambridge Cottage
Cambridge National
National Afforestation and
and
Programme Brantridge Lane
Brantridge Ecodevelopment Board
Ecodevelopment
M.S.
M .S. Swaminathan
Swarninathan Research
Research Balcombe
Ba1combe Paryavaran Bhavan
Bhavan
Foundation Sussex RH17
RH 17 6JR CGO Complex
Complex
3rd Cross Street, Taraman
3rd Taraman United Kingdom
Kingdom New Delhi,
Delhi, India
India
Madras 600113
600113
India Dr.. Ariel E. Lugo
Dr Lugo Dr. Julio
Julio Ruiz
Ruiz Murrieta
Murrieta
Fax: 91-44-2351-319
91-44-2351-319 Director, International
International Tropical Programme Officer
Officer
Forestry Research Institute
Institute World Conservation Union (IUCN)
(IUCN)
Dr. Junus
Junus Kartasubrata
Kartasubrata USDA
USDA - Forest
Forest Service
Service Rue Mauvernay 2828
Head, PROSEA
Head, PROSEA Network
Network Office
Office Call Box
Call Box 25000,
25000, Rio Piedras
Piedras CH-1196 Gland
Gland
Plant
Plant Resources
Resources of South
South East
East Puerto Rico
Puerto Switzerland
Switzerland
Asia (PROSEA)
Asia (PROSEA) Foundation 41-22-999-0025
Fax: 41-22-999-0025
Herbarium Bogoriense
Bogoriense Wangari M. Maathai
Prof Wangari Maathai
JL. H.
JL. H . Djaunda
Djaunda 22, Coordinator Dr. Biplab
Biplab Kanti
Kanti Nandi
Nandi
PP.O.
.O. Box 234, Bogor
Bogor 16122,
16122, The Green
Green Belt
Belt Movement
Movement Regional
Regional Food Policy and
and
Indonesia P.O. Box
Box 67545
67545 Asia
Nutrition Officer, Asia
Nairobi FAO-RAPA
Mr. Jay B.S.
B.S. Karki
Karki Kenya 39 Phra
Phra Atit
Atit Road
Road
Tribuvan University
University Bangkok 10200
10200
Institute
Institute of Forestry Dr. Manokaran
Manokaran Thailand
P.O. Box
Box 43
43 FRIM
FRIM Fax: 66-2-281-9757/280-0445
66-2-281-9757/280-0445
Hariyo Kharka Kepong,
Kepong, Selangor
Se1angor
Pokhara Campus
Campus (Gandaki
(Gandaki Zone)
Zone) 52109 Kuala
Kuala Lumpur
Lumpur Ms.
Ms . Sara
Sara Odlfield
Odlfield
Nepal Malaysia The Old
Old Plough
Plough
2 Caxton
Caxton Road
Road
Mr. J.D
Mr. J.D.. Keita
Keita Dr. Fu
Dr. Fu Maoyi
Maoyi Sandy
Regional Forestry
Regional Forestry Officer, RAFR
RAFR Secretary General, Chinese
Secretary Chinese Beds.
Beds. SG19 3BE, UK
UK
P.O. Box
Box 1628
1628 Bamboo Society
Bamboo
Accra Research Institute
Research Institute of Subtropical
Subtropical Dr. L.
L. Pancel
Pance1
Ghana Forestry GTZ
E-mail: rafr@fao
E-mail: rafrafao.org
.org Chinese Academy
Chinese Academy of Forestry P.O. Box
Box 5180
5180
Mr. Chun
Mr. Chun K. Lai 42, Daqiao
Daqiao Rd.,
Rd., Fuyang
Fuyang Dag Hammarskjold-Weg
Hamrnarskjold-Weg 11+2
+2
Asia-Pacific Agroforestry
Asia-Pacific Zhejiang 311400,
Zhejiang 311400, China
China D-6263
D-6263 Eschborn,
Eschborn, Germany
Germany
Network (APAN) Fax: 86-571-332-4508/332-2719
86-571-332-4508/332-2719
P.O.
P .O. Box
Box 481
481 Dr. Vitoon
Vitoon Viriyasakultorn
Viriyasakultorn
Bogor 16004
Bogor 16004 Dr. N.
N. Marshall
Marshall Regional
Regional FTPP Network
Network
Indonesia IUCN Regional
IUCN Regional Office
Office for Eastern Facilitator
Fax: 62-251-315-222
62-251-315-222 Africa RECOFTC
P.O. Box
Box 68200
68200 Kasetsart University
University
Mr. C.G.
C.G. Kushalappa
Kushalappa Nairobi Bangkok
Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Thailand
Assistant Professor
Assistant Kenya Fax: 662-561-4880
662-561-4880
Department of Forestry
Forestry
UAS, GKVK
GKVK Campus
Campus
Bangalore 560-065
560-065
India
120
120
Dr. Meka R. Rao
Dr. Rao Mr. Bai-Mass
Bai-Mass Taal Biodiversity
Biodiversity Unit
Coordinator, Component
Coordinator, Component Senior Programme Officer
Senior Conservation
Conservation Policy
Policy Division
Interactions Programme
Interactions Terrestrial Ecosystems Branch WWF
WWF International
ICRAF UN Environment Programme
Programme World
World Conservation
Conservation Centre
P.O. Box
Box 30677
30677 P.O. Box
Box 30552
30552 Avenue
Avenue dudu Mont Blanc
Nairobi, Kenya
Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Nairobi, 1196
1196 Gland
Gland
Fax: 254-2-226-890
254-2-226-890 Switzerland
Dr. Syama
Syama Prasad
Prasad Raychaudhuri
Raychaudhuri Fax: 41-22-364-8219
41-22-364-8219
IUFRO Group
IUFRO Group leader
leader on NWFP Mr. David
David Taylor
Taylor
Div.. of
Div of Micology
Micology and
and Plant
Plant 1909
1909 Kenyon
Kenyon Street, NW
NW Mr. Guido
Guido Broekhoven
Broekhoven
Pathology Washington
Washington D.C.20010, USA
D.C.20010, USA Eastern Africa Forest Conservation
Conservation
Indian Agricultural
Indian Agricultural Research Programme
Institute Dr. A.B.
Dr. A.B. Temu IUCN
A-61, Alakandana, Shivalik
A-61, Shivalik Apts.
Apts. ICRAF P.O
P.O.. Box
Box 68200
68200
Kalkaji, New Delhi
Kalkaji, Delhi 110019
110019 India
India United Nations
United Nations Avenue Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya
P.O.Box 3067, Gigiri
P.O.Box Fax: 254-2-503-511
254-2-503-511
Sr. Jorge
Jorge Campos
Campos Roasio
Roasio Nairobi, Kenya
Kenya
Asessor de Dirección
Direcci6n Dr. Bruce
Bruce Campbell
Campbell
Instituto de Investigaciones
Instituto Investigaciones Dr. Tewari Chair of
Professor, Chair of Botany
Botany
Tecnológicas
Tecnol6gicas Director General
Director University of
University of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Casilla 19002
19002 Indian Council for Forestry
Indian Forestry Box
Box MP 167,
167, Mount
Mount Pleasant
Pleasant
Santiago, Chile
Chile Research and Education
Education Harare
Fax: 56-2-218-5307
56-2-218-5307 Delira Dun,
Dehra Dun, U.P.,
U.P., India
India Zimbabwe
Fax: 263-4-333-407
Fax: 263-4-333-407
Dr. Cherla Sastry
Dr. Dr. G.E. Wickens
Dr. Wickens
Principal Programme
Principal Programme Officer, 50
50 Mr. K.C.
K.C. Chacko
Chacko
Forestry, IDRC
IDRC Uxbridge Road Silviculturist
17
17 Jorbagh, New
New Delhi
Delhi 110003
110003 Hampton Hill I/C Division of Silviculture
IIC Silviculture
India Middlesex
Middlesex TW12 3AD, UK
UK Kerala Forest Research
Research Institute
Institute
680653
Peechi 680653
Dr. M.P.
M .P. Shiva
Shiva Assessing Non-Wood Forest
Assessing Non-Wood India
Kerala, India
Managing
Managing Director Resources Fax: 487-78-22-49
487-78-22-49
Centre for Minor
Minor Forest
Forest Products
Products
HIG-2
HIG-2 No.
No . 88 Prof. Omar
Omar Berkat
Berkat Dr. Richard
Richard Cowling
Cowling
Indirapuram,
Indirapuram, Dehra Dun,
Dun, India
India Departement
Département dd'Ecologie
'Ecologie Végétale
Vegetale Institute for
Institute for Plant Conservation
Conservation
Institut
Institut Agronornique Veterinaire
Agronomique et Véterinaire Private Bag
Private Bag,, University
University of Cape
Cape
Dr. Toga
Toga Silitonga
Silitonga Hassan II,
Hassan II, Rabat
Rabat Town
Senior Adviser
Senior Adviser to to the
the Minister
Minister of Morocco
Morocco Rondebosch 7700
Forestry Fax: 212-7-775-838
212-7-775-838 South Africa
Manggala Wanabakti Block Block 11 27-21-650-3726
Fax: 27-21-650-3726
Jakarta, Indonesia
Indonesia Dr. Nirmal
Nirmal Bhattarai
Bhattarai
Fax: 62-21-570-0226
62-21-570-0226 Research Director
Director Dr. Rodolfo
Rodolfo Dirzo
Dirzo
Biodiversity Unit
Unit Centro de Ecologia
Ecologia
Mr. Worm
Worm Sorensen
Sorensen Asia Network
Network for
for Small-Scale
Small-Scale Ap.
Ap. Post. 70-275,
70-275, Cuidad
Cui dad
UNESCO Regional
Regional Office for
for Agricultural
Agricultural Biotechnologies
Biotechnologies Universitata
Science
Science and Technology
Technology for South
South (ANSAB) Nacional Autonoma
Universidad Nacional Autonoma
East Asia
Asia (ROSTSEA)
(ROSTSEA) P.O. Box
Box 16, lazimpat
Lazimpat de Mexico
Mexico
Jalan
Jalan Thamrin 124
124 Kathmandu,
Kathmandu, Nepal
Nepal 04510 Mexico
Mexico D.F.,
D.F., Mexico
Mexico
Tromolpos 273/JKT
273/JKT Fax:
Fax: 977-1-411-964
977-1-411-964 Fax: 52-56-228-995
Fax: 52-56-228-995
Jakarta 10012,
10012, Indonesia
Indonesia
Fax: 62-21-315-0382
62-21-315-0382 Mr.
Mr . Barry
Barry Evans
Evans
WWF South Pacific
Pacific Program
Dr. Somsak
Somsak Sukwong
Sukwong Suya,
Suva, Fiji
Fiji
Director Fax: 679-301-758
Fax: 679-301-758
Regional Community
Regional Community Forestry
Training Center
Center (RECOFTC)
(RECOFTC)
Appendix
Appendix 11 1121
21
Mr. Timothy
Mr. Timothy J.
J . Synott
Synon Dr. Kathryn
Kathryn Saterson
Saterson Mr. Gerard
Gerard Bodeker
Bodeker
Executive Director
Executive Director, Biodiversity
Biodiversity Support
Support Global
Global Initiative
Initiative for Traditional
The Forest Stewardship
The Stewardship Council
Council Program Systems (GIFTS)
Systems (GIFTS) of Health
A venida Hidalgo 502
Avenida WWF/USA
WWF/USA National Museum of Health and
National Museum and
Oaxaca, Mexico
Oaxaca, 1250
1250 24th
24th Street,
Street, NW Medicine
Fax: 52-951-62110
52-951-62110 Washington, DC
Washington, DC 20036,
20036, USA
USA P .O. Box
P.O. Box 59748
59748
Fax: 1-202-861-8324
1-202-861-8324 Washington,
Washington, DC 20012, USA
DC 20012, USA
Ms.. Alison Hoare
Ms Fax: 1-202-576-3573
1-202-576-3573
International Programme
International Dr. Prem Srivastava
Dr. Prem Srivastava
World Wide
World Wide Fund for
for Nature/UK
Nature/UK Research and Development
Research Development Dr. John G. Bruhn
Dr. Bruhn
Panda House Manager President
Weyside Park
Weyside Iwokrama
Iwokrama International
International Rain
Rain Forest International Society
International Society for
Surrey GU7
Surrey GU7 1XR,
lXR, UK
UK Programme Ethnopharmacology,
Fax: 44-483-426-409
44-483-426-409 41 Brickdam
41 Brickdam and Boyle
Boyle Place
Place ACO Lokemede
Lokemede
Georgetown,
Georgetown, Guyana
Guyana AB,, Box
AB 3026, S-17103,
Box 3026, S-17103 , Sweden
Sweden
Klaus
Klaus Janz Fax:
Fax: 592-2-59199
Senior Forestry Officer
Senior Dr. A.B. Cunningham
Cunningham
Forest Resources Appraisal and Dr. Elizabeth
Elizabeth Widjaja
Widjaja P.O. Box
P.O. Box 42
Monitoring Herbarium Bogoriense
Bogoriense Betty's Bay
Bay 7141
7141
FAO 11.
J1. Raya Juanda
luanda 22 South Africa
Via delle Terme
Terme di
di Caracalla
Caracalla 16122
Bogor 16122
Rome Indonesia Dr. Paul
Paul Alan
Alan Cox
Cox
Fax: 39-6-5225
39-6-5225 5137
5137 Fax:
Fax: 62-251-325-854 Botany
Botany Department
E-mail:
E-mail: Klaus.Janz@fao.org Brigham Young University
Brigham Young
Research on Traditional Medicine
Research Medicine 302 Maeser Bldg.
302 Bldg.
Manager, Non-timber Forest
Manager, Non-timber P.O
P.O.. Box
Box 22600
22600
Products Programme
Products Asian Network on Medicinal
Medicinal and
and Provo, UT
UT 84602-2600,
84602-2600, USA
USA
Natural Resources Institute
Natural Institute Aromatic
Aromatic Plants (ANMAP)
(ANMAP) Fax: 1-801-378-5976
1-801-378-5976
Central Avenue
Avenue Regional
Regional Plant Production
Production Officer
Officer
Chatham Maritime
Chatham FAO Regional
Regional Office
Office Dr.
Dr . C.L.
C .L. Green
Green
Kent ME4
Kent ME4 4TB,
4TB, UK
UK Maliwan Mansion
Mansion Phyto Chemistry Group
Group
Fax: 44-634-880-066/77
44-634-880-066/77 Phra Atit
Atit Road
Road N.R.I.
N.R.1.
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
Bangkok Central Avenue
Avenue
Ing. Rafael
Ing. Rafael Ocampo
Ocampo Fax: 66-2-280-0445
Fax : 66-2-280-0445 Chatham Maritime
Plant Scientist
Plant Kent ME4 4TB
4TB
C.P. 92, 7170 CATIE
92,7170 CATIE Ms. Manjul
Manjul Bajaj
Bajaj USA
Turrialba, Costa
Costa Rica
Rica Coordinator, Medicinal
Medicinal Plants
Plants
Research Network
Network Dr. M. Hadley
Dr. Hadley
Dr. Charles
Charles Peters
Peters IDRC South
South Asia
Asia Office
Office Programme
Programme Specialist,
Specialist, Division of
West Kalimantan Programme
Programme 17 Jor Bagh
17 Bagh Sciences
Ecological Sciences
Institute of Economic
Institute Economic Botany
Botany New
New Delhi
Delhi 110
110 003
003 UNESCO
The New York
The York Botanical
Botanical Garden
Garden India 7 Place
Place de
de Fontenoy
Fontenoy
J1. G
11. G.M.
.M . Said No.
No . 47
47 Fax: 91-11-462-2707
91-11-462-2707 75700
75700 Paris,
Paris , France
France
Pontianak, West Kalimantan
Pontianak, Kalimantan
Indonesia Dr. K. Husna
Dr. Husna C.
C. Baser
Baser Mr. Robert S. McCaleb
McCaleb
Director, Anadolu
Anadolu University
University President, Herb Research
President,
Dr. Mauro
Mauro Reis
Reis Medicinal Plants
Medicinal Plants Research Centre Foundation
Tropical Forest Resources
Tropical Resources 26470-Eskisehir, Turkey
Turkey 1007 Pearl Street, Suite
1007 Pearl Suite 200
Rua Palmira
Palmira Fax: 90-222-335-0127
Fax: 90-222-335-0127 Boulder, CO 80302,
Boulder, CO 80302, USA
USA
254/Apt. 601
254/Apt. 601 Fax: 1-303-449-7849
1-303-449-7849
30.220.110 SERRA
SERRA
Belho
Belho Horizonte, Minas
Minas Gerais
Gerais Ms.
Ms . Katy
Katy Moran
Moran
Brazil Executive Director
Executive
Fax: 55-31-531-2643
55-31-531-2643 or
or 221-8033
221 -8033 The Healing
Healing Forest
Forest Conservancy
Conservancy
3521
3521 S Street,
Street, NW
NW
Washington,
20007 , USA
USA
Fax: 1-202-337-3211
1-202-337-3211
122
122
Ms.. Christine Padoch
Ms Dr. Julie Feinsilver
Dr. Feinsilver Processing and
Processing and product
Institute of Economic Botany
Institute Botany Program
Program of Research and development
The New
The New York Botanical
Botanical Gardens
Gardens Technological
Technological Development
Development in
Bronx, New York
Bronx, York 10458-5126
10458-5126 Health Mr. J.W. Anzer
Anzer
USA Pan-American
Pan-American Health Organization Executive
Executive Secretary
(PAHO) International
International Federation
Federation of
Dr. U. Schipmann
Schipmann 525 23rd St.,
525 23rd St. , NW
NW Essential
Essential Oil
Oil and
and Aroma
Aroma Traders
Co-chairman Washington, 20037 , USA
Washington, DC 20037, USA (IFEAT)
IUCN/SSC Medicianl
IUCN/SSC Medicianl Plant Fax: 1-202-861-8472
Fax: 1-202-861-8472 Kemp
Kemp House
Specialist Group,
Specialist 152-160
152-160 City
City Road
Bundesamt fur
Bundesamt für Naturschutz Dr. Rodrigo
Rodrigo Gamez
Gamez London
London EC 1V 2NP,
EC1V 2NP, UK
Konstantinstrasse 110
Konstantinstrasse 110 Director General Fax
Fax:: 44-71-250-0965
44-71-250-0965
D-53179 Bonn, Germany
D-53179 Germany INBIO
Fax: 49-228-954-3470
49-228-954-3470 22-3100
Ap. 22-3100 Australian Bamboo Network
Australian Bamboo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo dede Heredia P.O.. Box
P.O Box 174
174
Mr. Vinay
Vinay Tandon
Tandon Costa Rica Fremantle
Fremantle WA 6160
Foundation for
Foundation for revitalisation
revitalisation of Australia
Local Health Traditions Dr. Jaime Hurtubia
Hurtubia
50,MSH Layout, 2nd stage
50,MSH Bio-diversity
Bio-diversity Programme Australian Tree Seed CentreCentre
3rd main, Anandnagar
Anandnagar Management CSIRO Division of Forestry
CSIRO Division
Bangalore 560024,
Bangalore 560024, India U.N.E.P.
U.N.E.P. Dr. J.C.
J. C. Doran
Doran (essential
(essential oils)
oils)
P.O. Box
Box 30552
30552 Dr C.E.
C .E. Harwood
Harwood (food)
(food)
Sheba Thayil Nairobi Mr M.W.
M .W. Moncur
Moncur (cut(cut flowers,
flowers,
No.50,
No.50, Msh Lat
Lat Oit
Oit Kenya honey)
11 Stage
11 Stage III
III Main, II Cross
Cross Dr N.
N. Malajczuk
Malajczuk (edible
(edible fungi)
fungi)
FRLHT, Anandnagar,
Anandnagar , Dr. Alejandro
Alejandro C.
C. Imbach
Imbach Mr T.K. Vercoe
Vercoe (seeds)
(seeds)
Bangalore
Bangalore 560024 India Jefe K. Pinyopusarerk
Mr K. Pinyopusarerk (resins)
(resins)
Fax: +91
+91 803
803 34167
34167 Area Biodiversidad
Biodiversidad Ms S.
S. Searle
Searle (tannins)
(tannins)
c.P.
C.P. 92 P.O.
P.O. Box
Box 4008
4008
Dr. Xiaorui
Xiaorui Zhang
Zhang 7170 Catie-Turrialba
Catie-Turrialba Terrace
Queen Victoria Terrace
Traditional Medicine Programme
Traditional Programme Costa Rica ACT 2600,
2600, Australia
Australia
World Health Organisation
Organisation Fax: 61-6-281-8266
61-6-281 -8266
CH-1211 Geneva 27
CH-1211 27 Dr. Richard
Richard Richina
Richina
Switzerland Project Coordinator Mr. Atal
Atal
Biodiversity Support progranune
Biodiversity programme 81 , Vigyan
81, Vigyan L,ok
Lok
Biodiversity prospecting and
Biodiversity prospecting c/o WWf Delhi , 92-India
New Delhi, 92-India
related technology
technology 1250 24th
1250 24th Street NW
NW
Washington DC 20037,
20037, USA
USA Mr. Brian
Brian Murray
Murray Belcher
Belcher
Dr. Amarnath
Amarnath Bhat
Bhat Economist, International
Economist, International Network
Network
Fogarty International Center
Center Dr. Ana
Ana Sittenfeld
Sittenfeld Bamboo and Rattan
for Bamboo Rattan (INBAR)
(lNBAR)
National
National Institutes
Institutes of Health
Health Director of
ofBiodiversity
Biodiversity IORC South
IDRC South Asia Office
Asia Office
31
31 Center Drive,
Drive, MSC
MSC 2220
2220 Prospecting 17
17 Jor Bagh
Bagh
Bethesda, MD 20892,
Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
USA Instituto Nacional
Nacional dede Biodiversidad
Biodiversidad Delhi 110 003
New Delhi
Fax:
Fax: 1-301-402-2056
1-301-402-2056 de Costa
Costa Rica
Rica (INBio)
(lNBio) India
A.P.
A.P. 22-3100
22-3100 91-11-462-2707
Fax: 91-11-462-2707
Dr. Gerald
Gerald Bills
Bills Santo Domingo
Domingo de Heredia
Heredia
Microbial BioChemistry
BioChemistry and
and Costa Rica
Rica Dr.
Dr . Ben
Ben Chikamai
Chikamai
Process Research
Research Fax:
Fax: 506-236-2816
506-236-2816 Kenya Forestry Research
Research Institute
Institute
Merck Research
Research Laboratories
Laboratories Forest Products
Products Research
Research
P.O.
P.O. Box
Box 2000
2000 Programme -- KARURA
KARURA
Rahway,
Rahway, NJ NJ 07065,
07065 , USA
USA P.O.
P.O. Box
Box30241
30241
Fax:
Fax : 1-904-594-5468
1-904-594-5468 Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya
Kenya
Appendix 11 123
123
Dr. 1.1.
Dr. J.J.W.
W . Coppen
Coppen Prof. Sarni
Prof. A. Khalid
Sami A. Khalid Mr. O.K.
Mr. O.K. Souvannavong
Souvannavong
Flavours and Phytochemistry
Flavours Phytochemistry Dean, Faculty of
Dean, of Pharmacy
Pharmacy International Neem Network
International
Section University Khartoum
University of Khartoum Forest Resources
Resources Division
Natural Resources Institute
Natural Institute (SIGMA-TAU
(SIGMA-TAU Sudan
Sudan Ltd. FORM/FAO
Chatham Maritime
Chatham Phytopharmaceutical
Phytopharmaceutical Division) Viale delle
Viale delle Terme
Terme didi Caracalla
Kent ME4 4TB
Kent PP.O.
.O. Box
Box 1996
1996 00100 Rome,
00100 Rome, Italy
Italy
UK Khartoum Fax: 39-6-522-56661
39-6-522-56661
Fax: 44-634-880-066/77
Fax: 44-634-880-066/77 Sudan
249-11-451-743
Fax: 249-11-451-743 Mr. Frank Taylor
Mr.
Dr. Tuley De
Dr. De Silva
Silva Director
Managing Director
Special Technical
Special Technical Advisor Prof. Gilles
Gilles Lemieux
Lemieux Veld Products
Veld Products Research
Chemical Industries
Chemical Industries Branch
Branch Département
Departement des Sciences
Sciences P.O. Box
P.O. Box 2020
2020
United Nations
United Nations Industrial Forestieres
Forestières Gaborone, Botswana
Botswana
Development Organization
Development Universite Laval
Université Laval Fax: 267-347-047
267-347-047
(UNIDO) Quebec G1K
Québec GlK 7P4
Room D-1222
Room D-1222 VIC
VIC Canada World Federation of Proprietary
Proprietary
P.O. Box
Box 300
300 Medicine
Medicine Manufacturers
A-1400 Vienna
A-1400 Mr Jean-Paul
Jean-Paul Lescure
Lescure (WFPMM)
Austria Director of Research,
Director Research, Dept.
Dept. MAA
MAA
Fax: 43-1-230-9615
43-1-230-9615 French Research
Research Institute
Institute for Dr. Jerome A. Reinstein,
Reinstein,
Development Cooperation
Development Director General
Ms.
Ms. Sharon
Sharon Eng
Eng (ORSTOM) 15 Sydney
15 Sydney House, Woodstock
Woodstock
Environmental Bamboo
Environmental Bamboo 213
213 Rue La
La Fayette,
Fayette, Road,
Foundation 75010
75010 Paris, France
France Chiswick,
Chis wick, London
London W4 1DP\DP
P.O. Box
Box 196
196 United Kingdom.
Ubud 80571
80571 Bali
Bali Mr. Enrique
Enrique Ortiz
Ortiz Fax: 181 747-8711
Fax: 44 181 747-8711
Indonesia Coordinator,
Coordinator, Andean Network of
Sustainable Alternative Products
Sustainable Products Marketing
Marketing and trade
trade information
information
International
International Fragrance Conservation International
International
Association (IFRA)
(IFRA) 1015
1015 18th
18th St., NW
NW Suite
Suite 1000
1000 Mr. Mehtnet
Mehmet Arda
Arda
8 Rue Charles
Charles Humbert
Humbert Washington,
Washington, DC 20036, USA USA Chief, Environmental
Environmental Issues
Issues
1205 Geneva
1205 Fax: 1-202-887-5188
1-202-887-5188 Section
Section
Switzerland
S witzerland Conunodities
Commodities Division, UNCTAD
UNCTAD
Dr. J.A.J.
Dr. J .A.J. Perera
Perera Palais des
des Nations
Nations
International
International Society
Society of Project Officer,
Officer, Science
Science and
and CH-1211 Geneve 10
CH-1211 10
Ethnopharmacology Technology Division
Division Switzerland
Dr.. Xiao
Dr Xiao Peigen,
Peigen, Commonwealth Council
Commonwealth Science Council
Director, Marlborough House Prof Shen Zhao
Zhao Bang
Bang
Institute of Medicinal Plant
Institute Plant Pall Mall, London
Pall London SW1Y
SWIY 5HX Director
Development, UK Research Institute
Institute of Chemical
Chemical
Chinese Academy
Chinese Academy of Medical
Medical Fax: 44-71-930-0827
44-71-930-0827 Processing
Sciences, and Utilization
Utilization of Forest
Forest
Xi Bei
Xi Bei Wang, Dr. P.
P. Poschen
Poschen Products
Beijing. Forestry and
and Wood
Wood Industries
Industries Chinese
Chinese Academy
Academy of Forestry
People's Republic
Republic of China
China Specialist Nanjing
Nanjing 210037,
210037, China
International
International Labour Organisation
Organisation
International Standards
International CH-1211
CH-1211 Geneva
Geneva 22
22 Mr.
Mr . Alec
Alec Chang
Chang
Organisation (ISO)
(ISO) Switzerland Permanent
Permanent Secretary for
Case Postale 56, Commerce,
Commerce, Trade, Industry
Industry and
and
1,
I , rue de Varembe,
Varembe, Research Institute of Fragrance
Fragrance Public Enterprises
CH-1211
CH-1211 Geneva 20 20 Materials (RIFM)
(RIFM) Nalbati House
Switzerland (same
(same address
address as for
for IFRA,
IFRA, above)
above) 9, Goodenough
Goodenough St.
Fax: 41-22-7333430
41 -22-7333430 Suya,
Suva, Fiji
Fiji
Fax: 679-302-617
679-302-617
124
124
Dr. Eric L.
Dr. L. Hyman
Hyman Ms.. Teresa Mulliken
Ms Mulliken Mr. Jean
Jean Louis
Louis Solari
Solari
Programme Economist
Programme Economist ATI
ATI Programme Officer Pontare S.A.
S.A .
1828 LL Street
1828 Street NW,
NW, Suite
Suite 1000
1000 Traffic International
Traffic Cedros 305 yy Calle
Cedros 305 Calle Ira., Urdesa
Urdesa
Washington DC 20036
Washington IUCN Guayaquil
USA 219c Huntingdon
219c Huntingdon Road Ecuador
Cambridge CB3CB3 ODL
ODL Tel/fax: 593-4-381-567
593-4-381-567
Dr. Mohammad
Mohammad Iqbal
Iqbal UK
General Manager, Operations
General Operations Fax
Fax:: 44-122-3-277237
44-122-3-277237 Ms.
Ms . Patrice
Patrice Van
Van Riemsdyk
Riemsdyk
North West Frontier Province
North Province Social
Social Ventures
Ventures Network Europe
Europe
Forest Development
Development Corporation TRIFED Box 23367
P.O. Box 23 367
Officers Enclave,
Officers Enclave, Phase V
V Tribal Marketing
Tribal Cooperative Marketing 1100
1100 DW Netherlands
DW Amsterdam, Netherlands
Hayatabad, Peshawar
Hayatabad, Development phone: 3120-6971220
3120-6971220
Pakistan Federation of India
India Limited
Limited fax : 31-2-96963786
fax: 31-2-96963786
Fax: 92-521-814-002
92-521-814-002 Savitri, Sadan-11,
Savitri, Sadan-lI, 15 Preet Vihar
Vihar
Community
Community Center, Vikas Marg
Vikas Marg Rural development
development and socio-
socio-
Dr.
Dr . Leo
Leo Lintu
Lintu Delhi-lIoo92, India
Delhi-110092, India economic
economic research
Forestry Officer, Marketing
Marketing
Forest Products Division
Division Mr. Yang
Yang Zu WuWu Dr. J.E.M.
J.E.M. Arnold
Arnold
Forestry Department,
Department, FAO
FAO Yunnan Flavour and Fragrances
Yunnan Fragrances Research Officer
Senior Research Officer
Viale
Via1e delle
delle Terme di
di Caracalla
Caracalla R & D Centre
R&D Centre Institute
Oxford Forestry Institute
00100 Rome
Rome No. lIO Bejing
No.110 Bejing Road
Road Department of Plant Sciences
Department Sciences
Italy Kunming 650057
Kunming 650057 of Oxford
University of Oxford
Fax: 39-6-5225-5618
39-6-5225-5618 Yunnan,
Yunnan, PR China
China Road
South Parks Road
Oxford 0X1 33 RB,
Oxford OXI RB, UKUK
Dr. P.K. Muraleedharan
Dr. Muraleedharan Green marketing
marketing Fax: 44-865-275-074/270-078
Forest Economist
Kerala Forestry Research
Research Institute
Institute Dr. Jason
Jason Clay
Clay Dr. Joshua
Joshua Bishop
Bishop
Peechi 680653 WWF/USA Programme Director
Director
Kerala, India
Kerala, 2253 North Upton
2253 Upton Street
Street Economics
Environmental Economics
Fax: 487-782-249
487-782-249 Arlington, VA
Arlington, V A 22207
22207 lIED
Programme, IIED
USA 3, Endsleigh
Endsleigh Street
Street
Dr.. A. Paradies
Dr Paradies Fax:
Fax: 1-703-524-0471
1-703-524-0471 London WCIH
London WCIH ODD
Head, Trade Information
Head, Information Kingdom
United Kingdom
Dissemination Unit Cultural Survival
Survival Enterprises
Enterprises
International Trade
International Trade Centre 46 Brattle
Brattle Street
Street Mr. Wil
Wi! de
de Jong
Jong
Palais des Nations
Palais Nations Cambridge, MAMA 02138,
02138, USA
USA The New
New York
York Botanical
Botanical Garden
Garden
1211 Geneva
1211 Geneva 10
10 Fax: 1-617-441-5417
1-617-441-5417 Dayak Forest Management
Dayak Management
Switzerland Research Project
Research
Dr. Cynthia
Cynthia Mackie
Mackie P.O. Box
Box 6057
6057
Dr. Sarah
Sarah Scherr or Senior Director, Asia
Senior Asia Pacific
Pacific Pontianak 78060
Dr. Stephen
Stephen Vosti
Vosti Region West Kalimantan,
Kalimantan, Indonesia
IFPRI (local markets,
markets, policy)
policy) Conservation International
International
1200 Seventeenth
1200 Seventeenth St., NW
NW 1015, 18th Street NW, suite
1015, suite 1000
1000 Ms. Anne
Anne Deruyttere
Deruyttere
Washington,
Washington, DC 20036, USA USA Washington DC 20036
Washington 20036 Indigenous People and Community
Indigenous Community
Fax: 1-202-467-4439
1-202-467-4439 USA Development Unit
Inter-American
Inter-American Development Bank
Bank
Mr. Vivek
Vivek Menon
Menon Mr. Michael
Michael Saxenian
Saxenian 1300 New York
1300 New York Ave, NW
NW
TRAFFIC India
India Director, Conservation
Conservation Enterprise
Enterprise Washington,
Washington, DC 20577, USA
USA
172-B
172-B Lodhi Estate
Estate Conservation International
International Fax:
Fax: 1-202-623-1463
1-202-623-1463
New
New Delhi 110
110 003
003 1015
1015 18th Street, NW
NW
India Washington,
20036, USA
USA Dr. Anil
Anil K.
K. Gupta
Gupta
RM Centre
Centre for
for Educational
Educational
Innovation
Innovation
Indian
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Management
Management
Vastrapur,
Vastrapur, Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad 380
380 015
015
Gujarat, India
India
Fax: 91-79-427-896
Fax: 91-79-427-896
Appendix 11 125
125
Ms.. Satyawati
Ms Satyawati Hadi
Hadi Other research
research Communications
Agency for Forestry Research
Agency Research
JI.. Gn. Baru
11 Batu 11 Dr. Dennis
Dennis Garrity,
Garrity, Adlai
Adlai J. Amore,
Amore, Secretary
Secretary
P.O. Box
Box 84
84 Dr. Genevieve
Genevieve Michon
Michon or Asian Forum of of Environmental
Environmental
Bogor 16004, Indonesia
16004, Indonesia Dr. Hubert
Hubert de
de Foresta
Foresta Journalists
Fax: 62-251-31-42-40
62-251-31-42-40 South East Asia
Asia Regional
Regional Research
Research Press Foundation
Press Foundation of Asia
Programme P.O. Box
Box 1843
1843
Ms.
Ms . Ann
Ann Koontz
Koontz ICRAF Manila, Philippines
Philippines
Programme
Programme Officer, Asia
Asia Jalan Gunung
Gunung Batu
Batu No. 55
Technology P.O. Box
Box 161
161 Bogor
Bogor 16001
16001 Mr. Mike
Mike Anane
Anane
International Indonesia President, League
President, League of
1828 LL Street,
1828 Street, NW,
NW, Suite
Suite 1000
1000 Fax: 62-251-315-567
Fax: 62-251 -315-567 Journalists
Environmental Journalists
Washington, DC
Washington, DC 20036
20036 The Triumph
Triumph
Fax: 1-202-293-4598
1-202-293-4598 Dr. C.T.S.
C.T.S . Nair
Nair P.O. Box
Box 2062
2062
Forestry Research
Research Support
Support Accra, Ghana
Accra, Ghana
Mr. Gill
Gill Shepherd
Shepherd Programme forfor Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific Fax: 233-21-669187
233-21-669187
Coordinator FAO Regional Office
Office for Asia-
Asia-
Rural Development
Development Forestry
Forestry (RAP A)
Pacific (RAPA) Asian Mass
Mass Communications
Communications
Network Maliwan Mansion Research and Information
Research Information Centre
Centre
om
ODI Phra Atit
Atit Road
Road 39 Newton Road
Regent's College,
College, Regent's
Regent's Park
Park Bangkok,
Bangkok, Thailand
Thailand 10200
10200 Singapore 1130
London NW1
London NW1 4NS Tel: 66-2-281-7844
66-2-281-7844
UK Fax:66-2-280-4565
Fax :66-2-280-4565 Ms. Diane
Diane Jukofslcy
Jukofsky
Fax : 44-71-487-7590
Fax: 44-71-487-7590 Tropical Conservation
Conservation Newsbureau
Newsbureau
Ousseynou Ndoye
Dr. Ousseynou Ndoye Apdo. 138-2150
l38-2150
Mr.. Pitamber
Mr Pitamber Sharma
Sharma Humid Forest Station
Station San Moravia,
San Moravia, Costa Rica
Regional Plarmer
Regional Planner IITA Fax: 506-240-25
506-240-25
International Centre for Integrated
International Integrated B.P. 2008
2008 (Messa)
(Messa)
Mountain Development
Development (ICIMOD)
(ICIMOD) Cameroon
Yaounde, Cameroon Mr.
Mr . Rezaul
Rezaul Karim
Karim
P.O. Box
Box 3226
3226 Fax: 237-237-437
237-237-437 Chief, Environment
Chief, Environment Section
Kathmandu, Nepal
Kathmandu, Environment and
Environment and Natural
Fax: 977-1-524-509/524-317
977-1-524-509/524-317 Mr. F.
F. Padovani
Padovani Resources Division, UN ESCAP
Resources Division,
Forestry Officer,
Officer, Statistics
Statistics The United Nations
The Nations Building
Building
PROTRADE, Planning and
Forestry Planning and Policy
Policy Rajadamnern Avenue
Avenue
GTZ GmbH,
GmbH, Division Bangkok
Bangkok 10200
10200
Postfach 5180,
5180, FAO, Rome
Rome Thailand
D-6236
D-6236 Eschborn, Germany
Germany Fax: 39-6-5225-5137
39-6-5225-5l37
Fax:
Fax: 61
61 96 797414
96797414 Dr. Jatna
Jatna Supriatna
Supriatna
Dr. Manual
Manual Ruiz Perez Editor-in-Chief
Ms.
Ms . Jane
Jane Sibo
Sibo Centre for International
Centre International Forestry Indonesian Journal of Biodiversity
Indonesian Biodiversity
Assessment Coordinator
Rural Assessment Coordinator (CIFOR)
Research (CIFOR) and Conservation
Kibale
Kibale and Semliki
Sem1iki Project
Project P.O. Box
Box 6596
6596 JKPWB
JKPWB Jl. Nusantara
JI. Nusantara 174
174
Plot 30 Mugurusi
Mugurusi Road
Road Jakarta 10065,
10065, Indonesia
Indonesia 16421
Depok 16421
P.O.
P.O . Box
Box 715
715 62-251-326-433
Fax: 62-251-326-433 Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia
Fort Portal
Portal Fax: 62-21-727-0012
62-21-727-0012
Uganda Birger Solberg
Fax: (256)
(256) 493-2174
493-2174 Director, Policy
Institute
European Forestry Institute
Mr. Francisco
Francisco Tolentino
Tolentino Torikatu 34, Joensuu
Joensuu Ms. Laura
Laura L.S
L.S. Dooley
Dooley
ATI
ATI Project Officer
Officer FIN-80100 Finland
Finland Policy Affairs
Affairs
7E Vernida II Fax: 358 73
73 124393
124393 World
WorId Resources
Resources Institute
Institute
120 Amorsolo
120 Amorsolo Street 1709 New York
1709 New York Ave
Ave.,., NW
NW
Makati,
Makati, Metro Manila
Manila Washington,
Washington, DC 20006, USA USA
Philippines Fax: 1-202-638-0036
1-202-638-0036
Fax: 632-893-3354
632-893-3354
126
Dr. Michael
Michael R. Dove/
Dovel
Dr. Deanna Donovan
Dr. Donovan
Environment Institute
Environment and Policy Institute
East-West-Centre
East-West-Centre
1777
1777 East-West
East-West Road
Honolulu, Hawaii 96848
Honolulu,
USA
Dr. Ashok
Ashok J.
J . Gadgil
Gadgil
Lawrence Laboratory
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
90-3058, 1 Cyclotron Rd.
90-3058,
Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA 94720, USAUSA
Fax: 1-510-486-6658
1-510-486-6658
Calestous Juma
Dr. Calestous Jurna
Director of Research
Research
for Technology
African Centre for Technology
Studies
Box 45917
P.O. Box 45917
Kenya
Nairobi, Kenya
25-42-569-986
Fax: 25-42-569-986
Ms.
Ms . Julie Lyke
Lyke
International Forestry Policy
International
Analyst
US
US Forest Service
International
International Forestry
P.O. Box
Box 96538
96538
Washington, DCDC 20090-6538
20090-6538
USA
Fax: 1-202-273-4795
Fax: 1-202-273-4795
William Mankin
Coordinator
Global Forestry
Global Forestry Policy
Policy Project,
1400 16th
1400 16th NW,
NW, Suite 502,
Washington,
Washington, D.C.
D. C.
+ 1202
Fax: +1 2027976562
7976562
Mr.
Mr. Darmo
Darmo Suparmo
Suparmo
Regional
Regional TFAP
TF AP Adviser for
for Asia-
Asia-
RAPA
Pacific- RAPA
Maliwan Mansion
Mansion
Phra Atit
Atit Road
Road
Bangkok, 10200
Bangkok, 10200
Thailand
Fax: 66-2-280-0445
66-2-280-0445
E-mail: rapa@fao .org
E-mail: rapa@fao.org
Mr. Clive
Clive Wicks
Wicks
Head of International
International Programme
Programme
WWF-UK
Panda House
Weyside Park, Godalming
Weyside Godalming
Surrey GU7 1XR,
lXR, UK
UK
Appendix 11 127
127
FAO TECHNICAL
TECHNICAL PAPERS
PAPERS
NON-WOOD FOREST
FOREST PRODUCTS
PRODUCTS
1. Flavours and
Flavours and fragrances
fragrances of plant origin
origin
2. Gum naval
Gum naval stores:
stores: turpentine
turpentine and
and rosin
rosin from pine
pine resin
resin
3. Report of the International

Report International Expert
Expert Consultation
Consultation on
on Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products,
Products,
Indonesia, January 1995
1995
4. Natural colourants
Natural colourants and
and dyestuffs
5. Edible nuts
Edible
6. Gums, resins
Gums, resins and
and latexes of plant origin
origin
7. Non-wood forest products

Non-wood products for
for rural
rural income
income and
and sustainable
sustainable forestry
This
This publication documents
documents the importance of
of
non-wood forest products for rural
rural income
income and
and
sustainable forestry. ItIt suggests
suggests general principles
general principles
and approaches
and approaches for development
development and
and sustainable
sustainable
utilization of
utilization ofnon-wood
non-woodforest
forestresources.
resources. Topics
Topics
includeresource
covered include resourceassessment
assessment and
and
development;
development; assessment of the local resource
assessment of resource use;
use;
opportunities
opportunities for
for improved
improved management;
management;
commercial options;
options; processing;
processing; marketing
marketing and
and
trade; organization of
of producer
producer groups;
groups; research
research and
extension;
extension; and
and institutional support.
institutional and policy support.
ISBN 92-5- 03765-5

92-5-103765-5 ISSN
ISSN 1020 3370
1020-3370
111111111111111111111111
II II III
9 7 789251
8 9 2 5 1 0037652
37652
M-30
M-30 V9480E12/4.99/500
V9480El2/4.99/500

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NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

NO\ -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

The designations employed and

All rights reserved.

Development activities on NWFPs cannot

Appendix 1. Contacts for further

5.1 small-scale NWFP producers

2 .1 Species domestication and inequity

This volume outlines the approaches

Chapter 8 addresses the

The principles and approaches

Appendix 1 lists contact addresses to promote networking

NWFPs consist ofof goods

This definition is intended

The most commonly cited instances

Who uses non-wood forest products?

For the same

NWFPs are therefore

A basis for sustainable

Involving communities managing local

Toledo, V.M., Batis,

Many people assume that harvests ofof NWFPs have

For example, overharvesting

Determining tenure and

Even before producers

• pri vate property

Once tenure isis clarified,

In tropical forests, one

• do any good maps, aerial

When all thethe above

Peters (op. cit.)

• the current size-class

The smallest diameter limit limit of

A useful inventory should take advantage local knowledge.

Analyzing the results

Reducing inventory costs

Inventories are expensive

The previous section

• existing and future demand for preferred

For products intended

• type non-wood resource

'1:.' This varies with species. For

Low potential Medium potential

Regeneration guild early pioneer late

Sustainable harvest levels

• sustainable harvest level of fruits

Yield studies focus on

• Select a representative sample of healthy plants of different sizes from each

• Plot the data to form

When yield, regeneration

Domestication is therefore a tool

Advantages and disadvantages

Domestication holds advantages and disadvantages.

• help sustain steady and reliable

Text box 22.1:

For regionally important

• seed collection and distribution;

• establishment of seed orchards.

• Conduct a resource inventory

• Monitor forest dynamics

1.' The concept of ideotype

Leakey, R.R.B., and