How To Gain Weight Effectively When Stressed at Home! 102

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF CENTRAL AFRICA
CURRENT RESEARCH ISSUES

AND PROSPECTS FOR
CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
of
the
United
Nations
INTRODUCTION and WORKSHOP SUMMARY
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF
OF CENTRAL
CENTRAL AFRICA

AND PROSPECTS
AND PROSPECTS FOR
FOR
CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION AND
AND DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
Edited by
Terry C.H. Sunderland,
Laurie E. Clark and Paul Vantomme
Based on the outcome of the International Expert

Expert Meeting
Meeting on
on
Non-Wood Forest Products in Central Africa,
Africa, held at
The Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, Cameroon,
Cameroon,
10-15 May 1998
1998
CARPE, the Central

Central African Regional
Regional Program
Program for
for the
the Environment
Environment isis aa five-year,
five-year, USAID-funded
USAID-fundedproject
project
that seeks to identify and establish conditions and practices required
required to to reduce
reduce deforestation
deforestation and
and
biodiversity loss in the Congo Basin.
FOOD AND
AND AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
UNITED NATIONS
NATIONS
Rome, 1999
designations employed
The designations employedand and the
the presentation
presentationof
ofmaterial
materialin in this
this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of of the
the United
United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
country, territory, city or
territory, city or
area
area oror"of
of its
itsauthorities,
authorities, or
orconcerning
concerning the
the delimitation
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or boundaries.
frontiers or boundaries.
All rights reserved.

All reserved. No part of this publication
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statement of of the
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©FAO
0 FAO 1999
1999
FOREWORD
With the accelerating

accelerating loss of of tropical
tropical rainforest
rainforest around
around the
the world,
world, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products
(NWFPs)
(NWFPs) are becoming ever more
becoming ever more important
important asas a means of of mitigating
mitigating deforestation,
deforestation, hence
hence
maintaining forest cover
maintaining forest cover and realising income from
realising income from it.
it. NWFPs
NWFPs have have been widely acclaimed
acclaimed
as a panacea for
for the
the problem,
problem, butbut there
there are
are many
many constraints
constraints and
and frequently
frequently false
false hopes
hopes have
have
been
been raised
raised by thethe promulgation
promulgation of the value of NWFPs. NWFPs. It is is therefore
therefore excellent
excellent that
that an
an
international workshop
international workshop on on NW141's
NWFPs was wasrecently
recentlyheld
held at
at Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden, Cameroon, to
evaluate the situation
evaluate the situation and
and develop
develop possible strategies to
possible strategies to assess
assess the potential
potential that forest
forest
products, other than timber, cancan contribute to to conservation
conservation andand development
development initiatives.
initiatives.
Although this workshop

Although this was primarily
workshop was primarily geared
geared towards
towards Central
Central Africa,
Africa, itit has
has a much
much wider
wider
relevance to the rainforests
relevance to rainforests of the
the world.
world. II have
have attended
attended several
several recent
recent meetings
meetings where
where
NWFPs have
NWFPs have been discussed
discussed and have been particularly
particularly struck by two
two things.
things. Firstly,
Firstly, the
commercial exploitation
commercial exploitation of
of many
many NWFPs
NWFPs is often undertaken
undertaken in aa non-sustainable
non-sustainable manner,
manner,
and secondly,
and secondly, wewe lack
lack soso much
much ofof the
the basic
basic research
research that
that isis essential
essential before
before further
further
exploitation of
exploitation of aa particular NWFP isis promoted,
particular NWFP promoted, in in terms
terms ofof both
both biology
biology and
and the socio-
socio-
economic considerations.
economic considerations.However,
However,ininspite
spiteofof these
these reservations
reservationsthere
thereisis no
no doubt
doubt that
NWFPs
NWFPs have an important
important role to play in the the future
future of of tropical
tropical forests
forests and
andthe
theconclusions
conclusions
recommendations of
and recommendations of the
the papers
papers and discussion sessions from this workshop are aa most
discussion sessions most
addition to
welcome addition to the
thedebate
debateononhow
howtotouse
useNW1-ilis
NWFPs more wisely.
generally occur
Rainforest species generally occur in
in extremely
extremely low
low densities. In the
densities. In the majority
majority of
ofthe
the inventory
inventory
plots with which
which I have
have been
been involved
involved the
the majority
majority of
of species,
species, some
some ofof which
which could
could yield
yield
non-wood products, occur
non-wood products, occur with
with extremely
extremelylowlowfrequency.
frequency. For example
example in aa three
three hectare
hectare
inventory in the Rio Xingu region of Brazil, 125 of the 265 species were represented by only
one individual and another 54 by two. However, that same inventory included 79 individuals
of the very useful babassu palm (Orbignya
(Orbignya phalerata). In In general,
general, species
species with
with low
low densities
densities
are
are unlikely
unlikely to become
become important
important commercial sourcesof
commercial sources of NWFPs,
NWFPs, as as they
they areare highly
highly
susceptible to the impacts ofof over-harvesting. Even many
over-harvesting. Even many of the more common
common species
species that
produce NWFPs are often over-exploited and many examples of of this are
are given
given in
in this
this volume.
volume.
The type of research reported on by Van Dijk is is essential because it identifies the rare and the
resources of a rainforest area in Central Africa, whilst also taking into
abundant resources into account
account the
the
socio-economic aspects of exploitation.
As Charles
As Charles Peters
Peters points
points out, other factors
factors that need to be taken
taken into account
account when
when aa NWFP
NWFP
is exploited
is include the
exploited include the effect
effect on
on pollinators
pollinators andand agents
agents ofof seed
seed dispersal
dispersal and
and also
also on
on the
the
removal of essential nutrients from the forest. So many rainforests are on poor soils soils and
and some
some
of the essential nutrients are concentrated in thethe parts removed,
removed, especially
especially in
in bark
bark and
and fruits.
fruits.
In the
the exploitation
exploitation of
of NW1-413s
NWFPs it it is isessential
essentialthat
thatthe
theregeneration
regenerationofofthe the species
species isis not
not
prevented by, for example, the removal of too many seeds or or the
the damage
damage to to seedlings
seedlings from
from
trampling by the gatherer of a product.
As
As the
the majority
majority of the
the harvesting
harvesting of NWI,Ps is undertaken
NWFPs is by forest
undertaken by forest dwellers,
dwellers,itit isis an
an
essential requirement
essential requirement that
that the
the local
local community
community be
be involved
involved in
in the
the management
management system.
system. It is
is
therefore good to see aa paper
therefore good paper by
by Ruth
Ruth Malleson
Malleson onon the
thecommunity
community management
management of forest
forest
resources
resources and the importance of the social institutions
institutions that can influence the exploitation
exploitation of
NWFPs.
iii
This volume reports
reports on considerable research
research that
that has
has been carried out on NWFPs
NWI-Ps inin Central
Central
Africa. However,
However, aa great
great deal
deal more
more research
research isis needed before we
needed before we can be sure
sure that
that any
any
product is managed
managed in a long-term
long-term sustainable manner. It is
sustainablemanner. is to be hoped that this volume will
not only stimulate
stimulate the use
use of
of NWFPs,
NWFPs, but but also
also much
much further
further research
research on
on the
theethnobotany,
ethnobotany,
ecology and socio-economic
socio-economic importance
importance of any product that is to be promoted. It is only with
any product
this basic research that NWFPs
NWFPs will truly play a significant role in the conservation and the
truly playa
sustainable use of the tropical forests.
Sir Ghillean Prance FRS

Director
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
United Kingdom
iv
PREFACE
The USAlD-funded Central African

US AID-funded Central African Regional
Regional Program
Program for
for the Environment (CARPE)
(CARPE) with
support from the
support the FAO
FAO Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products Programme,
Programme, organised
organised anan international
international
expert workshop
expert workshop on on non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products inin Central
Central Africa
Africa during
during May
May 1998
1998 at the
the
Limbe Botanic Garden,
Garden, Cameroon.
Cameroon. ThisThis workshop
workshop set the stage for the creation of a regional
network for information
network for sharing and
information sharing and collaboration
collaboration and
and has
has helped
helped to identify
identify short
short and
and
medium-term activitiesthat
medium-term activities thatwill
willclarify
clarifythe
thepotential
potentialroleroleofof the
the sector in the
sector in the better
better
management ofof the forests of
of Central
Central Africa.
Africa.
addition, the
In addition, the workshop
workshop provided
provided an
an invaluable
invaluable forum
forum for
for the
the NW'FP
NWFP community
community to share
share
their work and
and experiences
experiences with others. It is our
with others. our hope
hope that
that this
this will
will encourage
encourage an an increased
increased
unification of knowledge
knowledge and activities
activities in the NWFP sector in Central Africa and and determine
determine
the present
present and
and potential
potential contribution
contribution ofof NWFPs
NWFPs to to conservation
conservation and and development.
development. The
workshop also provided,
workshop provided, for many, a rare
rare opportunity
opportunity to
to disseminate
disseminate their
their research
research findings
findings
in an international
international setting.
setting.
These proceedings include the papers presented

presented at
at the
the workshop
workshop asas well
well as
as a number
number of extra
papers submitted
papers submitted byby participants
participants after
after the
the workshop
workshophad had ended
ended that
that were
were thought
thought toto be
be of
sufficient interest
interest to
to merit
merit inclusion.
inclusion. The
The papers
papers included
included in this publication are a synthesis
synthesis
of the current
current state
state of
of the
the lcnowledge
knowledge of NWFPs
NWFPs in general
general and
and related
related issues
issues surrounding
surrounding
their exploitation,
their and provide
exploitation, and provide a unique overview
overview of the
the NWFP
NWFP sector
sector throughout
throughout Central
Central
Africa, rather than the usual country
country specific
specific approach.
approach.
The workshop and these proceedings

proceedings would
would not
not have
have been possible
possible without
without the
the hard
hard work of
a number
number of
of individuals
individuals and
and institutions. Full acknowledgement
institutions. Full acknowledgement should shouldbe be given
given to
to the
Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, without
without whose
whose marvelous
marvelous facilities
facilities and
and considerable
considerable logistical
logistical
support the workshop would not have run as smoothly as it did. Special mention must also be
made to Brendan
Brendan Jaff
Jaff who
who facilitated
facilitated the
the workshop
workshop in in aahighly
highlyprofessional
professional manner.
manner. Dr.
David Wilkie provided an invaluable
invaluable synopsis
synopsis of the discussion
discussion sessions
sessions at
at the
the workshop,
workshop, aa
summary of which forms the
summary the introduction
introduction toto these proceedings. The CARPE
these proceedings. CARPE contact
contact for
Cameroon,
Cameroon, Nicodeme
Nicodeme Tchamou,
Tchamou, also
also provided
provided invaluable
invaluable help,
help, advice
advice and
and support both prior
to and during the workshop.
workshop. Indeed
Indeed ititwas
was Nicodeme
Nicodeme who who originally
originally identified
identified the need for
think through
this workshop and helped us think through various
various issues along
along the
the way.
way.
Finally, the workshop

Finally, workshop would
would never
never have
have happened
happened without
without the
the personal
personal commitment,
commitment,
dedication, and many
dedication, and many long
long hours
hours of hard
hard work
work from
from Laurie
Laurie Clark
Clark and
and Terry
Terry Sunderland.
Sunderland.
Laurie took on the thankless admMistrative
administrative and
and logistical
logistical burden,
burden, and
and Terry
Terry was
was instrumental
in helping
helping usus finalize
finalize our
our thematic
thematic approach,
approach, identify key participants
identify key participants and,and, after
after the
workshop, pulled together
workshop, pulled together these
these proceedings. Overall guidance
proceedings. Overall guidance and
and coordination
coordination for the
the
preparation, review
preparation, review and publication
publication of the final document was provided by Paul Vantomme. Vantomme.
them, and
Thanks and appreciation to them, to the
and to the others
others who
who participated
participated in
in the
the process.
process.
Wulf Killmann
Wulf Mark Buccowich,
Director Africa Branch Chief
Forest Products Division, FAO USDA Forest Service/International Programs
v
EDITORS'
EDITORS' NOTES
NOTES
As can be seen
seen from
from aa cursory
cursory glance
glance through
through these
these proceedings, many of these papers
proceedings, many papers are
inter-connectedand
inter-connected andrefer
referaa great
great deal
deal toto each
each other.
other. To facilitate
facilitate ease ofof reading
reading and
and
presentation, we have avoided significant repetition
avoided significant repetition that
that would
would occur if we were to include a
definition of non-wood non-timber forest
non-wood or non-timber forest products
products inin each
each paper.
paper. Instead,
Instead, we
we have
have opted
for the use of the
for the term
term Non-Wood Forest
Forest products
products and
and left
left David
David Wilkie
Willde in
in his
his introduction
introduction
summary) to
(and workshop summary) to provide
provide the
thedefinition
definitionononNVVI-Ts
NWFPs whichwhich applies to this
this volume,
volume,
as indeed it did for the workshop itself.
A key to the acronyms

acronyms used in the
the papers
papers can
can be
be found
found in
in the
theAppendices,
Appendices, although
although efforts
efforts
have
have been made to
been made to ensure that as
ensure that as many acro4ms as
many acronyms as possible
possible are
are expanded upon in
expanded upon in the
individual papers. In many cases they have been avoided.
It should be noted that at the

the time
time of
of collation,
collation, the CFA
CFA franc / US$
US$ exchange
exchange rate
rate was
was 600
600
CFA = =$1.
The Office of
of International Programs at the Forest Service
Service of
of the
the United
United States
States Department
Department ofof
Agriculture is herewith kindly acknowledged
acknowledged for
for their
their financial
financial support
support for
for the
the publication
publication of
the present document.
vi
CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Preface v
Editors'
Editors' Notes
Notes vi
INTRODUCTION and WORKSHOP SUMMARY
CARPE and
and non-wood
non-wood forest products
products (David
(DavidWilkie)
Wilkie) 33
ECOLOGICAL
ECOLOGICAL ISSUES
ISSUES
Ecological research
Ecological research for sustainable non-wood forest product
product exploitation: An
An overview
overview
(Charles M. Peters) 19
non-woodforest
An assessment of non-wood forestproduct
product resources
resources for
for the development
development of
of sustainable
sustainable
commercial extraction
extraction(J.F.W.
(J.F.W.van
vanDijk)
Dijk) 37
37
The management of forests

forests for
for timber
timber and non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products in
in Central
Central Africa
(Sarah A. Laird) 51
sustainability of
The sustainability of eru
eru (Gnetum
(Gnetum africanum and
and Gnetum
Gnetum buchholzianum):
buchholzianum): AnAn over-
over-
exploited non-wood forest product from the
product from the forests
forests of
of Central
CentralAfrica
Africa(Patrick
(PatrickNde
NdeShiembo)
Shiembo) 61
The ecology and sustainability of

of Pausinystalia
Pausinystaliajohimbe:
johimbe: An over-exploited medicinal plant
plant
from
from the
the forests
forestsof
ofCentral
CentralAfrica
Africa(Terry
(TerryC.H.
C.H.Sunderland,
Sunderland,Marie-Laure
Marie-LaureNgo-Mpeck,
Ngo-Mpeck,
Zacherie Tchoundjeu and Amougou
Tchoundjeu and Amougou Akoa)
Akoa) 67
The Conservation through Cultivation Programme

Progranune at the Limbe Botanic Garden:
Garden:
Achievements andbenefits
Achievements and benefits(Joseph
(JosephP.P.Nkefor,
Nkefor,Nouhou
NouhouNdam,
Ndam, Paul
Paul C.
C. Blackmore
Blackmore and
and
Terry C.H.
C.R. Sunderland) 79
Recent research
research into
into African rattans
rattans (Palmae):
(Palmae): A
A valuable
valuable non-wood forest product
product from
the forests of
of Central
CentralAfrica
Africa(Terry
(TerryC.H.
C.H.Sunderland)
Sunderland) 87
Extending ecological
Extending ecological research
research to
to meet
meetlocal
local needs:
needs: A
A case
case from
from Brazil
Brazil(Patricia
(PatriciaShanley)
Shanley) 99
SOCIO-POLITICAL
SOCIO-POLITICALISSUES
ISSUES
Socio-economic research and

Socio-economic research and non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products:
products:An
Anoverview
overview(Christine
(ChristineKabuye)
Kabuye) 111
Community management of non-wood

non-wood forest
forest resources:
resources: A
A case
case study
study from
from the
the Korup
Korup
Forest, Cameroon
Cameroon(Ruth
(RuthMalleson)
Malleson) 117
The use of farmer knowledge

knowledge in non-wood forest product
product research
research(Jonathan
(JonathanC.
C.Okafor)
Okafor) 123
The management of forest resources by local people

people and
and the
the state
state in Gabon
(Jean-Pierre Profizi) 133
The role of women in the promotion of forest products

products (Gwendoline
(Gwendoline Burnley)
Burnley) 139
The management of non-wood

non-wood forest
forest products
products in protected areas: Lessons
Lessons from a case
case
study of multiple-use in Bwindi Impenetrable
Impenetrable National
National Park,
Park, Uganda
Uganda(A.B.
(A.B.Cunningham)
Cunningham) 143
vii
The domestication of indigenous
indigenous agroforestry
agroforestry trees: ICRAFs strategy in the humid
tropics of
of West
Westand
andCentral
CentralAfrica
Africa(Zacherie
(ZacherieTchoundjeu,
Tchoundjeu,Bahiru
BahiruDuguma,
Duguma, M.L.
M.L. Tiencheu 161
and Marie-Laure Ngo-Mpeck)
A farming systems perspective to NWFPs exploitation in the support

support zone
zone of
of Korup
Korup
Park of Cameroon: Determining the connections between the household
National Park
and the
the forest
forest(Michael
(MichaelB.
B.Vabi
Vabiand
andNicodème
Nicodeme Tchamou)
Tchamou) 171
MARKET-ECONOMIC
MARKET-ECONOMIC ISSUES
ISSUES
Non-wood forest product

Non-wood forest product markets
markets and potential forest degradation in Central
Central Africa:
Africa:
The role of research in providing
providing a balance
balance between
between welfare improvement andand forest
forest
conservation(Ousseynou
conservation (OusseynouNdoye,
Ndoye, Manuel
ManuelRuiz-Perez
Ruiz-Perez and
and Antoine
Antoine Eyebe)
Eyebe) 183
the non-wood
A regional market survey of the non-woodforest
forestproducts
products traded
traded in Central Africa
(Laurie E. Clark and Terry C.H. Sunderland) 207
prelhninary market survey

A preliminary survey of
of the
the non-wood Equatorial Guinea
non-wood forest products of Equatorial
(Terry C.H. Sunderland and Crisantos Obama) 211
A preliminary market survey of non-wood

non-wood forest
forest products
products traded
traded in the Pointe-Noire markets
(VictorKimpouni)
(Congo-Brazzaville) (Victor Kimpouni) 221
A preliminary market
market survey
survey of
of the non-wood forest products of
of the Democratic Republic of
Congo: the Beni and Kisangani
Kisangani markets
markets(Innocent
(InnocentLiengola)
Liengola) 227
A preliminary survey of the non-wood

non-wood forest
forest products
products of the Libreville markets (Gabon)
(Paulin Yembi) 233
Rattan or
Rattan or porcupine?
porcupine? Benefits
Benefits and limitations of a high value
value non-wood
non-woodforest
forestproduct
product
for conservation in the Yaounde region
region of
of Cameroon
Cameroon (Louis
(Louis Defo)
Defo) 237
quality control standards

The development of quality standards for
for ogbono
ogbono (Irvingia
(Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis and
and I.1. wombolu)
wombolu)
kernels: Efforts
kernels: Efforts towards
towards encouraging
encouraging organised
organisedand
and further
further international trade
trade in
in a
product of
non-wood forest product of West and
and Central
CentralAfrica
Africa(Daniel
(DanielO.
O.Ladipo)
Ladipo) 245
The markets for Central

Central African
African non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products in
in Europe
Europe(Honoré
(HonoreTabuna)
Tabuna) 251
Medicinal plants and forest exploitation

exploitation (Robert
(RobertNkuinkeu)
Nkuinkeu) 265
AND INFORMATION
NETWORKS AND INFORMATION EXCHANGE
An overview of the
the FAO's
FAO's programme on the development of non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products
(Paul Vantomme) 273
Networks with an interest

interest in
in NWFPs
NWFPs (Laurie
(LaurieE.
E. Clark)
Clark) 279
APPENDICES
List of acronyms 283
List
tist of contributors 285
viii
CARPE AND NON-WOOD
NON-WOOD FOREST
FOREST PRODUCTS
David Wilkie
1. Background
1. Background
The forests ofof the

the Congo
Congo Basin
Basin cover
cover approximately
approximately 2.8 2.8 million km2 - an area about one third
millionkm2
the size
size of
of the
the United
United States,
States, and
and constitute
constitute the
the second
second largest
largest contiguous
contiguous block
block of
oftropical
tropical
forest after the Amazon
Amazon (BSP,
(BSP, 1993).
1993). These forests contain
contain aa diversity
diversity of
of plants
plants and
and animals
animals
unmatched
unmatched in in Africa,
Africa, and continue
continue to provide
provide food,
food, shelter
shelter and
and income
income toto 25-30
25-30 million
million
1995).
people (Bahuchet, 1995).
Contrary to popular belief,

Contrary to belief, the forests
forests of
of the
the Congo
Congo Basin
Basin have
have over
over millennia,
millennia, expanded,
expanded,
contracted and
contracted and changed
changed in species
species composition
composition in response
response to to climatic
climatic variability
variability and
and
disturbance by humans (Oslisly, 1995; Oslisly, 1998). In the last 20 years, as a result of
disturbance by humans (Oslisly, 1995; Oslisly, 1998). In the last 20 years, as a result
globalisation of market economies and growth in demand, the scale and rate of of exploitation ofof
non-wood products (NWFPs)
(NWFPs) has
has expanded
expanded faster
faster than
than at
at any
any other
other time
time in in history,
history, and
and
use of forest resources
resources is
is approaching
approaching or
or exceeding
exceeding sustainable
sustainable thresholds
thresholds inin many
many locations
locations
across the Congo Basin.
Basin. Over-exploitation
Over-exploitation and
andeventual
eventualdisappearance
disappearanceof ofNWFPs
NWI-'s are are of both
local and global concern, because when aa plant
plant or
or animal
animal goes
goes locally
locally extinct
extinct it:
it:
• can no longer contribute to the diet

diet or
or economy
economy of
of forest
forest families
families and,
and,
• risks the irreplaceable loss of
of species and genetic biodiversity that may
contribute significantly to forest ecosystem
ecosystem production
production and
and resilience.
resilience.
Between 10 and
and 15 May 1998
15 May the United
1998 the United States
States Forest
Forest Service
Service held
held an
an International
International Expert
Expert
Workshop on
Workshop on Non-Wood
Non-WoodForest
ForestProducts
Products in
in Central Africa at the Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden in
Cameroon, with
Cameroon, with support
support from
from the USAlD
USAID Central
Central African
African Regional
Regional Program
Program for the
the
Environment (CARPE) and
Environment (CARPE) and the
the Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization of the
the United
United Nations
Nations
(FAO).
The workshop brought together over 60 regional and international experts to:
to:
• Share their
their experience
experience and
and knowledge
knowledge on on the
the use
use and
and management
management of ofnon-
non-
wood forest products;
• Provide a forum for applied scientists working in the region to meet new
colleagues and
and develop
develop informal
informal networks;
networks;
• Help avoid duplication of effort by exposing participants to past and ongoing
research and
and applied
applied work
work onon NWFPs in in the
the region;
• Seek consensus on on aa prioritized
prioritized set
set of
of short-
short- to
to mid-term
mid-term actions
actions to
to promote
promote
the
the sustainable use of NWI-Ps
sustainable use within the
NWFPs within the Congo Basin for
Congo Basin for the benefit
benefit of
of local
local
communities and the conservation of of forest biodiversity.
2. A
A focus
focus on
on non-wood
non-woodforest
forest products
products of plant
plant origin
Given the number ofof products used

used by humans
humans that originate
originate from
from the
the forest
forest (wood
(wood products
products --
logs,
logs, sawn wood, poles, fuelwood, charcoal,
wood, poles, fuelwood, charcoal, and non-wood products bark, roots, tubers,
non-wood products - bark, roots, tubers,
corms, leaves, flowers,
corms, leaves, flowers, seeds,
seeds, fruits,
fruits, sap,
sap, resins,
resins, honey,
honey, fungi,
fungi, and animal
animal products
products - that
that
include
include everything from termites
everything from termites to
to elephants); the factors
elephants); the factors that influence
influence their
their availability
availability
3
time; the enormous
over time; range of domestic
enormous range domestic and commercial
commercial uses
uses for
for these products;
products; and the
complexity of the pathways along which forest products travel from producer
complexity producer to
to consumer,
consumer, aa
single workshop
single workshop to to review
review the state-of-knowledge
state-of-knowledge ofof the
the whole
whole sector and
and identify
identify priority
priority
next steps for sustainable
sustainable management of all forest products would be untenable. To keep the
size of the experts group to a workshop maximum of
workshop maximum of under
under 100
100 people,
people, and
and to ensure that a
set of priority aciions
actions could be identified in the available time,
time, the organisers decided to focus
on non-wood
on forest products,
non-wood forest products, and
and excluded
excluded both
both wood
wood products,
products, and
and vertebrates from the
vertebrates from the
discussion.
3. A call for action on wildlife use in the region
Excluding bushmeat hunting,

hunting, trophy hunting
hunting and the live animal animal trade is contentious as some some
would argue
argue that in terms
terms ofof value
value toto local
local economies
economies and and immediate
immediate threat
threat to
to biodiversity
biodiversity
conservation, trade in animals
animals isis a key
key issue.
issue. Though
Though the the workshop
workshop organisers
organisers deny
deny neither
neither of
of
these contentions they believed that their expertise, and thus thus their capacity to identify experts
and to organize
organize the workshop,
workshop, lay more in the the domain
domain of of non-wood
products ofof plant
plant
origin. That wildlife use in the forests the Congo Basin is a key issue is
origin. That wildlife use in the forests of the Congo Basin is a key issue is not debated;
debated; rather
the
the organizers
organizers of this
this workshop
workshop challenge others with
challenge others with expertise
expertise in
in this
this domain
domain to to pull
pull
together,
together, as soon as
as possible,
possible, the
the experts
experts in in this
this field
field totocharacterise
characterisethe
thestate-of-knowledge
state-of-knowledge
and identify priority
priority actions to promote
actions to sustainable use
promote sustainable use of wildlife
wildlife within the
the forest
forest of
of the
the
Congo Basin.
Structure of
4. Structure of the workshop
The two primary goals of the workshop were to bring together NWFP experts to:
to:
• Share their experiences;

• Identify priority actions to promote sustainable use of NWFPs
NWFPs to benefit local
communities, and conserve forest biodiversity.
Given these two goals, the workshop was divided into two components:
• A series of
of 20 minutes presentations by workshop participants that were
workshop participants
selected to characterise the state of
of the NWFP sector across thethe Congo
Congo Basin;
Basin;
• A set of
of working
working groups designed to identify short- to mid-term
mid-term actions
actions that
that
would build on past and ongoing activities
activities to promote
promote the
the sustainable use
use of
NWFPs.
5. The challenge of discussing a complex issue

5.
Whenever humans use wild resources for domestic consumption consumption or as a source of of income
income the
question of sustainability arises. If the resource is not used
question used sustainably,
sustainably, its abundance
abundance will
decrease progressively so
decrease progressively so that
that at
at some
some time
time inin the
the future
future itit no longer becomes available as
becomes available as a
source of nutrition, construction materials, medicine, or income to local local communities,
communities, and and the
the
species and
species and its
its genetic
genetic makeup
makeup maymay bebe lost
lost forever
forever from
from thethe global
global patrimony.
patrimony. The issue of of
sustainability is key to any discussion of NW1-Ps.
NWFPs. However sustainability is is aa complex
complex issue
issue
and one whose
whose components
components are all interconnected.
interconnected. ThisThis makes
makes any discussion of NWFPs NWFPs a
challenge because the iss.ues are too
iss'ues are too complex
complex to address simultaneously.
simultaneously. Yet the division
division of
of
the issues into components is somewhat arbitrary, and most importantly, risks overlooking the
inherent
inherent interconnections
interconnections and and interdependencies
interdependencies among among the the components
components within
within thethe NWFP
NWFP
sector.
4
The workshop waswas designed so that three major issues
issues concerning the exploitation of NWFPs
NWFPs
were addressed; ecological, socio-political and market-economic issues. These topics
were addressed; ecological, socio-political and market-economic issues. These topics
provided the theme under which papers were organised
organised and presented.
presented. During
During the
the workshop
workshop
an additional focus
an focus area, that of networking and information exchange, was also identified.
Core Challenge for Sustainable Use of Non-Wood Forest Products
COMBINING
Biodiversity
Livelihoods
Conservation
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Reconciling
Reconciling development
development and conservation
Clearly, the
Clearly, the boundaries
boundaries around
around these
these components
components are are fuzzy
fuzzy and
and interconnections
interconnections andand
interdependencies abound.
interdependencies abound. Yet
Yet they
they do
do provide the opportunity
opportunity for focused discussion
discussion on
on the
state-of-knowledge within each area,
state-of-knowledge area, and a prioritisation of future actions. The thread
thread binding
binding
together each
together each of these
these focus
focus areas
areas is the common desire to - pronzote
common desire promote thethe sustainable
sustainable use
use of
NWFPs to benefit local communities
NWFPs communities and conserve forest biodiversity. This core core message
message was
was
voiced by all participants throughout the workshop and constituted a challenge to all involved
to find ways
to ways toto combine
combine aa concern
concern forfor people's
people's livelihoods
livelihoods with thethe need
need toto conserve
conserve
biodiversity when discussing the importance, values and management of NWFPs in the Congo
Basin.
B asin.
6. Presentations
6. Presentations
Papers presented during the workshop were selected:
• To reflect the range of

of issues that must be addressed
addressed to
to manage
manage NWFPs
NWFPs
sustainably;
• To characterise different approaches
approaches to
to promoting sustainable
sustainable NWFP
NWFP use;
use;
• To provide an overview of the present status of
of NWFP use and management
management
across the Congo Basin.
The list of the names of all authors

authors and the title of
of the
the papers
papers presented
presented during
during the
the workshop
workshop
of contents of
are presented in the list of of this
this volume.
volume.
7. Summary
Summary of the key issues arising from the presentations
presentations
Summarisingthe
Summarising the extraordinary
extraordinaryrange
range and
and depth
depth of the
the information
information and and lessons
lessons learned
learned
presented in the papers listed above might seem like a Herculean task, were it not for the the fact
fact
that the
the issues
issues addressed in each of the
addressed in the papers
papers tend
tend to
to fit
fit rather
rather neatly
neatly into
into aaremarkably
remarkably
simple model presented by Tony Cunningham and developed by Brad Bennett (1992).
This model argues that approaches
approaches to
to sustainable
sustainable NWIT
NWFP management
management are are influenced
influenced largely
largely
by two factors:
• The cultural
cultural and
and economic
economic value
value of
ofaa given
given NW1,P;
NWFP;
• The intensity of exploitation of the NWFP (a function
function of the productivity of the
the
resource relative to
to the
the scale
scale of
of harvesting).
harvesting).
When the value of

of an
an NW1-1' and the
NWFP and the intensity
intensity ofof exploitation
exploitation are
are low,
low, human
human impact
impact on
on that
that
NWFP are likely
NWFP are to be
likely to be minimal
minimal and
and little
little if
if any
any formal
formal management
management of the resource is
resource is
55
required. AtAtthe
the other
other end
end of
ofthe
the continuum,
continuum, whenwhen the value of an NWFP and the intensity of
its use are
are extremely
extremely high, it is is highly
highly likely
likely that
that the
the resource
resource isis being
beingoverexploited
overexploited and
and isis
threatened with
with local
local extinction.
extinction. InIn this
this case,
case, substitution
substitution or
or domestication
domestication may be the only only
way
way to conserve
conserve thethe wild
wild resource
resource without
without adversely
adversely affecting local livelihoods.
affecting local livelihoods. Between
Between
extremes, human
these two extremes, human use
use ofof wild
wild resources
resources has
has aameasurable
measurable impact
impactononNWI-P
NWFP species
species
abundance and productivity but can be sustainable if appropriate management systems systems are in
there is
place (i.e. there is control
control over
over resource
resource access
access and
and harvest
harvest levels).
levels).
Substitution and
domestication
Likely
extinction
No
Managed use of
impact
resources
wild resources
No intervention
needed
Intensity of Exploitation
Figure 2. Model
ModelofofNWFP
NWFPsustainable
sustainable use
Using this
Using this structure we can
structure we can see that
that the
the papers
papers presented
presented during
during the
the workshop
workshop were
were all
all
seeking to
seeking to understand some component
understand some component of of this
this sustainable
sustainable NWFP
NWFP management
management model.
model. For
example, some
example, some papers
papers considered how to assess
considered how assess human
human impacts
impacts on on NYJFPs
NWFPs or or determine
determine
sustainable harvest
harvest levels,
levels, or
or characterise
characterise the
the value
value of NWFPs
NWFPs for for local consumption
consumption andand for
for
markets, thus
markets, thus helping us to determine where along the management continuum of non-impact non-impact
to likely extinction a particular community using a particular NWFP NWFP might lie.lie. Other
Other papers
papers
focused more on the management mechanisms
mechanisms that that would
would need
need toto be in place to monitor who
uses
uses aa particular
particular NWFP
NWFP and and how
how much
much theythey use.
use. Still
Still others
others were
were concerned
concerned with
with
domestication and
domestication and improvement
improvement (i.e. increased productivity,
(i.e. increased productivity, ease
ease of harvesting,
harvesting, quality
quality
as a means of ensuring ownership)
control and as ownership) of species
species that were both valued by resources
resources
users and threatened with local extinction.
Given
Given this
this structure what were
were some of the key lessons learned from the presentations? From
the model two major options are available to manage NWFPs - the first, domestication and
the
cultivation is
on-farm cultivation is appropriate
appropriate when
when wild resources
resources are being over-exploited;
over-exploited; the second,
putting in place systems to define who has access to wild wild NWFP
NWFP resources
resources inin aa given
given area,
area,
appropriate when
and to monitor (measure and control) harvest levels, is appropriate when wild
wild resource
resource use
use is
is
still within
still within sustainable
sustainable levels.
levels. A third
third issue,
issue, maximising
maximising thethe per unit value obtained from
obtained from
marketing NWFPs, applies
marketing NWFPs, applies to
to both options
options as it is
is intended
intended to
to increase
increase the
the value
value ofofNWFPs
NWFPs
without increasing the quantity exploited.
More
More specifically, the presentations
specifically, the presentationsidentified
identifieda arange
range of
of critical
critical issues
issues that
that must
must be
be
considered when promoting
promoting sustainable
sustainable NWFP
NWIT use in the
the Congo
Congo Basin.
Basin. The
The citations
citations below
below
included within
refer to the papers included within these
these proceedings.
proceedings.
6
8. Ecological lessons
lessons learned
learned
• Depending on the life history of the species involved and how

involved and how the
the NWFP
NWFP is harvested
harvested
(whole plant,
(whole plant,leaves,
leaves,bark,
bark,fruits,
fruits,resin,
resin,etc.)etc.)the
theimpact
impactofof NWFP
NWFP use use on
on the
long-term productivity of the resource may
population structure and long-term productivity of the resource may not be discernible
discernible
in the short-term
short-term (van Dijk; Sunderland
Sunderland et al.; Cunningham).
Cunningham). For example, the impact
of seed harvesting on tree regeneration
regeneration may not be detected detected for 60-100
60-100 years
years in
in long-
long-
living tree species (Peters).
• Some
Some dense
dense forest
forest trees
trees species
species in the the Congo
Congo basin
basin such
suchasasokoumé
okoume(Aukoumea
(Aukoumea
klaineana) appear
appear to
to regenerate
regenerate only in relatively large disturbed areas (Laird).
• Variability
Variability inin flowering
flowering andand fruiting
fruiting maymay result
result in wide
wide fluctuations
fluctuations in in NWFP
NWFP
availability from year to year (van Dijk).
• High diversity of tropical forests
forests means that the density of NWFPs may be low or or very
very
patchy in distribution (Peters; van Dijk; Cunningham).
• Sustainable use
Sustainable use requires
requires a) inventories
inventories of standing stock, stock, b) productivity estimates,
estimates, c)
monitoring of regeneration and d) assessment of of present and future demand
demand (Peters).
(Peters).
• Propagation and
Propagation and cultivation
cultivation of of many
many NWFPs
NWFPs are difficultdifficult oror poorly
poorlyunderstood
understood
(Okafor; Nkefor et al.; Tchoundjeu et al.).
• Reduced-impact harvesting
Reduced-impact harvesting isis only
only likely
likely ifif the
the harvester
harvester believes
believes hehe or
or she
she will
will benefit
benefit
from the effort (van Dijk; Cunningham).
• Results of ecological
Results research have
ecological research have to be made made available
available toto local
local communities,
communities, otherother
resource users
resource users and
and politicians
politicians ifif the
the full
full value
value of the forest is to be be reflected
reflected in
in forest
forest
use decisions (Shanley).
9. Socio-politicallessons
Socio-political lessons learned
learned
• Harvesters of NWFPs
Harvesters of NWFPs often
often modify
modify the landscape
landscape to
to facilitate
facilitate regeneration.
regeneration. For
example, rattan
example, rattan harvesters
harvesters ensure
ensure adequate
adequate light penetration
penetration toto encourage
encourage regrowth
regrowth
(Sunderland).
• Local communities are more likely to have in place and enforce NWFP-use restrictions restrictions
if the community
community isis ethnically
ethnically homogenous
homogenous and and stable in in composition
composition (Malleson;
(Malleson;
Shanley).
• Absentee elites often
Absentee elites often attempt
attempt toto capture
capture the
the value
value of community forests for
community forests for their
their
personal gain,
personal gain, and may actively
actively attempt
attempt to diminish
diminish the
the effectiveness
effectiveness ofof community-
community-
based sustainable NWFP use systems (Malleson).
• Resource users
Resource users know
know what NWFPs are
what NWFPs are important
important toto them,
them, what NWFPs
NWFPs they they would
would
like to see domesticated, and what characteristics of NWFPs they would would like
like improved
improved
(Okafor; Nkefor et al.; Tchoundjeu; Ladipo).
• Raising household
Raising income can
household income can have
have perverse
perverse impacts
impacts onon NWFP
NWFP consumption
consumption (e.g. (e.g.
more income means higher demand for goods, and the ability to hire labour labour to to intensify
intensify
harvesting of
harvesting of NWFPs).
NWFPs). Gabon
Gabon isis an
an example
example of aa relatively
relatively wealthy
wealthy nation
nation that that
maintains aa high
maintains high per capita demand
demand forfor NWFPs
NWFPs (Profizi;
(Profizi; Yembi).
Yembi). There
There isis also
also a high
demand for NWFPs in Europe from prosperous African expatriates (Tabuna). (Tabuna).
• Resource ownership is a key to to individual
individual investment
investment in NWFPs. For example,
example, womenwomen
were keen to plant trees as sources of scarce fuelwood but men realized that trees might
give women de facto ownership over "their" land (Burnley).
de facto (Burnley).
• The first
The first step
step in any
any NWFP
NWFP action
action is toto determine
determine what
what people
people use and
and its its relative
relative
importance in
importance in the domestic market economy
domestic and market economy (Ndoye
(Ndoye et et al.;
al.; Clark and Sunderland;
Sunderland;
Liengola; Yembi; Kimpouni; Sunderland
Sunderland and Obama).
and Obama).
7
10. Market-economic
10. Market-economic lessons
lessons learned
learned
• Developing effective
Developing effectivemethods
methodsfor for preserving
preserving and and storing
storing NWFPs
NWFPs is critical
critical to
to
maximising the income
income that can be generated from from each unit of a given NWFP
each unit NWFP (Ladipo;
(Ladipo;
Tabuna).
• Without access to markets NWFPs contribute very little to household income, income, but maymay
still contribute significantly to domestic consumption (van Dijk; Malleson).
• NWFP marketing
NWFP marketing isis seldom
seldom aa specialist
specialist activity,
activity, and
and isis more
more often used to to generate
generate
capital needed to start other economic activities
activities such asas tree-crop plantations,
plantations, or to pay
for seasonal
for seasonal (school
(school fees)
fees) or
or unexpected
unexpected costs
costs (funerals,
(funerals, illness,
illness, etc.)
etc.) (Sunderland;
(Sunderland;
Defo).
• The legal framework
framework forfor harvesting
harvesting NWFPs
NWFPs is is unclear
unclear and and harvesters
harvesters risk harassment
harassment
while transporting their products to market (Sunderland et al.; Defo; Nkuinkeu). Nkuinkeu).
• Recently urbanized
Recently urbanized populations
populations and and nationals
nationals living
living overseas
overseas cancan generate
generate strong
strong
demand
demand forfor NWFPs
NWFPs that are viewed as one of their few remaining links to aa traditional traditional
village way of life (Tabuna).
• changes in the supply of NWFPs
Small changes NWFPs appear to result in large changes in the the quantity
quantity
marketed (i.e. markets for NWI-Ps
NWFPs are thin) resulting in supply uncertainty and irregular irregular
income from NWFP marketing (Liengola).
• Domestication
Domestication and and on-farm
on-farm cultivation
cultivationare
are the
the keys
keys to
to ensuring reliable supplies
ensuring reliable supplies of
NWFPs (Okafor; Nkefor et al.; Tchoundjeu; Nkuinkeu;
NVVI-Ps (Okafor; Nkefor et al.; Tchoundjeu; Nkuinkeu; Sunderland).
• revenues accrue at the national/treasury level,
Logging revenues level, whereas
whereas NWFP revenues revenues accrue
at the local community/household level - national governments and local local communities
communities
may therefore be in conflict over perceptions of the most most economically
economically rational use use of
of
the forest (Malleson; Shanley).
11. Working groups

11.
The working
working groups were given
groups were given the
the task of identifying
identifying a priority
priority set of short-
short- to
to mid-term
mid-term
actions that would build on past and ongoing
actions ongoing work to promote the sustainable use use of
of NWFPs
NWFPs
in the
the Congo
Congo Basin.
Basin. Discussions
Discussions during working group sessions
working group sessions touched
touched on a wide range of
topics and concerns.
topics Yet, it is still
concerns. Yet, still possible
possible to distil
distil from
from each
each group
group a key
key message
message that,
that,
hopefully, captures
captures the
the essence
essence ofof the
the experts'
experts' efforts
effortstotoset
setpriorities
prioritiesfor
forfuture
futureaction.
action. A key
each working
message from each working group
group might
might be
be the
the following:
following:
Working group Key Message

Ecological Methods for baseline ~ata
data collecting and
and monitoring
monitoring of
of NWFPs
NWFPs must
must
be developed, and individuals responsible for
for management of
NWFPs trained in their use if NWFPs
NWFPs areare to
to be
be managed sustainably
sustainably
in the wild.
. Socio-Political
S ocio-Political Ensuring the existence of social institutions capable of of regulating
access to and harvest levels
levels of NWFPs
NWFPs is is critical to
to sustainable
sustainable use
use of
of
NWFPs.
Market-Economic Seeking ways to smooth the supply of NWFPs and enhance their per
unit value is central to providing economic incentives (i.e. livelihood
livelihood
benefits) for sustainable NWFP use.
Networking and Making available to Central Africans the information on NWFPs that
Information Exchange already is being published regularly by other organizations and
and
to "building on the knowledge base - and avoiding
networks is a key to
reinventing the wheel"
88
Building on the foundation of
of these
these key messages the working groups proposed
proposed the
the following
following
priority actions:
set of priority actions:
12. Ecological
Ecological priority
priority actions
The ecological working group felt strongly that an important first step step to
to prioritising
prioritising actions
actions
to promote
promote sustainable NWFP use
sustainable NWFP use in
in the
the Congo Basin was
Congo Basin was to
to identify
identify a short-list
short-list of key
key
NWFP species.
NWFP species. Two
Two primary
primary criteria were
were used
used to
to select
select key
key NWFP
NWFP species.
species. The first and
most important
most important isis that the NWFP
NWFP must be highly highly valued
valued for domestic
domestic consumption
consumption or as aa
product for the
the market.
market. The
The second
second criterion
criterionwas was that
thatdemand
demandfor fora a"high
"highvalue"
value"NW1-4P
NWFP was
supply. Simply
exceeding supply.
exceeding stated, the
Simply stated, the criteria for selection
criteria for selection are
are those
those that
that place
place specific
specific
NWFPs toward
NWFPs toward the
the top-right corner of the sustainable
top-right corner sustainable use model
model shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2.2. The
diversity of NVVFP expertspresent
NWFP experts presentatatthe
theLimbe
Limbe workshop
workshop provided
provided aa unique
unique opportunity to
develop a short-list of NWFPs
develop NWFPs to be the the focus
focus of
of short-
short- to
to mid-term
mid-term sustainable
sustainable useuse actions.
actions.
Tables 1 and 2 show the results of this two step selection process. process. Step one identifies NWFPs
NWFPs
with high value, step two subsets those that are intensively harvested.
Table 1:
1: Short-list
Short-list of
of key NWFPs
Species In-situ conservation Livelihood Markets

Domestication New Markets
priority status Value Priority Potential
Bail/onella
Baillonella toxisperma ***
*** ***
***
Gnetwn africanum
Gnetum africanutn &
& G.
G. ***
*** ***
*** ***
*** ***
***
buchholzianum
Rattan (Laccosperma **
** ***
*** ***
*** ***
***
secundiflorurn
secundiflorum & & Eremospatha
macrocarpa)
Cola acuminata & & *
* ***
*** **
C.
C. nitida
Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis & & I.l. *
* ***
*** ***
*** ***
***
wombolu
Dacryodes
Daclyodes edulis ***
*** *
*
Piper
Piper guineensis
!{uineensis '***
*** ***
***
Garcinia lucida, ***
*** **
** ***
***
G. mannii
G. matmii && G.
G. kola
Marantaceae **
** **
**
Ricinodendron heudelottii **
**
Prunus africana ***
*** ** ***
*** **
**
Pausinystalia
PausinYstalia johimbe ***
*** ** ***
*** **
Tabernanthe
Tabemanthe iboga **
** * ***
***
Results of this preliminary prioritisation process

process suggest that efforts,
efforts, at least in short-
short- to mid-
mid-
term, should be focused on Gnetum, Baillonella, and rattans (Laccosperma secundiflorum and
Gnetum, Baillonella,
Eremospatha macrocarpa
Eremospatha macrocarpa inin particular).
particular). Prunus
Prunus africana
africana and
and yohimbe
yohimbe (Pausinystalia
(Pausinystalia
johimbe) may also be considered
considered of
of importance given the size of the international
international market
market and
and
the potential for domestication. Cola, Irvingia
domestication. Cola, Irvingia and
and Dacryodes
Dacryodes are of lower
lower priority
priority because
because
they have already been incorporated into agro-production systems to some extent.
9
Table 22 Characteristics
Characteristicsof
ofkey
key NIVFPs
NWFPs
,
,
- I .,5 ,' , I Harvest Plant Part i Uses ,
. Itat
. arket Impact Used J .
Baillonella high high high high high hmber, fruit medicine, wild Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, pnmary forest,
toxisperma timber, food Congo-Brazza, Congo-Kinshasa plantation
Cola high high high medium low fruit, seed medicine, wild, cultivated Cameroon, Gabon plantation, farms
acuminata, nitida d e, food
Dacryodes edulis high high high low low fruit
I fruit fruit, fodder, cultivated Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon, farms, secondary forest
farms,
shade, Eq. Guinea, Congo-Brazza, CAR,
I medicine Con o-Kinshasa
Dioscorea
Diosco rea high high high medium high tubers food, medicine wild, cultivated
>-'
Fungi low low low low low all food wild
0 Garcinia lucida, medium high medium I low high roots, bark, medicine, wild, cultivated secondary forest,
mannii, & kola timber cosmetic, primary forest,
s ice tree cross
Gnetum africanum high high high medium high leaf food, wild, tolerated, Cameroon, Nigeria, Cent. Afr. Rep. pnmary forest,
G. buchholzianum
G. medicine cultivated Congo-Kinshasa, Congo-Brazza, secondary forest,
Es. Guinea, Gabon fallow
Irvingia gabonen- high high high medium low seed, fruit medicine, food, wild, tolerated Caraeroon,
Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon, pnmary
primary forest,
sis & wombolu cosmetic, spice, Eq. Guinea, Congo-Brazza, secondary forest,
fuelwood, Congo-Kinshasa famis
farms
timber
Marantaceae high high high low high leaf, fruit wrappers, wild Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, secondary forest
(wra in leaves) crafts Cono-Brazza, Con:o-Kinshasa
Pausinystalia high low high high bark medicine wild, cultivated
cultivated Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, primary forest
*ohimbe Ni aria, Con o-Brazza
Physostigma medium low low low low seed medicine, wild, cultivated
cultivated Cameroon, Nigeria, secondary forest
venenosum cultural Con o-Kinshasa
Picralima nitida low low low medium seed, bark medicine wild Cameroon, Gabon, Congo-Brazza, primary forest
Con o-Kinshasa, Es. Guinea
r tn atiiin' .,,..Distributinn...,! ' otTabitat.
ar
Piper guineenis high high high low low seed, leaf spice wild, cultivated Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, secondary forest
i Congo-Brazza, Congo-Kinshasa
I
Prunus africana high low high high high ii bark
bark medicine, wild, cultivated Eq. Guinea,
Guinea, Congo-Kinshasa,
Congo-Kinshasa, primary forest, farms
timber Cameroon
Rattan (Laccosper- medium high medium low medium stem crafts, food, wild Cameroon, Nigeria, Cent. Afr. Rep. primary forest,
rna secundiflorum
ma secundiflorurn medicine Congo-Kinshasa, Congo-Brazza, secondary forest
Eremospatha
Erernospatha Gabon
Eq. Guinea, Gabon
macrocalpa
Ricinodendron medium medium medium
medium low low fruit, seed food wild, tolerated Cameroon, Gabon, Congo-Brazza, secondary forest,
forest,
heudelottii Congo-Kinshasa, Eq. Guinea plantation, farms
farms
Strophanthus low low low low low seed medicine wild, cultivated Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, secondary forest
gratus I
Congo-Brazza, Congo-Kinshasa
Tabernanthe iboga low
Tabernanthe iboga low low low
low low high resin medicine, wild, cultivated Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea,
wild, cultivated secondary forest
i cultural Congo-Brazza, Congo-Kinshasa
Voacanga africana medium
Voacanga medium low medium medium low seed, bark, medicine wild, cultivated
vvild, cultivated Cameroon, Gabon, Eq. Guinea, secondary forest
secondary
......
...... resin, latex Congo-Brazza, Congo-Kinshasa
working group suggested that it is critical
Furthermore, the ecological working critical to:
to:
• build on
build onpast
pastand
andongoing
ongoingwork
workonon
keykey NWFPs;
NVV1413s;
• develop appropriate methods
develop methods (i.e. cheap, culturally
culturally acceptable,
acceptable, economically
economically viable,
viable,
feasible)
feasible) for baseline data collection and
and monitoring
monitoring ofof key
key NWFPs
NWFI's in in the
the wild;
wild; and
and
• establish farmer
establish fanner research
research activities
activities to
to better
better understand
understand thethe process
process ofof domestic
domestic
production
production of key NWH's,
NWFPs, andand the
the benefits,
benefits, constraints,
constraints, and
and impacts
impacts ofofdomestic
domestic
production.
By combining the short-list of key NWFPs

NWFPs with the above three items, the ecological working
group generated aa set
group generated set of short-
short- to
to mid-term
mid-term actions
actions to promote
promote the sustainable use of key
sustainable use
NWFPs in the Congo Basin.
12.1. Recommended
12.1. Recommended short-
short- to
to mid-term
mid-term actions
Step 1:
1: Prepare
Prepare and
anddisseminate
disseminate state-of-knowledge
state-of-knowledge reports
reports on Gnetum,
Gnetum, Baillonella,
Baillonella, P.
johimbe and rattan.
johimbe and rattan. These
These reports
reports should:
should: a)a) detail
detail who
who has
has and
and isis doing
doing what
what in
in
regard to the sustainable use
use of each
each NWFP,
NWIT, b) identify gaps in our knowledge,
knowledge, andand
c) characterise opportunities
opportunities and constraints to promoting
promoting sustainable
sustainable use
use of
of these
these
NWFPs.
Step 2: Support
Step Support aa set
set of
ofapplied
applied research
research projects
projects (see
(see paper
paper by
by Patricia
Patricia Shanley
Shanley as
as an
an
example) to
example) to develop
develop and
and share
share appropriate
appropriate (i.e.
(i.e. cheap,
cheap, culturally
culturally acceptable,
acceptable,
economically viable,
economically viable, feasible)
feasible) methods
methods for
for baseline data collection
collection and
and monitoring
monitoring
Gnetum, Baillonella, P. johimbe and rattan in the wild.
of Gnetum,
Step 3: Su,pport
Support establishment
establishment of
of farmer-based
farmer-basedresearch
research activities
activities to
to better
better understand
understand the
the
process, benefits,
process, benefits, constraints, and impacts
constraints, and impacts of domestic
domestic production
production ofofGnetum,
Gnetum,
Baillonella, P.
Baillonella, P. johimbe
johimbe and
and rattan,
rattan, and to
to promote
promote adoption
adoption ofof domestic
domestic NWFP
NWFP
production.
13. Socio-political
13. Socio-political priority
priority actions
The socio-political working group

group focused
focused their discussions
discussions primarily on issues related to the
social institutions that
social institutions that exist
exist or
or need
need toto be
be in place
place to monitor
monitor and
and regulate
regulate access
access to,
to, and
harvest levels of, NVVI-Ps. Acrossthe
NWFPs. Across the sustainable
sustainableuse
use spectrum
spectrum (Figure
(Figure 2)2) the
the range
range of
of actors
actors
involved in the use and misuse of NWFPs
NWFPs is as broad as the the types
types of
of regulatory
regulatory systems
systems that
that
control who
control who has access to forest
forest resources,
resources, determine
determine what constitutes appropriate
appropriate use,
use, and
impose sanctions on
impose sanctions on those
those who
who break
break resource
resourceuse userules.
rules. A key question that arose frorn the
from the
workshop
workshop discussions
discussions was why do
was - why do traditional
traditional systems
systems ofof forest
forest resource
resource management
management
breakdown,
breakdown, can they be revitalised or what can replacereplace them?
them?
As one moves
moves along the sustainable use continuum (from lower-left to upper-right in Figure 2)
resource management
resource management systems
systems often
often shift from common
common property
property ownership
ownership to
to individual
individual
ownership of wild or on-farm
ownership on-farm resources.
resources. InIn between
between these
these two extremes is where
where resource
resource
management institutions
management institutions tend
tend to
to break down
down or or become
become ineffective.
ineffective. During
During the transition
transition
from public
from public toto private
private ownership,
ownership, community
community based based institutions
institutions that
that primarily
primarily were
were
responsible for
responsible for determining
determining who
who has
has access,
access, rather
rather than
than how much was harvested, are often
overpowered by
overpowered by outsiders
outsiders or
or absentee
absentee elites,
elites, resulting
resulting in the rapid depletion of
of the
the resources
resources
and the impoverishment of of the local
local community.
community.
The use of Garcinia

The Garcinia chewsticks
chewsticks in
in Cameroon
Cameroon and Nigeria
Nigeria was
was presented
presented as
as an
an interesting
interesting
example of the
example the dynamic
dynamic between
between outsiders
outsiders seeking
seeking access
access to
to resources
resources and
and community
community
capacity to
capacity to regulate
regulate the access and to benefit
benefit from
from such
such regulation.
regulation. In Cameroon,
Cameroon, Nigerian
12
12
chewstick harvesterspay
chewstick harvesters pay for
for access
access to
to community stocks of
community stocks of Garcinia
Garcinia but are
are allowed
allowed to
to
harvest unlimited quantities. Across
unlimited quantities. Across the border, Nigerian communities charge
communities charge not only for
access but also
also for
for the
the quantity
quantity ofof Garcinia
Garcinia harvested.
harvested. InIn the
the Nigerian
Nigerian case, harvesting is is less
less
intensive and the community gains gains more
more from
from providing
providing access
access to
to their
their forest
forest resources.
resources. The
The
opposite is true for the Cameroon case, in that the resource is being heavily exploited and the the
community benefits little
community benefits little from
from the
the depletion
depletionofof their
theirnatural
naturalcapital.
capital. The questions posed by
this
this example
example are:
are: a) why
why do do two
two communities
communities fromfrom the
the same
same ethnic
ethnic group
group have
have different
different
systems for regulating
systems for access to
regulating access to their forest
forest resources,
resources, andand b) how
how can
can the
theCameroonian
Cameroonian
community learn from their Nigerian neighbours?
To better understand
understand the role that social
social institutions play in regulating
regulating access to
to and
and harvest
harvest
levels of NWFPs,
NWFPs, and to help establish social systems
systems that can promote the sustainable use of
NWFPs, the socio-political working group recommended the following actions:

13.1. Recommended short- to mid-term
mid-term actions
actions
Step 1:
1: Support
Supportaaset
setofofcase
casestudies
studiestotocharacterise
characterise the
the social
social institutions
institutions (local
(local and
and extra-
extra-
local) responsible
responsible forfor regulating
regulating access
accessto,to, and
andharvest
harvestlevels
levelsof,
of,NWFPs,
WI-Ps, evaluate
evaluate
the factors associated with their management
management strengths and weakness,
strengths a.nd weakness, and identify
opportunities for reinforcing
opportunities for reinforcing local
local resource
resource management
managementcapacity.
capacity. The case studies
should be stratified across the continuum from low or no-impact NWFP use to to high
high
intensity use where the resource is threatened with local extinction, and, if if possible,
should build
build on
on existing
existing studies
studies or
or projects.
projects. The case studies
studies should also focus
focus on
critical
critical NWFPs
NWFPs as as identified
identified by thethe Ecological
Ecological Working
Working GroupGroup (i.e.
(i.e. Gnetum,
Gnetum,
Baillonella, P. johimbe andand rattan).
Step 2: Share
Step Share the
the results
results of the
the case
case studies
studies with
with local
local communities,
communities, and national
national forest
forest
management authorities
management authorities (see example
example byby Shanley)
Shanley) toto help
help reinforce
reinforce local capacity to
regulate use
regulate use of their forest resources
resources and thus enhance
enhance the benefits
benefits that
that they
they gain
gain
from the forest.
14. Market-economic
14. Market-economic priority
priority actions
In remarkable congruence
congruence with both the Ecological and Socio-political Working Groups, the
Groups, the
Market-economic Working Group felt that a critical first step
step to
to prioritising
prioritising future
future actions
actions was
was
NWFPs based on:
to identify key NWFPs on: a) their economic value to producers and consumers,
consumers, and
and b)
their conservation status.
The
The Market-economic WorkMgGroup
Market -economic Working Groupwas
was concerned
concernedabout
about identifying
identifying gaps
gaps in
in our
our
knowledge
knowledge of a) local, national andand international
international markets
markets in key
key NWFPs,
NWFPs, b)
b) approaches
approaches to
to
adding value to key NWFPs that enter the market, and c) legislation and policies that
that promote
promote
or militate against sustainable use of NWFPs.
NWITs.
working group recommended the following actions:

To address these concerns this working

14.1. Recommended short- to
to mid-term
mid-term actions
Step 1:
1: Support
Support anananalytical
analytical review
review ofofNVVI,P market surveys
NWFP market surveys completed
completed at at the local,
local,
national and international
national and level to
international level to assess:
assess: a)
a) the value of NWFPs
NWFPs being traded,
traded, b)
seasonal fluctuations
seasonal fluctuations in
in NWFP
NWFP supplies
supplies and
and prices,
prices, c)
c) profit
profit margins
margins for
for traders
traders at
different locations
different locations along
along the
the market
market chain
chain from
from producer
producer to
to consumer,
consumer, d) d)
opportunitiesand
opportunities andconstraints
constraintstotoadding
addingvalue
valuetoto NWFPs,
NWFPs,and and e)
e) gaps
gaps in our
our
knowledge.
13
Step 2:
2: Support
Supportdevelopment
developmentof
ofviable
viablestorage
storage and
and processing
processing methods
methods toto help
help add
add value
value to
to
key NWFPs such as
as Gnetum,
Gnetion, Baillonella,
Baillonella, Cola, and rattan.
Cola, Garcinia, Irvingia and rattan.
Step 3:
3: Support
Supporta aregional
regionalstudy
studyofoflegislation
legislationand
andpolicies
policies that
thatpromote
promote or
or militate
militate against
against
sustainable use of NWFPs,
NWFPs, and and identify opportunities and constraints to
harmonisation of enabling legislation and policies across thethe Congo
Congo Basin.
15. Networking and information

information exchange priority
priority actions
actions
This worldng group, as

working group, as a result of scheduling constraints, was
scheduling constraints, was only
only able
able to
to convene
convene for
for one
one
hour during the workshop. Yet,
the workshop. Yet, participants were able
participants were able to
to articulate
articulate aa vision
vision of what they
would like
would like to
to see
see put in
in place
place in
in the
the next
next 18
18- -2424months
monthstotopromote
promotenetworking
networking and
and
information exchange.
The working group

group first
first identified the
the following
following list
list of
of critical
critical information
information that
that they
they wanted
wanted to
to
see made available or shared
shared more
more regularly:
regularly:
• a compendium
compendium of ongoing research
research that includes the
the topic
topic of
ofresearch,
research, geographic
geographic
location
location of the research,
research, and the address
address of the
the key
key contact
contact person
person or
or organisation
organisation
responsible for directing the research;
• a who's-who in the NWFP sector in Central Africa that includes individuals working
in the sector, as well as NWFP concerned networks;
• a regularly
regularly updated
updated and
and disseminated
disseminated calendar
calendar of NWFP
NWFP events
events (e.g.
(e.g. workshops,
workshops,
meetings etc.);
• information on NWFP markets and new market opportunities;
• methods for
methods for conducting ecological, socio-political and market-economic
ecological, socio-political research on
market-economic research
NWFPs;
• results
results of
ofNVVFP
NWFP research.
The working group voiced

voiced the
the need
need for
for NVVI,Ps practitioners to
NWFPs practitioners to come
come together periodically as
a group to share
share their
their ongoing
ongoing experiences,
experiences, to develop
develop stronger collaboration, and to reduce
collaboration, and
duplication of effort.
duplication They also
effort. They also felt
felt that,
that, at least at this
this early
early stage
stage when
when the the demand
demand for
for
information isis uncertain
information (or at
uncertain (or at least
least unquantified),
unquantified), that
that all
all networldng
networking and and information
information
exchange actions
exchange actions should
should make
make use
use of
of already
already established
established networks,
networks, newsletters,
newsletters, journals,
journals,
meetings, etc. rather than attempting to create new structures that are costlycostly to
to maintain.
maintain.
To ease the flow and

To and exchange
exchange of information on NWFPs
information on NWFPs to to and from stakeholders in the
stakeholders in the
Congo Basin, the working group recommended the
the following actions:
actions:
15.1. Recommended
short- to mid-term
mid-term actions
Step 1: Identify NWFP

1: Identify NVVFPfocal-points
focal-pointsinineach
eachcountry
countryof
of the
the Congo
Congo Basin
Basin who would
would be
be
willing to
to disseminate
disseminate NVV141) informationflowing
NWFP information flowinginto
intothe
thecountry,
country, and
and assemble
information
information to to generate
generate within
within the
the country
country to
to be
be made
made available to others
available to others in the
the
Congo Basin NWFP network. Focal points will
network. Focal will also
also be responsible for ensuring
ensuring that
all interested stakeholders complete who's-who information sheetssheets and
and then
then sending
sending
them to FAO for incorporation into their NWFPs experts database.
Step 2:
2: To
Tocompile
compileinformation
informationon onNWFPs
NWFPsassembled
assembled bybyfocal-points
focal-points in
in the
the Congo
Congo Basin,
Basin,
and
and to disseminate
disseminate this
this information in the region,
information in region, FAO hashas offered
offered the
the editing,
editing,
printing and distribution capacity of the FAO annual
annual publication
publication Non-Wood
Non-Wood News.
News.
The working
The working group
group envisioned that focal-points
envisioned that would send
focal-points would send to FAO FAO relevant
relevant
14
information gleaned from
information gleaned from their
their NWFP
NWFP contacts
contacts in the
the country. FAO would
country. FAO would
incorporate this information
incorporate this into Non-Wood
information into Non-WoodNewsNewsand and send
send copies
copies of the
the
publication to the focal-points
publication focal-points for dissemination to NWFP
NWFP stakeholders
stakeholders throughout
throughout
the region.
Step 3:
3: To
Tomake
makeavailable
availabletotoCentral
CentralAfricans
Africansinformation
information on
on NWFPs made available
available free
free of
of
charge on the Internet, the USDA/Forest
charge Service will
USDAIForest Service will conduct quarterly surveys
surveys of
the NWFP newsletters and other literature available on
on the
the Internet,
Internet, and
and compile
compile this
this
hardcopy booklets
information into hardcopy booklets to be distributed to focal-points for
dissemination in the region.
Step 4: To
Step To generate
generate anan archive
archive ofof key
key literature
literature on
on NWFPs
NWFPs in the
the Congo
Congo Basin,
Basin, the
the
USDA/Forest Service will generate
USDAIForest Service generate aaCD-ROM
CD-ROMcontaining
containingstate-of-knowledge
state-of-knowledge
reports and background literature on key NWFPsNWFPs such as Gnetum,
Gnetum, Baillonella, Cola,
Baillonella, Cola,
Garcinia Irvingia
Irvingia and
and rattan.
rattan.
16. The potential role of NWFPs in forest conservation

16. The conservation
Relative to agriculture and logging, the NWFP sector is the least well understood
understood in
in regard
regard to:
to:
a) its contribution to forest resource degradation
degradation and
and biodiversity
biodiversity loss,
loss, and;
and;
b) its potential
potential role in
in encouraging
encouraging the conservation
conservation of forests
forests and
and reducing
reducing incentives
incentives to
convert forest to non-forested
non-forested land-uses.
land-uses.
The following
The following applied
applied research
research papers,
papers, that were were presented
presented during
during the
the Limbe
Limbe workshop,
workshop,
capture the
capture the diversity
diversity of people
people involved
involved in in the
the NWFP
NWFP sector,
sector, the range of ecological, socio-
political, and economic
political, and economicissuesissuesthat
thatmust
mustbe be addressed
addressedifif the
the role
role of NWFPs
NWFPs in forest
forest
conservation and
conservation and community
community development
developmentisis to to be understood,
understood, and equally
equally important,
important, the
the
gaps that remain
gaps remain in
in our
our knowledge.
knowledge. These research papers papers constitute
constitute a solid foundation
foundation upon
upon
which to build aa coherent
coherent applied
applied research programme. However,
research programme. However, to evaluate
evaluate thethe potential
potential
role
role of NWH's
NWFPs in inforest
forest conservation
conservation itit isis critical
critical that
that continued
continued support
support is is provided
provided to
to
applied research activities
applied activities targeted
targeted at
at filling
filling thethe gaps
gaps inin our
our knowledge
knowledge so so that
that we
we can
can answer
answer
the following questions:
• What is the likely scale of NWFP impact on on forest

forest resources
resources across
across the
the Congo
Congo
Basin?
• Where across the Congo Basin is wild harvesting still likely to be be tenable?
tenable?
• Where across the Congo Basin is wild harvesting untenable and and domestication
domestication
a likely option?
• Under what conditions is wild harvesting
harvesting sufficiently
sufficiently valued
valued by by producers
producers that
that
revenues exceed: a) the management costs to control harvest levels and and b)
of other, forest degrading, land-uses?
opportunity costs of
• Does the cultivation of domesticated NWFPsNWFPs result
result in
in aa reduction
reduction of of wild
wild
NWFP harvesting, or doesdoes NWFP
NWFP cultivation
cultivation result
result in
in aa decline
decline inin the
the value
value of
of
wild NWFP harvesting
harvesting such
such that
that the
the value
value of the intact forest no longer exceeds exceeds the
opportunity costs of
of other,
other, forest
forest degrading,
degrading, land-uses
land-uses (i.e.
(i.e. does
does domestication
domestication lower
lower
the value of intact
intact forest,
forest, thus
thus promote
promote conversion
conversion to other land-uses
land-uses including the
including the
cultivation of domesticated NWFPs)?
• What tools or approaches help promote sustainable wild harvesting?
• What tools or approaches help promote domestic production of NWI-Ts?
ofNWFPs?
15
References
1995. State
Bahuchet, S. 1995.
Bahuchet, State ofof indigenous populations living
indigenous populations living in
in rainforest areas.
areas. Brussels,
Brussels,
European Commission
Commission DG XI Environment.
Bennett, B.C.
Bennett, B.C. 1992.
1992. Plants
Plants and
and people
people of
of the Amazonian rainforests:
rainforests: The role of ethnobotany
development. Bioscience
in sustainable development. Bioscience 42, 599-607.
42,599-607.
BSP. 1993.
BSP. Central Africa
1993. Central Africa global
global climate
climate change
change and
and development
development -- technical
technical report,
report,
Washington, DC, Biodiversity Support Program,.
Oslisly, R.
Oslisly, R. 1995.
1995. The
Themiddle
middleOgooué
Ogooue valley,
valley, Gabon:
Gabon: cultural
cultural changes
changes and
and palaeoclimatic
palaeoclimatic
implications ofof the last four millenia. Azania. 39-40: 324-331.
Oslisly, R.
Oslisly, R. 1998.
1998. TheThehistoiy
historyofofhuman
humansettlement
settlementininthe
themiddle
middleOgooué
Ogoouevalley
valley(Gabon):
(Gabon):
implications for the
implications for the environment.
environment. In In W.
W. Weber,
Weber, A.A. Veder,
Veder, H. Simons
Simons Morland,
Morland, L.J.T.
L.I.T.
White & T. T. Hart,
Hart, eds.
eds. African
African rain
rain forest
forest ecology
ecology and
and conservation.
conservation. New
New Haven,
Haven, Yale
Yale
University Press.
16
ECOLOGICAL
ECOLOGICAL ISSUES
ISSUES
ECOLOGICAL
ECOLOGICALRESEARCH
RESEARCHFOR
FORSUSTAINABLE
SUSTAINABLE NON-WOOD
NON· WOOD
FOREST PRODUCT EXPLOITATION: AN OVERVIEW1
AN OVERVIEW1
Charles M. Peters
Abstract
Tropical trees and forests exhibit

exhibit several
several ecological
ecological characteristics
characteristics that
that make
make the
the sustainable
sustainable
non-wood forest
exploitation of non-wood forest products
products (NWFPs)
(NWFPs) aa more
more difficult proposition than it might
appear. The
first appear. The most
most important
important ofof these
these are
are the
the high
high diversity
diversity and
and low
low density
density ofof
animals for pollination
conspecific individuals, the strong reliance on animals pollination and
and seed
seed dispersal,
dispersal, the
the
high mortality
mortality and low establishment rate during
establishment rate during the
the seedling
seedling stage,
stage, and
and the
the sensitivity of
sensitivity of
population structure to changes in thethe level
level of natural
natural regeneration.
regeneration. Ignoring these ecological
constraints can lead to over-exploitation, resource degradation, and the gradual elimination of
a species from the forest.
At a very
very basic
basic level,
level, designing
designing systems
systems for
for the
the sustainable
sustainable exploitation
exploitation of
ofNWFPs
NWFPs requires
requires
two pieces.
two pieces of ecological
ecological information.
inforination. We
We need
need to to know
know the
the density
density and
and size-class
size-class structure
structure
of the
the plant
plant populations
populations that produce the NWFP (i.e. the the resource
resource stock),
stock), and
and we
we need
need to
to
know how much of the desired resource these populationspopulations produce in a given period of time
(i.e. yield). The
(i.e. the yield). The first
first data
data set means of aa systematic
set is collected by means systematic forest
forest inventory.
inventory. The
The
second data set requires periodic observations
second observations of the the growth and productivity of a subsample
of marked individuals
individuals of varying
varying size.
size. The relationship between resource stock and yield can
be used to estimate a sustainable
sustainable harvest
harvest level
level for
for many NVVFPs.
NWFPs. To To ensure that this intensity
of exploitation
exploitation can
can be
be maintained
maintained overover time,
time, seedling
seedling and
and sapling
sapling numbers
numbers should
should be be
carefully monitored
monitored and harvest
harvest levels
levels adjusted as necessary to provide aa continual
continual flow
flow of
of
new
new seedlings
seedlings into
into the
the population.
popUlation. Data Data collection
collection andand monitoring
monitoring activities
activities are
are most
most
effective when
effective when conducted
conducted by by local communities
communities that that have
have been
been specifically trained for
specifically trained for this
this
purpose.
Key words: Ecologicalimpacts,

words: Ecological impacts, forest
forest management,
management, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, sustainability
sustainability
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
This paper presents the observations

This observations of a plant
plant ecologist
ecologist who has has spent
spent almost
almost twenty
twenty years
years
studying the
studying the ecology,
ecology, use,
use, and management
management of non-wood
non-wood forest products (NWFPs) (NWFPs) in the the
fact,
tropics. In fact, when I first started studying these plant resources they were called "minor"
forest products
forest products and
and nobody
nobody really
really paid
paid much
much attention
attentiontoto them.
them. This
This situation
situation has
has changed
changed
drastically in recent years.
drastically years. NWFPs
NWFPs are are big
big business
business now, and numerous efforts are currently
numerous efforts currently
underway to
underway to promote the the exploitation
exploitation of of these
these valuable
valuable andandhighly-publicised
highly-publicised resources.
resources.
Much attention has often focused on the economiceconomic side of of things, e.g.
e.g. developing
developing markets for
different products,
different products, implementing
implementing local local processing
processing andand value-added
value-added strategies,
strategies, and ensuring
ensuring
equitable distribution
the equitable distribution ofof income
income generated.
generated. Social
Social issues
issues such
such as
as securing
securing land
land tenure
tenure or
usufruct rights
usufruct rights for
for collector
collector groups
groups have alsoalso played
played aa prominent
prominent role.
role. It isis somewhat
somewhat
surprising, however,
surprising, however, that
that the
the ecological
ecological factors
factors associated
associated with
with the exploitation
exploitation of NWFPs
NWFPs
1 A similar version of this paper appears

appears in: Current Issues
Issues in Non-timber
Non-timber Forest
ForestProducts
ProductsResearch,
Research,
M.
M. Ruiz-Perez
Ruiz-Perez and J.E.M.
I.E.M. Arnold
Arnold (eds).
(eds). 1996.
1996. Center
Center for
for International
International Forestry
Forestry Research,
Research, Bogor.
Bogor.
Indonesia.
19
have only
have only rarely
rarely been
been addressed.
addressed. Maintaining a reliable income flow flow over time from a tract
forest requires
of forest requires that
that the forest resources upon which
resources upon which this
this flow
flow is based be maintained
maintained as
well. If these
these resources
resources areare depleted
depleted through
through over-exploitation,
over-exploitation, destructive
destructive harvesting,
harvesting, or
or
poor management,
management, no no new
new market,
market, cottage
cottage industry
industry or land-tenure
land-tenure system
system will
will make
make very
very
much difference. In the long
In the long term,
term, ecology
ecology is arguably
arguably the bottom line for sustainability.
of this paper
The purpose of paper is threefold:
threefold:
• to challenge
to challenge the common
common assumption that the commercial
assumption that commercial harvesting
harvesting of NWI,Ps
NWFPs has
minimal impact on a tropical forest;
• to propose
propose some
some simple
simple data
data collection
collection procedures
procedures for
for monitoring
monitoring the
the ecological
ecological
sustainability of forest exploitation, and
• to highlight several problems
problems that might
might hinder the implementation
implementation of these monitoring
activities.
Given
Given the
the author's
author's previous
previous experience
experience and interests,
interests, the
the discussion
discussion focuses
focuses primarily
primarily on
on
techniques
techniques forfor the
the participatory managementof
participatory management of NWFPs
NWFPs by by local
local communities.
communities. Within
Within the
the
context of this paper, a sustainable
sustainable system for exploiting NWFPs
NWFPs is defined as one in which
which
fruits, nuts,
fruits, nuts, latex, and other non-wood resources
resources can be harvested indefinitely from a limited
area of forest with
with negligible
negligible impact
impact on
on the
the structure
structure and
and dynamics
dynamics ofofthe
the plant
plantpopulations
populations
being exploited.
Ecological impacts
2. Ecological impacts of
of forest
forest use:
use: The myth
myth
Human cultures
Human cultures have
have developed
developed aa variety
variety of
of different
different ways
ways to to use
use forest
forest vegetation.
vegetation. Each
Each
form of land-use
form land-use carries
carries with
with it aa particular
particular suite
suite ofof ecological
ecological costs. Perhaps the most
costs. Perhaps most
intensive and
intensive and costly
costly way
way to
to use
use a forest
forest is to cut itit down,
down, burn
burn it,
it, and
and plant
plantsomething
something else
else
(e.g. timber trees,
(e.g. timber trees, agricultural
agricultural crops,
crops, pasture
pasturegrasses)
grasses)on on the
the site.
site. The
The ecological
ecological impacts of
forest conversion
forest conversion are
are immediate,
immediate, highly
highly visible,
visible,and,
and,in in most
most cases,
cases, highly
highly severe.
severe. Current
Current
research in tropical forests suggests that the most important of of these impacts
impacts include:
include:
• the loss of biomass and species diversity

• the release of
of CO2
C02 and
and other greenhouse gases
• disruption of
of nutrient and
and hydrological cycles
• soil loss through erosion
• increased local temperatures and decreased local rainfall
To put some of these consequences in perspective, a one hectare tract tract of

of primary
primary forest in in the
the
Brazilian Amazon may contain more more than
than 200
200 tree species
species (>10cm dbh) dbh) and present an above
ground living
ground living biomass
biomass of of about
about 300
300 tons/hectare (Brownetetat.,
tons/hectare(Brown al.,1995).
1995). Cutting
Cutting and and burning
burning
this forest
this forest would eliminate most of the biodiversity
eliminate most biodiversity and release approximately
approximately 150 tons of of
carbon/hectare inin the form of carbon
carbon dioxide
dioxide and
and other
other greenhouse
greenhouse gases
gases (Keller
(Keller etet al.,
al., 1991).
1991).
The
The removal
removal of the
the vegetation
vegetation cover
cover would
would increase
increase water
water movement,
movement, soilsoil erosion,
erosion, and and
nutrient loss, decrease
decrease evapo-transpiration
evapo-transpiration and and total ecosystem productivity (Jordan,
(Jordan, 1987),
and potentially
and potentially modify
modify local
local climatic
climatic regimes
regimes because
because ofof the
the increased
increased reflectance
reflectance of solar
radiation (Shukla et
radiation (Shukla et at.,
al., 1990).
1990). The
Thesite
sitewould
wouldbebecharacterised
characterised by bystumps,
stumps, blackened
blackened tree tree
trunks and, depending on the topography, a growing network of eroding gullies. gullies. ItItisisobvious
obvious
to the most casual observer that aa major ecological disturbance
disturbance has
has occurred
occUlTed here.
here.
Another common use

Another common use of forests
forests is to selectively
selectively cut and
and remove
remove the
the desirable
desirable timber
timber trees.
trees.
Although certainly
Although certainly less
less damaging
damaging thanthan total
total forest
forest conversion, selective logging
conversion, selective logging isis also
also
known to produce a number of ecological
ecological repercussions. The most
repercussions. The most conspicuous
conspicuous of
of these
these are:
are:
20
• Loss of
of some plant and animal species
• Damage to residual trees
trees
• Soil loss through erosion
• Loss of
of nutrients
nutrients through
through stem
stem removal
• Change in forest structure and increase inin light levels
A major problem with selective logging logging in tropical forests is that the
tropical forests the crowns
crowns of of many
many large
large
canopy trees are
canopy trees are lashed
lashed toto those
those of their
their neighbours
neighbours by by a profusion
profusion of of vines,
vines, lianas
lianas and
and
climbers.
climbers. When
When selected
selected timber
timber trees
trees are
are felled,
felled, other
other canopy
canopy species
species are
are pulled
pulled down
down and
and
the
the whole
whole woody
woody massmass crashes
crashes through
through the the lower
lower canopy,
canopy, snapping
snapping tree
tree boles,
boles, breaking
breaking
branches, and flattening considerable proportion of the forest understory. Harvesting even
branches, and flattening a considerable proportion of the forest understory. Harvesting
a small number of stems can destroy up up to 55% of the residual stand and seriously damage an
additional 3% to 6% of the standing trees
additional 3% trees (Burgess,
(Burgess, 1971;
1971; Johns,
Johns, 1988).
1988). Associated
Associated impacts
impacts
include soil
include soil compaction, decreasedinfiltration
compaction, decreased infiltrationofof water,
water,increased
increasedraterate of
of soil
soil loss from
from
erosion, disruption
erosion, disruption of local
local animal populations, increased
animal populations, increased susceptibility
susceptibilitytoto fire
fire (Uhl
(Uhl et al.,
1988), and
1988), and nutrient
nutrient loss
loss from
from thethe removal
removal of of sawlogs.
sawlogs. Commercial
Commercial treetree felling produces aa
felling produces
notable
notable impact
impact on aa forest
forest ecosystem,
ecosystem, and and the
the physical
physical evidence
evidence of of this
this disturbance
disturbance isis
immediately apparent
immediately apparent andand persists
persists inin the
the form of logging
logging roads, skid
skid trails,
trails, and
and scattered
scattered
stumps for many years.
A final form of
of forest use
use that
that has
has attracted
attracted aa lot
lot of
ofattention
attention recently
recently involves
involves the
the selective
selective
harvest of fruits, nuts, latex and other non-wood resources.
resources. Although
Althoughrelatively
relatively benign
benign when
when
compared with forest clearing and selective logging, this activity
logging, this activity also produces a number of of
ecological
ecological impacts
impacts including:
including:
• gradual reduction in the

the vigour
vigour of
of harvest plants
• decrease in rate of
of seedling
seedling establishment
establishment of
of harvest
harvest species
species
• potential disruption
disruption of
of local
local animal
animal populations
populations
• nutrient loss from harvested material
At first glance,
glance, these impacts
impacts seem insignificant.
insignificant. The
The harvest
harvest of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products
does
does not necessarily
necessarily kill the plant,
plant, compact
compact the soil,
soil, increase
increase erosion,
erosion, or cause
cause aa notable
notable
change in the structure and function of the forest. AAforest
forestexploited
exploitedfor
fornon-wood
non-woodresources,
resources,
unlike a logged-over
logged-over forest,
forest, maintains
maintains the
the appearance
appearance ofofbeing undisturbed. It is easy
beingundisturbed. easy toto
overlook the subtle
overlook the subtle impacts
impacts ofof NWFP
NWFP harvest
harvest and
and to
to assume
assume a priori that
that this
this activity
activity isis
something that can
something that can be done
done repeatedly,
repeatedly, year
year after
after year,
year, on
on aasustainable
sustainable basis.
basis. This
ubiquitous idea,
ubiquitous idea, or some variant of it, has appeared in books, scientific papers, conference
it, has appeared in books, scientific papers, conference
proceedings, grant proposals,
proceedings, grant proposals, magazine
magazine articles,
articles, newspaper
newspaper stories,
stories, on
on television
television and
and radio
radio
shows,
shows, in the annual reports
reports of private companies,
companies, andand even
even on
on the
the back of cereal boxes
boxes and
ice cream cartons.
cartons. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, in
in the
the great
great majority
majority of
of cases,
cases, this
this assumption
assumption is
is patently
patently
incorrect.
3. Some
Some facts
facts about
about tropical
tropical trees and forests
Tropical forests
Tropical exhibit several
forests exhibit several ecological
ecological characteristics that make
characteristics that make the the sustainable
exploitation
exploitation of non-wood resources a more difficult
non-wood resources difficult proposition
proposition than itit might
might first
first appear.
appear.
One of the
the most
most fundamental
fundamental and
and well-known
well-known features of these forests is is their
their great
great species
species
richness, or large number
richness, number of plant species
species per unit area.
area. To illustrate
illustrate this
this point
point specifically
specifically
for trees,
for trees, floristic
floristic data collected from small
collected from small tracts
tracts of tropical
tropical forests
forests around
around the the world
world are
are
shown in Table 1. Although
Although there
there is
is much
much variability
variability from site to site, the results from these
surveys show that tropical
surveys show forests are extremely
tropical forests diverse and
extremely diverse and may
may contain
contain from
from 100100 to over
300 species of trees per hectare.
21
Table 1.
1. Number
Number of
of tree
tree species
species (>10cm
(> lOcm in
in diameter)
diameter) recorded
recorded in small tracts of tropical
tropical
forest.
Location Sample area Number

Number of
of species Source
(hectares) >10cm in
>10cm in diameter
diameter
Cuyabeno, Ecuador
Cuyabeno,Ecuador 1.0 307 Valencia et al.,
aI., 1994
1994
Mishana, Peru 1.0 289 1988
Gentry, 1988
Lambir, Sarawak 1.6 289 Ashton, 1984
Bajo Calima, 1.0 252 Faber-Lagendoen &
Colombia 1991
Gentry, 1991
Sungei Menyala, 2.0 240 Manokaran &
Manokaran&
Malaysia J(ochummen,
Kochummen, 1987 1987
Wanariset, East 1.6 239 Kartawinata
J(arta winata et aI.,
al.,
J(alimantan
Kalimantan 1981
Gunung Mulu, 1.0 225 Proctor et al.,
aI., 1984
1984
Sarawak
Campo, Cameroon
Campo, 1.0 189 Sunderland et al.,
aI.,
1997
Rio Xingu, Brazil 1.0 162 Campbell et al.,
aI., 1986
1986
Barro Colorado, 1.5 142 Lang &
& Knight, 1983
}(night, 1983
Panama
Oveng, Gabon
Oveng, 1.0
1.0 123 1988
Reitsma, 1988
From a commercial standpoint,

standpoint, the
the high
high diversity
diversity of
of tropical
tropical forests
forests isis aa mixed
mixed blessing.
blessing. On
On
the one hand,
the hand, forests
forests containing
containing a large
large number
number of
of different
different species
species usually
usually contain
contain an
an
equally diverse assortment of useful plant species, i.e. species richness and resource richness
are usually
are usually correlated.
correlated. The
The great
great interest in tropical forests as an undiscovered source of new
foods, materials, and medicines
medicines is largely in response to the magnitude of the species pool in
these ecosystems.
ecosystems. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, an additional correlate
correlate to high species diversity is that the
diversity is
individuals of a given species
species usually
usually occur
occur atat very
very low
lowdensities.
densities. There is a limit to the total
number
number of trees
trees than can
can be
be packed
packed into
into aa hectare
hectare of
oftropical forest. If you
tropical forest. you have
have aa large
large
number of species, each species
species can only be represented by a few individuals.
individuals.
This
This tendency
tendency of high species
species diversity coupled with
diversity coupled with low
low species
species density
density is
is illustrated in
illustrated in
Figure 1 using inventory data data collected
collected from
from small
small tracts
tracts of
of forest
forest in
in Brazil
Brazil and
and Sarawak.
Sarawak. As
shown in the histogram, the great majority of the species at each site site are
are represented
represented byby only
only
one or two
two trees;
trees; less
less than
than ten
ten percent
percent of
ofthe
the species
species exhibited
exhibited densities
densities greater
greater than
than four
four
trees/hectare.
trees/hectare. Although
Although there
there may
may bebe an
an abundance
abundance ofof resources in tropical
tropical forests,
forests, most ofof
are
them are scattered throughout the forest at extremely low densities. Low density resources
throughout the forest at extremely low densities. Low density resources
are difficult for collectors to locate, they require lengthy travel times, produce a low-yield per
unit area, and they are extremely susceptible to
extremely susceptible to over-exploitation.
over-exploitation. Clearly, none of these are
desirable characteristics in in aa forest resource.
A second
A second characteristic
characteristic of tropical trees that represents
tropical trees represents a stumbling block to sustainability
stumbling block sustainability
concerns the
concerns the way
way that
that they
they move
move their
their pollen
pollen and
and disperse
disperse their
their seeds.
seeds. The
The low
low density
density and
and
scattered distribution of individuals tropical tree populations
individuals in many tropical populations greatly complicates
complicates the
the
pollination. Given
process of pollination.
process Give!) that the
the distance
distance between
between conspecific
conspecific individuals
individuals may be be
than 100 meters
greater than meters in some
some cases,
cases, moving
moving pollen
pollen from
from the
the flowers
flowers of
of one
one tree
tree to
to another
another
can be aa difficult
can proposition. Many
difficult proposition. Many tropical
tropical trees
trees have
have overcome
overcome this problem
problem by coco-
relationships with a variety of animals, ranging from tiny thrips and midges to bees
evolving relationships
and
and large bats, that
that act
act as
as long-distance
long-distance pollen
pollen vectors.
vectors. These
These relationships can be quite
relationships can quite
specific, with
specific, with one
one type
type of insect
insect being
being solely
solely responsible
responsible forfor pollinating the flowers
pollinating the flowers of a
22
particular
particular species, or even genus,
species, or genus, of forest
forest trees
trees (e.g.
(e.g. Wiebes,
Wiebes, 1979).
1979). The useuse of
of biotic
biotic
vectors to
vectors to transfer pollen is
transfer pollen is apparently the norm
apparently the norm in tropical forests, and recent studies
tropical forests, studies in
Costa Rica
Costa (Bawa et
Rica (Bawa et al.,
al., 1985) suggest
suggest that
that over
over 96%
96% of the local tree species are pollinated
exclusively by animals.
140
o Semengoh, Sarawak
120
C3Manaus,
[ll Manaus, Brazil
Brazil
en
Q) 100
'uQ)
c- 80
en
'0
o
:u
Cr.)
..0
60
E
::J
z 40
20
r. []] L.n,rl
~
0
.n... ..-..r-L .~ irkrLin.irninjrLn1- 11-1-1 i 1 --1-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 88 9 10 11
11 12 13
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Number of Individuals
Figure 1.
1. Densities
Densities of
of different
different tree
tree species
species within
within small tracts of tropical forest. Inventory data from
Semengoh, Sarawak
Semengoh, Sarawak based
based on
on aa 4.0
4.0 hectare
hectare sample
sample plot
plot (Ashton,
(Ashton, 1984);
1984);Manaus
Manausbased
based on
on aa 1.0
1.0 hectare
hectare
sample plot (from Prance).
Animals
Animals also play
playaa very
very important
important role in dispersing
dispersing the
the seeds
seeds produced
produced by tropical
tropical trees.
trees.
Studies conducted
Studies conducted in Rio Palenque,
Palenque, Ecuador (Gentry,
(Gentry, 1982),
1982), for example, have
have shown
shown that
that
93% of the canopy trees produce fruit adapted for consumption by birds and mammals, while
93%
Croat (1978)
(1978) estimates 78% of the canopy trees and 87% of the subcanopy trees at Barro
estimates that 78%
Colorado Island
Colorado Island in
in Panama
Panama have
have animal
animal dispersed
dispersedfruits.
fruits. These animals
animals may either
either remove
remove
fruit and seeds directly from the tree (primary
(primary dispersers),
dispersers), or they may forage onon fruits
fruits that
that
have already fallen to the ground and split
split open
open (secondary
(secondary dispersers).
dispersers).
The important lesson to be gained from these findings findings is that the production of of fruits,
fruits, seeds,
seeds,
and seedlings
and seedlings in
in tropical
tropical forests
forests necessarily
necessarily involves
involves the
the collaboration
collaborationof of animals.
animals. Although
it is very
very easy to overlook
overlook this fact, or to view
view forest animals solely as pests that damagedamage or
consume large quantities
consume large quantities of fruit,
fruit, sustainable
sustainable resource
resource use inin tropical
tropical forests
forests ultimately
ultimately
depends on the continual availability pollinators and
availability of pollinators and seed
seed dispersers.
dispersers. In
Insimple
simple terms,
terms, no
no
means no
pollination means no fruits,
fruits, no fruits
fruits and/or
and/or no
no dispersers
dispersers mean
mean nono established seedlings,
seedlings, and
and
no established seedlings means no
seedlings means no next generation,
generation, nono products,
products, no
no profits and, importantly,
importantly,
no sustainability.
A final characteristic many tropical

characteristic of many tropical tree
tree species
species isis that they have aa very
very difficult
difficult time
time
recruiting
recruiting new seedlings
seedlings into their populations. Even given abundant pollination,_ fruit set,
populations. Even given abundant pollination,- fruit
and
and dispersal,
dispersal, there
there is still a very,
is still very, very
very small
small probability
probability that aa seedling
seedling will
will become
become
successfully established
established in in the
the forest. The seed
forest. The seed must
must avoid
avoid being eaten, it must encounter the
appropriate light, soil moisture and nutrient conditions for germination, and it must be able to
germinate grow faster
germinate and grow faster than the seeds of all all other
other species
species that
that are
are competing
competing to to establish
establish
themselves on that
themselves on that microsite.
microsite. The The young
young seedling
seedling must then stay free of of pathogens, be able
to
to recuperate
recuperate from
from the damage
damage caused
caused by herbivores,
herbivores, avoid
avoid falling
falling branches
branches andand other
other
hazards, and
hazards, and continue
continue to to photosynthesise
photosynthesise andand push
push its
its way upward
upward into thethe forest
forest canopy.
canopy.
23
Not surprisingly, mortalityduring
surprisingly, mortality duringthe
theearly
earlystages
stagesofofthe
thelife
life cycle
cycle of
of aa tropical
tropical plant
plant is
extremely high.
extremely high.
A graphic example of the seedling mortality experienced

experienced by
by tropical
tropical trees
trees is provided by the
four survivorship curves shown
survivorship curves shown in
in Figure
Figure 2.
2. Brosimum
Brosimum alicastrum
alicastrum is aa widely
widely distributed
distributed
canopy tree from the Neotropics
Neotropics (Peters, 1990a),
1990a), Shorea curtisii
curtisii and
and Shorea
Shorea multiflora
multiflora are
are
dominant tree species in Southeast Asia (Turner,
(Turner, 1990), and Grias peruviana
peruviana isis an
anabundant
abundant
lower canopy tree in western Amazonia (Peters,
(Peters, 1990b).
1990b).
110
100
90
*(J)
0)
.5
80
70
'0
Q) 60
Q)
U)
0)
50
.s:c
.5 40
.~
:l 30
(I)
U)
20 I-
10
0o ~nnnnn
flflrInn
I-
~Iirtrrrr- ~nnnnnn
ElF11-1-FLrn
B alicastrum
B. a/icastrum S curtisii
S. curtisii S
S. mult'flora
multiflora G peruviana
G. peruviana
Months After Germination
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Seedling
Seedlingsurvivorship
survivorshipcurves
curves for
forBrosimum
Brosimum alicastrum, Shorea
Shorea curtisii,
curtisii, Shorea
Shorea multiflora,
multiflora,
and Histograms show
peruviana. Histograms
and Grias peruviana. show the
the percentage
percentage of seedlings
seedlings surviving during the first
surviving during first year
year
following germination.
following germination. Data
Data for
for B.
B. alicastrum
alicastrum were
were collected
collected in
in Veracruz,
Veracruz, Mexico
Mexico (Peters,
(Peters, 1990a),
1990a), S.
S.
curtisii and S.
curtisii S. multiflora
multiflora were
were studied
studied in Peninsula Malaysia (Turner,
Peninsula Malaysia (Turner, 1990),
1990), and
and G.G. peruviana
peruviana data
were collected in Peruvian Amazonia (Peters,
(Peters, 1990b).
1990b).
As is illustrated
As illustrated in these
these histograms,
histograms, seedling survival
survival by these four species
species during
during the firstfirst
twelve months following
following seedfall ranges from a high high of 22%
22% for S.S. curtisii to a low of 3% for
B.
B. alicastrum. Half-lives, or the time required
required to
to kill
kill off 50 percent
percent of the initial cohort,
cohort, varyvary
from two to five
from five months.
months. Taking into account
account seed predation and germination failure, less
germination failure, less
than 0.1%
than 0.1 % of the
the seeds
seeds produced
produced by by B.B. alicastrum
alicastrum become
become established
established seedlings
seedlings (Peters,
(Peters,
1989).
1989). Only
Only aa very
very small
small fraction
fraction of
of these
these (approximately
(approximately 1 in 11.55 million) will ever make make it
to the canopy and start producing fruit. fruit. Data such as these, which are by by no
no means
means atypical
atypical
for tropical trees, provide perhaps the most convincing
convincing demonstration
demonstration of of how
how difficult
difficult itit is
is for
for
a species to maintain itself
itself in the forest, even
even in the
the absence
absence ofof any
any type
type of
of resource
resource harvest.
harvest.
4. The
4. The reality of NWFP
NWFP harvest
harvest
Given the low density of

Given of tropical
tropical forest
forest species,
species, their
their reliance
reliance on
on animals
animals for
forreproduction,
reproduction,
and the difficulty experienced in establishing their seedlings,
seedlings, the harvest of any type of
of plant
tissue will necessarily
tissue have an effect
necessarily have effect on
on the
thespecies
species involved.
involved. The delicate ecological
delicate ecological
balance maintainedinin aa tropical
balance maintained tropical forest
forest is
is easily
easily disrupted
disrupted by
by human
human intervention,
intervention, and
and
activities that
extractive activities that at first glance appear veryvery benign can later have a severe
severe impact
impact on
on
the structure and dynamics
structure and dynamics of of forest
forest tree
tree populations.
populations. This impact
impact may not be immediately
immediately
visible to the untrained eye, but itit is definitely
definitely occurring.
occurring.
general, the ecological

In general, ecological impact
impact of NWFP
NWFP utilisation
utilisation depends
depends on
on the
the nature
nature and
and intensity
intensity of
of
harvesting and
harvesting and the
the particular
particular species
species and type
type of
of resource
resource under
under exploitation.
exploitation. Sporadic
24
collection
collection of a few fruits
fruits or
or the
the periodic
periodic harvesting
harvesting of leaves
leaves for
for cordage
cordage may
may have
have little
little
impact
impact on the
the long-term
long-term stability
stability of aa tree
tree population.
population. Intensive, annual harvesting
Intensive, annual harvesting of a
valuable market fruit
valuable market fruit or
or oil seed, on the other
other hand,
hand, can gradually
gradually eliminate a species
species from
the forest.
forest. The
Thefelling
felling of
oflarge
largeadult
adulttrees
trees can
canproduce
produce aasimilar
similarecological
ecological result
result in
inaamuch
much
shorter time period.
Although
Although thethe fact
fact is seldom
seldom mentioned
mentioned in in much
much of the literature
literature on the
the subject,
subject, aa large
large
number
number of non-wood
non-wood forest resources
resources are
are actually
actually harvested
harvested destructively.
destructively. Uncontrolled
felling for
felling for fruit
fruit collection
collection has
has virtually
virtually eliminated
eliminated the
the valuable
valuable aguaje
aguaje palm (Mauritia
(Mauritia
flexuosa) from
from many
many parts
parts of
ofPeruvian
Peruvian lowlands
lowlands (Vazquez
(Vazquez and
and Gentry,
Gentry, 1989).
1989). Destructive
harvesting has also seriously
harvesting has reduced the local abundance
seriously reduced abundance of the ungurahui
ungurahui palm (Jessenia
(Jessenia
bataua),
hataua), the
the babassu
babassu palm (Orbignya
(Orhignya ph phalerata), and a wide
ale rata), and wide variety
variety of
of other
other important
important
Amazonian
Amazonian fruitfruit trees
trees such
such as
as Parahancornia
Parahancomia peruviana,
peruviana, Couma
Couma macrocarpa,
macrocarpa, andand Genipa
Genipa
americana (Peters
(Peters et al., 1989).
1989). Gharu
Gharutrees
trees (Aquilaria
(Aquilaria malaccensis)
malaccensis) inin Southeast
Southeast Asia are
routinely cut to harvest the resinous heartwood (Jessup and Peluso, 1986), 1986), and the collection
collection
of damar from Dipterocarpus trees in Peninsula Malaysia involves hacking hacking a large boxbox in
in the
the
trunk of the harvest tree and then building
building a fire inside this cavity to stimulate
stimulate the flow of
oleo-resin
oleo-resin (Gianno, 1990). Prunus
(Gianno, 1990). Prunus africana trees
trees in
in Cameroon
Cameroon areare felled
felled or
or completely
completely
stripped and girdled
girdled to
to harvest
harvest the
the bark
bark tissue
tissue (Cunningham
(Cunninghamand andMbenkum,
Mbenkum,1993).
1993). There areare
numerous other
numerous other examples
examples of
of forest
forest species
speciesthat
thatare
arekilled
killedor
orfatally
fatally wounded
wounded by the harvest
of non-wood products.
harvesting, the
Even in the absence of destructive harvesting, the collection
collection of commercial
commercial quantities
quantities ofof fruit
fruit
and seeds can still have a significant ecological
ecological impact.
impact. In terms of of simple demographics, if a
tree population
tree produces 1,000
popUlation produces 1,000 seeds
seeds and
and 95%
95% of the new new seedlings
seedlings produced
produced from these
seeds die during the first
first year,
year, the population
population hashas still
still recruited
recruited 50 new
new individuals.
individuals. If,
If, on
on the
the
hand, commercial
other hand, commercial harvesting
harvesting removes
removesall allbut
but 100
100 of
of these
these seeds
seeds from
from the
the site ptior
prior to
germination, the
germination, the maximum
maximum number
number ofof seedlings
seedlings that
that can
can be
be recruited
recruited into the population
population is
reduced to only five.
five. This
This ten-fold
ten-fold shortfall
shortfall in
in recruitment
recruitment can cause a notable change
change in the
structure of
of the population.
reality, this
In reality, this example
example isis probably
probably overly
overly optimistic.
optimistic. First, it is assumed that all ofof the
the seeds
seeds
left in the forest are positioned in precisely the right spot for germination and early growth. growth.
Second, there
Second, there isis always
always thethe possibility
possibilitythat thatthe
the fruits
fruits and
and seeds
seeds left
left in
in the
the forest
forest will
will
experience aa rate
experience rate ofof mortality
mortality that
that isis higher
higher than
than 95%.
95%. Commercial
Commercial collectors,
collectors, in effect, are
competitorswith
competitors with forest
forest frugivores,
frugivores,and and their
their activities
activitiesreduce
reducethethe total
total supply
supply of food
food
available. In response
resources available. response to the the reduced
reduced abundance
abundance of fruits and and seeds,
seeds, frugivores
frugivores
might be forced
forced to to increase
increase their
their foraging
foraging to to obtain
obtain sufficient
sufficientfood.
food. The net result would
would be
an increase in the total percentage of seeds destroyed.
All
All of
of these
these factors
factors interact
interact in
in aasynergistic
synergistic fashion
fashion toto inhibit
inhibit the
the recruitment
recruitment of of new
new
individuals into aa plant
individuals into plant population.
population. Over
Over time,
time, this
this lack
lack of
of recruitment
recruitment will alter
alter the
the size-
size-
class distribution
distribution of the
the population
popUlation being harvested. If commercial
being harvested. commercial collection
collection continues
continues
uncontrolled, the
the harvest
harvest species
species can
can bebe gradually
graduallyeliminated
eliminatedfrom
fromthetheforest.
forest. This process
process of
gradual popUlation
gradual population disintegration
disintegration isis illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 33 using
using demographic
demographic data data for
for Grias
Grias
peruviana and the stepwise results from computer simulations using transition matrix
peruviana and the stepwise results from computer simulations using a transition matrix
model
model (Peters,
(Peters, 1990b).
1990b). Size
Size classes
classes 11to to33are
arebased
basedon onheight
heightmeasurements
measurements of ofseedlings,
seedlings,
saplings,
saplings, and
and juveniles,
juveniles, while
while classes
classes 44 through
through 88 reflect
reflect a 5.0
5.0 cm diameter
diameter (dbh)
(dbh) interval forfor
adults.
adults. For
Forthe
the purpose
purpose ofofthe
the simulation,
simulation, thethe intensity
intensity of
of harvest was set at at 85%
85% ofof the
the total
total
annual fruit
annual fruit production.
production. Note
Note the
the change
change of of scale
scale at
at years
years 10,
10, 50,
50, and
and 80
80 to
to compensate
compensate for for
the gradual decrease
decrease in
in population
population size.
size. The
The scatterplot
scatterplot in the lower half of the figure shows
the
the total
total number
number of fruits
fruits harvested
harvested from from the Urjas
Grias population
population during
during each
each year of of the
the
simulation.
25
HllO
1C00 150
Year 0 Year 10
ao
000 (,
<l!
~
JiJ -- 100
J:
III
-Tr, 100 - .---
<l!
:J
000
630 1tI
:J
"0
~ '::;
-
'a
.J;; <00
400 E 50
.---
zod
0
Z ::00
230
0O o0 1 I n
s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 s6
86 s7 s8 ssi1 s2 s3 s4
84 s5 ss66 s7
87 s8
88
Size Class Size Class
Siza Clffis
150 50
Year 50 Year 80
<l! f 40
40
~100
100
--i@A' 30
~
"0
:::; -a-8
';:'
"0
.J: 'E 20
50
d
Z ~
Z 10
0 1-1 o ill
O Ir--l.r--lri
si
s1 s2 s3
83 s4 s5
85 s6
86 s7
87 s8 s1 s2 s3
83 s4 s5 s6 s7 s8
88
Size Class Size Class
10000
III 8000
J:
~
'5
....
LL
Q)
6000
.0
III
U;
4006
4000
~
III
J:
~ 2000
oo 11111 it'll
oo 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Year
Figure 3.3. Simulated

Simulated change
change in in the
the population
population structure
structure of Grias
Crias peruviana
pentviana in
in response
response to excessive
excessive
fruit collection,
fruit collection. Results
Results based
based onon stepwise
stepwise analyses
analyses using
using aa transition
transition matrix
matrix model
model and
and demographic
demographic
data reported
data reported in
in Peters
Peters (1990b).
(1990b). Harvest
Harvest intensity set at 85% of the total annual fruit
fruit production.
production. Note
Note
change
change inin scale
scale in
in the
the latter
latter three time periods to
time periods to account
account for
for progressive
progressive decrease
decrease inin population
population size.
size.
As is shown at Year 0, thethe G.

G. peruviana
peruviana population
population initially displays
displays an
an inverse
inverse J-shaped,
J-shaped, or
or
negative exponential, size-class
negative exponential, size-class distribution
distributionof of aa shade
shade tolerant
tolerant canopy
canopy tree with abundant
abundant
reproduction.
reproduction. After
After ten
ten years
years of
of fruit
fruit collection,
collection, however, the structure of the population has has
been notably
notably changed.
changed. TheThe infrequency
infrequency of of seedling
establishment has caused a reduction in
the smaller size classes; the greater number of of stems
stems in the
the intermediate
intermediate size
size classes
classes reflects
reflects
26
saplings that
the growth of saplings that were
were established
established prior
prior to
to exploitation.
exploitation. By Year 50, the population
has been even further degraded by the the chronic lack of
chronic lack of regeneration. Some of
regeneration. Some of the
the intermediate
intermediate
size classes contain less than ten individuals, and the existing level of of seedlings
seedlings and
and saplings
saplings
appears insufficient to re-stock the adult classes.
appears insufficient to re-stock the adult classes. The size-class
size-class histogram
histogram at
at Year
Year 80
80
represents
represents the culmination
culmination of a long process
process of over-exploitation.
over-exploitation. TheThe population
population consists
consists
primarily of large, old adult trees,
trees, none
none of which
which are
are regenerating.
regenerating. In the absence of remedial
action, it is only a matter of time
action, time before
before G.G. peruviana
peruviana becomes
becomes locally extinct.
extinct.
The important message toto be

important message be gained from this
gained from this simulation
simulationisis that
that at
at no point
point during
during the
the
process of over-exploitation is there any dramatic
over-exploitation is visual evidence
dramatic visual evidence (e.g.
(e.g. dead
dead or dying
dying trees)
that something isis going
going wrong.
wrong. Fruit production and harvest levels
and harvest levels don't
don't even begin
begin to drop
below baseline until year 30, and commercial quantities of
commercial quantities of fruit
fruit continue
continue to
to be
be available
available for
for
several
several decades
decades after
after this (see
(see scatterplot
scatterplot in Figure 3). Even during
Figure 3). during the latter stages,
stages, the
forest still contains
forest contains a considerable number of
considerable number of adult
adult G.
G. peruviana
peruviana trees
trees that are
are producing
producing
fruit. Harvesting
fruit. Harvesting would
would undoubtedly
undoubtedly continue unabated until these treestrees began
began toto senesce,
senesce, at
which point collectors
which point would be
collectors would be forced
forced to
to move
move into
into aa new
new area
area of forest
forest in search of the
the
Grias fruits.
The example shown in Figure 3 represents an extreme case of uncontrolled over-exploitation,

and does not necessarily
and necessarily imply
imply that every level of NWFP
NWFP harvest
harvest leads directly
directly to species
species
extinction. The
extinction. The simulation
simulation isis very
very useful,
useful, however,
however, because
because it shows
shows that
that even
even though
though the
the
ecological impacts
ecological impactsof of this
this type
type of resource
resource use
use are
are relatively
relatively subtle,
subtle, very
very gradual,
gradual, and
essentially invisible,
essentially invisible, in
in the
the long
long run
run they
they can be as as devastating
devastating as logging
logging in causing
causing the
the
disruption of local populations and species extinction.
disruption of local populations and species extinction.
Finally,
Finally, in addition
addition to
to its
its impact
impact on
on seedling
establishment and population
population structure, the
structure, the
collection of non-wood forest
forest products
products can
can also
also affect the genetic composition
composition of the plant
population being exploited
exploited (Peters,
(Peters, 1990c).
1990c). AA population
population ofof forest
forest fruit
fruit trees,
trees, for
for example,
example,
will usually contain several individuals that produce
produce large
large succulent
succulent fruits,
fruits, a great number of
individuals that produce
individuals that produce fruits
fruits of intermediate size or
intermediate size or quality,
quality, and
and aa few
few individuals that
individuals that
produce fruits that, from aa commercial
commercial standpoint, are inferior because
standpoint, are because of small size, bitter
taste, or
or poor
poor appearance.
appearance. If this population
population is subjected
subjected to intensive
intensive fruit collection,
collection, the
"inferior" trees will be the ones
ones whose
whose fruits
fruits and seeds
seeds are left in
in the
the forest
forest toto regenerate.
regenerate.
Over
Over time,
time, the selective removal of
selective removal of only the best fruit types
only the types will
will result
result in
in aapopulation
population
dominated
dominated by trees
trees of
ofmarginal
marginal economic
economic value. This process,
value. This process, although more subtle
although more subtle and
occurring over a longer period of time,
time, is
is identical
identical to
to the
the "high-grading"
"high-grading" or
or "creaming"
"creaming" of
of the
the
timbers that
best tropical timbers that occurs
occurs in
in many
many logging
logging operations.
5. Baseline
Baseline data and monitoring
monitoring to
to minimise ecological impact
ecological impact
Given the "boom and bust" cycles that have historically characterised the exploitation of non-
wood forest products, it seems unlikely that the unfettered interaction of markets, commercial
collectors, and
collectors, and tropical forest species
tropical forest species will automatically produce aa sustainable
automatically produce sustainable formform of
resource use.
resource use. Achieving
Achieving this
this objective
objective will
will require
require more than
than blind faith in in the
the productive
productive
capacity of tropical trees, an unwavering
unwavering trust in a free market system,
system, and the unquestioned
assumption that
assumption that local
local collector
collector groups
groups instinctually hold the
instinctually hold the goals
goals of
of forest
forest conservation
conservation
above any desire
above desire for
for personal
personal economic
economic gain. Sustainable exploitation
gain. Sustainable exploitation of of NW14Ps
NWFPs will
require a concerted management effort by all of of the
the parties
parties involved.
involved. It will require careful
selection of species,
selection species, resource,
resource, and
and sites.
sites. It will require controlled
controlled harvesting and periodic
periodic
monitoring of
monitoring of the
the regeneration
regeneration andand growth
growth of the the species
species being
being exploited.
exploited. More More than
than
anything, however,
anything, however,itit will
will require
require aa greater
greater appreciation
appreciation of of the
the fact that
that ecology
ecology and
and
management are the cornerstones of of sustainable resource
resource use.
use.
27
From an
From an ecological
ecological standpoint,
standpoint, oneone of the most
most essential
essential ingredients required to
ingredients required to achieve
achieve a
sustainable level
sustainable level of
of resource
resource use
use is information.
information. By this this we
we mean
mean information
information about
about the
the
density and
density and distribution
distribution of resources
resources within
within the
the forest,
forest, information
information about
about the
the population
popUlation
structure and productivity of these resources, and information about the ecological impact of
differing harvest
differing harvest levels.
levels. AnAn overall
overall strategy
strategy for
for collecting
collecting this information, and for applying
applying
it in
it in such
such aa way
way asastotoguarantee
guaranteethat
thatthetheplant
plantpopulations
populations being
being exploited
exploited will
will maintain
maintain
themselves in
themselves in the
the forest
forest over
over time, is presented
time, is presented as as a flow
flow chart
chart in
in Figure
Figure 4.
4. The overall
The overall
concept and
concept and sequence
sequence of operations outlined isis adapted
operations outlined adapted from
from Peters
Peters (1994).
(1994). The
The different
different
procedures are sufficiently
sufficiently general
general that
that they
they can
can be
beapplied
appliedtotoany
anyclass
classofofIVWFP
NWFP procedures,
procedures,
at any scale,
at scale, and
and inin forests
forests that
that have
have already
already been
been heavily
heavily exploited
exploited as as well
well as
as in
in more
more
pristine, undisturbed environments.
Species Selection
( :~ ~_ l -----:':~ \,
I . I
Forest Inventory
I
Baseline
Data
I
,,
Monl' tonng
I
s,'
Yield Studies
" ',, ________ ________________ -'

Monitoring
/------------------------ -------------- -- ------- - ---,
'
'
\
" [- - - --- \
I 1-- ----1> Periodic
Periodic
-~ Regeneration I
Periodic
Harvest
Harvest kJ
I
kJ------,
f
I Surveys Assessments I
r _ _ _ ~_.J Y s
Y
I T
, Adequate
I,
Reg~:eration? -'
Adequate Regeneration?
I Adequate Productivity?
Productivity? ;
; Harvest Controls Effective?
No
3 1\ o
1
I I- ---_. Harvest Adjustments
L ________ _
Figure
Figure 4.
4, Flow
Flowchart
chartofofbasic
basicstrategy
strategyfor
forexploiting
exploitingnon-timber
non-timber tropical
tropical forest
forest plant
plant resources
resources on
on aa
sustained-yield basis.
sustained-yield basis. the
the complete
complete process
process is
is composed
composed of six
six steps:
steps: (1)
(1) Species
Species Selection,
Selection, (2)
(2) Forest
Forest
Inventory, (3) Yield Studies, (4)(4) Regeneration
Regeneration Surveys,
Surveys, (5)
(5) Harvest
Harvest Adjustments,
Adjustments, and
and (6)
(6) Serial
SerialHarvest
Harvest
Adjustments. See
Adjustments. See text
text for
for explanation
explanation of
of each
each management operation...
management operation
28
As is
As is shown
shown in Figure 4, the
the complete
complete process
process is composed
composed of six basic
basic steps:
steps: (1)
(1) Species
Species
Selection, (2)
Selection, (2) Forest Inventory,
Inventory, (3) Yield
Yield Studies,
Studies, (4)
(4) Regeneration
Regeneration Surveys,
Surveys, (5)
(5) Harvest
Harvest
Assessments, and (6)
Assessments, and (6) Harvest
Harvest Adjustments.
Adjustments. Taken
Taken together.
together, these
these operations
operations accomplish
accomplish
three fundamental
three fundamental management
management tasks. The The species or resource
species or to be exploited
resource to exploited are
are first
first
selected. Baseline
Baseline data
data about
about the
the current
current density
density and
and productivity
productivity of these resources are then
collected. Finally, the impact of harvesting
harvesting is monitored
monitored and harvest levels are
are adjusted
adjusted asas
necessary
necessary to minimise this impact.
The basic
The basic concept
concept here is is to
to provide
provide aa constant
constant flow
flow ofofdiagnostic
diagnostic information
information about
about the
the
ecological response
ecological response of the
the species
species to
to varying
varying degrees
degrees of ofexploitation.
exploitation. Sustainability
Sustainability is is
achieved through a continual process of of reciprocal
reciprocal feedback,
feedback, i.e.
i.e. the
the demographic
demographic reaction
reaction of
of
the target
target species
species must
must result
result inin aacon-esponding
corresponding adjustment
adjustment in harvest
harvest levels.
levels. The exact
exact
nature
nature of this
this -fine-tuning"
"fine-tuning" process
process will
will depend
depend on thethe site,
site, the
the judgement
judgement ofof the
the resource
resource
manager,
manager, the precision ofof the
the diagnostic
diagnostic data
data collected,
collected, the
the effectiveness
effectiveness of of harvest
harvest controls,
controls,
and perhaps most importantly,
importantly, thethe ecological behaviour of
ecological behaviour of the
the plant population
population selected for
selected for
management.
5.1. Species selection
The decision on which

which plant
plant resources
resources toto harvest
harvest will
will be
be based
based largely
largely on
on economic
economic concerns.
concerns.
Those resources
Those resources possessing
possessing thethe highest
highest current
current market price and the
market price the greatest
greatest potential
potential for
for
future market expansion
future expansion will
will usually
usually bebe chosen
chosen first.
first. Social
Social factors
factors can
can also
also come
come intointo play.
play.
Some forest resources may have a long history of extraction or traditional use in in the
the region,
region,
and
and local people
people may
may have
have aa strong
strong cultural
cultural preference
preference towards
towards continuing
continuing toto exploit
exploit these
these
resources.
resources. Other
Otherresources
resources (e.g.
(e.g.medicinal
medicinal plants
plants or
or other
other plants
plants of
ofceremonial
ceremonial importance)
importance)
may be subject to certain taboos
taboos that
that prohibit
prohibit commercial
commercial exploitation.
In addition
In addition to
to economic
economic and and social factors,
social factors , aa third
third set
set of
of criteria
criteria that
that should
should also
also be
be
considered is the overall
considered overall potential
potential of
of the
the resource
resource to
to be
be managed
managed on on aasustained-yield
sustained-yield basis.
basis.
Although
Although thethe fact
fact is
is frequently
frequently overlooked,
overlooked, some some species
species are
are inherently better able
inherently better able toto
withstand
withstand the continual perturbations
perturbations caused
caused by resource extraction
extraction than others.
others. Important
ecological factors
ecological factors toto consider include the
consider include the life
life cycle
cycle characteristics
characteristics of of the species
species (e.g.
(e.g.
phenology
phenology of flowering
flowering and and fruiting,
fruiting, pollination, and seed
pollination, and seed dispersal), the type of
dispersal), the of resource
resource
produced (e.g. fruits,
produced (e.g. fruits, stems,
stems, bark,
bark, etc.),
etc.), the
the abundance
abundance of of the
the species
species inin the
the forest,
forest, and
and the
size-class distribution of
size-class distribution of natural
naturalpopulations.
populations. The The basic
basic idea
idea here
here isis quite
quite simple.
simple. Given
Given aa
group of resources with similar
similar economic profiles, why not select those that are are the
the easiest
easiest toto
manage and have the highest potential for sustainable exploitation?
5.2. Forest inventory

5.2.
Density and size-class structure data are the most fundamental pieces of information required
for management.
management. JustJust as
as foresters
foresters need
need to
to know
know how
how many
many cubic
cubic meters
meters ofof timber
timber occur
occur in
in aa
particular forest, the management
particular forest, management of non-timber resources also
non-timber resources also relies
relies on estimates
estimates of
of the
the
distribution and
distribution and abundance
abundance of different
different species.
species. These
These estimates
estimates can
can only
only bebe obtained
obtained
through
through a quantitative forest
forest inventory.
inventory. Inventories
Inventories also
also provide
provide the
the baseline
baseline data
data necessary
necessary
to monitor
monitor the impact
impact of of harvesting. Without some
harvesting. Without some knowledge
knowledge of of initial
initial density
density and size-
size-
class structure, the population could slowly go extinct with each successive harvest and and never
never
be noticed.
Forest inventories are time-consuming,

time-consuming, somewhat costly, and
somewhat costly, and extremely
extremely tedious to conduct.
conduct.
It is strongly
strongly recommended,
recommended, therefore,
therefore, that a professional
professional forester or
or inventory
inventory specialist
specialist be
be
involved
involved in the planning of this fieldwork.
planning of this fieldwork. In general,
general, the inventory should be designed
designed to
provide the following types of of information:
29
The inventory should provide aa reasonably
reasonably precise estimate of of the
the total
total number
number of of harvestable
harvestable
trees per hectare
hectare (i.e.
(i.e. the
the resource
resource density)
density) in
in different
different forest
forest types.
types. ForFor fruit
fruit and oil seed
seed
species, this
species, this means
means the total number
number of of adult
adult trees.
trees. For latex-producing
latex-producing species,
species, medicinal
medicinal
plants and other plants such
such as
as rattan,
rattan, some
some juveniles maymay also
also need
need to
to be
be included.
included.
The inventory
The inventory should
should provide
provide data
data on
on the
the current
current population
population structure
structure or
or size-class
size-class
distribution
distribution of adult
adult trees. Collecting these
trees. Collecting these data
data requires
requires that
that the
the diameter
diameter (DBH)
(DBH) of all all
stems be
stems be measured.
measured. Height
Height measurements
measurements can be substituted in the case of herbaceous plants,
plants,
small understory
small understory palms
palms or or woody
woody shrubs
shrubs and
and in
in the
the case
case of rattan,
rattan, stem
stem length
length is
is the most
most
important measurement.
The
The inventory
inventory should
should provide
provide a preliminary
preliminary assessment
assessment of of the regeneration
regeneration status
status of
of the
the
species. Does
species. Does the
the species
species appear
appear to be maintaining in the
maintaining itself in the forest?
forest? Are
Are there
there a sufficient
number of juveniles
number juveniles to
to replace
replace the
the inevitable
inevitable death
death of
of adult
adult individuals?
individuals? To
To begin
begin answering
answering
these questions,
these questions, smaller,
smaller, non-productive individuals must
non-productive individuals must also
also be
be counted
counted and measured
measured in
the inventory.
5.3. Yield
5.3. Yield studies
studies
Given an
Given an understanding
understanding of the density
density and
and size-class
size-class distribution
distribution of
of aa forest
forest species,
species, the next
question that
question that needs
needs to
to be addressed
addressed is is "How
"How muchmuch of thethe desired
desired resource is produced
resource is produced by by
natural populations
natural populations ofof the
the species?".
species?". Suppose
Suppose 250 250 kilograms
kilograms of fruit are harvested from the the
forest. Is this level
level of harvest
harvest sustainable?
sustainable? Well,
Well, that
that depends.
depends. How
How many
many fruits
fruits does
does the
the
population produce?
population produce? Is Is this
this only
only 10%
10% of
of the
the total
total population
population seed
seed production,
production, or were
were 95%
95%
of all fruits
fruits removed?
removed? Clearly,
Clearly, ititmakes
makes aadifference.
difference. Just as foresters
foresters (theoretically)
(theoretically) use
use
growth data to avoid cutting timber faster than than it is produced in the forest, the sustained-yield
management of non-timber resources
management resources also requires information about the productive capacity capacity
exploited. This
of the species being exploited. This information
information is is obtained
obtained through
through yield studies.
The basic
The basic objective here is to obtain
objective here obtain a reasonable
reasonable estimate
estimate of the total quantity of resource
resource
produced by
produced by a species
species in different
different habitats
habitats or forest types. In
forest types. In view
view of the fact
fact that
that larger
larger
plants are
plants are invariably
invariably more
more productive than smaller
productive than smaller plants,
plants, of
of particular
particular interest
interest isis the
the
relationship between plant size
relationship size and
and productivity. Probably the
productivity. Probably the easiest
easiest way
way to obtain
obtain these
these
data is to train local collectors to weigh, count, or measure the quantity of resource
resource produced
produced
by different sample trees during
during their
their normal
normal harvest
harvest operations. These studies should
operations. These should bebe
repeated every few
repeated every few years
years using the same group of sample plantsplants to monitor the variation
variation inin
yield over time.
5.4 Insights from inventory and yield

5.4 yield data
For resources which involve the harvest of vegetative tissues (e.g. thatch from Raphia Raphia palms,
palms,
rattan cane,
rattan cane, bamboo), the baseline
bamboo), the data from
baseline data from the
the forest inventory
inventory and
and yield studies can bebe
used
used to provide
provide a useful preliminary assessment of
preliminary assessment of sustainability.
sustainability. The analysis
analysis is based on
the
the general relationship between
general relationship between thethe current
current stock,
stock, or
or standing
standing crop,
crop, of
of a resource
resource and
and its
production. In
annual production. In general,
general, abundant species with
abundant species with a large
large stock
stock produce
produce the
the largest
largest
amount of growth
amount growth in a year,
year, while
while sparse,
sparse, low
low density
density species
species exhibit anan annual
annual production
production
rate
rate that is
is much
much smaller.
smaller. Ten rattan
rattan canes
canes growing
growing 5050 centimetres/year
centimetres/year will
will produce
produce 55
meters
meters of cane;
cane; one
one thousand
thousand rattan
rattan canes
canes growing
growing 5050 centimetres/year
centimetres/year will
will produce
produce 500
500
meters of
of cane.
Given this relationship,

Given this relationship, if
if we
we want to exploit
want to the same
exploit the forest resource
same forest resource year
year after
after year,
year, itit is
is
important that we harvest no more
more than
than its
its annual
annual growth
growth each
each time.
time. If we
we harvest more than
the growth, we diminish the current stock of thethe resource
resource and, over
over time,
time, the
the species
species can
can be be
30
eliminated from
eliminated from the
the forest.
forest. AAgraphic,
graphic, albeit
albeit hypothetical,
hypothetical , example
example of the the effect of over-
over-
harvesting is shown
harvesting is shown inin Figure
Figure 5.
5. The
The solid
solid bars
bars in
in the
the histogram
histogram represent
represent thethe current
current stock
stock
of rattan
rattan cane at the start of each
cane at each year
year; the
the open
open bars
bars shown
shown at the
the top
top ofof each
each solid
solid bar
bar
represent the total growth by the end
growth by end of the
the year. TheThe dotted
dotted bars
bars show
show the
the amount
amount ofof rattan
rattan
cane that is harvested each
each year.
year.
2000
2000
~::Harvest
r_ Harvest
o Growth
El Growth
1500 r - ...
o Standing
El Standing Crop
Q)
C r .....
ctS
0
c 1000
1000
-ctS
~
a::
500
o
Year
Year 11 Cut Year 2 Cut Year 33 Cut Year 44
Harvest Cycle (years)
Figure 5.
5. Hypothetical
Hypothetical example
example of over-exploitation
over-exploitation of rattan
rattan illustrating
illustrating the
the relationship
relationship between
between
resource
resource stock
stock and
and annual
annual productivity. See text
productivity. See text for explanation
explanation of stock,
stock, growth,
growth, and
and harvest
harvest
parameters.
parameters .
As illustrated in Figure 5, the current stock of rattan in the forestforest at the start of Year 1 is 1000
lOOO
canes. This
This stock
stock produces
produces 500 new canes during the
canes during the year.
year. At the end of Year 1, 1, 700 rattan
canes are harvested,
harvested, i.e.
i.e. 200 more
more than
than were
were produced during the year, leaving a stock stock of
of 800
800
canes. These
canes. These plants
plants are
are left
left to
to grow
grow for a year and they produce
and they produce 400400 new
newcanes.
canes. The nextnext
year, 700 canes, i.e. 300 more than were produced, are are harvested
harvested again.
again. The
The remaining
remaining rattan
rattan
plants produce 250 new canes yielding a total stock of only only 750 canes.
canes. AA final
final harvest
harvest of
of700
700
reduces the
canes at the end of Year 3 reduces the total
total stock
stock to
to only
only 50.
50. At this
thi s point, commercial
commercial rattan
rattan
harvesting is no longer possible and the annual growth of the resource
harvesting is resource has
has been
been reduced
reduced toto
only 25
only 25 canes/year.
canes/year. IfIfnothing
nothing isis done
done toto remedy
remedy the
the situation,
situation, rattan will probably disappear
from the forest as it has inin many parts of Southeast Asia (Dransfield and Manokaran, 1994). 1994).
Based on what
what we
we know
know about
about the
the density
density and yield of the rattan population in in this
this example,
example,
a more sustainable level
level of offtake can
can be
be prescribed.
prescribed. The initial
initial stock
stock of
of rattan produces 500
new canes each year.
year. By
By harvesting
harvesting only
only this
this amount
amount and
and leaving
leaving the
the basic
basic stock
stock untouched,
untouched,
rattan cane
rattan cane could
could be exploited time on the site. The key
for a long, long time
exploited for key is to only
only cut
cut as
as
much rattan as
much rattan as the basic
basic stock produces
produces in in one
one year.
year. Sounds
Sounds simple,
simple, but
but only
only because
because there
are inventory and yield data available to define the key parameters.
31
5.5. Regeneration
5.5. Regeneration surveys
Periodic monitoring
Periodic monitoring activities
activities are
are essential
essential for
for defining
defining and
and maintaining
maintaining thethe sustainability
sustainability of
of
NWFP exploitation.
NWFP exploitation. ForFor most
most species
species and
and resources,
resources, the
the effects
effects of
of over-harvesting
over-harvesting are most
clearly visible
clearly visible in
in the seedling and
and small
small sapling
sapling stage.
stage. Harvesting may kill a large number of
plants, may lower individual tree vigour to the point that flower and fruit production
adult plants, production is
is
affected, or
affected, or may remove an
may remove an excessive
excessive number
number of of seeds
seeds from
from the
the forest.
forest. From
From aa population
population
standpoint, the
standpoint, the net
net results
results of these activities are the same--all
activities are reduce the
same--all reduce the rate
rate at which new
new
seedlings are
seedlings are established
established in thethe population.
population. ThisThis impact
impact can be be detected,
detected, and
and hopefully
hopefully
avoided, by
avoided, by periodically
periodically monitoring
monitoring thethe density
density of seedlings and saplings
seedlings and saplings in the populations
populations
being exploited. In
being In essence,
essence, the
the seedling
seedling and
and sapling densities in
sapling densities in each
each population
population areare a
demographic "yardstick"
demographic "yardstick" with
with which
which to measure the actualactual long-term
long-term impact
impact of
of harvesting.
harvesting.
To use
To use a medical
medical analogy, these data
analogy, these data are
are the
the vital
vital signs by which
signs by which toto assess
assess the
the health
health or
infirmity of the population.
5.6. Harvest
5.6. Harvest assessments
Harvest assessments
Harvest assessmentsare are an
an additional type of monitoring
additional type activity used
monitoring actIVIty used to gauge
gauge the
the
ecological impact
ecological impact of resource
resource harvest.
harvest. These
These are
are primarily
primarily visual
visual appraisals ofof the
the behaviour
behaviour
and condition of adult trees that are conducted concurrently
concurrently with
with harvest
harvest operations.
operations. InIn many
many
cases, these
cases, these quick assessments can detect
assessments can detect a problem
problem with
with reproduction
reproduction or growth
growth before
before itit
becomes serious
becomes serious enough
enough toto actually
actually reduce
reduce the
the rate
rate of seedling
seedling establishment.
establishment. The The sample
sample
plants selected
plants selected and marked
marked for the
the yield
yield studies
studies are
are perfect
perfect subjects
subjects for
for these
these observations.
observations.
Examples of the type of information to be recorded during these assessments include: include: overall
overall
vigour
vigour of the
the plant,
plant, wounding
wounding caused
caused byby harvesting,
harvesting, trampling
trampling of
of seedlings
seedlings byby collectors,
collectors,
evidence of insect pests or fungal pathogens,
evidence pathogens, and abundance
abundance of fallen
fallen flowers
flowers and immature
fruits under the crown.
fruits
5.7. Harvest
5.7. Harvest adjustments
adjustments
The monitoring
The operations are
monitoring operations are used
used to appraise
appraise the sustainability
sustainability of current harvest
harvest levels
levels
4). The seedling
(see Figure 4).
(see seedling and
and sapling
sapling densities
densities recorded
recorded in
in thethe original
original regeneration
regeneration
survey represent
survey represent the threshold
threshold values
values byby which
which sustainability
sustainability isis measured.
measured. As As long
long asas
densities remain
densities remain above
above this
this threshold
threshold value,
value, and
and nono major
major problems
problems are are detected
detected inin the
the
harvest assessments,
harvest assessments, there
there is
is a high
high probability
probability that the
the cun-ent level of exploitation
current level exploitation can be
If, however,
sustained. If, seedling and
however, seedling and sapling
sapling densities
densities are
are found
found to to drop
drop below
below this value,
value,
immediate steps should
immediate steps should be
be taken
taken toto reduce
reduce the
the intensity
intensity ofof harvest.
harvest. The effectiveness
effectiveness of this
harvest reduction will
harvest reduction will be verified during the
verified during the next
next regeneration
regeneration survey.
survey. Further
Further reductions
reductions in
harvest levels
harvest levels may
may be warranted
warranted if seedling
seedling and
and 'sapling densities fail
'sapling densities fail to stabilise,
stabilise, or
or drop
drop
even lower during subsequent surveys.
In actual
In' actual practice,
practice, achieving
achieving aa sustainable yield in
sustainable yield in this
this manner
manner will
will invariably
invariably involve
involve aa
considerable number
considerable number ofof harvest
harvest adjustments
adjustments. There is
. There is frequently
frequently aa time
time laglag in
in aa population's
population's
response to
response to disturbance, and after
disturbance, and after several
several cycles
cycles of apparently
apparently stable
stable results
results from
from thethe
regeneration surveys, the population may exhibit a drastic fluctuation in in seedling
seedling and
and sapling
sapling
densities.. The
densities The important
important thing
thing is that these fluctuations
fluctuations dodo not
not go
go unnoticed.
unnoticed. By gradually
gradually
lowering,
lowering, or or even
even raising
raising in some
some cases,
cases, the intensity
intensity of resource
resource extraction,
extraction, thethe level
level of
should eventually
seedling establishment should eventually approximate
approximate thethe threshold
threshold value
value established
established for for the
the
population.
32
32
6. Some
6. Some hard
hard questions about sustainability
In a perfect
In perfect world,
world, baseline
baseline data
data about
about the
the size-class
size-class structure
structure andand yield
yield characteristic
characteristic of
different NWFPs would be collected, regeneration
regeneration surveys
surveys would
would be be conducted
conducted as as aa matter
matter ofof
routine, and
routine, and harvest levels
levels would
would be adjusted
adjusted periodically
periodically as as necessary
necessary to to ensure the long-
long-
term sustainability
term sustainability ofof resource
resource exploitation.
exploitation. relatively sordid
The relatively
The sordid history
history of forest
forest
exploitation in the tropics, however, suggests
suggests that
that this
this has
has rarely,
rarely, ifif ever,
ever, been
been the
the case.
case. From
a technical standpoint, there is absolutely no reason
reason that non-wood
non-wood forestforest resources
resources cannot be
managed on
managed on aa sustained-yield basis. Why
sustained-yield basis. Why then,
then, given all of the
given all the recent
recent interest
interest inin the
the
conservation, social,
conservation, social, and
and financial
financial benefits
benefits ofof non-timber forest products
non-timber forest products, has so
, has so little
attention been
attention been focused
focused on actually
actually monitoring
monitoring the sustainability
sustainability of the the resource
resource base
base from
from
which
which all ofof these
these benefits
benefits accrue?
accrue? In In closing,
closing, I would
would like
like to
to pose
pose three
three questions,
questions, thethe
answers to
answers to which
which will
will probably go a long way in explaining
probably go explaining the total lack lack of
of sustainability
sustainability
which currently characterises the modem world world ofof NWFPs.
6.1. Who
6.1. Who is
is responsible
responsible for doing the monitoring?
It seems to me that this question

question hashas never
never been clearly defined. If local communities are to to
be given the responsibility
be responsibility of stewarding their own
stewarding their own forests
forests (an alternative
alternative that I decidedly
decidedly
favour), why haven't
haven ' t II witnessed
witnessed aa surge
surge of
of collaborative
collaborative programmes
programmes designed
designed toto train
train forest
forest
collectors to inventory, monitor, and manage their resource base under under commercial
commercial levels
levels of
of
exploitation? There
There are literally
literally hundreds
hundreds of of projects
projects currently
currently underway
underway throughout
throughout the the
tropics that are focused
tropics focused on on the
the development,
development, marketing,
marketing, and
and sustainable
exploitation of of non-
non-
timber forest
timber forest products
products.. ManyMany of these
these involve the creation
involve the creation of
of aa management
managementplan. plan. Most of
these plans are being
being developed
developed by by expatriate
expatriate development workers, university foresters and
extension agents. I wonder how many of these these plans
plans are
are actually
actually being
being developed
developed withwith the
the
enthusiastic participation of of local
local community
community groups.
groups. I also wonder
wonder whether
whether equal
equal emphasis
emphasis
is being placed onon the
the economic,
economic, social,
social, and
and ecological
ecological aspects
aspects of
of the
the enterprise.
enterprise. , Will thethe
monitoring and management activitiesactivities be continued after the outside
outside technical
technical assistance
assistance hashas
been withdrawn?
6.2. Who is
6.2. is paying for it?
Forest inventories, yield

yield studies,
studies, and
and the
the periodic
periodic survey
survey of
of regeneration
regeneration plots
plots are
are expensive
expensive
activities. Even
activities. Even given
given thethe local
local expertise
expertise to
to collect
collect these
these data,
data, where
where will
will the
the money
money come
come
from to continue
from continue this
this fieldwork
fieldwork onceonce the
the development
development project
project or
or research
research programme
programme has has
finished? If we we are
are really
really interested
interested in
in maintaining
maintaining thethe long-term
long-term sustainability
sustainability of forest
forest
exploitation, these
exploitation, these activities
activities must
must be
be viewed
viewed asas aa fixed
fixed cost.
cost. Are
Are any
any provisions
provisions being made
to ensure that these costs will continually be covered
covered from
from the
the profits
profits generated
generated byby the
the sale
sale of
forest products?
6.3. How
6.3. How do
do you
you stop
stop itit ifif it's
it's not sustainable?
Much of the
Much the current
current interest
interest ininNWFPs
NWFPs stemsstems from
fromthe thepotential
potentialconservation
conservation benefits
benefits
afforded by
afforded by this
this type
type of land
land use.
use. The
The forest
forest can
can be
beused
usedandandconserved
conserved at at the
thesame
same time,
time,
ecosystem structure
ecosystem structure and function is
and function is preserved
preserved essentially
essentially intact,
intact, and
and local
local population
population
experience a welcome
experience welcome improvement
improvement in in their monetary
monetary situation
situation and standard of living.
living. At
least that is how it is supposed to work. work. As
As an
an ecologist,
ecologist, however.
however, II am
am always
always bothered
bothered byby aa
disturbing variation
disturbing variation on thisthis scenario.
scenario. Let's assume
assume forfor the
the moment
moment that
that everything
everything works.
works.
New markets are created for a certain NWFP, all the baseline data has been collected and the
monitoring systems
monitoring systemsare are inin place,
place, aa local cottage industry
local cottage industry has
has been
been set
set up,
up, and
and sales
sales are
are
increasing every year.
increasing every year. TheThe revenues
revenues from
from the
the enterprise
enterprise make
make aa significant
significant contribution
contribution to
the well-being
the well-being of of the
the community.
community. During During thethe third
third survey
survey of
of the
the regeneration
regeneration plots
plots itit
33
becomes obvious
becomes obvious that
that the
the current
current rates
rates of harvest
harvest are
are not
not sustainable
sustainable and
and that the resource is
being progressively
being progressively over-exploited.
over-exploited. The The management prescription isis that harvest
management prescription harvest levels
levels
should be
should be reduced
reduced by
by 20% which
which will
will cause an immediate and notable
immediate and notable drop
drop inin the
the profits
profits
from the
from the enterprise. Where does
enterprise. Where does the
the incentive come from
incentive come from to follow
follow thethe path
path towards
towards
sustainability?
sustainability?
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35
AN ASSESSMENT
AN ASSESSMENT OF
OF NON·
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCT RESOURCES
WOOD FOREST
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE COMMERCIAL
SUSTAINABLE COMMERCIAL
EXTRACTION
J.F.W.
J.F. van Dijk
W. van
Abstract
The development
development of commercial
commercial NWFPNWFP extraction
extraction isis often
often seen
seen asas an
an option
option to increase the
income of forest dwellers and
income and to
to conserve
conserve thethe overall
overall forest
forest resource.
resource. For
For the
the development
development
and promotion
and promotion of NWFP
NWFP exploitation, the most
exploitation, the most promising resources are
promising resources are those
those that
that can bebe
exploited in
exploited in a sustainable
sustainable way
way and
and which
which havehave aa high
high yielding
yielding resource
resource base.
base. Within
Within the
the
framework of the
framework the Tropenbos
Tropenbos Cameroon
Cameroon Programme
Programme (TCP)(TCP) socio-economic
socio-economic and and ecological
ecological
surveys on NWFPs are being carried
carried out
out in
in the
the Bipindi-Akom
Bipindi-Akom II II region
region in
in the
the South
South Province
Province
of Cameroon.
Cameroon. In this
this region
region the
the extraction
extraction of ofNVVFP
NWFP for for markets
markets is not not particularly
particularly wellwell
developed; income
developed; income from
from NWFPs
NWFPs isis very
very important,
important, butbut itit is mainly
mainly generated
generated by selling
selling
products such as bush meat and palm wine for which the trade is restricted to to the
the village
village level
level
only.
onl y.
A survey
A survey of NWFP
NWFP resources was recently
resources was recently carried
carried outout in
in order
order toto gain
gain anan insight
insight into
into the
abundance and
abundance and distribution
distribution ofof NWFP
NWFP species
species and and toto obtain
obtain indications
indications of of the
the impact
impact of
exploitation on
exploitation on the
the available
available resources.
resources. From
From the the surveys, appears that
surveys, it appears that even
even inin the
the
relatively
relatively small
small study
study area
area of 200
200 000
000 ha,
ha, the
the variation
variation inin abundance
abundance and and distribution
distribution of of
NWFPs is high.
high. Several
Several frequently
frequently used
used species
species areare restricted
restricted toto specific
specific localities
localities within
within the
the
area. In addition,
addition, an
an important
important number
number of
of the
the (potentially)
(potentially) commercial
commercial NWFP NWFP species
species find
find
their maximum
their density in secondary
maximum density secondary forest
forest types,
types, e.g.
e.g. the condiments
condiments njansang
njansang from
from
Ricinodendron heudelotii and
Ricinodendron heudelotii and mbongo,
mbongo, the fruits
fruits ofofthe
therhizomatous
rhizomatousherb herbAframomum
Aframomum
citratum. Many
citratum. Many of the species
species providing
providing products
products with
with a high commercial
commercial value, such such as aa
number of oleaginous
number oleaginous seed
seed producing trees as
producing trees as Baillonella
Baillonella toxisperma.
toxisperma, PandaPanda oleosa and and
Poga oleosa,
oleosa, appear
appear to
to be
berare
rarewhile
whileother
otherimportant
importantNVVFP species, like
NWFP species, like the well
well known
known
bush mango, Irvitzgia
lrvingia gabonensis, have a moderate density.
An additional
An additional survey has concentrated
survey has on aa high
concentrated on high value
value NWFP
NWFP species
species that isis exploited
exploited
commercially.Garcinia
commercially. Garcinialucida,
lucida,the
thebark
barkand
and seeds
seeds of
of which
which areare used
used for
for palm
palm wine
wine
production as well as for medicinal
production medicinal purposes, is a small
small understorey
understorey tree that grows
grows onon steep
steep
slopes in
slopes in high
high density stands over
density stands over areas km2 in
areas of 2 to 33 km2 in high
high altitude
altitude forest.
forest. However,
However, in
areas where the bark is
is stripped
stripped for
for commercial
commercial purposes.
purposes, the
the mortality
mortality is
is very
very high
high and
and these
these
populations are becoming seriously threatened.
Key words:
words:NVVFPs,
NWFPs, Cameroon, resource inventory, commercial extraction.
1. Introduction
At present itit isis generally

generallyrecognized
recognizedthat
thatNVWFPs play an
NWFPs play an ,important
important role for subsistence
subsistence and
and
cash income
income for
for local
local people.
people. The
The awareness
awareness isisgrowing
growing that
thateffective
effectiveconservation
conservation and
and
management of NWFP resources should be included in natural forest management in order to
meet
meet the
the present
present and
and future
future needs
needs of
oflocal
localpopulations.
populations . Moreover,
Moreover, the
the development
development of
37
commercial extraction of
of NWFPs
NWFPs isis often
often seen
seen as
as aa way
way to
to ensure
ensure forest
forest conservation
conservation whilst
whilst
improving rural peoples' living standards
improving rural standards (Ros-Tonen, Dijkman &
(Ros-Tonen, Dijkman & Lamrnerts
Lammerts vanvan Bueren,
1995,
1995, de Beer
Beer and
and McDermott,
McDermott, 1989).
1989). Undoubtedly, some NWFPs
Undoubtedly, some NWFPs can
can be extracted
extracted
ecosystems (Peters,
sustainably from forest ecosystems (Peters, this volume)
volume) and
and the attainment of this forms the
basis
basis of
of many
many conservation
conservation and
and development
development research
research programmes, includingthat
programmes, including that of
of
Tropenbos.
In general, spatial and quantitative data on the availability of NWFP resources and their use use
lacking. Only recently have researchers begun to develop methods to assess the
are lacldng. the potential
potential
sustainability
sustainability of NWFP
NWFP resources.
resources. Within
Within the Tropenbos
Tropenbos Cameroon
Cameroon Programme
Programme (TCP) (TCP) a
broadly-orientedNWFP
broadly-oriented NWFPproject
projectisis currently
currently being
being undertaken.
undertaken.The
The project
project consists
consists ofof a
NWFP identification and utilization survey, a resource inventory, a harvesting
harvesting impact
impact study
study
and socio-economic
and surveys.This
socio-economic surveys. This paper
paper will
will mainly
mainly review
review the
the results
results of the
the ecological
ecological
inventory which can be best described as as aa reconnaissance survey.
survey.
During this
this survey,
survey, the
the abundance
abundance and
anddistribution
distributionofofNVVFP species were assessed and
NWFP species and the
the
data were used to derive indications
data indications of the
the impact
impact of different types of exploitation
different types exploitation on the
wide range
availability of a wide range of resources.
resources. This
This paper
paper will
will focus
focus on
on those
those plant
plant NWFPs
NWFPs which
which
are commonly traded in the south of Cameroon.
2. The setting
2.1. The study site
The TCP study site covers an area of 200 000 ha in in the

the South
South Province ofof Cameroon
Cameroon and is is
located between 50 km and 100 km from from the
the coast.
coast. The
The study
study site
site corresponds
corresponds with
with past
past and
and
present timber concession areas of a Dutch logging company and because of of this the
the majority
majority
of the study
study area
area has
has been
been logged-over
logged-over several
several times. However,
However, this timber exploitation has
been carried out selectively and is therefore undertaken at a low intensity; it is estimated
estimated that
that
about 0.7 trees/ha are harvested
harvested with around
around 14%
14% of the forest surface being
being affected (Van
Leersum, pers. comm )
comm.).
The study area isis geomorphologically

geomorphologic ally diverse.
diverse. In the western
western area,
area, plains
plains dominate
dominate whereas
whereas
the eastern area is fairly mountainous. Because of this
mountainous. Because this varied
varied topography,
topography, thethe altitude
altitude ranges
ranges
from 40m
from 40m above
above seasea level
level (asl)
(asl) in
in the
the western
western area
area to
to more
more than
than 1 OOOm
000m asl asl in
in the eastern
area. Annual rainfall
area. rainfall varies
varies from
from 11 800
800 mm
mm toto 22 500
500 mm
mm with
with two
two distinct
distinct rainy
rainy seasons
seasons and
and
two drier seasons.
seasons. The vegetation changes
changes gradually
gradually from
from Low
Low Altitude
Altitude Evergreen
Evergreen Forest
Forest of
Lophira alata to Mid
alatato Mid Altitude
Altitude Evergreen
Evergreen Forest rich in Caesalpiniaceae (Letouzey, 1985).
Caesalpiniaceae (Letouzey, 1985).
The population density is rather low,

low, ranging
ranging from
from 5-10
5-10 inhabitants per km2 with 90% of the
per km2 the
.population being
'population being of
of Bantu
Bantu origin.
origin. These
These people
people areare generally
generally referred
referred toto as "villagers"
"villagers" or
"farmers". They
"farmers". They practice
practice shifting
shifting cultivation,
cultivation,cocoa
cocoa cash
cash crop
crop farming
farming and
and hunting
hunting and
and
gathering. majority of the
gathering. The majority the Bantu people
people belong
belong toto the
the Bulu
Bulu tribe.
tribe. Other
Other Bantu
Bantu groups
groups inin
the area are the
the closely-related
closely-related Fang, the Bassa and the Ngumba.Ngumba. TheThe remaining
remaining 10%
10% of the
population consists of Bagyeli (Pygmy)
popUlation people. They are mainly hunter-gatherers,
(Pygmy) people. hunter-gatherers, although
they have adopted farming
farming and,
and, to
to aalesser
lesserextent,
extent, cocoa
cocoa growing.
growing.
In terms of
of logistics,
logistics, road conditions
conditions and public transport
and public transport access
access within
within the
the area
area are
are very
poor, particularly as the logging company which used
used to maintain
maintain the road network has now
departed from the majority of the area.
38
2.2. NWFP
2.2. NWFP extraction
extraction in
in the
the study
study area
An enormous
An enormous variety of NWFPs
NWFPs are commonly
commonly usedused or are known
known to be
be useful.
useful. About
About 200200
animal
animal species and 500 plant species were identified, the latter accounting for 1 200 different
1 200 different
uses (Van
uses (Van Dijk.
Dijk, in press).
press). Many
Many of these
these species
species have
have aa commercial
commercial value
value and are
are traded
traded
widely throughout
widely flu-oughoutthe
theregion.
region.Appendix
Appendix IIpresents
presents an
an overview
overview ofof commercial
commercial NWFP species
of plant origin which occur in the study site.
Income from
Income from the sale ofof NVVFPs
NWFPs isisgenerally
generallyof
of importance
importancebut but itit isis mainly
mainly generated
generated by the
sale of products
sale products such as bush
bush meat
meat and
and palm
palm wine
wine and
and its
its derivatives,
derivatives, for which which the
the trade
trade is
is
restricted to
restricted to the
the village
village level.
level. The extraction
extraction and
and sale of NWFPs
NWFPs for markets markets outside
outside the
village range
village range area is not particularly
particularly well
well developed. Table 11 shows
shows the the relative
relative contribution
contribution
from selling
from selling NWFPs
NWFPs and agricultural produce to
agricultural produce to household incomes. The
household incomes. The figures
figures are based
on preliminary data only from from an
an ongoing
ongoing survey
survey among
among eleven
eleven Bagyeli
Bagyeli and and nineteen
nineteen Bantu
Bantu
families, and
families, and does
does not
not include
include adjustment for the
adjustment for the costs
costs on
on inputs
inputs such as wire wire for
for snares,
snares,
bullets, etc.
bullets, etc. These
These data
data reflect
reflect the
the results
results over
over aa period
period of
of four
four months
months at at the
the end
end of 1997
1997
which correspond
which correspond to to the
the peak period
period of cocoa
cocoa harvest and sale.
harvest and sale. It appears that even even inin this
this
period the
period the income
income from
from the
the sale
sale of bush meat is
bush meat is often equal to
often equal to the cash obtained
obtained by selling
selling
cocoa. Bush meat represents 75% 75 % of the contribution of NWFPs to income.
Table 1.
1. Household
Household income
income from the sale
sale of
of NWFPs
NWFPs and agricultural
agricultural produce
produce in the period
period
September 1997-January
1997-January 1998.
1998 .
% of income of families
# of
involved (N=30)
Bush meat/Chops 31.2 23
Fish 0.4 4
Honey 0.7 9
Basketry 1.3 55
Forest foods 3.3
3.3 15
Palm wine/liquor 6.0 12
Pharmaceutical inputs 1.0 2
Total NTFPs 43.9
Cash crops 42.9 14
Food crops 12.6 19
Fruits/nuts 0.6 18
Animal husbandr
husbandry 0.0 1
Total agriculture 56.1

56.1
Table
Table 2 gives
gives an
an impression
impression of
of the
the actual
actual degree
degree of
ofcommercialization of a number
commercialization of number of
of
marketable NVVFPs, which,iningeneral,
NWFPs , which, general.isisnot
not very
veryhigh.
high.Out
Out of
of the
the 23
23 products
products which are said
to be sold to retailers or assemblers,
assemblers, 1818 were harvested during the
harvested during the four
four months
months' period.
period. From
these 18
18 products, only 1010 were
were effectively sold.
sold. Bush mango,
mango, lrvingia gabonensis, is is one
one of
of
the most frequently harvested and by far the most frequently
frequently sold product. However, most
product. However, most of
the
the harvest
harvest is
is allocated
allocated for
for household
household consumption and only
consumption and only 20%
20% of the
the total
total quantity
quantity
collected is sold. Surprisingly, less than half of the
the total
total number
number of
of families
families and
and none
none of
of the
the
Bagyeli
Bagyeli families
families are involved
involved in selling.
selling. Njansang, a condiment
condiment derived from thethe oily
oily seeds
seeds
of Ricinodendron heudelotii,
heudeZotii, is another NWFP which is marketed in significant
significant quantities
quantities in
in
the South of
of Cameroon (Ndoye
(Ndoye et et al.,
aZ., 1997).
1997).
In the TCP study

study area,
area, however,
however, only
only two
two out
out of
of the
the thirty
thirty participating
participating families
families appear
appear to
tobebe
involved in the trade of
of this
this product.
product. In
In light
light of
of the
the data
data presented
presented in
in Table
Table 2,
2, one
one might
might state
state
39
that there exists a potential in the study area to develop
develop the commercial
extraction of NWFPs.
NWFPs.
A resource inventory can contribute to examine the opportunities for such a development.
Table 2.
2. The
The degree
degreeofofcommercialization
commercialization of
ofnaarketable
marketable NWFP
NWFP products
products among
among family
family
households in the period September 1997-January
1997-January 1998.
1998.
Species name # of families # of

of families % of
%of Total revenue
involved in involved in harvest in CFA
inCFA
extraction trade sold (4 months)
Coula edulis 28 33 5 15000
15 000
Cola acuminatalnitida
acuminata/nitida 8 33 30 2 500
2500
Cola lepidota 14 33 30 33850
850
Dacryodes edulis 22 6 10 11 000
11
Dactyodes
Dacryodes macrophylla 12 33 10 2 000
2000
Elaeis guineensis (fruit) 30 2 <11
< 2 800
2800
Garcinia lucida
Lucida 10 11 10 400
Irvingia gabonensis 28 11
11 20 79 000
79000
Ricinodendron heudelotii 2 11 100 5800
5 800
Strophanthus gratus
Strophanthus gratus 2 2 100 32 500
32500
3. Data collection and analysis

3.
The objectives of the ecological

The ecological survey were to gain insight into the the relative
relative abundance
abundance and and
distribution of NWFP
distribution NWFP species
species and
and to obtain
obtain some indications
indications of the impact
impact of
of agriculture,
agriculture,
logging and
logging and NWFP harvesting on the availability
harvesting on availability of these resources. The methodology
methodology was was
based on the sample
sample design
design as
as developed
developed by by Hall
Hall and
and Bawa
Bawa (1993).
(1993). One-hectare
One-hectare plots
plots in
in the
the
form of 1 km long and 10
form 10 m wide transects were enumerated for all individuals >10 cm dbh.
In each
In each transect, 10 plots
transect, 10 plots of
of 10
10 x 1010 mm were
were laid
laid out
out at
at regular
regular distances
distances in which
which all
individuals with
individuals with a minimum
minimum height
height of
of 11mmand
and aamaximum
maximum dbh dbh of
of 10
10 cm
cm were
were enumerated.
enumerated.
The smallest individuals of less than lm1m in
in height
height were
were counted in 2 x 2 m subplots.
subplots .
Twenty NWFP
Twenty NWFP species
species were
were selected
selected for
for which
which the
the dbh
dbh was
was accurately measured using
accurately measured using aa
tape. For other NWFP species encountered along the transects,
tape. transects, the dbh was
was estimated
estimated using
using
global size
global size classes
classes of 10
10 cm.
cm. Land
Land characteristics
characteristics in
in terms
terms of
of topography
topography andand vegetation
vegetation
structure were recorded.
structure were Identificationofof each
recorded. Identification each species
species was
was undertaken
undertaken by by local
local field
field
assistants, using
assistants, using vernacular
vernacular names.
names. InIn order
order to
to determine
determine the
the scientific
scientific names,
names, aa number
number ofof
the transects were inventoried simultaneously by by botanists
botanists and
and the
the local
local assistants.
assistants. Moreover,
Moreover,
herbarium vouchers
herbarium voucherscollected
collectedduring
duringthe
thefield
fieldwork
work were
were later
later examined
examined inin thethe TCP
TCP
herbari urn and the National Herbarium of Cameroon in Yaoundé.
herbarium Yaounde.
The location
The location of the
the transects
transects was
was selected
selected on
on the
the basis
basis of
ofananaerial
aerialphoto-interpretation
photo-interpretation
developed for
developed for an
an overall
overall land
land inventory
inventory in which
which thethe planation
planation level
level along
along with
with shifting
shifting
cultivation were
cultivation were distinguished
distinguished as as the
the main
main differentiating factors for
differentiating factors for soils
soils and
and vegetation
vegetation
(Touber, 1993).
(Touber, The selection
1993). The selection included the inventory
included the inventory of fields,
fields, fallow
fallow lands
lands and
and cocoa
cocoa
plantations. A total of
of 32
32 hectares were
were inventoried.
inventoried.
Two of the
Two the 20
20selected
selected NWFP
NWFP species
species were
were initially
initially not
not found
found during
during the
theinventory;
inventory;
Aframomum citanum and
Aframomum citratum and Garcinia lucida. For these
these species
species separate
separate surveys
surveys were
were carried
carried
out in several alternative sites
sites that were
were indicated
indicated by
by local
local harvesters.
harvesters.
The data analysis

The analysis was
was undertaken
undertaken by post-stratification
post-stratification inin order
order to examine
examine the
the factors
factors
influencing the variation
variation in
in abundance
abundance andand distribution
distribution of
ofthe
theNVVFP
NWFP species. This analysis
analysis
resulted in the determination of of the
the following
following habitat
habitat types:
types:
40
• undisturbed lowland
lowland forest
forest (<350m
«350m as!)
asl)
• mid-elevation or intermediate
intermediate forest
forest (350-500m
(350-500m as!)
asl)
• high altitude forest (>500m
(>500m as!)
asl)
• swamp forest
• secondary forest
• fields and young fallow lands
• cocoa plantations
4. NWFP resources
4.1. Abundance and distribution

distribution of
of marketable
marketable NWFP
NWFP species
species
With
With respect
respect to
to the
thedevelopment
development of
ofcommercial
commercial extraction,
extraction, the
the most
most suitable
suitable NWFP
NWFP
resources are those which
which can be
be extracted
extracted sustainably
sustainably and which have a high potential yield
yield
per unit of
of land, defined
defined by
by the
the number ofof individuals and the potential productivity. In Table
3, an
an overview
overview is
is presented
presented of
of the
theabundance
abundance and
and distribution
distribution of
of actual
actual and
and potential
potential
commercial
commercial NVVFP species which
NWFP species which occur
occur in
in the TCP study site.
In general, the average

average densities
densities of
of marketable
marketable NWFPNWFP species may be considered
considered low low with
with
the large majority of
of these
these species
species not
not achieving densities of more than 5 stems/ha with a dbh
of more
morethan
than1010cmcmininany
anypart
partofofthe
thearea.
area.Some
Somespecies,
species,forforexample
examplethe thehigh-value
high-value
oleaginous
oleaginous seed bearing trees Baillonella toxisperma,
toxisperma, andand Poga oleosa, can can bebe classified
classified asas
being rare, with less than 11 tree/ha greater
greaterthan
than 10cm
lOcm dbh.
dbh. In
In addition,
addition, the
the fact
fact that
that many
many of of
these species are medium
medium toto large
large trees
trees which
which reach
reach their
their reproductive
reproductive stage
stage only
only atat larger
larger
size classes, for example
example Baillonella
Bailloneila toxisperma which starts floweringflowering at an average dbh of
70 cm (Debroux, 1996),
1996), enables one to conclude that the
conclude that the productivity
productivity perper unit
unit of area
area isis low
for many NWFP species.
The
The difference
difference between the average
between the and maximum
average and densitiesof
maximum densities of the
the listed
listed species
species is an
an
indication of the absence or presence
indication presence of specific
specific (distinct)
(distinct) habitat requirements.
requirements. Most of the
recorded NWFP species are more more oror less
less evenly
evenly distributed
distributed in
in the
the area.
area. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, there
there
are some
some species
species which
which are are far
far more
more abundant
abundant inin specific
specific forest
forest oror habitat
habitat types
types and
and in
in some
some
cases they are
are completely
completely absent in large large parts of the area.
area. The
The distribution
distribution patterns
patterns of
of these
these
species indicate that
that the
the variation
variation in
in availability
availabilityof
ofNVVFP resources even
NWFP resources even in
in a small
small area such
study site
as the TCP study site is
is very
very important.
important.
is obvious
It is that it is not
obvious that not only
only undisturbed
undisturbed forests
forests that
that contain
contain NWFP
NWFP resources.
resources. An
An
important number
important number of species find their maximum densities
densities in secondary vegetation types. A
vegetation types.
number of typical pioneer
number pioneer species
species provide
provide important
important NVVFPs
NWFPs such suchasas the
the oil
oil palm Elaeis
Elaeis
guineensis,
guineensis, Ricinodendron heudelotii (njansang)
Ricinodendron heudelotii (njansang) and
and Aframomum citratum. The
Aframomum citratum. The latter
latter
species, in particular occurs most
most commonly along logging roads and skid trails.
However,
However, the fact that
that some
some species
species show
show thethe highest
highest abundance
abundance in cocoa
cocoa plantations
plantations (e.g.
Dacryodes macrophylla,
macrophyila, Hexalobus
Hexalobus crispiflorus,
crispijlorus, Strophanthus gratus and
and Alstonia boonei)
boone i) is
undoubtedly the result of effective conservation, enrichment
undoubtedly enrichment planting
planting or other type of human
intervention.
intervention.
Figure 1 presents some

Figure some examples
examples ofof the
the abundance
abundance and
and distribution
distribution of
of NWFP
NWFP species
species with
with
regard to the various habitat types.
types . The bush
bush mango
mango tree, Irvingia
lrvingia gabonensis,
gabonensis , isis an
an example
example
of a species which is more
more or less evenly
evenly distributed
distributed in
in the
the area
area (Figure
(Figure la).
la). The tree occurs
in every habitat type and the abundance varies
varies from 0.4-3.0 and 2.0-3.6 stems/ha with a dbh >>
10 cm
10 cm in
in secondary
secondary and
and undisturbed
undisturbed forest types respectively (see Figure la). la).
41
Table 3.
Table 3. Abundance
Abundance and
and distribution
distribution of
of NWFP
NWFP species with a known market
market value
value
Preferred habitat
Name of the species Aver.

A ver. density Forest type/ Max. density
altitude class (stems/ha
except where
where
indicated)
Commercial condiments, barks,

barks, nuts
nuts and
and spices
spices
Baillonella toxisperma 0,2 undist. forest/high 0,3

Cola nitidalC
Cola nitida/C. aeuminata
acuminata 2,4 undist. forest/high 4,3
Coula edulis 4,7 undist. forest/high 10,1
Dacryodes edulis
Daeryodes 0,4 cocoa plantations 3,8
Elaeis guineensis 4,6 cocoa plantations 21,8
Garcinia lucida
Gareinia Lucida 5,4 undist. forest/high 22,7
Garcinia kola
Gareinia 0,4 logged-over
logged-o ver forest 1,1
Irvingia gabonensis
lrvingia 2,1 undist. forest/low 3,6
Panda oleosa 0,7 undist. forest/low 2,0
Poga oleosa 0,3 undist. forest/interm. 0,9
Raphia montbuttorum 0,9 swamp forest 16,5
16,5
Ricinodendron heudelotii
Rieinodendron heudeLotii 2,1 sec. forest 4,1
Scorodophloeus zenkeri
Seorodophloeus 6,6 undist.forestfhigh
undist.forestlhigh 29,9
Aframonnim citratum (herb)
Aframomum eitratum 5 sites/ fallow lands/logging 200 clumps/
village roads site
Condiments and vegetables, actually not commercially exploited
Monodora spp.
spp. 1,3 undist./interm.
undist.linterm. 2,4
Tetrapleura tetraptera
Tetrapleura 0,5
0.5 sec. forest + fallow 1,8
Xylopia aethiopica
Xylopia aethiopiea 3,0 sec. forest 5,7
fresh fruits
Commercialized fresh
Antrocaryon
Antroearyon klaineanum 1,8 cocoa pl./sec.
pl./sec . forest 3,3
Cola ricinifolia
rieinifolia 0,7
0.7 undist. forest/low 3,2
3,2
Cola lepidota 4,7 undist. forest/interm. 18.9
Dacryodes maerophylla
Daeryodes macrophylla 0,3 pllswamp for.
cocoa pl./swamp for. 2,7
crispiflorus
Hexalobus erispiflorus 0,3 cocoa plantations 1,1
1,1
Trichoscypha aeuminata
Triehoseypha acuminata 1,4 undist. forest/high 3,2
Trichoscypha arborea
Triehoseypha arborea 0,5 undist. forest/low 1,6
1,6
(Former) industrial inputs
Alstonia boonei -);)

2,2 cocoa plantations 5,2
5,2
Annickia chloranta
Anniekia ehLoranta 2,4 logged-over forest
forest 4,9
Strophanthus gratus
Strophanthus 0,2 cocoa plantations 1,4
Rauvolfia
Rau volfia vomitoria 1,0 sec. forest 3,3
42
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Abundance
Abundance and and distribution
distribution of
offour
fourimportant
importantNVVFP species. Fhi:
NWFP species. Fhi: Forest
Forest high>
high >
500
500 m asl;
asl; Fin:
Fin: forest
forest 350-500
350-500 m asl;asl; Flo: forest << 350
Flo: forest 350 m
m asl;
asl; Swa:
Swa: swamp
swamp forest;
forest; Slo:
Slo:
logged-over forest;
logged-over forest; Sec:
Sec: secondary forest; Cpl:
secondary forest; Cpl: cocoa plantation;
plantation; Fi/Fy:
Fi/Fy: fields and
and young
young
fallow lands.
a. Irvingia gabonensis
Su5.0
..../\
Q
!
4.0
~
A 3.0
S
(Q
2.0
~ 1.0
S 0.0
~
[J [] 1 1
'" Phi Fin Flo Swa Slo Sec Cpl FilFy

dbh (cm)
b.
b. Ricinodendron heudelotii
S-a-
u 5.0
20....
I
4.0
4.0
A
/\
4A 3.0
3.0
S 2.0
2.0 -
.e
(Q
<l.l
til
1.0
'"E 0.0
S CJ
Phi
1
n
Fin
1
D
Flo
1
Swa Slo
Slo Sec Cpl FilFy
Fi/Fy
dbh
dbh (cm)
(cm)
c. Garcina lucida
lucida
§
-6) 25.0
25.0 -
20.0
20.0 -
In
0
AA
4:1 15.0
A
.0
S
ZIS
(Q
10.0
4 5.0
~E
~
0.0 1 = 1 -- 1
'" Phi Fin Flo Swa Slo

Slo Sec Cpl FilFy
Fi/Fy
dbh (cm)
dbh (cm)
d. Cola lepidota
§ 25.0 -
25.0
~ 20.0 -
! ~ 0In
9. 20.0
A
/\
A
4=1 15.0
S
S(Q
10.0
~
5.0
g 0.0 Cl1 1 .•. 1
1= 1
~
'" Phi Fin Flo Swa Slo Sec Cpl FilFy
Fi/Fy
dbh (cm)
dbh
43
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Figure
(Figure 1lb)
b) is also represented in the entire area. As stated
stated above,
above,
this
this species
species is aa typical
typical pioneer
pioneer which
which explains
explains its higher abundance
abundance in all the
the secondary
secondary
forest types.
Garcinia lucida
lucida (Figure
(Figure lc),
lc), isis completely
completely absent
absent in
in the
the western
western area of
of the study i.e. the low
altitude zone (<500
«500 m as asp
I) and the species
species occurs at altitudes of of >500 m m above
above sea
sea level
level and
and
uniquely on
uniquely on very
very steep
steep slopes.
slopes. The The high
high average
average density
densityof of more
more than
than 70
70 adult
adult stems/ha
stems/ha is is
undoubtedly due to the fact that the species grows in high density stands in restricted areas of of
an
an average
average of 22 to km2 within
to 33km2 within these
these rather
rather specific
specific ecological
ecological conditions.
conditions. A comparable
comparable
although inverse distribution
although inverse distribution pattern
pattern isis shown
shown byby the
the fruit
fruit bearing tree Cola
bearing tree Cola lepidota (Figure
1d). This
Id). This species is also
species is also restricted
restricted to to steep
steep slopes.
slopes. However,
However, it occurs
occurs mainly
mainly within
within the
the
lower altitude zone of <500 m asl (2.2 versus 15-19 15-19 stems/ha with a dbh >10 cm).
The four examples

The examples presented also demonstrate
presented also the importance
demonstrate the importance of of cocoa
cocoa plantations
plantations asas a
source of NWFPs.
source NWFPs. TheThe presence
presence of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida in
in cocoa
cocoa plantations
plantations results
results from
from
enrichment planting
enrichment planting by
by farmers.
farmers. However,
However,thethe majority
majorityof of these
these plantings
plantings have
have not
not been
successful due to prolonged insect attacks and damage.
4.2. The sustainability

sustainability of
of NVVFP harvesting: The
NWFP harvesting: The case
case of
of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
In general, it is not easy to evaluate the

the impact
impact of
of NWET
NWFP harvesting on plant populations. The
most appropriate
appropriate wayway toto get
get a first indication on the impact
indication on impact of harvesting
harvesting is is to analyze
analyze the
size-class distribution of the
size-class distribution of the population (Peters, 1996;
(Peters, 1996; Peters, this volume; Hall and
volume; Hall and Bawa,
Bawa,
1993), preferably with regard to differences in exploitation
1993), preferably exploitation intensity.
intensity. However,
However, even even with
with aa
rather exhaustive
exhaustive inventory
inventory as as described above, the
described above, the low densities
densities and the highhigh variation
variation in
in
abundance
abundance andand distribution
distribution of the species puts serious
serious restrictions onon this
this type
type of
ofanalysis.
analysis.
The number of of individuals is not sufficient
sufficient to
to get
get reliable results.
results.
However,
However, the data collected on Garcinia lucida
lucida during
during the supplementary
supplementary survey undertaken
undertaken
for this species (Guedje, 1996) do permit the plotting
plotting of a reliable size-class distribution.
distribution. In
total, 494 reproductive individuals (dbh
reproductive individuals (dbh >5
>5 cm)
cm) were
were enumerated
enumerated in in four different sites over
of 8.4
an area of 8.4 ha.
ha.
As stated above,
above, this small
small understorey tree grows
grows in restricted areas. The distance between
the villages
the villages and these stands rather important as the
these stands is rather important the species
species isis considered
considered open-access
open-access
resource. The extraction of the bark
resource. bark for
for commercial
commercial purposes is undertaken
undertaken by by stripping
stripping the
the
bark from thethe entire
entire bole,
bole, essentially
essentially ring-barking the stem and resulting in the
ring-barking the the immediate
immediate
death of the individual.
individual. The mortality in the various sample locations ranged from 5 to 35% 35%
(with an average of 19%). Figure 2.
19%). Figure 2. presents
presents the
the size
size class
class distribution
distribution after post stratification
of the data in two sets by regrouping the transects in which the mortality was very high (more
than 30%) and those in which the mortality was relatively low (less than 10%). 10%). This artificial
artificial
grouping reflects the
the impacts
impacts ofof high
high and
and low
low exploitation.
exploitation.
The
The size-class distributionsshow
size-class distributions showclearly
clearlythat
thatitit isis preferable that the largest
preferable that largest trees
trees are
are
exploited.
exploited. In the dbh class of 5-10 cmcm hardly any tree is de-barked
de-barked and, as expected,
expected, in the
the
dbh class of
of >15
>15 cm
cm very
very few
few of
of the
the trees
trees remain
remain unaffected
unaffected by
by bark
bark exploitation.
exploitation. It
It can
can be
be
confidently assumed that the elimination of of the
the largest,
largest, and
and therefore
therefore most
most productive,
productive, trees
trees
has
has serious
serious consequences for the regeneration
consequences for capacity of the
regeneration capacity the populations.
populations. However,
However, at at
present, both exploitation regimes show an inverse J-shaped
J -shaped size-class distribution, indicative
for an adequate
adequate recruitment. An ongoing
ongoing monitoring programme
programme on the population dynamics
of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida will
will provide
provide more
more information
information on on the
the long term
term effects
effects of
of the
the actual
actual
exploitation system. Moreover,
exploitation system. Moreover, future
future work
work will
will attempt
attempt to
to determine
determine the
thesustainable
sustainable
harvesting levels by an experimental approach.
approach. A number of selected trees were subjected
subjected to
44
various
various exploitation techniques and
exploitation techniques and harvesting
harvesting levels.
levels. Parameters
Parameters on growth,
growth, health,
health,
reproduction and regeneration are
arebeing
being monitored.
monitored.
50
45
40
'"
<il 35
.g
.~ 30
:a 25
.S
~ 20
C,)
[;
tl.. 15
10
5
0
5-10 em 10-15 em 15-20 em >20em
DBH (em)
50
45
40
'" 35
til
.g
';> 330 O's-.
:.a
,..So 25
~41.) 20
8
11)
0.)2
~ 15
10
55
0
CI
5-10 em
cm 10-15
10-15 em
cm 15-20 em
cm >20 em
cm
DBH(em)
DBH (cm)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. The
The size
size class-distribution
class-distribution of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida including
including healthy
healthy trees
trees (blank),
(blank), de-
barked trees (hatched)
(hatched) and dead trees (solid):
(solid): a. lightly exploited sites; b. heavily
heavily exploited
sites.
45
5. Conclusions and discussion
5.1. Methodological aspects

5.1.
The adopted
The adopted methodology
methodology of of selecting
selecting sample
sample locations
locationson on the
the basis
basis of an aerial
aerial photo-
photo-
interpretationisis very
interpretation very appropriate
appropriate for for quickly
quickly gaining insight into
gaining insight into the
the abundance
abundance and and
distribution of NWFP
distribution species in a heterogeneous
NWFP species heterogeneous area such as the TCP study study site.
site. Working
Working
mainly with
with vernacular
vernacular names
names andand "local
"local taxonomists"
taxonomists" provides
provides generally
generally sufficient
sufficient detail,
detail,
although some
although some problems
problems occurred.
occurred. In In some
some cases,
cases, several
several species
species are
are regrouped
regrouped under
under the
the
same vernacular
same vernacular name.
name. This
This isis for
for example
example the the case
case for
for rattan
rattan species
species for
for which the generic
generic
term nlong
term nlong isis used.
used. The same
same namename isis given
given to a particular
particular rattan
rattan species,
species, Eremospettha
Eremospatha
macrocarpa.
macrocarpa. The The fact
fact that this
this coincidence
coincidence onlyonly became
became apparent
apparentinin the the course
course of of the
the
inventory, made impossible to make a proper distinction whether nlong had been used to
inventory, made it impossible to make a proper distinction whether nlong had been used to
indicate
indicate this
this particular
particular species
species or or small-diameter canesasas aa whole.
small-diameter canes whole. A secondsecond problem
problem
concerns those species which are hardly hardly used but which
which could
could be
be of
of economic
economic interest.
interest. They
They
were
were not always
always recognized
recognized by by the
the local
local assistants.
assistants. This
This occurred
occurred withwith Gnetum
Gnetum spp.
spp.
(providing the vegetable
(providing the ocok or
vegetable ocok or eru),
em), which
which isis very
very frequently
frequently consumed
consumed and and heavily
heavily
exploited elsewhere in Cameroon.
The attempt to combine

combine the determination
determination of variation in the abundance
abundance and
and distribution
distribution of
of
NWFP species and obtaining indications
indications on on the
the impact
impact of exploitation
exploitation on
on the
the availability
availability of
was less successful.
resources was successful. Due to the low densities of of many important species the number
of individuals
individuals. is not
not sufficient
sufficient for
for reliable
reliable size-class
distribution analysis.
analysis. Other
Other methods
methods
should be applied to obtain indications of of the
the impact
impact of
of harvesting.
harvesting.
5.2. NWFP
5.2. NWFP resources and their
resources and their utilization:
utilization: consequences for the development
consequences for development of
extraction
In view
view of
of the
the results
results obtained
obtained from
from the
thevarious
various executed
executed and/or
and/or ongoing
ongoing ecological
ecological and
and
socio-economicsurveys
socio-economic surveysundertaken
undertakenininthe
the study
study area
area of
of the
theTropenbos
Tropenbos Cameroon
Cameroon
drawn:
Programme, a number of preliminary conclusions can be drawn:
• The sale of NWFPs is almost as important to the income of households as the sale of
agricultural products.
products. However,
However, the
the sale of NWFPs is mainly restricted to the village
village
level and the income derived is
is dominated
dominated byby the
the sale
sale of
of bush meat (up to 75%);
• products of an estimated 23
The products 23 NWFP species are said to be of
NWFP species of commercial
commercial value.
value.
Yet, despite the fact during a four
Yet, four month observation
observation period
period many
many ofof these
these were
were seen
seen
four of these species
to be exploited, only four species contributed effectively to the income of the
households surveyed. These
households surveyed. These were
were Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis,
gabonensis, Strophantus
Strophantus gratus, Cottla
COltla
edulis and Dacryodes macrophylla;
• Even
Even for
for aa relatively
relatively small
small study
study area
area of 200
200 000
000 hectares,
hectares, aa large
large variation
variation in
in
abundance and
abundance and distribution
distribution is observed,which implies that not every household
observed, which implies household has
has
the same
same access
access to
to the
the same
sameresources,
resources, making
making generalisations
generalisations and
and extrapolations
extrapolations
impossible;
• The
The densities of the
densities of the majority of NWFP
majority of WET species
species with
with aacommercial
commercial value
value may
may be
be
regarded as low to moderilte.
moderate. Several
Several species
species have
have less
less than
than one
one productive
productive individual
individual
per hectare,
hectare, which sets important constraints on
important constraints on the
the availability
availability of
of resources
resources and
and to
the development of efficient extraction in natural
natural forest;
forest;
46
• Those species
Those species which have a higher
which have higher average
average density,
density, and hence aa higher
higher potential
potential
yield, for
for the whole study area are mostly restricted to specific habitat types.
types. Except
for those occurring
occurring in secondary forests, they
secondary forests, they are
are often
often absent
absent in large parts of the
the
area and therefore not available to
to every household;
• Secondary forests and

Secondary forests and cocoa
cocoa plantations are very
plantations are very important
important areas
areas forfor NWI-T
NWFP
extraction. The
extraction. The impact of active
active management
management of NWFP
NWFP resources
resources in,in, for
for example,
example,
cocoa plantations
cocoa is reflected
plantations is reflected in the
the results
results of
of the
the ecological
ecological survey.
survey. Although
Although the
the
scale of active management is rather limited at present, it might indicate
indicate opportunities
opportunities
for further development of the availability of NWFP resources in in such
such anthropogenic
anthropogenic
areas;
• The example
The example of of the impact of harvesting
the impact harvesting on on Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida populations
populations
density stands
demonstrates that high density stands of commercial
commercial NWFP
NWFP trees
trees considered
considered as as open-
open-
access resources
access resources are veryvery vulnerable
vulnerable to over-harvesting. This This phenomena
phenomena is is
illustrated by the recorded
recorded high mortality rate. However,
However, the fact that that individuals
individuals in
in
the smaller size distribution classes are
distribution classes are reproductive,
reproductive, and
and that
that it is mainly the bigger
trees
trees that
that are
are de-barked,
de-barked, the
the impact
impact might
might be
be less
less serious
serious than
than expected.
expected. Further
Further
research
research to to determine the sustainability
determine the sustainability ofof the
the exploitation
exploitation of of this
this species
species isis
continuing.
5.3. follow for

5.3. Which strategies to follow for aa sustainable
sustainable development of
of NWFP
NWFP extraction?
extraction?
The surveys demonstrated that there are quite

quite aa number
number of of NWI-P
NWFP species
species with
with anan economic
economic
value which can be extracted in a sustainable way.way. However,
However, fromfrom the
the results
results obtained
obtained so so far,
it seems that the local
local people
people are
are not
not very
very interested
interested in
in the
the extraction
extraction of
ofNWI-Ps
NWFPs whichwhich have
have
no subsistence
no subsistence value, like Ricinodendron
value, like heudelotiiand
Ricinodendron heudeiotii and Strophantus
Strophantus gratus
gratus and
and are
are only
valuable
valuable onon a commercial basis. Less
commercial basis. Less than
than 10%
10% of the families
families interviewed
interviewed are involved
involved in
the exploitation of
of these species
species and
and harvesting
harvesting and
and sale
sale seems
seems to
to be
be restricted
restricted to
to specialists.
specialists.
In contrast,
contrast, almost
almost all families
families are involved
involved in the harvesting
harvesting of NWFPs with an an important
important
subsistence value, such as Cottla
subsistence value, such as Coula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis with additional families
and In'ingia gabonensis with additional families
generating income
generating income from
from the
the sale
sale of these
these products.
products. In
In other
other words,
words, people
people seem to to prefer to
trade essentially the surplus of the quantity
quantity needed for auto-consumption.
auto-consumption. The stillstill relatively
relatively
low level of
of commercialization these products
commercialization of these products is
is likely
likely to
to be
be caused by restrictions
restrictions on the
harvesting capacity (for
(for example
example time
time constraints,
constraints, accessibility,
accessibility, property
property rights,
rights, subsistence
subsistence
needs)
needs) and onon the
the marketing
marketing opportunities.
opportunities. The development
development of the the extraction
extraction of of these
these
products seems to offer the most
most promising
promising perspective for the improvement
perspective for improvement of income
income and
sustainable resources use.
However,
However, itit is doubtful
doubtful whether adequate resources
whether adequate resourcescancan be
be found
found for
for a sustainable
sustainable and
efficient
efficient increase
increase of existing extraction levels.
existing extraction levels. In
In this
this respect,
respect, the compatibility
compatibility of raising
raising
household incomes from NWFP NWFP extraction from natural stands whilst ensuring conservation
of the forest as
as aa whole
whole might
might need to be
be reviewed.
reviewed. This is not only
only due
due to
to the
the risks
risks of
of oft-
oft-
practiced destructive harvesting
practiced destructive harvestingpractices,
practices,but
but also
also because
because of
of the
the low densities
densities of of many
many
NWFP species in natural forest.
forest. Therefore, the intensification of the NWFP
NWFP management
management on
anthropogenic land types
anthropogenic land types and
and the promotion
promotion ofof the
the domestication
domestication ofof appropriate
appropriate NWFPNWFP
species might
species might be thethe most
most promising
promising options
options for
for increasing
increasing household
household incomes
incomes whilst
whilst
removing harvest pressure on the wild resource.
47
References
De Beer, J.H. & M.J. McDermott. 1989. The The economic

economic value
value of
of non-timber
non-timberforest
forest products
products in
in
Southeast Asia. Amsterdam, IUCN.
Debroux L. 1996. La
L. 1996. La regeneration
régéneration naturelle
naturelle et la gestion
gestion de
de populations
populations d'arbres: L'étude
L'etude du
Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma) dans la foret
toxisperma) dans forêt du Dja, Cameroun.
Cameroun. Synthèse
Synthese àit mi-parcours
mi-parcours
des travaux
travaux de doctorat,
doctorat, Gembloux,
Gembloux, Faculté
Faculte Universitaire
Universitaire des Sciences Agronomique
Agronomique de
Gembloux.
Guedje, N.
Guedje, N. 1996.
1996. Evaluation
Evaluation de de quelques
quelques aspects
aspects écologiques
ecologiques de de Garcinia
Garcinia lucida,
lucida,
Aframomumcitratum
Aframomum citratumetetA.A. melegueta
meleguetadans dans la
la région
region dede Bipindi-Akom
Bipindi-Akom II II du Sud
Sud
Cameroun.
Cameroun. Yaoundé/Kribi, Rapport d'etudiant,
Yaounde/Kribi, Rapport d'étudiant, Universite
Université de Yaoundé
Yaounde I/Programme
IIProgramme
Tropenbos Cameroun.
Hall, P. &
& K. Bawa,
Bawa, 1993.
1993. Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical tropical
forest products on plant populations. Economic Botany 47(3): 234-247.
Letouzey, R. 1985.
1985. Notice
Notice dede lalacarte
cartephytogeographique
phytogeographique du du Cameroun.
Cameroun. Toulouse,
Toulouse, France,
France,
Institut
Institut de
de la Carte
Carte Internationale
Internationale dede la
la Vegatation.
Vegatation.
Ndoye,
Ndoye, O.,
0., M. Ruiz Pérez
Perez & & A.
A. Eyebe,
Eyebe, 1997.
1997. The
The markets ofof non-timber
non-timber forest products in in
the humid forest of Cameroon. ODI-Network Paper
forest zone of Paper 22c.
22c.
Peters,
Peters, C.M.,
C.M., 1996.
1996. The
The ecology
ecology andand management
management of of non-timber
non-timber forest resources.
resources. World
World
Bank
Bank Technical Paper
Paper 322,
322, The
The World
World Bank,
Bank, Washington
Washington DC.DC.
Ros-Tonen, M.,
M., W.
W. Dijkman & E. E. Lammerts
Lammerts vanvan Bueren, 1995. Commercial
Bueren, 1995. Commercial and
and sustainable
extraction
extraction of non-timber forest products.
non-timber forest products. Towards
Towards a policy
policy and
and management
management oriented
oriented
research strategy.
research strategy. Wageningen,
Wageningen, Tropenbos
Tropenbos Foundation.
Foundation.
Touber, L.,1993. Report
Touber, L.,1993. Reporton
on amission
a mission in
in support
support of the
the Land
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Inventory Project
Project in
in the
the
Tropenbos Cameroon
Tropenbos Cameroon Programme.
Programme. Wageningen,
Wageningen, International
International Activities
Activities Report
Report 32, SC-
DLO.
Van Dijk, J.F.W.
J.F.W. [in
[in press].
press]. Non-timber
Non-timber forest products
products resources
resources ininthe
theBipindi-Akom
Bipindi-Akom II
area, South
South Cameroon.
Cameroon. An An economic
economic and
and ecological
ecological assessment.
assessment. Kribi,
Kribi, Tropenbos
Tropenbos
Cameroon
Cameroon Documents
Documents X. X.
48
APPENDIX 1:
1: Commercialised
Cornrnercialisedand
andcommerciable
commerciableNVVFP species occuring
NWFP species occuring in
in the
the TCP
TCP study site
Species Habit Commercialised/ (*) product

Commercialisedl Commerciable (*) product Other uses:
Other uses:
(* domesticated) Part
Pari Product Part
Pari Product
Aframomurn
Aframomum citratum herb fr condiment
Aframomum melegueta*
melegueta* herb fr aphrodisiac, medicines
aphrodisiac,
Alstonia boonei I-sized
1-sized tree ba, ex
ex medicines ba additive palm wine
Antrocaryon klaineanum m/l-sized tree
mil-sized fr fresh fruit ha, se
ba, medicines, condiment
Baillonella toxisperma 1-sized tree
I-sized se oil, condiment
cooking oil, ba, fi-,
fr, wo fresh fruit,
fresh fruit, medicines,
medicines, carpentry
Cola acuminata/C.
acuminataiC. nitida*
nitida * m-sized trees se snack/aphrodisiac ha
ba medicines
Cola lepidota s-sized tree fr fresh fruit
fresh fr fresh fruit
Cola ricinifolia s-sized tree fr fresh fruit
fresh
Coula edulis m-sized tree se snack, condiment wo poles for construction
Dacryodes edulis* m-sized tree fr vegetable ha
ba medicines
Dacryodes macrophylla m-sized tree fr fresh fruit
Elaeis guineensis m-sized tree
m-sized t:ree ex, fr,
fr, se palm wine, condiment, cooking oil, medicinal oil le
Ie medicines, equipment
Enantia chlorantha s/m-sized tree ba pharmaceutical input wo, le
Ie medicines, furniture, equipment
medicines, furniture,
Garcinia kola m-sized tree se, ba snack/aphrodisiac se, ba additive palm wine, medicines
Garcinia lucida s/m-sized tree ha,
ba, se additive palm wine, snack/aphrodisiac ba, se medicines
Gnetum
Gnetum sp.
sp. vine Ie
le vegetable*
Halopegia azurea herb Ie
le food wrapping ro, st, ex medicines, basketry
Haumania danckelmaniana liana st shrimp traps ex, le,
Ie, st medicines, wrapping, basketry
""'"
\0 Hexalobus crispiflorus m-sized tree fr fresh fruit, condiment fr,wo
fr, wo lure, equipment
Irvingia gabonensis I-sized
1-sized tree se, fr condiment, fresh fruit ha
ba medicines
Megaphrynium macrostachyum herb Ie
le food wrapping le,
Ie, st basketry, equipment
Monodora myristica m-sized tree se condiment*
Panda oleosa m-sized tree se condiment ba medicines
Piper guineense liana fr spice le
ba, Ie additive palm wine, vegetable,
vegetabie, medici
Poga oleosa
oleosa m-sized tree se condiment, cooking oil, snack
Raphia montbuttorum palm ex, le
Ie fumiture, equipment
palm wine, furniture, le,
Ie, ex, fr construction, snack
Rattan species liana st basketry st construction, equipment,
construction, equipment, medicines
Rauvolfia vomitoria s-sized tree ha
ba pharmaceutical input* fr, ro, ba, le
Ie medicines
.medicines
Ricino dendron heudelotii
Ricinodendron m/l-sized tree
mil-sized se condiment ba medicines
Sarcophrynium priogonum herb Ie,
le, fr food wrapping fr fresh fruit
Scorodophloeus zenkeri m-sized tree ba, se spice
Strophantus gratus liana se pharmaceutical input se poison
hunting/fishing poison
Strychnos asterantha liana wo,
wO,ex ex equipment ex drinking water
Tetrapleura tetraptera m-sized tree fr condiment* fr m
medicines
drinking
Treculia africana m-sized tree wo hafts of
of tools se condiment, medicines
Trichoscypha acuminata/T.
acurninataiT. abut s/m
slm sized tree fr fruit
fresh fFUit ha
ba medicines
Trichoscypha arborea m-sized tree fr fresh fruit ha, wo
ba, pestles
medicines, pestl.es
Xylopia aethiopica s-sized tree fr condiment* wo, ba construction, furniture,
finniture, medicines
THE MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS FOR
FOR TIMBER
TIMBERAND
AND NON-WOOD
NON-WOOD
FOREST PRODUCTS IN CENTRAL AFRICA
Sarah A. Laird
1. Introduction
Introduction
Logging isis the main

Logging main economic
economic activity
activIty in the
the forests
forests of
of Central
Central Africa,
Africa, and
and increasing
increasing
portions of the forest area are allocated to timber concessions.
portions Given the large ,and
concessions. Given and growing
role of timber production
role production in the economy
economy of Central African forests,
Central African forests, it is important that anan
examination
examination of the
the value
value of NWFPs economies, and
NWH's in local economies, and their
their potential
potential incorporation
incorporation into
into
conservation and
conservation and development
development projects,
projects, include
include the
the relationship
between thethe harvest
harvest of
of
NWFPs and timber.
Timber and
Timber and NWFPs
NWFPs are inter-related
inter-related in a range of ways. In some cases, timber species have
ways. ill
non-timber uses,
important non-timber uses, and
and logging
logging will
will reduce
reduce availability
availability of these species as locally oror
regionally consumed NWITs.
NWFPs. Destructive
Destructive logging
logging operations can also cause
cause direct
direct damage
damage to to
species in residual stands and those that make up the understorey and and ground
ground cover
cover of
of forests,
forests,
many of which
many which are
are important
important NWFPs.
NWFPs. Subsequent
Subsequent silvicultural
silvicultural treatments, when they are
treatments, when are
applied,
applied, can reduce species diversity by promoting
promoting an increased
increased proportion
proportion of
of commercial
commercial
species, and removing competing
species, competing "undesirables",
"undesirables", many
many of ofwhich
whichmight
mightbebeNVVFPs.
NWFPs. On On the
the
hand, logging can open
other hand, open up
up habitats
habitats for
for the many
many NWFPs
NWFPs that
that prefer
prefer disturbed
disturbed sites
sites and
and
secondary forest.
By reducing
reducing the
the structural
structural and
and species
species diversity
diversity of aa forest,
forest, logging
logging and
and silvicultural
silvicultural
treatments can
treatments can also
also produce
produce a number of of largely
largely as
as yet
yet unknown
unknown ecological
ecological repercussions.
repercussions.
may include reductions
These may reductions in
in numbers
numbers of pollinators,
pollinators, seed
seed dispersers,
dispersers, alterations
alterations in
in plant-
plant-
herbivore relationships
herbivore relationships and
and the
the possibility
possibility that timber exploitation may ultimately produce
ultimately produce
conditions in which it is difficult for many forest species
conditions species to regenerate (Peters, 1996). Since a
wide range
wide range of NWFPs
NWFPs are generally
generally harvested
harvested from
from aa given
given forest
forest area,
area, reductions
reductions in
in species
species
diversity over
diversity over the
the long-term
long-term can
can directly
directly affect
affect the
the consumption
consumption andand trade
trade patterns
pattems of local
local
people dependent upon NWFPs for their their livelihoods.
livelihoods.
On the positive
On positive side,
side, however,
however, the integration
integration of timber
timber and
and NWFPs
NWFPs into into multi-purpose
multi-purpose
systems of natural
systems natural forest management
management cancan both minimize
minimize the negative
negative impacts
impacts of
of timber
timber
extraction and
extraction and capitalize
capitalize on
on the
the many
many benefits
benefits provided
provided byby aa range
range of forest
forest products.
products. Calls
Calls
for
for management
management plansplans for
for Central African forests
Central African forests onon the
the part
part of
ofgovernments
governments andand
international development
development agencies,
agencies, and recent developments
developments in forest
forest product
product certification
certification
and conservation
and project approaches
conservation project approachesinin the
the region,
region, argue
argue for
for a closer examination
examination of the
relationship between timber,
relationship between timber, the primary cash earner, and NWFPs of of central
central importance
importance toto
local economies, health, and cultures.
This paper will briefly

briefly address
address some
some of
of the
the components
components of the
the timber-NWFP
timber-NWFP relationship in
Central Africa, including:
• Species that
Species thatyield
yieldboth
bothNW1-4Ps
NWFPs and timber;
• The impacts ofof logging operations on NWFPs; and
• The incorporation
The incorporation of thethe NWFP-timber
NWFP-timber relationship into management
relationship into plans for
management plans
sustainable forest management.
management.
51
1.1. Scale of activity
Timber and
and NWFPs
NWFPs areare often
often artificially
artificially separated
separated inin examinations-of
examinations' 'of forest
forest management,
management,
since local people will manage
manage the the forest
forest for
for both types
types of products.
products. Some researchers
researchers have
have
suggested that discussions
suggested discussions should not be organized
organized around
around aa timber/NWFP
timberlNWFP dichotomy,
dichotomy, but
but
should instead
should instead address
address forest
forest management
managementatatthe the level
level and
and scale
scale of inputs
inputs and outputs
outputs in
relation
relation to small
small holder
holder livelihoods
livelihoods (Padoch
(Padoch and
and Pinedo-Vasquez,
Pinedo-Vasquez, 1996).
1996). The distinction
distinction
should be made, therefore, between:
• Commercial and industrial exploitation; and

• Small-holder, small-scale exploitation.
Commercial, industrial scale

Commercial, industrial scale timber
timber exploitation
exploitation represents
represents the
the bulk
bulk of logging
logging volume
volume in
Central
Central Africa. NWFPs, on
Africa. NWFPs, on the
the other
other hand,
hand, with
with the
the exception
exception ofof a dozen
dozen or soso medicinal
medicinal
species harvested for phytomedical
phytomedical or pharmaceutical export markets
pharmaceutical export markets such
such as
as Pausinystalia
ajricana, tend
johimbe and Prunus africana, tend to
to be
be harvested
harvested forfor small
small holder
holder subsistence
subsistence consumption
consumption
or for sale
sale in
inlocal
localmarkets
markets (Cunningham
(Cunningham et et al.,
al.,1997;
1997;Cunningham
Cunningham and andMbenkum,
Mbenkum, 1993;
1993;
1997).
Sunderland et al., 1997).
Well-established regional
Well-established regional markets
markets for
for forest
forest spices,
spices, medicine,
medicine, chewsticks, kola nuts, and
chewsticks, kola and
forest foods, are also significant, and form what might be thought of as an an intermediate
intermediate band
of resource exploitation. For example, a large number of of the NWFPs sold
sold in
in markets
markets in
in Bata,
Bata,
Equatorial Guinea,
Equatorial Guinea, such
such as
as Afrostyrax
Ajrostyrax spp.,
spp., Ricinodendron
Ricinodendron heudelottii,
heudelottii, Aframomum
Ajramomum spp.,spp.,
Tetrapleura
Tetrapleura tetraptera, and Garcinia kola, are imported across sometimes great distances
and Garcinia kola, are imported across sometimes great distances
from Cameroon (Sunderland, 1998).
1.2. Timber production in Central

1.2. Timber Central Africa
In recent years,
years, log exports
exports from
from Central
Central Africa
Africa have
have increased
increased dramatically.
dramatically. For
For example,
example,
between 1996 and 1997, log exports from Cameroon increased by by 47% (SGS
(SGS Cameroun,
Cameroun, S.A. S.A.
1997). Demand
Demand from
from Asia
Asia accounted
accounted forfor the
the bulk
bulk of
of this
this increase
increase in
in the 1990s, as
the 1990s, as supplies
supplies of
domestic timber
domestic timber declined
declined inin that
that region.
region. ByBy 1997,
1997, Asian
Asian countries
countries took
took 85%
85% ofof log
log exports
exports
from
from Equatorial Guinea, and
Equatorial Guinea, and half
half of log
log exports
exports from
from Cameroon.
Cameroon. Log exports
exports to to Asian
Asian
countries - including
countries China, Japan,
including China, Japan, The
The Philippines, India, Taiwan,
Philippines, India, Taiwan, andand Hong
Hong Kong Kong --
increased from 23.5%
23.5% of total
total exports
exports from
from Cameroon
Cameroon in 19961996 to 49.5% of the total in in 1997
1997
(SGS Cameroun,
(SGS S.A. 1997;
Cameroun, S.A. 1997; Projet CUREF,
CUREF, 1997).
1997). Although greater emphasis has recently
been placed on the
the domestic
domestic transformation
transformation of wood products
products by governments,
governments, the the bulk
bulk of
exports continue to
to be in
in the
the form
form ofof unprocessed
unprocessed logs.
logs.
Recently the economic

Recently the economic crisis
crisis in
in Asia
Asia has
has dampened
dampened demand
demand from this region
region for Central
Central
African timber. Japanese imports of of Gabonese hardwoods, for example,
example, had
had already
already declined
declined
by 68% from 1996 to 1997, and Thailand's
1997, and Thailand's imports 39% (SEPBG,
imports declined by 39% (SEPBG, 1997).
1997). At
At the
the
same time, however, significant increases
however, significant increases in
in log
log exports
exports from
from Cameroon
Cameroon to to a number
number of
European countries were also reported, including to Italy (the largest
largest importer
importer of of Cameroon
Cameroon
France, Spain,
logs), France, Spain, and
and Germany (SGS Cameroun,
Germany (SGS S.A. 1997).
Cameroun, S.A. 1997). Although
Although aa decline
decline in
demand
demand from Asia Asia might
might significantly
significantly affect
affect exports
exports of
of Central
Central African
African timber
timber in in the short-
will continue
term, it is likely that overall global demand for industrial wood will continue to
to rise.
rise.
2. Timber and
and NWFP
NWFP species
The most direct connection between timber

connection between timber and
and NWFPs
NWFPs isis when
when aa single
single species
species has
has both
timber and non-timber value.
value. In many
many cases,
cases, this
this results
results in diminished availability of species
for non-timber uses,
uses, although
although in
in some
some cases
cases the
the impact
impact isis minimal,
minimal, or harvests of
or harvests of NWFPs
NWFPs and
and
52
timber are complimentary. example, Aucoumea
complimentary. For example, Aucoumea klaineana
klaineana (okoum6),
(okoumé), the
the primary
primary timber
timber
species exported from Equatorial Guinea (85% (85% in 1997) and Gabon (70% in in 1997),
1997), yields
yields aa
resin which
which is tapped priorato felling for
prior·to felling for timber
timber and
and collected
collected to
to make
make torches
torches (which are then
wrapped in the bark of Xylopia
Xylopia aethiopica,
aethiopica, an NWFP with a range
range of uses).
uses).
Table1.
Table 1. Cameroon
Cameroon Log
Log Exports
Exports by
by Species:
Species: January-September
January-September 1997
1997 (SGS Cameroun, S.A.
S.A.,
1997)
Species (scientific name) Trade name Volume (m3)

Volume (m3)
scleroxylon
Triplochiton scleroxylon ayous 412 186
412186
Entandophragma
Entandophra/?ma cylindricum
cylindricum sapelli 136564
136 564
Terminalia superba frake
frak6 112145
112 145
Etythrophloeum
Erythrophloe(lm ivorense tali 102287
102 287
Tetraberlinea bifoliata ekop 66540
66 540
Lophira alata azobé
azobe 63503
63 503
excelsa
Milicia excelsa iroko 55456
55 456
Distetnonanthus benthamiamus
Distemonanthus movingui 39690
39 690
Canariutn
Canarium schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii aiele 29 788
29788
Baillonella
Baillonella toxisperma
toxisperma moabi 27944
27 944
Nauclea diderrichii bilinga 26219
26 219
Entandophragma utile sipo 25 773
25773
Eribroma oblonga eyong 23947
23 947
Pterocarpus
Pterocarpus soyauxii
soyauxii padouk 19987
19 987
Pericopsis elata afrormosia 18433
18 433
Ceiba pentandra ceiba 18387
18 387
Lovoa trichiliodes bibolo 12475
12 475
Guibourtia tesstnannii
tessmannii bubinga 11454
11 454
Daniella ogea
o/?ea faro 10 966
Guarea cedrata bosse 10207
10 207
Cylicodiscus gabutzensis
/?abunensis okan 10 091
Tenninalia ivorensis
Terminalia ivorensis framire 9762
9 762
ivorensis
Khaya ivorensis mahogany 9343
9 343
Other 72 830
TOTAL =
TOTAL= 1372
1 372 445
Of the top 25 timber species exported from Cameroon in 1997 (see Table 1), 1), most have non-
wood values.
values. However,
However, for each species the relationship
relationship between timber and NWFP NWFP values
values
varies due to factors such as
as variations
variations in species
species density
density and distribution, timber value and
the level
level of
of local
local demand
demand for
for NWFPs.
NWFPs. ForFor example,
example, species
species such
such as
as Baillonella
toxispenna
(moabi),
(moabi), Pterocarpus soyauxii
soyauxii (padouk),
(padouk), and
and Milicia
Milida excelsa
excelsa (iroko)
(iroko) which
which have
have high
high timber
timber
values and are
are found
found unevenly
unevenly distributed
distributed in low
low densities,
densities, are
are usually
usually heavily
heavily depleted
depleted inin
areas where logging takes place. Meanwhile, their local NWFP values values are
are high,
high, and
and there
there are
are
no ready substitutes for some of the more valuable products they yield. As a result, there there is aa
significant conflict
conflict between
between NWFP
NWFP andand timber
timber values.
values.
Baillonella toxispermaisis one
one of the more
more valuable
valuable timber species in the
timber species the region,
region, used
used in in
furniture and
furniture and cabinet
cabinet making,
making,flooring
flooringand
and for
for veneer.
veneer.In In 1997,
1997, itit was
was the
the tenth
tenth most
most
important commercial timber species exported from CameroonCameroon by volumevolume (SGS,
(SGS, Cameroun,
Cameroun,
S.A., 1997). This, despite being found in notoriously low densities of of less than
than 11 tree/hectare.
tree/hectare.
The seed of B. B. toxisperma also produces
toxisperma also produces aa cooking
cooking oil
oil soso prized,
prized, and
and today
today so
so scarce,
scarce, itit is
is
rarely s'old in markets
s'old in markets since
since local
local communities
communities prefer
prefer to
to keep
keep what
what they
they can
can collect for their
own use. The seed oil is also
also used
used medicinally, including
including for
for skin
skin problems
problems andand rheumatism.
rheumatism.
53
Pterocarpus soyauxii (padouk,
Pterocarpus soyauxii (padouk, or
or camwood)
camwood) is is used
used to make
make furniture and in in cabinet-making.
Locally, it is a preferred
Locally, preferred wood
wood inin some
some areas
areas for
for carving
carving canoes,
canoes, stools,
stools, musical
musical instruments
instruments
and agricultural implements, and the ground stem is also an important important cultural
cultural and
and medicinal
medicinal
species associated
species associated with childbirth and and marriages,
marriages, used
used mainly
mainly by by women.
women. Due
Due to to selective
selective
logging pressure, itit has
logging pressure, has become
become scarce
scarce in in many
many forest
forest areas. Milicia
Milicia excelsa
excelsa is oneone of of the
the
most sacred
most sacred tree species in in Central
Central and
and WestWest Africa,
Africa, and
and is
is used
used medicinally.
medicinally. ItIt isis heavily
heavily
depleted due
depleted due to selective
selective logging pressures, and
logging pressures, and in
in some
some countries,
countries, such
such as
as the
the Congo,
Congo, is is
endangered (WCMC, 1994; 1994; Laird et al.,
al. , 1997).
1997).
Other valuable
valuable timber species with with important
important non-timber
non-timber uses
uses include:
include: Nauclea
Nauclea diderrichii
diderrichii
(bilinga),
(bilinga), a very strong timber, resistant borers and used for harbour work, mortars and
strong timber, resistant to borers and used for harbour work, mortars and
general construction.
general construction. TheThe bark,
bark, root,
root, and
and wood
wood areare all
all used
used to make
make aa yellow
yellow dye,
dye, and
and the
the
bark also used to treat fevers and stomach problems (Brown, 1978; Mabberley, 1989;
bark is also used to treat fevers and stomach problems (Brown, 1978; Mabberley, 1989;
Abbiw,, 1990;
Abbiw Laird et al.,
1990; Laird al., 1997).
1997). Canarium
Canarium schweinfitrthii (aiele) has
schweinfurthii (aiele) has aa range
range of uses
uses as
as
timber, and also
timber, and also yields
yields popular fruits sold
popular fruits sold in
in local
local markets and aa resin
markets and resin which
which is burned
burned as
as
incense and to start fires (thus
incense and (thus the name
name "bush candle").
candle"). Lophira alata
alata (azobé
(azobe or
or ironwood)
ironwood)
was the sixth most important timber timber species
species by
by volume exported from Cameroon in 1997, 1997, and
is also used locally
locally as aa medicine
medicine for for back and toothache.
toothache.
In a study in southern
southern Cameroon,
Cameroon, it was
was found that
that of
of the
the 31
31 timber
timber species
species exploited
exploited by
by the
the
Dutch
Dutch logging
logging company, GWZ, 19
company, GWZ, 19 (representing 86% of
(representing 86% of volume) are also used
volume) are used by
by local
local
communities. Baillonella toxispernza
toxisperma was
was cited by 60% of locallocal people
people as
as aa NWFP
NWFP seriously
seriously
affected
affected by logging,
logging, followed
followed by Guibourtia tessmannii
tessmannii (bubinga), used locally
(bubinga), used for cultural
locally for cultural
and
and medicinal
medicinal purposes,
purposes, and
and Entandophragma
Entandophragma cylindricum
cylindricum (sapelli),
(sapelli), used
used locally
locally for
construction. Other NVVFP speciescited
NWFP species citedasasdirectly
directlyaffected
affectedby
bydemand
demandforfor aa species'
species' timber
value include Terminalia superba (fraké), Milicia excelsa
(frake), Milicia excelsa (iroko),
(iroko), Lophira
Lophira alata
alata (azobé)
(azobe) and
Lovoa trichiliodes (bibolo)
(bibolo) (van
(van Dijk,
Dijk, 1997).
1997).
Figure 1. AApile
Figure pileofofPausinystalia
Pausinystaliajohimbe
johimbe bark
bark in
in aalogging
logging concession.
concession. Harvesting the
Harvesting of the
bark of
bark of this
this species usually follows
follows timber logging
logging operations
operations (Photo:
(Photo: T. Sunderland).
54
values of
Table 2. Medicinal values of selected timber species
species in
in Cameroon
Cameroon
Seiecte d resu
Selected its ffrom
results rom th
thee L'
1mbe reglOn,
Limbe SW Province,
re ion, SW P rOVlllce, Cameroon
Cameroon (Laird
(L air
. d et
et al,
a,1 1996)
1996)
Common/
Common! Top timber Med. Plant parts
parts used
used in Status
SPECIES pilot species Use (roughly in
medicine (roughly in
name (Cameroon (YIN)
(Y/N) order of importance)
importance) Limbe
and Limbe)2 region
Aningeria
Allillgeria robusta aniegre Cameroon/Limbe N medicinal uses
no common medicinal uses * +
+
Afzelia bipindensis
AJzelia bipindellsis doussie Cameroon/Limbe N medicinal uses
no common medicinal uses **
**
Albizia zygia
ZYl(ia lantanza Limbe YY fmit, leaves
bark, stem, fruit, leaves *
Alstollia boonei
Alstonia stoolwood Limbe Y
Y bark, latex, leaves **
**
Autrallella congolensis
Autranella cOllgoleJlsis mukulungu Cameroon N no common medicinal uses uses
Baillonella
Baillollella toxisperma
toxisper11la moabi Cameroon YY bark, seed oil, rootbark
Canaria,: schweinfurthii
Callariu1ll schweillfurthii aiele Cameroon/Limbe YY resin, bark, fruit *
ChrJSoph~lu11l
Chrysophyllum africalla
africana abam Limbe Y fruit, bark
fruit, *
Ceiba pelltalldra
pentandra ceiba, boma Cameroon
Cameroon YY bark, leaves, fruit, roots
Coelocaryon preussii
Coelocaryoll preussii ekoume Limbe Y bark **
**
(minor)
Distemonanhus belltha11lianus
Diste11lollallhus benthamianus movingui Cameroon Y bark, leaves
Entandrophragma
Ell cylindrical:
talldrophral(11W cylindricum sapelli
sapelli Cameroon/Limbe N no common medicinal uses * +
Entandrophragtna utile
Elltalldrophragma sipo Cameroon Y bark
Entandrophragma angoletzsis
Elltandrophrag11la allgolensis tiama, timbi Limbe N no common
common medicinal
medicinal uses
uses **
** ++
Enantia chlorantha
Ellalltia chloralltha enantia, Limbe Y bark *
moambe
jaune
jaune
Eribroma oblonga
oblollga eyong Cameroon N common medicinal
no common medicinal uses
uses
Erythrophleum ivorense
Erythrophleu11l tali Cameroon N no common medicinal
medicinal uses
uses
Gossweilerodendroll
Gossweilerodendron tola Cameroon Y stem exudate
balsamiferum
balsamiferu11l
Guibourtia tess11la/mii
Guibol/rtia tessmannii bubinga Cameroon Y leaves
bark, leaves
Khaya ivorensis
ivorellsis acajou, Cameroon Y
Y bark, roots, seed
African
mahogany
Lophira alata ironwood, CameroonlLimbe
Cameroon/Limbe Y
Y leaves
bark, leaves *
azobe
Lovoa trichilioides dibetou Cameroon N no common medicinal uses
Milicia excelsa iroko CameroonILimbe
Cameroon/Limbe Y barks, leaves, stem
stem exudate **
** +
+
Mansonia
Mallsonia altissinia
altissinia mansonia, Cameroon Y bark, root
bete (minor)
Microberlinia bisulcata zingana, Limbe N ** (west
zebrawood coast)
Nesogordonia papaverifera
Nesol(ordonia papavertfera kotibe Cameroon N no common medicinal uses
Nauclea diderrichii
Nal/ciea bilinga CameroonILimbe
Cameroon/Limbe Y bark, leaves,
bark, leaves, root
root **
**
Pericopsis elata assemela, Cameroon N no common
no common medicinal
medicinal uses
uses --
afrOlmosia
afroimosia P. laxiflora
P. laxif/ora commonly
commonly used
Piptadeniastrum C!fricallum
Piptadelliastru11l africanum dabema, atui Limbe Y leaves
fruit, leaves **
**
Pogo oleosa
Poga poga Limbe Y seed oil, seed **
**
Pterocarpus soyauxii padouk, Cameroon/Limbe Y stem, bark, leaves **
** +
+
camwood
Pycnanthus alll(olellsis
Pycllallthus angolensis ilomba Cameroon/Limbe Y leaves, seed
bark, leaves, seed **
**
Staudtia stipitata niove Limbe N no common medicinal
medicinal uses
uses **
**
oblonga
Sterculia obiolll(a eyoung Limbe N medicinal uses
no common medicinal uses * +
Sterculia rhillopetala
Sterculia rhinopetala nkanang Limbe Y bark **
**
(minor)
Terminalia superba
Termillalia frake, limba Cameroon/Limbe Y bark, leaves, fruit **
**
Triplochitoll scieroxyloll
Triplochiton scleroxylon obeche, Cameroon N no common medicinal uses
uses
samba
Tiegemella hechelii-africalla
Tiege11lella hechelii-africana douka Cameroon Y
Y bark
(minor)
Status of species
Status species explOIted in the
exploited III the forest
forest west-southwest-south
west-southwest-southof ofMount
MountCameroon,
Cameroon,encompasslllg
encompassingMount
MountBUnde,
Etinde,and
and stretching
stre ching along
along the
the coast
coast
from Idenau,
Idenau, through Limbe, to Mabeta-Moliwe,
Mabeta-Moliwe, according to Akogo ef et al (1994):
+ = valuable timber
timber species
species limited in distribution
distribution due
due to
to past
pastselective
selective exploitation;
exploitation;
*(*)
*(*) = species (most) commonly exploited
exploited for timber in forest area (1988-94)
2The
4rhe most exploited timbers in Cameroon according to FMRP (1993) and SGS (1997); 22
22most
mostexploited
exploitedtimbers
timbersininLimbe
Limberegion
region
af. (1994).
according to Akogo et al. (1994).
55
In the Mount Cameroon region, more than half of the most valuable timber species species exploited
between 1988
1988 and 1994 were also shown to have significant medicinal and other non-timber
non-timber
values
values (See
(See Table These include:
Table 2). These include: Alstonia
Alstonia boonei,
boonei, Milicia
Milicia excelsa,
excelsa, Canarium
Canarium
schweinfurthii, Nauclea diderichii,
schweinfurthii, Nauclea diderichii, Poga
Poga oleosa,
oleosa, Pterocarpus
soyauxii and
and Terminalia
Terminalia
Most of the
superba. Most the widely
widely marketed
marketed NWFPs
NWFPs in in Central
Central Africa,
Africa, however,
however, including
including
Irvingia
gabonensis, Afrostyrax
Afrostyrax spp.,
spp., Tetrapleura
Tetrapleura tetraptera,
tetraptera, Ricinodendron
Ricinodendron heudelottii,
heudelottii,
Garcinia kola,
kola, Gnetuni
Gnetum africanum, and Monodora myristica
myristica are
are not
not important
important timber
timber species
species
(Laird et al., 1996;
1996; Ndoye et al., 1997; van
van Dijk,
Dijk, 1997;
1997; Sunderland, 1998).
1998).
3. The impact of
of logging operations on NWFPs
Logging operations directly affect

operations directly affect both
both present
present and
and future
future harvests
harvests of timber
timber and
and NWFPs.
NWFPs.
They can lead to declines in species
species and
and forest
forest structural
structural diversity,
diversity, and
and to
to unfavourable
unfavourable rates
rates
of basal area growth of species through destruction of seedlings, adolescent trees, soil surface surface
and drainage patterns (John 1992;
1992; Dykstra and
and Heinrich
Heinrich 1992;
1992; Whitmore
Whitmore 1991).
1991). Studies
Studies inin
the eastern
eastern Amazon,
Amazon, for example,
example, found
found that toto extract
extract 52
52 m3/ha,
m 3/ha, or
or eight
eight trees,
trees, logging
logging
operators destroyed
operators destroyed 26%
26% of of those
those trees
trees remaining.
remaining Canopy cover,cover, a summation
summation of road road area,
area,
felled tree area, and log
felled log storage
storage area,
area, might
might hebe reduced
reduced byby half
half following
following logging
logging (Johns,
(Johns,
1988; Uhl
1988; Uhl and
and Vieira,
Vieira, 1989).
1989). Logging
Logging damage
damage to the soil surface, including the
surface, including the removal
removal of of
topsoil, disturbance
topsoil, disturbance and
and soil
soil compaction,
compaction, can
can retard
retard the
the growth
growth of both NWFP and timber timber
species.
Logging roads cause

Logging roads cause direct
direct damage,
damage, and
and in
in poorly
poorly planned
planned operations
operations might
might occupy
occupy .
anywhere from
anywhere from 6-20%
6-20% of
of the
the forest
forest area (Uhl
(Uhl and
and Vieira
Vieira 1989;
1989; Johns
Johns 1992;
1992; Jonson
Jonson and
and
Lindgren 1990).
1990). Perhaps the largest impact of logging roads on NWFPs, however, is through
the access
access they
they provide
provide to
to once
once inaccessible
inaccessible populations
populations of wildlife
wildlife and
and other
other NWFPs,
NWFPs, as as
well as to
well to markets.
markets. This helps
helps people
people toto capitalize
capitalize on
on the
the market
market potential
potential for
for previously
previously
inaccessible NWFPs, but
inaccessible NWFPs, but can
can lead
lead to
to over-exploitation of species
over-exploitation of species (Wilkie
(Wilkie et al.,
al., 1992;
1992;
Dahaban, Nordin and
and Bennett
Bennett 1992;
1992; Caldecott
Caldecott 1989).
1989).
Damage in selective harvesting systems is usually patchy, due to varying population densities
of commercial
commercial species.
species. NWFP
NWFP species
species with
with limited
limited geographical
geographical ranges,
ranges, poor
poor dispersal
dispersal
ability and few seedlings in the understorey are generally less equipped to deal withwith logging
logging
pressures. Rare and specialized species will generally suffer most from the random damage
damage ofof
logging operations and
logging operations and the
the shift in
in species
species composition
composition to generalists
generalists that
that often
often follows
follows
immediately upon logging (John, 1992; Cunningham, 1992; Peters, 1994;1994; Laird,
Laird, 1995;
1995; Peters,
Peters,
1996).
It is clear,
clear, however,
however, that
that logging
logging can
can positively
positively affect
affect aa suite
suite of
ofNWL,P
NWFP species thatthat prefer
prefer
disturbed forest areas and roadsides. In Central Africa
Africa,, these include rattan species, as as well
well
as many condiment and medicinal species such as Aframomum
Aframomum spp. spp. (used to spice stews, treat
coughs and as important magnifying agents agents in medicinal mixtures), Piper guineensis (used
Piper guineensis (used as
as
a spice
spice in
in stews,
stews, to
to treat
treat hangovers,
hangovers, stomach
stomach problems
problems andand to build
build strength),
strength), and Piper
Piper
umbellatum (used as a wrapping for cooking).
Commonly used
Commonly used medicinal
medicinal herbs
herbs found
found along
along logging
logging roads
roads and
and in disturbed forest patches
patches
stem is chewed to relieve coughs
also include: Costus afer (the stem coughs and sore
sore throats,
throats, and
and the
the juice
juice
is used to treat
is treat eye
eye infections);
infections); Emilia
Emilia coccinea
coccinea (used
(used as
as an anti-poison, for jaundice
anti-poison, for and
jaundice and
snakebite); and Eremomastax speciosa (used to purify and strengthen the blood). In southem
snakebite); southern
Cameroon, logging
Cameroon, logging appeared
appeared toto cause
cause abundant
abundant regeneration of the condiment
regeneration of condiment species
species
Ricinodendron heudelotti, and to have limited impact on the size class distribution of Irvingia
gabonensis (van
(van Dijk, 1997).
1997).
56
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Fruits
FruitsofofAfrarnomum
Aframomum spp.
spp . (Photo:
(Photo: S. Laird)
A number of other important NWFP NVVFPspecies

species--such
suchasasthe
themedicinals
medicinalsSenna
Senna(Cassia)
(Cassia)alata
alata (a
(a
pan-tropical species
pan-tropical species the leaves
leaves of which are used as a treatment for for ringworm
ringworm and other
other skin
skin
ailments) and
ailments) and Spilanthes
Spilanthesfilicaulis
filicaulis(flowers
(flowerschewed
chewedfor fortoothache)
toothache)- - are
are found
found onon the
the
pci-ipheriesof
pCfipheries ofvillages
villagesand
andinin gardens.
gardens.Others
Others-- such
such as
as Kigelia
Kigelia africana
africana (used forfor stomach
stomach
problems, to
problems, to treat
treat snakebite and eye
snakebite and eye infections, and for
infections, and for a range
range ofof cultural
cultural and
and protection
protection
purposes) and
purposes) and Alstonia
Alstonia boonei
boonei (bark
(bark and
and latex
latex used
used to
to treat
treat fever
fever and
andpromote
promote lactation),
lactation),
Dacryodes edulis (the fruits
Dacryodes fruits are a popular food)
food) - have been brought from the forest and are are
planted in
planted in villages. For this range
villages. For range of
of NWFP
NWFP species,
species, logging
logging will
will obviously
obviously have
have little
little
immediate impact.
NWFPs are sourced from from a range

range of habitat
habitat types
types,, and
and traditional systems of management for
forest resources make use of a continuum of vegetation types including recently cleared land,
farm fallows,
farm fallows, secondary
secondary forest,
forest, and
and forests
forests which
which have
have notnot been
been cleared
cleared for
for hundreds
hundreds of
years. While most commonly-used medicinal plants
commonly-used medicinal plants are
are sourced
sourced from
from secondary
secondary forest,
forest, the
the
edges of paths,
edges paths, farms,
farms, village
village peripheries
peripheries and
and informal
informal gardens kept by specialist
gardens kept specialist healers,
healers ,
species used for more
more severe illnesses, and many of those species considered most powerful,
are sourced from
from high
high or secondary forest (Thomas
secondary forest (Thomas et et al.,
al., 1989; Falconer 1990, 1994;
1994; Laird
et al., 1996).
1996). Logging
Logging will
will directly
directly affect
affect only
only aa portion
portion of
ofthe
therange
rangeofofNVVFP
NWFP species
species used
used
by
by local communities,
communities, butbut the importance
importance of this range
range andand diversity
diversity in
in products,
products, and
and the
the
limits to substitution, should bebe recognized.
recognized.
4. The
4. The NWFP-timber
NWFP-timber interface:
interface: Contributing to
to sustainable
sustainable natural
natural forest management
management
The harvest of timber and non-timber forest products

products can be incorporated into multi-purpose
multi-purpose
systems
systems of natural
natural forest management
management that that both
both minimize the negative
minimize the negative impacts
impacts of timber
timber
extraction and
extraction and capitalise
capitalise on
on the
the many
many benefits
benefits provided
providedby byaa range
range ofof forest
forest products.
products. TheThe
vast
vast majority
majority of timber
timber production
production inin tropical
tropical countries
countries comes
comes from
from unmanaged
unmanaged forests.
forests.
Rotations, regeneration
Rotations, periods, felling
regeneration periods, felling cycles,
cycles, harvestable
harvestable girth
girth limits,
limits, etc.
etc. tend
tend not
not toto be
be
based on
based on the
the growth rates and regeneration requirements of
regeneration requirements of the
the species,
species, butbut on the demand
demand
for wood, so forests are
are usually
usually harvested
harvested inin excess of
of the
the allowable
allowable cut,
cut, and
and logging
logging damage
damage
can be severe (Poore, 1989; Nair, 1991; Wadsworth, 1987). However, managed forest
can be severe (Poore, 1989; Nair, 1991; Wadsworth, 1987). However, in managed forest
areas
areas timber
timber and
and NVVFPs
NWFPs can can be
be harvested
harvested in in aacomplimentary
complimentary mannermanner (Salick,
(Salick, 1992;
1992;
Malhorta et al., 1991).
1991).
57
Timber harvest
harvest plans can
can be
be based
based on
on inventories
inventories andand the
the collection
collection ofofinformation
information necessary
necessary
to ensure
ensure sustainability
sustainability and to plan
plan transportation
transportation within
within the
the forest in
in aa way
waythatthatminimizes
minimizes
damage
damage to residual
residual stands
stands and the
the total
total area
area disturbed
disturbed byby roads,
roads, landings
landings and and skid
skid trails.
trails.
Timing of logging
logging operations
operations can take
take into
into consideration
consideration rainy seasons,
seasons, seedfalls
seedfalls and thethe
reproductive
reproductive cycles
cycles of animals
animals and species
species of of non-wood
non-wood value. Complimentary
Complimentary harvestsharvests of
NWFPs prior to and post logging can be .planned, planned, including the the harvest of rattans, collection
collection
of oil-producing seeds and
oil-producing seeds and medicinal barks, and
medicinal barks, and tapping
tapping essential
essential oils
oils andand resins
resins from
from
valuable timber
timber species.
species. The
The harvest
harvest ofofNIATFPs
NWFPs in in conjunction
conjunction with
with logging
logging operations
operations is
often done now on an ad ad hoc basis, but
but these
these activities
activities could
could be
be built
built into
into management
management plans,
plans,
such as
as those
those called
called for
for in
in Cameroon
Cameroon as as part
part of
ofCommunity
Community Forests,
Forests, an an innovation
innovation of of the
the
January 1994
1994 Law No. 94/0194/01 concerning Forests,
Forests, Wildlife
Wildlife and Fisheries (GoC, 1994; 1994; GoC,
1997; Laird and Lisinge, 1998).
1998).
Management plans, and

Management plans, and attention
attention to multiple
multiple use, are
are also
also incorporated
incorporated into
into international
international
efforts
efforts to
to provide
provide economic
economic incentives
incentives for
for sustainable
sustainable forest
forest management.
management. Recently,
Recently, the the
Forest Stewardship
Forest Council -- the
Stewardship Council the main
main accreditation body for
accreditation body for timber
timber from
from natural
natural and
and
plantation forests
forests - has begun exploring the role of of NWFPs
NWFPs in in timber
timber production
production through
through an an
NTFP Working Group.
Group. A draft Principle governing NWFPs NWFPs is under discussion.
discussion. In In addition
addition
to highlighting the need
need for
for sustainable
sustainable management
management plans for for NWFPs,
NWFPs, thethe draft
draftPrinciple
Principle
that: "11.3
requires that:
requires "11.3 Management
Management plans plans that prioritize
prioritize timber
timber production
production should
should include
include
specific provisions
provisions toto describe
describe andand minimize short and
minimize short and long-term
long-term impacts
impacts onon NTFPS;"
NTFPS;" and and
"11.6 The monitoring
monitoring ofof timber
timber harvesting
harvesting should
should evaluate
evaluate impacts
impacts on on non-timber
non-timberresources
resources
and the forest
forest ecosystem.
ecosystem. Monitoring should also include the the impacts
impacts ofof non-timber
non-timber forest
forest
products on timber resources" (FSC
(FSC NTFP
NTFP Working
Working Group,
Group, 1997).
1997).
Unfortunately, quantitative data on the relationship between timber and

Unfortunately, and non-timber
non-timber uses
uses and
and
management is difficult to come by, by, although
although some
some studies
studies do
do exist
exist which
which attempt to
to evaluate
evaluate
changes in in community
community ecology
ecology variables with logging, damage, regeneration, and
silvicultural treatments both for
treatments both for useful
useful plant
plant species
species and
and for
for the plant community
community asas a whole
whole
(Salick
(Salick et al., 1992;
1992; Salick
Salick et al., 1995;
1995; Peters
Peters 1996;
1996; van
van Dijk,
Dijk, 1997;
1997; Shanley
Shanley et al.,
al., 1998).
1998).
Ecological, socioeconomic,
socioeconomic, legal, policy and cultural aspects of of timber and NWFP harvesting
harvesting
and use must then be brought
brought together in order to examine
examine the relationship between timbertimber
and NWFPs,
and NWFPs, and the the conservation
conservation of tropical
tropical forests
forests and
and the
the resources
resources contained
contained within
within
them.
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60
THE SUSTAINABILITY
SUSTAINABILITY OF
OF ERU
ERU (GNETUM
(GNETUM AFRICANUM AND
AND
GNETUM BUCHHOLZIANUM):
BUCHHOLZIANUM): OVER-EXPLOITED NON-WOOD
FOREST PRODUCT FROM THE FORESTS OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Patrick Nde Shiembo
Abstract
The leaves of
of Gnetum
Gnetum africanum andand G.
G. buchholzianttm
buchholzianum are highly valued as nutritious green
vegetables
vegetables across Central Africa and areare the
the subject
subject of
of considerable
considerable cross-border
cross-border trade.
trade. This
This
trade
trade has increased
increased dramatically
dramatically inin recent
recent years
years and the
the resource
resource base
base has
has been
been seriously
seriously
threatened by unsustainable harvesting methods and the gradual disappearance of of the
the forests
forests
in which they thrive. In order
order to ensure
ensure and
and enhance
enhance the sustainability
sustainability of these two
two Gnettan
Gnetum
species, research is being
species, research being carried
carried out
out on
ontheir
theirselection,
selection,genetic
geneticimprovement,
improvement, vegetative
vegetative
propagation and ex-situ
ex-situ management.
management.
To date, the
the two
two species
species have
have been
been successfully
successfully propagated
propagated and subsequently planted out
subsequently planted out
mostly in
mostly in on-station trial blocks.
on-station trial blocks. They
They respond
respond well
well to
to cultivation
cultivation and
and many
many ofof the plants
plants
have produced large amounts of biomass and have produced flowers and fruit. Germplasm Germplasm of of
over
over eighty-five provenanceshas
eighty-five provenances has been
been established
established for
for future
future selection
selection and
and genetic
genetic
improvement for
improvement for the mass production
production of broad-based planting
planting materials.
materials. On-farm trials are
now being established and appropriate harvesting methods
appropriate harvesting methods are
are being
being introduced
introduced toto allow
allow for
for
vines. These efforts
quick sprouting of vines. efforts are
are aimed
aimed to
to ensure,
ensure, not
not only
only the
the future
future availability
availability of
of
Gnetum, but
Gnetum, but that the cultivated sources are also genetically superior.
Key words:
Key words: Gnettan
Gnetumafricanuni,
africanum,Gnetum
Gnetumbuchholzianum,
buchholzianum, domestication,
domestication, field trials,
sustainability
1. Introduction
Gnetum
Gnetum is
is the lone genus in the family Gnetaceae.
Gnetaceae. There are about thirty species in
in the
the genus,
genus,
which occurs throughout the tropics in Asia, South America (Mialoundama and Paulet, 1986)
and in Central
and Central Africa
Africa (Watt
(Watt and
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The majority
majority ofof the
the species
species of
Gnetum are
Gnetum are lianas.
lianas. The
The plants
plants are dioecious,
dioecious, with
with the male
male plants
plants producing
producing catkins
catkins of
stamens and the females catkins of ovules barely protected by an envelope (Letouzey,
(Letouzey, 1986).
1986).
species of
There are two species of Gnetuni
Gnetum in Africa,
Africa, G.
G. africantan
africanum and
and G.
G. buchholzianum
buchholzianum and
and they
they are
are
distributed in
distributed in the humid
humid tropical
tropical forests
forests from
from Nigeria
Nigeria through
through Cameroon,
Cameroon, Central
Central African
African
Republic, Gabon, DR
Republic, Gabon, DR of Congo
Congo to to Angola
Angola (Mialoundama,
(Mialoundama, 1993).
1993). Both
Both species
species are
are
understorey lianas, although in some cases some individuals have
understorey lianas, although in some cases some individuals have been found to scramble
to scramble
into the
into the crowns
crowns of emergent trees
trees (author,
(author, pers.
pers. obs.).
obs.). These
These two
two species
species are very
very similar and
and
only be distinguished
can only distinguished byby the shape of the leaves and characters
characters of the male reproductive
reproductive
parts (Lowe, 1984).
1984).
2. The importance
importance and
andvalue
value of
ofGnetum
Gnetu1n spp.
Both Gnetum
Gnetum species
species have significant
significant value
value to many
many forest-based
forest-based communities and have
communities and have a
number of vernacular and trade names.
names. In the Central
Central African
African Republic,
Republic, Gabon,
Gabon, Congo,
Congo, DR
of Congo
Congo and
and Angola,
Angola, the
the two
two species
species are
are locally
locally called
called koko.
koko. (Bahuchet,
(Bahuchet, 1990).
1990). In
In
Anglophone Cameroon, they
Anglophone Cameroon, they are
are known
known as
as eru, while in Francophone
Francophone Cameroon
Cameroon the name
name
61
okok is applied. Nigeria, the two Gnetum
applied. In Nigeria, species are
Gnetum species are called ukasi by the Igbo tribe
tribe while
while
Efik/Ibibio tribes call them afang.
the EfiklIbibio
In Nigeria, the leaf of G.

Nigeria, the G. africanum
africanwll is used
used in
in the
the treatment
treatment of
of an
an enlarged
enlarged spleen,
spleen, sore
sore
throats and
throats and as
as a cathartic (Burkill,
(Burkill, 1994).
1994). In Ubangi
Ubangi (DR (DR Congo),
Congo), it is used
used to
to treat
treat nausea
nausea
and is considered
and considered to be
be an
anantidote
antidote totosome
someforms
formsofofpoison
poison(Burki11,
(Burkill, 1994).
1994). InIn Congo-
Congo-
Brazzaville, the leaves of both species are used as a dressing for warts warts and
and boils
boils and
and aa tisane
tisane
of the
the cut-up
cut-up stem
stem isis taken
taken totoreduce
reducethe'
the!pain
painofofchildbirth
childbirth(Bouguet,
(Bouguet, 1969).
1969). Gnettim
Gnetum
africanum
africanum is is also reported
reported to be be used
used for
for medicinal
medicinal purposes
purposes inin Mozambique
Mozambique (Watt
(Watt andand
1962).
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
However, it is for its edible value that Gnetum is most prized.

prized. The leaves are either eaten raw
or are
are finely
finely shredded
shredded and
and added
added toto soups
soups and
and stews
stews (Burki11, 1994). The
(Burkill, 1994). The leaf ofof G.
G.
buchholzianum
buchholzianum isis also
also edible, although it is
edible, although is reported
reported to be
be less
less common
common inincommerce
commerce
species have very high nutritional
(Busson, 1965). The leaves of both species nutritional value
value and
and constitute
constitute an
an
important source
important source of protein,
protein, essential
essential amino
amino acids
acids and
and mineral
mineral elements
elements (Busson,
(Busson, 1965;
1965;
Fokou and Domngang, 1989;1989; Mialoundama, 1993;
1993; Ouabonzi et et al.,
al., 1983).
1983).
The leaves of both Gnetum africanuni

africanwll and G.
G. buchholzianuni are a very important article of
buchholzianum are of
trade in the Central African region, particularly in Cameroon
particularly in Cameroon where
where the
the leaves
leaves are
are harvested
harvested
on a daily basis
basis and
and sold in local and regional
regional markets.
markets.As
Asthe
the leaves
leavesofof both
both species
species are
evergreen they
evergreen they are
are available
available throughout
throughout the
the year.
year. The
The volume
volume of
of export trade in these
these leafy
vegetables has significantly increased in recent years.
There
There are two
two main
main ports
ports of
of exit
exit ininCameroon.
Cameroon. Idenau,
Idenau, a coastal
coastal fishing
fishing village
village in SW
SW
Province, exports large quantities of
of Gnetum
Gnetwll to Nigeria; and Campo, near Kribi in the the South
South
Province,
Province, exports
exports to Gabon
Gabon and
and Congo-Brazzaville. Once exported,
Congo-Brazzaville. Once exported, the
the Gnettan
Gnetum leaves
leaves are
then
then traded
traded in
in large
large border
border town
town markets.
markets. These
These markets
markets are
are well-organised
well-organised and
and are
are
frequented by a wide range ofof nationalities trading
trading in
in the
the product.
product.
To meet
meet the
the high
high demand,
demand, the search
search for Gnetum has extended
Gnetum has extended to to more
more remote parts of
remote parts
Cameroon
Cameroon soso that
that itit is now difficult
difficult to find either
either species
species in the
the forests
forests of
of the
the Littoral
Littoral and
and
South West Provinces,
Provinces, wherewhere they
they were previously abundant. ItIt is common
previously abundant. common to see see vehicle
vehicle
loads
loads of Gnetum heading to
Gnetum heading to the
the border
border market
market of Idenau
Idenau on
onWednesdays
Wednesdays and and Thursdays
Thursdays
every week from
every week from the
the forests
forests of the Centre, East and
Centre, East and South Provinces
Provinces of the the country. It is
country. It
estimated that 600 tonnes
estimated that tonnes aa year
yearleave
leavefrom
from this
this port
port alone
alone with
with aalocal
localmarket
marketvalue
value of
of
1 800000000
800 000 000 CFA (Bokwe and Ngatoum, 1994). This large volume of of trade
trade offers
offers valuable
valuable
employment
employment totomany
many young
young people
people in
in Cameroon and surrounding
Cameroon and surrounding countries. As much as
countries. As as
450 000 CF
CFAA / month is reported to be made from the sale of Gnetum
Gnetum by one of the full-time
full-time
1997 (pers. comm.).
traders in the product in the Idenau market in 1997
3. The unsustainable
3. unsustainable harvest
harvestof Gnetuln
ofGnetum
Gnetunz africanum and

Gnetum africanum and Gnetwll buchholzianum thrive
Gnetum buchholzianum thrive in
in aa wide
wide range ofof habitats,
habitats, including
including
fallows or abandoned
farm fallows abandoned farmland,
farmland, secondary
secondary forests,
forests, and
and closed
closed forest.
forest. The
The vines
vines of
of both
both
Gnetum species climb
GnetWll species climb supporting
supporting big
big and
and small
small trees,
trees, dead trees,
trees, saplings,
saplings, shrubs,
shrubs, other
other
climbing vines
climbing vines such
such as
as rattan
rattan palms,
palms, and
and aa host of
of other
other plant
plant materials
materials inin the
the complex
complex
tropical humid
tropical humid forest,
forest, where
where they
they grow
grow luxuriantly and produce
luxuriantly and produce great
great quantities
quantities ofof leaf
biomass.
Under wild conditions, both species

conditions, both species grow
grow and
and form
form underground tubers or
underground tubers or roots
roots that store
plant food reserves.
reserves. These
These can remain
remain alive
alive for
for many
many years
years when
when the
the vegetation
vegetation and
and the
the
Gnetum vines above
Gnetum vines above ground
ground are
are cleared
cleared and
and the
the soil
soil surface
surface is laid bare. It has been reported
62
that some
that some local
local tribes
tribes in East
East Cameroon
Cameroon andand the
the Congo
Congo eat these
these tubers
tubers as
as wild
wild yams,
yams,
during lean seasons (Bahuchet,
particularly during (Bahuchet, 1990).
1990). In the course of of harvesting
harvesting the
the vines,
vines, the
the
buds on the tubers
tubers are damaged and it maymay take a long time for new buds to develop
time for develop into
into a
vine. In some cases,
vine. cases, the forceful pulling of vines creates wounds on the tuber/root
tuber/root for
for fungal
fungal
attack that can cause tuber/root rot disease.
disease. Hence the effects of harvesting does not not ensure
ensure
the growth
growth and supply
supply of future Gnetum leaves. It is, therefore,
Gnetum leaves. therefore, not a sustainable
sustainable means
means of
collecting the
the leaves.
occasion, during
On occasion, during the
the collection,
collection, the
the trees
trees that the Gnetum vines are
Gnetum vines are growing
growing on are often
felled,
felled, creating widespread damage. It
widespread damage. It is
is clear then, that the harvesting
harvesting of Gnetum
Gnetum from the
wild is not sustainable.
sustainable. In addition, much of the forest in which the Gnetum
addition, much Gnetum occurs is being
degraded by illegal and uncontrollable exploitation of timber,
timber, farming,
farming, road construction and
and
other forms of
of economic development.
4. Achieving sustainability in
in the
the supply
supply of
of Gnetum
Gnetum
To
To begin
begin to
to alleviate
alleviate some
some of
of the
theproblems
problems ofofthe
theover-exploitation
over-exploitation of
of Gnetum,
Gnetum, aa
domestication programrne has
domestication programme has been
been developed.
developed. It is hoped that
that cultivated
cultivated sources
sources of
ofsupply
supply
will not only
only reduce
reduce pressure on the existing
existing wild resource,
resource, but will also
also contribute
contribute to
to the
the
incomes of local
incomes local communities
communities through
through the
the establishment
establishment of
ofvillage-based
village-based co-operative
co-operative
cultivation
cultivation systems.
systems.
During the first trials to assess

During assess the
the potential
potential of
of Gnetum
Gnetum forfor cultivation,
cultivation, many
many multiplication
multiplication
studied. These included
techniques were studied. included seed germination
germination and
and rooting
rooting of leafy vine cuttings.
cuttings.
In addition,
addition, selection
selection of the best rooting medium and the
medium and the identification
identification of the cheapest and
cheapest and
most efficient propagators that could be transferred
transferred to
to local
local farmers, were
were also
also determined.
determined.
The initial propagation trials ruled out the multiplication of Gnetum by seeds as they
they did
did not
not
germinate under nursery conditions despite being
being commonly
commonly found germinating
germinating on
on the
the forest
forest
floor.
4.1. Vegetative
4.1. Vegetative propagation
propagation
From our work,

work, itit is
is clear
clear that
thatthe
thevegetative
vegetative propagation
propagation technique
technique of
of rooting
rooting leafy
leafy vine
vine
cuttings provides the optimum means of
cuttings of Gnetum
Gnetum multiplication.
multiplication. During the
the period
period 1994-95,
1994-95,
65 provenances
65 were collected
provenances were collected from
from the
the forest
forest zone of South
South West and
and Littoral
Littoral Provinces.
Provinces.
These
These provenances were selected
provenances were selectedbased
basedon
on the
the fact
fact that
that they
they are
are the
themost
mostcommonly
commonly
harvested as
harvested as palatability
palatability varies
varies widely
widely in Gnetum.
Gnetum. Thirty-five cuttings of each provenance
Thirty-five cuttings provenance
were put into
into simple
simple and
and cheap
cheap non-mist
non-mist and
and portable
portable propagators
propagators made
made of
ofwooden
wooden frames,
frames,
with separate wooden frame covers framed with polythene sheets (see Figure 1).1).
Whilst in the propagators, the cuttings were watered twice a day for a maximum period of six
weeks when enough rootsroots were formed
fonned to allow transplanting
transplanting to pots to
to take
take place.
place. After
After an
an
initial period of
of hardening-off
hardening -off (4-6
(4-6 weeks) these are
are then
then ready
ready for planting.
planting.
4.2. Field trials

4.2. Field
Aside from the initial propagation work,

work, fmther
further studies
studies have
have been
been undertaken
undertaken to
to evaluate
evaluate the
the
cultivation potential of
cultivation potential of Gnetum
Gnetum in thethe field.
field.Five
Fivecuttings
cuttingsrepresenting
representingtwenty-eight
twenty-eight
provenances randomly assigned
provenances were randomly assigned to
to one of twenty-eight study plots under five different
twenty-eight study different
hardwood species planted
hardwood species planted for
for timber
timber production
production studies
studies in the
the Southern
Southern Bakundu
Bakundu Forest
Forest
Reserve. After planting, they have been managed by staking and weeding. Vine growth, leaf leaf
63
100 em
j
-
25ctn water rooting

- tneditirn water
omg0160.144 graver *table
-...4tabAskitioUV-111 stones
Sand
polythene
Figure 1 Rooting
cuttings of
Figure 1 Roo[jng Cuttings of tropical trees (D·om Longman, KA. 1993)
trees (from
Longman, K.A.
1993)
64
biomass production and
biomass production and survival
survival have
have been
been monitored,
monitored,and
and data
data so
so obtained
obtained has
has been
been
this purpose.
recorded on data sheets designed for this
A harvesting regime has also been implemented to determine the effects of of leaf
leafremoval
removal and and
the rate of
of re-growth. Five regimes were implemented:
• The removal of alternate leaves only;
• The removal of two pairs of of leaves
leaves were
were removed
removed leaving behind aa pair
pair so
so that
that there
there
remained a pair of
of leaves after every two nodes;
• The harvest of
of all the mature leaves;
• Cutting of the vine tops just above
above the height where
where the mature
mature leaves
leaves end;
end;
• Cutting of vines at
at ground
ground level.
level.
5. Results
In October 1997, the number of leaves produced by the Gnetum planted in August 1996 1996 were
counted and
counted and subjected
subjected toto an
an analysis
analysis of
of variance
variance test
test after
afterdata
datatransformation.
transformation. NotNot
surprisingly, there
surprisingly, there was
was considerable
considerable variation
variation in
in vine
vine length
length between
between the provenances, with
provenances, with
some growing muchmuch more vigorously
vigorously than
than others.
others. The rate ofof growth
growth ofofthe
the rapidly-growing
rapidly-growing
provenances was twice the rate of those
provenances was those that
that were
were slow-growing.
slow-growing. The rate of of growth
growth has
has an
an
enormous affect
enormous affect on
on the potential
potential for increased yield and recovery
recovery from harvest.
harvest. In general,
general,
survival rates
survival rates were good (when
(when measured
measured 1818 months
months after
after planting).
planting). The
The highest
highest survival
survival
rates of 78.2%
78.2% and 76.7% were recorded
recorded in
in the
thetwo
two most
most vigorous
vigorous provenances,
provenances, while the
survival rate was
poorest survival was 57.1%.
57.1 %.
Generally, the
Generally, the vines
vines that were left with
with some
some leaves
leaves after
after harvest
harvest produced
produced new
new leaves
leaves andand
some pew
some pew vines
vines were
were also
also produced
produced at
at the
the nodes
nodes where leaves
leaves were
were harvested.
harvested. As
As far as the
pruning method
method isis concerned,
concerned, aamaximum
maximum of of three
three new
new vines
vines sprouted
sprouted from
from the
the first
first three
three
nodes below the cut surface. There was no regrowth in the vines cut at at ground
ground level.
level. It
It was
was
also observed that when cuttings were taken from cloned vines in the nursery or or propagation
propagation
unit,
unit, many
many sprout
sprout vines
vines and
and many
many more
more leaves
leaves were
were produced.
produced. This
This demonstrates
demonstrates thatthat
Gnetum biomass
Gnetum biomass production
production cancan be
be sustainably
sustainably harvested
harvested if the
the appropriate
appropriate harvesting
harvesting
techniques are applied.
Conclusions and
6. Conclusions and recommendations
The results
The results of this
this work
work have
have shown
shown clearly
clearly that
that the
the two
two Gnetwn
Gnetum species
species are
are easily
easily
domesticated. On-station and
domesticated. On-station and on-farm
on-farm trials
trials have also shown
shown that
that Gnetum
Gnetum hashas considerable
considerable
potential for inclusion into agroforestry
agroforestry and subsistence
subsistence agriculture systems and,
agriculture systems and, if suitably
managed, can provide a sustainable supply of of leaves for both household
household use
use and
and sale.
sale.
It is recommended
recommended that more research be undertaken
undertaken on the
the cost-benefits
cost-benefits of
of cultivation
cultivation and
and
whether
whether thethe cultivated sources of
cultivated sources of Gnetum
Gnetum cancan indeed
indeed alleviate the reliance
alleviate the reliance on the the wild
wild
resource whilst contributing to the household economy.
economy.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this work was provided by the European Union,
Union, the British Council and
Darwin Initiative
Darwin Initiative of
of the
the Government of the
Government of the United
United Kingdom,
Kingdom,toto all
all of whom
whom the
the author
author
expresses his thanks.
65
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66
THE
THE ECOLOGY
ECOLOGYAND
ANDSUSTAINABILITY
SUSTAINABILITYOF
OFPAUSINYSTALIA
PAUSINYSTALIA
JOHIMBE:
]OHIMBE: AN
AN OVER-EXPLOITED MEDICINAL PLANT OF THE
FORESTS OF CENTRAL AFRICA
c.H. Sunderland, Marie-Laure Ngo-Mpeck, Zacharie Tchoundjeu and

Terry C.H. and Amougou
Amougou Akoa
Abstract
Pausinystalia johimbe (K. Schum.)

Schum.) Pierre ex Bielle, or or yohimbe,
yohimbe, is aa widely-used
widely-used medicinal
medicinal
plant, the bark of
of which
which is
is used
used to
to treat
treat male
male organic
organic impotence.
impotence. The
The species
species is
is exploited
exploited in
in
for both
large quantities for both the
the local
localmedicinal
medicinal and
and growing
growing export
export markets.
markets. Recent
Recent
advancementsinin the
advancements the development of yohimbe-based
development of remedieshave
yohimbe-based remedies have led
led to
to an
an increased
increased
demand for the export
export market. This demand is generating
generating considerable over-exploitation and
over-exploitation and
of the
local scarcity of the species.
species.
Concerned over the fact that future supplies might be compromised by current levels of over-
exploitation, Boehringer Ingelheim,
exploitation, Boehringer Ingelheim, a German
German pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical company
company which
which import
import P.P.
johimbe
johimbe bark directly
directly from
from Cameroon
Cameroon through
through Plantecam,
Plantecam, a subsidiary
subsidiary ofof Laboratoires
Laboratoires
Fournier, commissioned
Fournier, commissioned the the International
International Centre
Centre for
for Research
Research in Agroforestry
Agroforestry (ICRAF)
(ICRAF) to to
undertake
undertake a pilot study
study onon the
the ethnobotany,
ethnobotany, ecology
ecology and
and natural
distribution of
of the
the species.
species.
The study also assessed
assessed the effects
effects of
of current
current harvesting
harvesting practices. Further information
information waswas
gathered with a view
view to
to include
include thethe species
species as
as part
part of
ofICRAF'
ICRAF' s domestication
domestication programme for
use in agroforestry systems.
systems. That field research
research forms
forms the
the basis
basis of
of this
this paper.
paper.
Key words:
words: Pausinystalia
Pausinystaliajohimbe,
johimbe, yohimbe,
yohimbe, medicinal
medicinal plants, cultivation
1. Introduction
Pausinystalia
Pausinystalia johimbe is is aa tree
tree native to the coastal forests ofof Central Africa
Africa and
and is
is distributed
distributed
from South
from South East Nigeria
Nigeria to thethe Congolese
Congolese Mayombe (Vivien and
Mayombe (Vivien and Faure,
Faure, 1985).
1985). ItsIts bark
contains up to 6% of a mixture of alkaloids, the principle one being yohimbine (Tyler, (Tyler, 1993)
1993)
which
which is also
also known
known as as aphrodine,
aphrodine, quebrachine
quebrachine oror corynine
corynine (Lawrence
(Lawrence Review
Review of of Natural
Natural
Products, 1990).
Products, 1990). P. johimbe is used extensively as part of of traditional
traditional health
health care
care systems.
systems. ItsIts
many recorded uses vary from being used directly as an aphrodisiac (Small and Adams, 1922; 1922;
Greenish, 1929;
Greenish, 1929; Ainslie,
Ainslie, 1937;
1937; Dalziel,
Dalziel, 1937;
1937; Raponda-Walker
Raponda-Walker and and Sillans,
Sillans, 1961;
1961; Motte,
Motte,
1980; Farnsworth,
1980; Farnsworth, 1984;
1984; Oliver-Beyer,
Oliver-Beyer,1986;
1986;Tyler,
Tyler,1993)
1993)toto that
that of aa local
localanaesthetic
anaesthetic
(Greenish,
(Greenish, 1929;
1929; Oliver Beyer, 1986),
Oliver Beyer, 1986), a mild
mild stimulant
stimulant to to prevent
prevent drowsiness
drowsiness (Raponda-
(Raponda-
Walker and
Walker and Sillans,
Sillans, 1961;
1961; Obama
Obama pers.
pers. comm
comm.;; author
author pers.
pers. obs),
obs), aahallucinogen
hallucinogen (Tyler,
(Tyler,
1993), aa treatment
1993), treatment for
for angina
angina (Lawrence Review of Natural
(Lawrence Review Natural Products,
Products, 1990),
1990), a hypertensive
hypertensive
(Oliver-Beyer,
(Oliver-Beyer, 1986; Lawrence Review
1986; Lawrence Review of Natural
Natural Products,
Products, 1990), a general
general tonic
tonic (Ainslie,
(Ainslie,
1937), aa performance
1937), performance enhancer
enhancerfor forathletes
athletesand
andasas aa remedy
remedy to to increase the clarity
increase the clarity of thethe
voices singers during long festivals (Motte, 1980), an ichthytoxicant, and as a tonic to
voices of singers during long festivals (Motte, 1980), an ichthytoxicant, and as a tonic
increase the resilience of
of hunting dogs
dogs (Raponda-Walker and Sillans, 1961). 1961).
67
In addition
In addition to its widespread
widespread local
local use,
use, the species
species has been
been long
long exported
exported to Europe
Europe for
western medicine
western medicine in in both
both prescription and herbal
prescription and herbal markets. The most
markets. The most common
common useuse of
of
yohimbine-based
yohimbine-based prescription
prescription drugs
drugs today
today isis in the treatment of diabetes-related male organic
in the organic
impotence (Lawrence
impotence (Lawrence Review
Review of of Natural
Natural Products,
Products, 1990;
1990; Vaughan,
Vaughan, pers comm ) Sexual
comm.).
stimulant products
stimulant products available
available over-the-counter
over-the-counter often often contain
contain yohimbine.
yohimbine.InIn the
the United
United
yohimbine-containing drugs
Kingdom, yohimbine-containing drugs have
have become
become fashionable
fashionable as
as one of the "herbal
"herbal highs"
highs"
reported
reported in the
the British
British press
press (Castle,
(Castle, 1997)
1997) andand yohimbe-based products have
yohimbe-based products have long
long been
been a
"sex-shops" in
common sight in "sex-shops" in Europe
Europe (Tyler,
(Tyler, 1993).
1993).
Pfizer, aa United
United States
States pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical company, has recently launched a new pharmaceutical
yohimbe. The name of the drug is Sildenafil
for organic impotence which is not derived from yohimbe.
but is marketed under the name Viagra (Montague, 1997). This drug has been the recent focus
of huge media attention and has created massive
massive public
public interest
interest in the
the availability
availability of so-called
so-called
aphrodisiacs and cures for impotence. This interest has had a knock-on
knock-on effect and has led to a
resurgence
resurgence of sales
sales in
in more
more easily-available herbals remedies,
easily-available herbals remedies, inin particular
particular those
those that are
are
yohimbe-based (Laird, pers. comm.).
2. Autoecology
2.1. Natural distribution and population structure

2.1. Natural
P. johimbe is found within

P. within the
the forest
forest type
type classified
classified by
by Letouzey
Letouzey (1985)
(1985) as
as Atlantic
Atlantic Biafran
Biafran
Evergreen Forest
Evergreen Forest with Caesalpiniaceae,
Caesalpiniaceae, an an extensive
extensive forest
forest formation extending from South
formation extending
East Nigeria through
through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea,
Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
Gabon and Congo Brazzaville (Vivien
and Faure,
and Faure, 1985). P. johimbe
1985). P. johimbe isis a fast-growing tree but does
fast-growing tree does not reach aa great
great diameter
diameter (a
(a
maximum of
recorded maximum of ca.
ca. 50
50 cm
cm dbh).
dbh). This
This seems
seems toto be
be aa natural
natural feature
feature of
of the
the genus
genus and
and is
is
not regarded as being a direct result of
of over-exploitation
over-exploitation ofof the
the larger
larger size
size class
class individuals.
individuals.
P. johimbe has been referred to as "common" (Raponda-Walker and Sillans, 1960). However,
P.
it would seem that the species, whilst not being rare, is far from
from being
being regarded as common.
common.
Recent inventory
Recent data from
inventory data from Cameroon and Equatorial
Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea
Guinea suggests
suggests that
that there
there are,
are, on
average, 15
average, trees >1
15 trees> dbh I/ ha with only 4 trees
1 cm dbh trees>>10
10 cm dbh /I ha
ha trees
trees that
that are
are potentially
potentially
(Sunderland et al., 1997). With this number of trees/ha, we could not support the
harvestable (Sunderland
premise that the species is common
common.
2.2. Reproductive
2.2. Reproductive ecology
ecology
The light
light winged
winged seeds ofof P.
P. johimbe
johimbe are are wind
wind dispersed
dispersed and
and their
their lightness
lightness and
and winged
winged
structure mean
structure mean that
that they
they can
can travel
travel long
long distances.
distances. Consequently,
Consequently, regeneration is not
regeneration is not
found close to the mother tree and fact
commonly found close to the mother tree and in fact the closest recruit found was
found was 25m from
the parent. More
More commonly,
commonly, in fact fact almost
almost exclusively,
exclusively, seedlings
seedlings were
were found
found without
without the
the
of parent trees, indicating
presence of indicating long-distance
long-distance dispersal.
dispersal.
Although the
Although the species occurs mainly
species occurs mainly inin closed-canopy
closed-canopy forest,forest,light
lightisis needed
needed forfor seed
seed
germination and seedling development. Few seedlings survive in closed-canopyclosed-canopy forest,
forest, except
except
in areas of
of light
light to
to moderate
moderate disturbance
disturbance andand the survival
survival raterate of seedlings under a closed
seedlings under
canopy is extremely low,low, suggesting that P.
suggesting that P. johimbe
johimbe isis aa light
light demander
demander inin the
the early
early stages
stages of
of
regeneration. Similar
regeneration. Similar observations
observations have
have recently
recently been
been mademade with
with Lovoa
Lovoa trichilioides,
trichilioides, an
an
important commercial timber species (Tchoundjeu, in press).
68
Table 1:
Table 1: Cumulative
Cumulative inventory data of
inventory data of P. johimbe from
from field
field sites
sites in
in Cameroon
Cameroon and
and
Equatorial Guinea (Sunderland et
et al.,
al., 1997).
1997).
Study site Vegetation Sampling Sample No of Stems/ha

description method area stems >10cm dbh
>10cmdbh
>lcm dbh
>lcmdbh
CampoF.R.
Campo F.R. Early -mid 1000mx10m
1000mxlOm lha
Iha 0 0
Cameroon secondary transect
Campo F.R.
CampoF.R. Mid-late 1000mx10m
1000mxlOm lha
Iha 11 11
Cameroon secondary transect
CampoF.R.
Campo F.R. Closed canopy 100mx100m lha
Iha 16 7
Cameroon forest square plot
Ntole F.R. Closed canopy 500mx10m
SOOmxl0m 0.5ha
O.Sha 10 6
E. Guinea forest transect
Ntole F.R. Closed canopy 1000mx10m
1000mxlOm lha
Iha 33 2
E. Guinea forest (lightly transect
disturbed)
Ntole F.R. Closed canopy 1000mxl0m
1000mx10m lha
Iha 7 2
E. Guinea forest transect
Angoma Closed canopy SOOmxl0m
500mx10m 0.5ha
O.Sha 29 8
E. Guinea forest (20 yrs transect
post-logging)
AVERAGE
A NUMBER OF
VERAGE NUMBER OF HARVESTABLE
HARVESTABLESTEMS /HA== 4
STEMSIRA
3. Sustainability
3.1. Current
3.1. Current commercial
commercial P. johimbe
johimbe bark
bark exploitation
exploitation practices in Cameroon
All P. johimbe bark is currently exploited from wild

wild populations. This
This exploitation
exploitation currently
currently
takes
takes place exclusively
exclusively in Cameroon,
Cameroon, although interest isis currently
although interest currently being
being shown
shown inin the
the
possibility of
possibility of exploitation
exploitation inin Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
Guinea and Gabon. Interestingly, much of the
Interestingly, much the
exploitation
exploitation of P.
P. johimbe isis related
related to
to timber
timber prospecting
prospecting withwith individual
individual stems
stems of the
the
species
species being
being identified
identified during
during the
the inventories
inventories preceding
preceding exploitation. After the timber
exploitation. After timber
harvesting activities are completed,
completed, the yohimbe
yohimbe trees
trees are
are then also felled and stripped, often
by the logging company employees.
Currently, Plantecam is the sole supplier of of P. supplies

johimbe bark to Europe and currently supplies
P. johimbe
around
around 100 tons
tons annually
annually (120 tonnes
tonnes in 1996
1996 (Simons, 1997)). situation where
1997)). Unlike the situation where
Plantecam has their own collection teams providing Prunus africana bark (up to
Prunus africana to 33%
33% of of the
the
total)
total) for their factory,
factory, all of the
the P.
P. johimbe bark is exploited
exploited by outside
outside contractors.
contractors. These
These
contractors are
contractors are registered local businesses
registered local businesses who
who have
have licenses
licenses to exploit
exploit medicinal
medicinal plants.
plants.
These licenses
These licenses are
are provided
provided by
by the
the Forestry
Forestry Department.
Department.(See
(SeeBox
Box 1.)
1.) Plantecam state that
they will not accept
they accept plant
plant material
material from
from companies
companies oror individuals
individuals without
without these
these licenses
licenses
(Nkuinkeu, pers. comm.).
In actual fact,
fact, however,
however, the majority
majority of bark is collected by local people who are paid at at the
the
roadside for the delivery of any permits or
of bark. These local people do not have any or authorisation
authorisation
to exploit P. johimbe and,
and, unbeknown
unbeknown to to Plantecam
Plantecam who
who claim
claim to
to be
be following
following the letter of
the law,
the law, are supplying
supplying bark illegally
illegally to the
the contractors.
contractors. Thus Plantecam,
Plantecam, in turn,
turn, may
may bebe
supplied with illegally exploited bark.
69
1. Cumulative
Figure 1. Cumulative size-class
distribution curve of Pausinystalia johimbe in field
field sites
sites in
in Cameroon
Cameroon and Equatorial
Guinea
60
50 /4.1.1../.1,04,....H.,,r1..r1,4,1.14,4,1.4.1.1..7.rii.M.H.W./.14....,..,14.1.1.144...N.M.`,/,..
40 }Fe+ et /-1. 11. I* H. M. 7.1. 12. X.M. /1,101.N.M.1.1.74. H.M.H.1.1.1.4.1"1......1.7....7.1.
-..J 0
at
0
*
:: 30
'6
0
o0
........
z
20 ....... .
10
10
oo
0-10 10-20
10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Size-class (crn)
SiZe-class (cm)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Unsustainable
Unsustainableexploitation
exploitationof
ofPausinystalia johirnbe (Photo:
Pausinystaliajohimbe (Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
Box
Box 1:
1: Permis
Permis d'exploitation
d 'exploitation
The large
The large scale
scale exploitation
exploitation ofof non-timber
non-timber forestry
forestry products
products such
such as as medicinal
medicinal plants
plants isis
subject to the acquiring
acquiring of aa permis
permis d'exploitation.
d 'exploitation. This
This permit
permit determines
determines the the quantities
quantities toto
be exploited
be exploited or collected
collected within
within a specified
specified geographic area. The
geographic area. The volume
volume or or amount
amount of of
material allowed to be
material allowed be exploited
exploited depends
depends on on the
the desired
desired material
material (e.g.
(e.g. fruits,
fruits, bark,
bark, leaves
leaves
etc.).
etc .). This
This quota
quota would
would bebe set
set by
bythe
theDepartment
Department of ofForestry,
Forestry, although
although basebase line
line and
and
monitoring data for estimating potential sustainable yield is
sustainable yield is woefully incomplete. The
woefully incomplete. The length
length
of the
the exploitation
exploitation permit
permit would
would notnot usually
usually exceed
exceed oneone year
year (National
(National Forestry
Forestry Law
Law no.no .
94/01;
94/01 ; article
article 56;
56; October
October 1994),
1994), except
except byby special
special arrangement.
arrangement. For example, Plantecam has has
permits
permits forfor Prunus africana exploitation
exploitation issued for a period
issued for period of
of upup to
to three
three years
years duration
duration
(Cunningham
(Cunningham and and Mbenkum,
Mbenkum, 1993).
1993). Exploitation permits also
Exploitation permits also apply to to special
special products,
products,
which could include
which could medicinal species
include medicinal species oror those
those which
which are
are of particular
particular interest. Even if
interest. Even if
special products are found on lands belonging to private private individuals, they
they remain
remain the
the property
property of
the State, except where
where the
the said
said products
products have
have been
been acquired
acquired by
by the
the individual
individual concerned.
concerned.
Prices paid per kilo

Prices kilo of
of bark
bark by
by Plantecam
Plantecam range
range from
from 125-280
125-280 CFA
CFA / kg,
kg, depending
depending on on the
the
moisture content,
moisture content, with
with higher
higher prices
prices being
being paid
paid for
for dried
dried bark.
bark. However,
However, the the price
price paid
paid at
roadside to
roadside to the local
local collectors
collectors vary from
from 7575 CFA (paid to pygmies
pygmies who supply
supply fresh
fresh bark
along the
along the Kribi-Campo road) to
Kribi-Campo road) to 150 CFA
CFA to to Bulu
Bulu suppliers
suppliers atat Bivoumba,
Bivoumba, whowho dry
dry the
the bark
bark
over meat-drying
over racks.. Recently,
meat-drying racks Recently , the
the President
President of of the
the North-West
North-West Traditional
Traditional Healers
Healers
Association, Chief Fomentum,
Fomentum, was asked to
was asked to supply
supply large
large quantities
quantities of bark to a contractor, to
sell on to Plantecam, for 50 CFA / kilo for for P.
P. johimbe
johimbe and
and 75
75 CFA
CFA // kilo
kilo for
for Prunus africana.
africana .
Clearly, the profit-margin
Clearly, for the contractors
profit-margin for contractors isis high and local
local people are not receiving a fair
price for their work.
work. However, nonenone of the
the local
local collectors
collectors interviewed
interviewed were
were aware
aware of
of the
the true
true
price of the bark and thought it worthwhile
worthwhile to to collect bark to supply
supply the contractors.
71
P. johimbe bark exploitation is a seasonal activity as the yohimbine levels are highest during
P.
the rainy season
season (Paris
(Paris and
and Letouzey,
Letouzey, 1960).
1960). During the months
During the months of May
May -- September,
September, the
the
contractors travel
travel into the areas where P,
P. johimbe is known
known to occur, contacting villagers
villagers to
exploit the bark
bark directly
directly and promise
promise to
to return
return subsequently
subsequently with transport
transport and
and payment
payment inin
two to three weeks.
weeks. The majority of the contractors have been
contractors have been operating
operating in
in the
the same
same regions
regions
for aa nutnber
number of
of years
years and
and use
use the
the same
same local
local exp/oiters.
exploiters.
The principles guiding the so-called sustainable exploitation of bark that have been applied to
Prunus africana,
africana,i.e.
i.e. removal
removal of ofopposite
opposite twotwo quarters
quarters ofof bark
bark and
and then
then subsequent
subsequent removal,
removal,
of the other two
years later, of two quarters, have not been applied to P. johimbe. The bark exploited
is often
often collected
collected from the main stem stem only
only (except
(except when
when the barkbark is
is harvested
harvested by by pygmy
pygmy
exploiters - see below) and not the the branches.
branches. This
This is
is surprising,
surprising, given
given that
that yohimbine
yohimbine occurs
occurs
in not
not only
only both
both the
the branches
branches and
and young
young stems,
stems, but alsoalso in
in the
the leaves.
leaves. Often,
Often, totoincrease
increase
outputs, the trees are felled and and Planteeam
Plantecam themselves admit that during exploitation
themselves admit exploitation ""..98%
.. 98%
of the
the trees
trees exploited
exploited are are probably
probably felled"
felled" (Nkuinkeu,
(Nkuinkeu, pers.
pers. comm.).
comm.). According
According to to the
the
majority
majority of informants interviewed, the
informants interviewed, the trees
trees can be harvested
harvested when they they are
are around
around 10cmWcm
dbh.
dbh. Although all stated that it was easier and more economic to harvest from larger diameter
these individuals
trees, these individuals were
were not
not so
so commonly
commonly found.
found.
In the field itit was

was explained
explained to us thatthat whilst
whilst the
the P. johimbe trees callused
johimbe trees callused well
well after
after aa small
small
removal}, removal
amount of bark removal', removal of of large quantities
quantities ofof bark led to
to an
an attack
attack by s~em borer
by aa stem borer
which
which penetrated
penetrated the the unprotected
unprotected stem, stem, killing
killing the
the tree.
tree. That
That is why
why manymany harvesters
harvesters
preferred
prefen-ed to fell the the tree,
tree, as
as "the
"thetree
treewould
woulddie dieanyway"
anyway"(Bivina,
(Bivina,pers.
pel's.comm.).
comm.). Bakola
Bakola
(pygmy) harvesters, who were commonly employed to harvest yohimbe all along
(pygmy) along the
the Edea
Edea --
Campo road, not only
Campo road, only fell the
the trees
trees but
but cross-cut
cross-cut them
them into
into portable
portable pieces.
pieces. The
The bark
bark was
was
removed from
removed from thethe cut
cut logs,
logs, carried
carried to to the
the roadside
roadside and and sold.
sold. All
All the bark from the tree tree is
is
removed, including
removed, including that
that of the branches.
branches. The remaining
remaining logslogs were then
then used
used for
for fuelwood
fuel wood
corom.).
(Mana, pers. comm.).
3.2. Impacts
3.2. Impacts of
of exploitation
Despite current
Despite current levels
levels of exploitation, P. johimbe
exploitation, P. johimbe presently
presently hashas a healthy
healthy recruitment
recruitment andand
there does
there does not seem
seem to
to be
be aaproblem
problem with
with regeneration.
regeneration. However, these data
However, these data are rather
rather
deceiving as, although
although thethe current
current regenerative
regenerative capacity
capacity of the the species is notnot yetyet
compromised, removal through felling of reproductive individuals especially at at current
current rates
rates
of exploitation
exploitation in
in certain
certain areas
areas will
will ultimately
ultimately affect
affect future
future regenerative
regenerative potential
potential (i.e.
(i.e. less
less
seed trees = less seedlings = reduced recruitment = =less future harvestable trees).
4. Confusion between P. johimbe
johimbe and P. ntacroceras
macroceras
Henry (1939),
Henry (1939), inin a study
study ofof Pausinystalia
Pausinystalia johimbe
johimbe andand related
related species
species concluded
concluded that P.P.
macroceras contains
macroceras contains aa number
number of of alkaloids,
alkaloids, especially
especially large
large quantities
quantities of the
the inactive
inactive
alkaloid
alkaloid yohimbinine,
yohimbinine, which
which ledled to
to P. being named
P. macroceras being named "fa/se
"false yohimbe"
yohimbe" (Small
(Small and
and
Adams, 1922).
Adams, 1922). Yohimbine
Yohimbineitself itselfisis present
present in
in P.
P. macroceras,
macroceras, although
although in very
very small
small
quantities.
quantities. Despite
Despite this
this low concentration of
low concentration of yohimbine,
yohimbine, P. widely used
P. macroceras bark is widely used
as an aphrodisiac throughout
as throughout its its range,
range, especially where P.
especially where P. johimbe does not occur
occur (Motte,
(Motte,
1980; obs.) and it seems
1980; author pers. obs.) seems the two are used correspondingly as part of local health
strategies (ibid.).
care strategies (ibid.).
In the field, the

the two
two species
species are
are reputediy
reputedly distinguished
distinguished through
through slash
slash characters.
characters. Yohimbine
Yohimbine
becomes
becomes yellow-orange-brown
yellow-orange-brown on on exposure
exposure toto light.
light. P.
P. johin2be
johimbe oxidises
oxidises red-brown
red-brown very
very
this bark
1 A sample of this bark was
was collected
collected to
to determine
determine the
the amount
amount and
and quality
quality of
of yohimbine,
yohimbine, the
the results
results of
of
which have implications for potential sustainable management of wild
wild popUlations.
populations.
72
slowly and
slowly and P.
P. macroceras
macroceras oxidising rapidly.However,
oxidising rapidly. However,ininthe the field
field itit is clear
clear that
that this
this
character is
character is not reliable.
reliable. With the bark and bole characteristics
characteristics of both species being highly highly
similar, the
similar, the two
two species
species are
are almost
almost impossible
impossible to to tell
tell apart
apart using
using slash
slash characters.
characters. TheThe
confusion between
confusion betweenthe the species
speciesisis not
not helped
helpedby by the
the fact
fact that
that the
the two
two species
species appear
appear toto be
highly allopatric, meaning that direct comparison in the field is is not
not often
often possible.
possible. However,
However,
the leaves
the leaves of both
both species
species are
are highly
highly distinctive
distinctive with P. P. johimbe
johimbe having
having sessile,
sessile, obovate
obovate
leaves 15-25
15-25 cm long,
long, often in whorls
whorls of three
three with
with distinctive
distinctive cordate leaf bases,bases, while
while P,P.
macroceras
macroceras hashas petiolate,
petiolate, ovoid
ovoid leaves
leaves 6-15
6-15 cm long.
More subtle differences between the two two species

species include the fact that the bark of of P.
P. johimbe
johimbe
is extremely bitter to the taste and easy to
to peel,
peel, whilst P.
P. macroceras barkbark is
is less
less bitter
bitter and
and is
is
extremely difficult to
extremely difficult to peel,
peel, often needing beating first
needing beating first to loosen the cambial
cambial layer from the
sapwood. Interestingly,
sapwood. Interestingly,Plantecam
Plantecamsuggested
suggestedthat
thatall
all P.P. johimbe
johimbe bark
bark needed
needed to be beaten
beaten
before being removed. However, our field work did not suggest suggest this was
was the
the case
case and,
and, with
with all
all
collected samples
of the P. johimbe trees we collected samples from, the
the bark
bark peeled
peeled extremely
extremely easily.
easily.
Interestingly, of all the different

Interestingly, cultural groups
different cultural interviewed, only
groups interviewed, only one, the Bulu,
one, the Bulu,
distinguished between
between P. johimbe and
P. johimbe and P. macroceras, with the former named "crocodile" and
P. macroceras,
the latter "caiman". The remaining groups,
groups, the Fang, Bassa, Bali, Beti, Baka and Bakola did
not differentiate between the
differentiate between the two species
species stating
stating that the
the bark
bark of
of both
bothhave
havecorresponding
corresponding
uses. Even though the Bulu distinguish between the two species, they use the bark of each for
the same purpose.
purpose. Indeed our informant
informant assured
assured us
us that there was no difference in the effects
of bark treatment from each species
treatment from (Bivina pers.
species (Bivina pers. comm.).
comm.). InIn addition,
addition, itit is claimed that P.
P,
macroceras bark is harvested more·often
macroceras bark is harvested more often because it is more common.
common
Given the field evidence and,

and, given that some bark supplied to Plantecam is is known to have
an extremely
extremely lowlow yohimbine
yohimbine content,
content, there
therecan
canbebe no
no doubt
doubt that
that a good
good proportion
proportion (ca.
(ca. 60-
60-
70%) of the bark received by Plantecam
70%) Plantecam is is that
that of P. macroceras,
macroceras, which
which is is known
known toto have
have
very low
very low levels
levels and very poor quality
quality yohimbine. With aa simple
yohimbine. With simple field
field guide prepared for
prepared for
collectors,
collectors, it would
would be a simple
simple task
task to
to ensure
ensure that
that all
all bark
barkreceived
received isis P.
P. johimbe
johimbe which
which
would
would both
both conserve
conserve the
the resource
resource (individual trees of P.
(individual trees P. macroceras)
macroceras) whilst
whilst ensuring
ensuring
(gaining higher concentrations of the desired alkaloids from the processed bark).
profitability (gaining bark).
5. Implications for management and sustainability

sustainability
5.1. Potential for domestication
Due toto the

the destructive
destructive harvesting
harvesting methods
methods employed
employed andand the
the rapidly-growing
rapidly-growing market
market for
for
aphrodisiac remedies, ICRAF have begun begun aa research
research programme
programme to to investigate
investigate the
the potential
potential of
for domestication
P. johimbe for domestication and
and inclusion
inclusion into
into their
theiragroforestry
agroforestrysystems
systemsprogramme.
programme.
One of the
One the greatest
greatest dilemmas
dilemmas with
with initiating
initiating aa domestication
domestication programme
programme for for any
any forest
forest
whether to
product is whether to begin
begin work
work that
that could
could provide
provide material
material for
for aa hypothetical
hypothetical future
future market
market
that could no longer exist when the products reach maturity. In contrast, one could could decide
decide that
that
the volatile nature of such markets makesmakes the investment prone to risk and no action is taken taken
inevitably leading to
inevitably leading to the
the extirpation
extirpation of
of the
the species.
species. In
In the
the case
case of
of P.
P. johimbe,
johimbe, as as for
for Prunus
africana, along
along with
with the
the obvious
obvious biological urgency,
urgency, the
the market
market seems
seems secure
secure enough
enough inin the
the
short-medium term to warrant the development of cultivated systems. systems. If the market no longer
exists in the
the long-term,
long-term, the species
species can be used
used for
for other
other purposes
purposes such
such as
as fuelwood,
fuelwood, aside
aside
serving aa valuable ecological
from serving ecological function.
function.
73
Table 2:
Table 2: Diagnostic
Diagnostic bark
bark characters
characters of P. johimbe and P. macroceras (modified from Small
of P.
and Adams, 1922).
1922).
P. johimbe
iohimbe P. macroceras
Macroscopic characters
Macrosco~ic
Thickness 4-20mm 2-5mm
Outer surface
Colour Grey to reddish-brown Light or dark brown
Surface Longitudinal furrows; many Often scraped; longitudinal
1-2cm apart
transverse cracks, 1-2cm furrows and ridges; few or
curved transverse cracks
Lichens Grey or white; few or many Grey, usually numerous
Cork Thin or thick, often easily Thin, adhering closely
detached
Inner surface
Colour Reddish-brown Dark-brown or reddish-brown
Surface Finely striated and ridged Ridged and
and wrinkled
wrinkled
Fracture Short, fibrous, sometimes as P.
Same as P. johimbe
johbnbe
splintery on inside, surfaces soft,
velvety
Microscopic characters
Microsco~ic characters
Cork
Width of cork 1120
1/20 to 1/3
113 2/3
1/4 to 2/3
Width
Width of
ofcortex
cortex(No
(No of
ofcells)
cells) 3-30
3-30 2-40
Colour Grey to dark brown Dark brown
Phelloderm
of cells wide
No of 2-12 4-20
Colour Yellowish grey to reddish brown Same as P. johimbe
Cortex
Width ofof cortex 1116
1/16 to 1/1
111 116 to 1/1
1/6 111
Colour Yellowish brown to reddish Same as P. johimbe
brown
Medullary rays
TS inner bast width 1-4 cells 1-3 cells
Regularity Straight Straight
TS outer bast width 1-3 cells 1-3 cells
Regularity Diverging, cells elongating Curving irregularly, cells
tangentially elongate tangentially
Ends Straight or curved Often distorted, curved
LS tangential width 1-3 cells 1-3 cells
Depth 6-35 cells 5-20 cells
Shape Narrow spindle or rectangular Somewhat rectangular with
slightly tapering ends
LS radial depth 8-30 cells 5-20 cells
Bast fibres
Grouping Usually in one-cell wide rows, 2-3 cells
Radial rows 2-3 cells wide
wide
1-3 occur "beaded", no
1-3 common but not "beaded";
"twinning" in outer bast "twinning" in outer bast
Diameter 22-29p,
22-29J..L 22-231
22-23J..L
Length 0.7-1.6mm 0.6-1.9mm
0.6-1 9mm
Shape TS Rectangular Rectangular
Shape LS
ShapeLS Long spindle, pointed ends Spindle with sharply pointed
ends
Lumen Punctiform or sometime linear Linear or
Linear or sometime
sometime punctiform
Wall Thick, not striated Thick, not striated
74
5.2. Vegetative
Vegetative propagation
The stumps of
of felled
felled damaged
damaged individuals
individuals of of P.
P. johimbe areare known
known to coppice well from the the
point of breakage
point and these
breakage and these new
new shoots
shoots are often
often both healthy
healthy and prolific.
prolific. This ability
ability to
to
produce shoots
produce shoots is a positive indication that a great deal of clonal propagation material can be be
obtained from aa few
few well-selected
"Yell-selected stock
stock plants
plants and
and initial
initial vegetative
propagation trials
trials have
have
been extremely positive (Tchoundjeu et
been et aI.,
al., in press).
Figure 3. Coppice
Coppice shoots
shoots of Pausinystalia
Pausinystaliajohimbe (Photo: T.
johimbe (Photo: T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
5.3. Seed
5.3. Seed propagation
propagation
The seeds of P. johimbe are orthodox. Such seed is often able to lay
P. johimbe lay dormant
dormant in
in the
the soil
soil seed
seed
for some
bank for some time
time and
and germinate
germinate only
only when
when the
the red/far
red/far red
red light
light ratios
ratios change,
change, notably
notably when
when
more direct
more direct light can penetrate
penetrate the
the forest
forest floor.
floor. Seed
Seed collection
collection andand germination
germination tests
tests have
have
indicated that
indicated that seed propagation
propagation is is possible,
possible, but the young
young seedlings
seedlings are prone
prone toto "damping
"damping
off"; a fungal
off'; fungal disease
disease that
that attacks
attacks the
the newly
newly emerged
emerged cotyledons.
cotyledons. Further research
research into
into the
the
optimum methods of of seed propagation
propagation is is continuing.
continuing.
5.4. In-situ
5.4. In-situ management
management
Whilst it is
Whilst is of course
course important
important to
to initiate
lTIltIate aadomestication
programme for aa potentially
potentially
threatened species such as P. johimbe,
johimbe, it is also essential that this is implemented
implemented alongside a
rational forest management regime. The ecology of P.
rational P. johimbe
johimbe (fast-growing,
(fast-growing, reproductively
gregarious, light demanding)
gregarious, demanding) suggests
suggests that,
that, with
with further
further work
work on
on the
the potential
potential sustainability
sustainability of
of
bark harvesting
bark from standing
harvesting from standing trees,
trees, a reasonable
reasonable assessment
assessment could be be made
made regarding
regarding the
the
quantities that could be harvested from standing forest.
In addition,
In addition, it is also
also essential
essential that
that local
local communities benefit from
commumtles benefit from the
the exploitation of a
exploitation of
resource such
resource such as
as yohimbe.
yohimbe. In Cameroon,
Cameroon, and and soon
soon in
in Gabon
Gabon and
and Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, the
the
75
moves
moves towards
towards Community Managementof
Community Management of forest
forest resources
resources with
with a view
view toto sustainability
sustainability
should ensure
should ensure that
that the communities managing such
communities managing such resources
resources not
not only benefit
benefit from
from their
their
exploitation, but
exploitation, but are
are also
also paid
paid aa fair
fair price
price for
for the
the resource.
resource. This
This is
is not the case at present. P.
johimbe
Johimbe could
could undoubtedly provide aa good
undoubtedly provide good case
case study
study for
for the
theequitable
equitable and
andsustainable
sustainable
management of such high-value forest products.
Acknowledgements
The authors would

would like
like to
to thank
thank Anacletus
Anacletus Koufani,
Koufani, Augustin
Augustin Njiarnnshi,
Njiamnshi, Crisantos
Crisantos Obama
Obama
and Dinga Njingum Franklin for their diligent contributions to
to this
this study
study in
in the
the field.
field.
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Intemationale
Mann, J. 1992.
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Medical
Medical Letter. 1968.
1968. Afrodex
Afrodex and and impotence.
impotence. Med.
Med. Lett.
Lett. Drugs. Ther.
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W.W. 1968.
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male impotence:
impotence: aa double-blind
double-blind crossover
crossover
Curro Ther.
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Res. 10:354.
10:354.
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The Guardian.
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Uro.
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Morales, A.
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1982. Yohimbine
Yohimbine for treatment
treatment ofof impotence
impotence in diabetes.
diabetes. New
New Engl.
Engl. Jour.
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305: 1221.
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1980. Les
Les plantes
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chez le Ie pygmies
pygmies Aka Aka et lesles Monzombo
Monzombo de de lala Lobaye
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et Anthropologiques de de France.
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1986. Medicinal
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TropicalWestWestAfrica.
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& R. Letouzey. 1960. Repartition des alcaloides le Ie Yohimbe (Pausinystalia johimbe)
(PausinystaliaJohimbe)
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to the 30/6/93. Internal annual report.
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1st-10th May.
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Small, J. && F.M.J.
P.M.J. Adams.
Adams. 1992.
1992. Yohimbe
Yohimbe bark:
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Its history
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and identification
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Stoffelen, P. 1993. studie van
van de de Afrikaanse
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Corynanthe en en
Pausinystalia (Rubiaceae
(Rubiaceae -- Coptosapelteae). PhD Thesis.
Thesis. Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven.
Leuven.
Stoffelen, P., E.
Stoffelen, P., E. Robbrecht
Robbrecht & & E.
E. Smets.
Smets. 1996.
1996. AA Revision
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Corynanthe and Pausinystalia
Bot. Jour. Linn.
(African Rubiaceae - Coptosapelteae). Bot. Linn. Soc.
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D.F. Njingum.
Njingum.
1997.
1997. The
The ethnobotany, ecology and
ethnobotany, ecology and natural
distribution of ofyohimbe
(Pausinystalia
johimbe);
johimbe); An An evaluation
evaluation of current bark harvesting
harvesting practices and and recommendations
recommendations forfor
domestication
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for
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1993. The Honest Herbal
Herbal - A
A Sensible
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Guide toto the
the Use
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Herbs and Related
Remedies. 3rd ed.
Remedies. ed. Haworth Press, London. pp 327-330.
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Tchoundjeu, Z., M-L.
M-L. Ngo-Mpeck,
Ngo-Mpeck, && B. B. Duguma. Main factors
Duguma. Main factors affecting the rooting
affecting the rooting ofof
juvenile cuttings
cuttings of
of Pausynistalia
Pausynistalia johimbe, anan over-threatened
over-threatened medicinal plant of
of West
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and
Central Africa (in press).
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Tchoundjeu, Z Z& & R.R.B.
RRB. Leakey.
Leakey. Vegetative
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mahogany: effects
effects of
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leaf areas (in press).
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1985. Arbres
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Personal communications (Cameroon

(Cameroon unless otherwise indicated)
Francois Xavier Bivina, Traditional Healer,

Healer, Bivoumba
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Dr John Vaughan, Diabetes Specialist, Royal Sussex County Hospital, UK.
77
THE CONSERVATION THROUGH CULTIVATION PROGRAMME
AT THE LIMBE
LIMBE BOTANIC
BOTANIC GARDEN:
ACHIEVEMENTS AND
AND BENEFITS
Joseph P. Nkefor, Nouhou Ndam, Paul C. Blackmore and Terry C.H.

C.H. Sunderland
Abstract
Conservation through Cultivation

The Conservation Cultivation Programme was developed by Limbe Botanic Botanic Garden
Garden
to support
support the
the conservation
conservation of thethe rich
rich and
and fragile
fragile biodiversity
biodiversity on
on Mount
Mount Cameroon.
Cameroon. Its Its
primary
primary aim is toto help
help conserve
conserve wild,
wild, threatened
threatened economic
economic species
species by
by reducing
reducing harvesting
harvesting
pressures through the
pressures through the provision of cultivated
provision of cultivated material. This is undertaken
material. This undertaken through
through the
implementation of a structured research programme aimed at developing cheap cheap and
and efficient
efficient
target species.
domestication and cultivation methods for the target species.
This
This paper
paper will
will present
present the
themethodology
methodology implemented
implemented by
by the
theConservation
Conservation through
through
Cultivation Programme and the immediate and long term environmental and social benefits of
of
the work
work undertaken
undertaken so
so far.
far. Some
Some of
of the
the relevant
relevant problems
problems encountered
encountered by the
the research
research
programme are also discussed.
Key words:
words: Conservation,
Conservation, cultivation,
cultivation, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden,
Cameroon
1. Introduction
Mount Cameroon is an area of extremely rich and fragile fragile biodiversity with a large number of
endemic plants
endemic plants and
and animal
animal species.
species. This
This rich
rich biodiversity
biodiversity isis under
under threat
threat due
due to habitat
habitat
destruction caused
destruction caused by by rapid
rapid conversion
conversion of forest
forest into
into plantations,
plantations, the
the encroachment
encroachment of
shifting cultivation
shifting cultivation and
and associated
associated bushfires,
bushfires, low-impact
low-impact timber
timber exploitation
exploitation and overover-
harvesting non-wood forest
harvesting of non-wood forest products
products such
such as
as Pnmus
Prunus africana, Gnetum
GnetUl11 spp. (eru),
(eru) , and
and
other species.
other In response
species. In response to to the latter
latter problem
problem in in particular,
particular, in
in 1994
1994 the
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic
Garden (LB
Garden (LBG)G) developed
developed thethe Conservation
through Cultivation
Cultivation Programme
Programme which
which aims
aims to
mitigate
mitigate some
some of of the
the impacts
impacts ofofthe
theover-exploitation
over-exploitationofofNWI-('Ps,
NWFPs, whilst
whilst contributing
contributing to to
household incomes and ensuring the equitable
equitable sharing
sharing of
of benefits
benefits from
from such
such forest
forest resources.
resources.
2. Aims and objectives
The aim of the Conservation through Cultivation Programme

Programme is
is to conserve wild populations
populations
of NWFPs
NWFPs by reducing
reducing the harvesting
harvesting pressure on them.
pressure on them. This
This isis achieved
achieved through
through the
the
following process:
• Developing and promoting cost-effective and scientifically-sound methods of

of
germplasm collection
• Developing simple and effective methods of bulk propagation
79
• Developing and promoting cost-effective and transferable methods of of cultivation
cultivation
• Establishing accessible means ofof dissemination to allow local
local communities
communities to
to
benefit directly from the research
The programme
The structuredinin such
programme is structured such a way
way that
that these
these aims
aims are
areachieved
achieved through
through
implementing
implementing a coherent
coherent research
research strategy
strategy for
for each
each target
target species
species in a systematic order. The
research methods
primary research methods include:
• Preliminary research
research (literature
(literature search)
search)
• Field germplasm collection
• Germination and propagation trials
• Distribution and planting
• Characterisation and evaluation
• Publication
Publication and
and dissemination
dissemination
• Extension
3. Methods
3.1. Selection
Selection of
of target
target taxa
The Programme has strict

Programme has strict principles
principles for
for the
the selection
selection of target species.
species. These are based
based on
on
the following social and
and institutional
institutional criteria:
criteria:
• Demand from local population (villagers, extension workers, farmer cooperatives)

• Wider policy
Wider policy recommendations (e.g. the
recommendations (e.g. the cultivation
cultivation of rattans
rattans recommended
recommended by
by
Project
Project 59 ofofthetheNational
NationalForestry
ForestryAction
ActionProgramme
Programme ofofCameroon
Cameroon (1996);
(1996);
replanting of Prunus africana
africanaas
asstipulated
stipulatedbyby the
the Cameroon
Cameroon Forestry
Forestry Law
Law
of 1994
Article (88) 2 of 1994
• (e.g. ICRAF, IPGRI ,CDC)
Requests from collaborating partners (e.g.
And reinforced by the following biological criteria:
• The taxa must be indigenous and of economic or cultural importance

• The taxa must be harvested directly from the wild
• The taxa must be considered threatened by extreme harvesting pressure, e.g.
e.g.
Prunus africana,
ajricana, Gnetum
Gnetum spp.
This selection
This process is
selection process is augmented by market
augmented by market studies
studies indicating
indicating the
the local
local demand
demand and
and the
the
rate of consumption
rate consumption of certain
certain NWFPs,
NWFPs, and
and by
by discussions
discussions with
with local
local harvesters
harvesters through
through
consultations with LBG
consultations LBG staff and
and Mount Cameroon
Cameroon project
project geographical
geographical officers
officers who
who are
are in
in
continual close contact with villages in the region.
3.2. Preliminary
3.2. Preliminary research
research
The preliminary
The research involves
preliminary research involves an
an extensive literature search
extensive literature search aimed
aimed to obtain
obtain as
as much
much
available information
available informationasas possible
possible on
on the
the target
target taxa.
taxa. This
This literature
literature search
search provides
provides the
the
necessary background for the programme to implement
implement a coherent research strategy for each
species selected
species selected and
and particular
particular attention is paid
attention is paid to to taxonomic
taxonomic data,
data, abundance
abundance and
and
80
distribution, and ecological and socio-economic aspects ofof the species.
species. As the
the majority
majority of
ofthe
the
target species
target species have
have not
not been cultivated previously, there
cultivated previously, there isis often
often little access
access to
to existing
existing
cultivation data.
An eco-geographic survey isis also undertaken.

eco-geographic survey This is both aa library
undertaken. This library and
andherbarium
herbariumbased
based
study
study of target taxa and aims
aims to produce
produce both aa clear
clear taxonomic
taxonomic description
description of
of the
the species
species
concerned and an understanding
understanding of the geographical distribution and
geographical distribution and ecological variation to
ecological variation to
permit a wide
wide genepool
genepool sampling. This study
sampling. This study also
also takes
takes into account
account the phenology
phenology of thethe
taxa to ensure
ensure that
that seed
seed collecting
collecting trips can be planned
planned as accurately
accurately as possible.
possible. The
The eco-
eco-
geographical survey is
geographical survey is the
the secret to the success
success of the collecting mission
mission and essential
essential if we
are to obtain as representative a sample as possible of the wild resource in cultivated systems.
systems.
3.3. Field collection of

of germplasm
germplasm and sampling method
method
It is
is important
important to
to obtain
obtain the
the largest
largest sample
sample of of the
the genepool
genepool as as possible.
possible. The
The important
important
principle here is that random samples
principle should be
samples should be taken
taken from
from the
the entire
entire geographical
geographical range
range of
of
the population taking care to target as many ecotypes
ecotypes as as possible.
possible. For
For example,
example, in in the case of
Prunus africana,
ajricana, consideration
consideration is given
given to
to its
its distribution
distribution over
over distance
distance and
and altitude.
altitude. Within
Within
these two geographical factors
factors are different ecological conditions giving rise rise to a wide variety
variety
of ecotypes.
ecotypes. Great
Great care
care is taken
taken toto maintain
maintain the the collections
collections separately
separately during
during the
the
domestication process (Blackmore,
domestication 1997). Detailed
(Blackmore, 1997). Detailed collection
collection data (provenance
(provenance data) is is
obtained during
during germplasm collection. The
germplasm collection. The information
information collected
collected must
must consist
consist of
geographical data
geographical data (altitude,
(altitude, longitude,
longitude, latitude,
latitude, soilsoil type,
type, ground
ground conditions,
conditions, aspect
aspect and
and
vegetation type)
vegetation type) as
as well as
as data
data concerning
concerning the the collectors,
collectors, i.e.
i.e. collection
collection date,
date, collectors
collectors
names etc.etc. This
This information
information isis vital
vital to the
the conservation
conservation and and the
the scientific value of the
scientific value
material.
The quality ofof the collected

collected germplasm
germplasm relies heavily on the physical handling ofof the
the material
material
during and
during and after collection
collection and
and the maintenance
maintenance of the identity
identity of
of each
each separate
separate genotype.
genotype.
Every
Every effort
effort is made
made to
to prevent
prevent the
the collection
collection from becoming mixed at both the
becoming mixed the seed
seed and
and
plant stage.
3.4 Germination
Germination tests and propagation trials
Propagation and
Propagation and multiplication
multiplicationtrials
trials are
are carried
carried out
out to identify
identify the
the most
mostcost-effective
cost-effective
methods
methods of of mass
mass production. Seed dormancy
production. Seed dormancyisis oneone ofof the
the greatest
greatest problems
problems to to the
the
Conservation through Cultivation
Conservation through Cultivation Programme,
Programme, especially
especially with
with many
many rattan species
species which
which
often
often take
take up toto nine
nine months
months toto germinate.
germinate. However,
However, itit is
is possible
possible to
to overcome
overcome seedseed
dormancy by
dormancy by using
using a range of pre-sowing treatments.
treatments. The
The experimental
experimental process
process toto establish
establish
which method isis required
which method required takes
takes aa considerable
considerableamount
amountofoftime.
time Often,
Often, as
as in the
the case
case ofof
Gnetum spp.,
Gnetum spp., cuttings
cuttings are the most appropriate means of of multiplication.
multiplication. Experimenting
Experimenting with with
the various types of cutting and husbandry regimesregimes entails
entails a substantial
substantial amount of trial
trial and
and
error before the most appropriate andand transferable
transferable methods
methods of
of propagation
propagation are
are determined.
determined.
3.5 Distribution
3.5 Distribution and monitoring
The success of the

the Conservation
through Cultivation
Cultivation Programme depends
depends on effective plant
distribution and
distribution and post-planting
post-planting monitoring.
monitoring.The
Themajority
majorityof of the
the plants
plants produced
produced are made
made
available to
available to local communities at a minimum
communities at cost. From
minimum cost. From experience,
experience, itit has
has been
been found
found that
that
plants given away for free are often not maintained
maintained oror valued
valued in
in the same way as when they
directly. No
are purchased directly. No matter
matter how
how small the investment,
small the investment, when
when aa plant
plant is purchased it is
81
highly
highly valued and is often
valued and often well-maintained.
well-maintained. The The sale
sale of
of plant
plant material also helps
material also helps LBG
LBG to
recover a small proportion ofof the
the investment
investment costs of of the
the propagation and
and cultivation
cultivation trials.
trials.
In
In many
many cases,
cases, distribution
distribution of plant
plant material
material is
is undertaken
undertaken through
through the
the Mount
Mount Cameroon
Cameroon
Project
Project village
village network
network asas well
well asas through
through the
the existing
existing extension
extension services,
services, farmers
farmers coco-
operatives
operatives and,
and, more recently, NG0s.
NGOs. A A condition
condition ofof plant
plant distribution
distribution through
through these
these agents
agents
is aa requirement
is requirement by LBGLBG staff
staff toto monitor
monitor thethe growth
growth and
and development
development of of the
the plants
plants
distributed.
3.6 Characterisation
Characterisationand
andevaluation
evaluation of
of germplasm
germ plasm held
Characterisation
Characterisation isis the
the observation of characters
observation of characters that
that are
are highly
highly heritable
heritable and
and that
that are
are
maintained
maintained in a range
range of
of environments.
environments. Such characters are important
important as they
they determine
determine thethe
qualities
qualities of the germplasm, both on
germplasm, both on a genetic
genetic level
level and
and on an
an exploitable
exploitable level
level (i.e.
(i.e. high
high
quantities of alkaloid
quantities of alkaloid activity
activity for
for medicinal
medicinal species; good nutritional
species; good value for
nutritional value for edible
edible
species). Evaluation
species). Evaluation data is the observation
observation and
and measurement
measurement of howhow the
the germplasm
germplasm interacts
interacts
with the new
with new environment.
environment. Such
Such characters
characters are
are important
important as
as they
they indicate
indicate the
the survival
survival or
or loss
loss
of certain
certain genotypes
genotypes and their
their characteristics
characteristics in different conditions
conditions (Ford
(Ford et al. 1986) and
al.,1986) and
this rationale forms
forms the
the basis
basis of
of the
the monitoring
monitoring programme
programme for target
target taxa
taxa by
by LBG.
LBG.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. ICRAF/LBG
ICRAFILBG Prunus
Prunus trials
trials at
at Tote
Tote (Photo:
(Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
3.7. Publication
3.7. Publication and dissemination
A number of publications
A publications have
have resulted
resulted from this
this work
work with
with the
the intention
intention of
ofdisseminating
disseminating
the knowledge
the knowledge gathered
gathered during
during the course
course of
of the
the research
research (Sunderland
(Sunderland andand Nkefor,
Nkefor,1997b:
1997b:
Earth Love Fund, 1997)
1997)
Dissemination has
Dissemination has also
also taken
taken place
place through
through scientific
scientific meetings
meetings (Sunderland
(Sunderland andand Nkefor,
Nkefor,
1996a; Sunderland
1996a; Sunderland and
and Nkefor
Nkefor 1996b;
1996b; Sunderland and Nkefor
Sunderland and Nkefor 1997a),
1997a), as well
well as as through
through
informal presentations of
informal presentations of the
the work
work at the
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden to
to farmers'
farmers ' groups
groups and
and
extension agents.
82
3.8. Extension
Once
Once appropriate
appropriate and transferable
transferable methods
methods of bulk bulk propagation
propagation have
have been
been determined
determined for
for
each target species,
each species, it is is necessary
necessary to impart
impart this
this newly-acquired
newly-acquired knowledge
knowledge to thosethose who
who
would be able to implement it. it. One of
of the
the most
most important
important contributions of of the
the programme
programme has has
been
been the training
training ofof trainers
trainers and
and extension
extension workers
workers in in the
the propagation
propagation methods
methods suitable
suitable for
for
each species.
each This training
species. This training has
has taken
taken place
place both
both on aa formalformal and
and informal
informal basis
basis and has
has
entailed the training
entailed training ofof university/professional students in
university/professional students in horticulture and related subjects,
horticulture and
including eight students
including eight students from the the Regional
Regional College
College of of Agriculture
Agriculture Bambili.
Bambili, thethe Forestry
Forestry
School Mbalmayo and the University of Buea. Field staff
School staff from the
the Ministry
Ministry of ofEnviroament
Environment
and Forestry (MINEF) have have also been trained.
trained.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Dissemination
Dissemination of
of research
research findings
findings and
and propagation
propagation techniques
techniques (Photo:
(Photo: T.
T.
Sunderland).
Sunderland) .
4. Achievements
Achievements of
of the
the Conservation
through Cultivation Programme
Aside from technical data

data gathered
gathered through
through the
the methodology
methodology described above,
above, the
the following
following
achievements have been realised tluough the
achievements have been realised through the use of material resulting
of material resulting from the cultivation
the cultivation
programme:
• An experimental 8.8 ha plantation of Prunus africana

africana has
has been
been established
established in
in Moliwe
Moliwe
by the Cameroon Development Corporation.
• A further 1.5 ha
further 1.5 ha plantation of Prunus
plantation of Prunus has
has been
been established by aa Women
established by Women in
in
Development co-operative in the North-West Province
Province of Cameroon.
Cameroon. In
In addition,
addition, two
two
hundred assorted
hundred assorted timber
timber tree
tree species
species were
were also
also supplied
supplied for
for an
anagro-forestry
agro-forestry
programme with the same co-operative. (See Burnley, this volume.)
• One thousand
One thousand Prunus
Prunus seedlings were supplied
seedlings were to a Women
supplied to Women inin Development
Deve lopment co-
operative in Fako Division,
operative Division, South-West
South-West Province,
Province, Cameroon. They were
were distributed
distributed
by the co-operative to many women for small-scale planting on fallow farm areas
by areas and
and
to crop association programmes.
programmes .
83
• Further Prunus material
material was supplied to the Mbalmayo Division to
Mbalmayo Forest Research Division to
undertake further trials
trials in
in vegetative
vegetative propagation.
• The Medicinal Plant Area in the Limbe Botanic Garden

Garden was further
further developed
developed using
using
material
material grown
grown through
through the
the Conservation
through Cultivation
Cultivation Programme.
Programme. An An
educational booklet about
educational booklet about this
this collection
collection has
has recently
recently been
been published
published (Laird
(Laird et al.,
1997).
• An intensive domestication trial

intensive domestication trial area
area of eru (Gnetwn spp.) has been established
(Gnetu11l spp.) established in
research and
LBG for research and education
education (Ndam, et al.,
(Ndam, et al., 1998).
1998).
• A rattan arboretum has been established in LBG for taxonomic

taxonomic research in order
order to
to
monitor the changes in morphology between juvenile and adult forms of
monitor of the
the species.
species.
This work has important
This important economic
economic and development
development implications. (See
(See Sunderland,
Sunderland,
this volume.)
• The Useful Products Theme in LBG has been augmented augmented by material grown
grown through
through
this programme.
this This has
programme. This has led to the
the development
development of of educational
educational trails
trails through
through the
the
Garden including
Garden including aa kitchen
kitchen trail,
trail, industrial
industrial trail
trail and
and aa medicinal
medicinal trail with associated
associated
published literature.
5. Benefits
5. of eTe
Benefits of CTC Programme
Programme
5.1 Benefits
5.1 Benefits for local people
this programme has led to the following benefits for local people:
In summary, this
• The supply
The supply of plant
plant material
material for which
which there
there is
is aaguaranteed
guaranteed income
income from
from well-
well-
established and stable markets.
• The economic
economic empowerment
empowerment of of local
local people
people by
by providing
providing the
the means
means by which theythey
can enter the lucrative
can lucrative markets
markets of such products
products such as Gnetum
GnetU11l spp. and
and Prunus
Prunus
africana through
africana through supply,
supply, which
which has been
been traditionally
traditionally denied
denied them
them through
through the
the
uncontrolled exploitation
uncontrolled exploitation of such material from the
the wild,
wild, predominantly
predominantly by by outside
outside
parties.
• An increased
increased diversification of products
diversification of products grown
grown by
by both
both individuals
individuals and
and groups
groups
leading to greater
greater crop
crop diversification
diversification and
and hence
hence economic
economic security.
security.
• In many cases, a guaranteed supply of raw material ensures that price fluctuations areare
minimised. Hence those crops bought in markets by the vast majority of urban people
in particular (Gnetum,
(Gnetu11l, Cola spp., etc.) remain affordable and within the price range
range of
the majority of
of families
families.
• Traditionally in SW Province, it has been forbidden for women

women to own
own land
land directly.
directly.
However, with the formation
However, with formation of women'
women'ss co-operatives, they have
co-operatives, they have been able
able to
to
purchase or obtain
purchase or obtain land
land for
for long-term
long-term cultivation
cultivation (Burnley,
(Burnley, this
this volume).
volume). Ih
Ih
Cameroonian commonlaw,
Cameroonian common law,planting
plantingan
aneconomic
economictree
treeon
on aa piece
piece of land
land implies
implies
tenure over that land.
land. The
The Conservation
through Cultivation
Cultivation Programme
Programme has
has enabled
enabled
the empowerment of of women, through the supply of economic species.
84
• The use
use of
of LBG
LBG as
as an
aneducational
educational resource
resource has
has been
beenhighlighted,
highlighted, benefiting
benefiting both
both
visitors and recipients of current literature.
5.2 Environmental benefits

5.2 Environmental
The corresponding environmental benefits may be summarised as follows:
• The long teini

term benefit is that harvesting pressure on selected wild populations will be
significantly reduced with
significantly reduced with alternative
alternative supplies coming from cultivated sources.
supplies coming sources. The
benefits are not only confined to individual
individual taxa
taxa but also
also through the maintenance
maintenance of of
ecological integrity.
integrity. For
For example,
example, the
the continual
continual felling
felling of
ofPrunus
Prunus africana in the wild
to exploit the maximum bark yield causes large and discontinuous gaps in the the forest,
forest,
affecting dynamic processes.
• Individual taxa are protected from serious levels

fudividual levels of endangerment by over-harvesting
over-harvesting
through ex-situ conservation efforts
efforts and a certain degree of domestication. This is the
case at both species, provenance and genetic levels.
• Planting trees
Planting trees on
on otherwise fallow areas
otherwise fallow areas has
has had
had aa direct
direct impact
impact on the amount
amount of
reforestation
reforestation in SW Province,
Province, both atat aa commercial
commercial and
and subsistence
subsistence level.
level. Greater
Greater
potential yields per hectare are anticipated through the low input/high output systems
encouraged.
• Mixed cropping with tree species and herbaceous agricultural crops mimics far closer
closer
natural processes, with a multi-storey
multi-storey canopy.
canopy. This
Thishas
hasaadirect
directpositive impact on
positive impact
soil erosion,
soil erosion, with a corresponding increase in
corresponding increase in species/ha, thus encouraging
species/ha, thus encouraging a more
more
albeit impoverished,
balanced, albeit impoverished, ecosystem.
• Planting within the designated themes of LBG highlights

designated themes highlights the institutional policy of
the inextricable link
presenting the link between
between plants
plants and
and people.
people.
6. Problems encountered
Initial problems
fuitial problems have centred on the technical question
question ofof determining
determining the
the optimum
optimum method
method
of bulk propagation for each target taxa. To solve
solve these
these problems,
problems, variations
variations inin approach
approach are
are
developed, i.e. if seed propagation is a problem, clonal propagation
propagation is
is adopted.
adopted.
The distribution
The distribution of plant material has been hampered
material has hampered by by the fact that
that many
many local
local farmers
farmers
groups, NGOs
groups, NGOs andand even
even extension
extension agencies
agencies have
have nono access
access to
to transport
transport and
and are unable to
facilitate the movement of plant material from the LBG nursery to the planting
planting site.
site. The
The ODA
ODA
component of the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden has
has provided
provided significant
significant support to this, although no
budgetary allocation
previous budgetary allocation had
had been
been made
made for
for this
this additional
additional expenditure.
expenditure.
7. Threats
Threats to
to success programme
success of the CTC programme
• Change of demand for target taxa due to new tastes or change in market requirements
• Economic instability, e.g.

e.g. programme funding
• Loss of
of good genetic
genetic material through genepool
genepool erosion
erosion
85
8. Additional comments
8. comments and proposed next steps
The next step of the

The the Programme
Programme is to to continue
continue to identify
identify suitable
suitable species to continue
continue and
undertaken so
augment the work undertaken so far and to use the expertise gathered for the benefit of other
threatened species. Equally important is the monitoring of of the existing plantings, especially
especially in
in
plantation situations, to
plantation situations, to determine
determine thethe viability
viability of such
such an anapproach.
approach. AAmonitoring
monitoring
programme has been established by LBG and is is at the implementation phase.
phase. For many ofof the
the
target taxa aa cost-benefit
cost-benefit analysis
analysis should
should be
be undertaken
undertaken toto determine
determine the
the economic
economic viability
viability
of the cultivation of such products.
Acknowledgements
Initial
fuitial funding for the launch of this
funding for this programme was provided
programme was provided by
by the
the Earth Love Fund
Fund in
1994.
1994. The Overseas
Overseas Development
Development Administration (now DFID)
Administration (now DFID) has
has funded the
the programme
programme
since then. The Friends of the Limbe Botanic Garden should be acknowledged for their
their active
active
participation in establishing
participation in establishing the
the trials
trials of Gnetum. The nursery
Gnetum. The nursery staff of the
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic
Garden should also be thanked for their relentless efforts to make this programme aa success.
success.
References
Blackmore, P.C., N.
Blackmore, P.e., N. Ndam
Ndam &
& J.P.
J.P. Nkefor.
Nkefor. 1997
1997 The conservation
The conservation through cultivation
cultivation
programme policy
programme policy of
ofthe
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic Garden,
Garden, October1997.
October1997.
Cheek,
Cheek, M.M. 1992.
1992. Outline
Outline botanical survey of the the proposed
proposed Etinde
Etinde Forest
Forest Reserve
Reserve in in S.W.
S.W.
Cameroon. Overseas
Cameroon. Overseas Development Administration/Government of Cameroon.
Earth Love Fund. 1997.
1997. Bark
Bark from
from Cameroon.
Cameroon. Earth
EarthLove
Love Fund
FundNewsletter.
Newsletter.No. 1.
No.l.
Ford-Lloyd, B.
Ford-Lloyd, B. 1986.
1986. Plant Genetic Resources: An
Genetic Resources: An introduction
introduction to to their
their conservation
conservation and
use. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd, London, UK.
use. UK.
Laird, S.A.
Laird, S.A. with M. Betafor,
Betafor, M. Enanga,
Enanga, C.e. Fominyam,
Fominyam, M. M. Itoe,
!toe, E.
E. Litonga,
Litonga, J.J. Mafani,
Mafani, J.J.
Menyoli, J. Meseke, W. W. Mukete, M. Motia, P. Ndumbe,
Ndumbe, J. J. Nkefor, J. Nning, N. Ndam, T.
Sunderland,P.P. Tchouto,
Sunderland, Tchouto, & & M.
M. Wana.
Wana. 1997.
1997. Medicinal Plants of the
Medicinal Plants the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic
Garden. Limbe Botanic Garden, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Ndam N., J.P. Nkefor & Blackmore P.C. P.C. 1998. Domestication of eru (Gnetum africanum africanwn andand
G. buchholzianum),
G. buchholzianum), aa threatened
threatened wild
wild forest
forest vegetable
vegetable of of West
West and Central Africa [in [in
press].
press]
Nkefor J.P., N.
N. Ndam,
Ndam, P.e.
P.C. Blackmore
Blackmore & & E.A.
E.A. Ebile.
Ebile. 1997.
1997. Conservation
Conservation of of Prunus africana
Prunus africana
(Hook.f) Kalkman:
(Hook.f) Kalkman: Opportunities
Opportunities forfor agroforestry
agroforestry and plantation
plantation development.
development. PaperPaper
presented to
presented to the workshop:
workshop: The conservation
conservation of Prunus africana on Mount Cameroon.
africana on Mount Cameroon.
Limbe Botanic Garden, December 1997. 1997.
Sunderland, T.C.H. & J.P. Nkefor. 1996a.1996a. Conservation through cultivation: The propagation
of Prunus
of Prunus africana
africana (Hook.f.)
(Hook. f.) Kalkman.
Kalkman. Paper
Paper presented
presented to the the workshop:
workshop: The The
conservation
conservation of of Prunus
Prunus africana on on Mount
Mount Cameroon.
Cameroon. LimbeLimbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, 16-17
16-17
February.
Sunderland, T.C.H. & J.P.
Sunderland, T.e.H. J.P. Nkefor.
Nkefor. 1996b.
1996b. Conservation
Conservation through cultivation,
cultivation, a case
case study:
study:
Prunus
Prllnus africana.
ajricana. Paper
Paper presented International workshop
presented to: futernational workshop on on the
the commercial
commercial
production of indigenous
production indigenous plants as phytomedicines
phytomedicines and cosmetics.
cosmetics. Lagos, Nigeria, 24-25
June.
Sunderland, T.C.H. &
Sunderland, T.e.H. & J.P.
J.P. Nkefor.
Nkefor. 1997a.
1997a.Trees
Treesasascrops:
crops:TheThecase
caseofofPrunliS
Prunus africana.
africana. Paper
Paper
presented to
presented to the Tropical
Tropical Agriculture Associationseminar;
Agriculture Association seminar;Trees
Treesasas crops.
crops. StSt Anne's
Anne's
September.
College, Oxford, UK, 20-21 September.
Sunderland, T.C.H. & 1997b. Conservation through
& J.P. Nkefor. 1997b. through cultivation
cultivation aa case
case study:
study: The
The
propagation of Pygeum
propagation Pygeum (Prunus africana).
africana). Tropical
Tropical Agriculture
Agriculture Association
Association Newsletter.
Newsletter.
December.
86
RECENT RESEARCH
RESEARCH INTO
INTO AFRICAN
AFRICAN RATTANS
RATTANS (PALMAE):
(PALMAE):
A VALUABLE NON-WOOD
NON-WOOD FOREST
FOREST PRODUCT
PRODUCT FROM THE
FORESTS OF CENTRAL AFRICA
c.R. Sunderland
Terry C.H.
Abstract
Four genera,
Four representing 16
genera, representing 16 species,
species, of
of rattan
rattan occur
occur in
in West
West and Central
Central Africa.
Africa. African
African
rattans form an integral part of subsistence strategies
rattans form for many
strategies for many rural
rural populations,
populations, as
as well
well as
as
providing the
providing the basis
basis of a thriving
thriving cottage
cottage industry.
industry. Although many of the rattan
Although many rattan species
species are
are
used
used locally
locally for
for aamultiplicity
multiplicity of
ofpurposes,
purposes, two twowidespread
widespread andand common
common species,
species,
Laccosperma secundiflorum (formerly Ancistrophyllum),
secundiflorum (formerly Ancistrophyllum),and andEremospatha
Eremospatha macrocarpa,
macrocarpa, are
are
favoured throughout
favoured throughout the
the region
region and
and are integral
integral to
to both
both subsistence-level
subsistence-level and
and commercial
commercial
utilisation.
African rattans
African rattans have
have long
long been recognised
recognised by donor agencies
agencies and national
national governments
governments as as
having
having a potential role to
potential role to play
play on the
the world
world market, as well
market, as well as aa greater
greater role
role within
within the
the
regional NWFP sector. However,
NWFP sector. However, the
the development
development ofof the
the rattan
rattan resource
resource in Africa
Africa has
has long
been hindered
hindered by a lack
lack of
of basic
basic knowledge
knowledge about
about the
the exact
exact species
species used,
used, their
their ecological
ecological
requirements and hence appropriate
requirements and appropriate management strategies that
management strategies that might
might be implemented
implemented to
ensure sustainable
ensure sustainable exploitation.
exploitation. AsAs increased
increased interest
interest isis being
being shown
shown in the potential role of
NVTFPs
NWFPs totocontribute
contributetotothe
the conservation
conservationand
and development
developmentparadigm,
paradigm,rattan
rattanhas
hasbeen
been one
one of
of
the oft-mentioned products that
oft-mentioned products that could
could be
be developed
developed and and promoted
promoted in aa meaningful
meaningful way.
way.
Because
Because of this this interest,
interest, recent
recent work
work byby the
theAfrican
AfricanRattanRattanResearch
ResearchProgramme
Programme hashas
concentrated on the taxonomy, ecology and
taxonomy, ecology and utilisation
utilisation of of these
these taxa;
taxa; baseline
baseline research
research that
that is
critical for
critical for the
the development
developmentand andpromotion
promotionofofanyanyhigh
highvalue
valueNVVFP.
NWFP.
Key words: Rattan, climbing

words: Rattan, climbingpalms,
palms, conservation
conservation and
and development,
development, NWFP.
1. Introduction:
1. Introduction: The
The trade
trade in
in rattan
rattan
The international rattan trade

international rattan trade is
is currently worth some
currently worth some US$
US$ 6.5
6.5 billion
billion a year (ITTO,
(ITTO, 1997)1997)
with the majority of this trade concentrating
concentrating on on species
species of
of Asian
Asian origin.
origin. In
In the
the past tenten years,
years,
restrictions in the trade of
of raw cane by some of the larger supply countries, notably notably Indonesia,
has encouraged rattan dealers and gross users such as China and the the Philippines
Philippines toto investigate
investigate
non-traditional sources
non-traditional sources of rattans, predominantly Indo-China, Papua
predominantly Indo-China, Papua New Guinea and more more
Africa. Some raw
recently, Africa. raw cane
cane has
has been
been recently
recently exported
exported from
from Ghana
Ghana and
and Nigeria
Nigeria to to South
South
East Asia.
East Asia. In addition,
addition, trade
trade within
within and
and between
between countries
countries is is reported
reported to be be growing
growing
significantly across West and Central Africa (Falconer, 1994; Morakinyo, 1995). However, However, as
this trade grows,
grows, the pressure on remaining wild populations
remaining wild populations also
also increases
increases and
and aa number
number of
workers report the
workers report the increasing
increasing scarcity
scarcity of rattans
rattans and
and the
the associated
associated market
market implications
implications
(Pokam-Wadj a, 1979;
(Pokam-Wadja, 1979; Shiembo,
Shiembo, 1986;
1986; Defo,
Defo, 1997;
1997; Sunderland, 1998).
Historically, there
Historically, there has
has been a significant and proven trade
trade in African rattans.
rattans. Cameroon
Cameroon and
Gabon supplied France and its colonies (Hedin,
(Hedin, 1929),
1929), and Ghana
Ghana (formerly
(formerly the
the Gold
Gold Coast)
Coast)
supplied aa significant
supplied proportion of
significant proportion of the
the large
large UK market
market in the
the inter-war
inter-war period
period (Anon.,
(Anon.,
1934). The
1934). The export
export industry
industry was
was not
not restricted
restricted to
to raw cane and in 1928
1928 alone
alone over
over 25
25 000
000 FF
FF
worth of finished
worth finished cane furniture
furniture was exported from
was exported from Cameroon
Cameroon to to Senegal
Senegal for
for the
the expatriate
expatriate
community there (Hedin, 1929).
1929).
87
More recently,
recently, an initiative promoted UNIDO in
promoted by UNIDO in Senegal
Senegal was
was exploiting
exploiting wild
wild cane
cane for a
large-scale production
large-scale production workshop
workshop and
and export
export enterprise
enterprise (Douglas,
(Douglas, 1974).
1974). After managed
managed
exploitation, replanting
exploitation, replanting was
was undertaken
undertaken using
using seedlings
seedlings and
and wildings
wildings grown
grown onon in nurseries.
nurseries.
of the workshop and associated activities today.
There is no information as to the status of
rattans -- biology
2. The African rattans biology
Rattans are climbing

climbing palms
palms (family,
(family, Palmae)
Palmae) that
that belong
belong to
to the
the sub-family
sub-family Calamoideae
Calamoideae (Uhl
(UhI
Dransfield, 1987).
& Dransfield, 1987). The Calamoid
Calamoid palms
palms are
are characterised
characterised byby distinctive
distinctive scaly
scaly fruits
fruits and the
sub-family includes
sub-family includes not
not only
only rattans
rattans but
but also Raphia, another
another African
African taxa
taxa of
ofconsiderable
considerable
economic importance. Worldwide,
economic importance. Worldwide, there
there are
are estimated
estimated to
to be
be around
around 650 species
species within the
the
Calamoideae belonging
Calamoideae belonging to
to twenty-two
twenty-two genera
genera (Uhl
(Uhl and
and Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987).
1987). The
The majority
majority of
these genera occur in the
the humid
humid tropical forests of of south
south and
and south-east
south-east Asia,
Asia, Malaysia,
Malaysia, and
and
the west Pacific. Indeed, the word rattan is derived from the Malay "rotan" meaning, literally,
"climbing palm".
"climbing
In Africa,
Africa, there are around
around 16
16 species
species of
of rattan,
rattan, representing
representing four
four genera.
genera. Three
Three of
of these,
these,
Laccosperma, Eremospatha and
Laccosperma, Eremospatha and Oncocalamus
Oncocalamus are are endemic
endemic toto Africa and possess
possess aa unique
unique
morphology to
morphology to that
that of the Asian taxa. The species
Asian taxa. species of these genera climb with the aid of of an
an
extension to the leaf called a cirrus which is often up to 2-3m long.long. The cirrus possesses large
grapnel hooks which
grapnel hooks which areare modified
modified leaves
leaves and
and these
these aid
aid the
the progress
progress of the rattan
rattan into
into the
the
canopy. These hooks are called acanthophylls.
canopy. acanthophylls. The fourth genus present in in Africa,
Africa, Calamus,
Calamus,
is specifically
is an Asian
specifically an Asian genus
genus with over
over 370
370 species
species there
there and
and only
only one
one highly
highly variable
variable
species
species inin Africa
Africa (Uhl
(Uhl andand Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987).
1987). Calamus deërratus differs
Calamus deerratus differs from thethe other
other
African taxa
African taxa in that it climbs
climbs with
with the
the aid
aid of
of aa flagellum,
flagellum, aa long
long appendage
appendage arising
arising directly
directly
from the stem that is armed
armed with small
small recurved prickles, the whole representing a modified
sterile inflorescence.
3. Ecology and distribution

Ecology and
Rattans in Africa grow in a wide wide range

range of
of ecological
ecological conditions.
conditions. The majority of the species
species
naturally grow in closed tropical forest and are early gap gap colonisers.
colonisers. Because of of this
this they
they are
are
extremely light
extremely light demanding
demanding and and respond
respond well
well to
to a reduction
reduction in the forest canopy. Increases in
forest disturbance,
disturbance, such as logging
logging activity,
activity, encourages
encourages thethe regeneration
regeneration of rattans
rattans and they
are often
are often a common
common feature
feature along logging roads
along logging roads and
and skid
skid trails.
trails. For some rattans
rattans such as as
Oncocalamus, their
Oncocalamus, their light
light demanding
demanding characteristics
characteristicsarearesuch
suchthat
that they
they are
are often
often the
the earliest
earliest
colonisers
colonisers of heavily
heavily disturbed areas. Other
disturbed areas. Other species
species of rattan,
rattan, notably Calamus
Calamus deerratus,
grow
grow in swamps
swamps or alongside
alongside river
river banks
banks prone
prone to flooding
flooding whilst
whilst other species,
species, such as as
Eremospatha hookeri,
Eremospatha hookeri, are
are highly
highly shade
shade tolerant
tolerant and
and grow under the forest canopy.
Even after germination, rattan seedlings can remain on the forest floor for some some time, waiting
for the
for the optimum light conditions
optimum light needed toto begin
conditions needed begin the
the long
long journey
journey toto the canopy.
canopy. High
High
numbers
numbers of seedlings
seedlings of light demanding species in
demanding species in particular
particular are
are a common component of
common component of
closed forest.
forest. The seeds of most
most rattans are
are dispersed
dispersed mainly by hornbills but also also by
by some
some
primates, the
primates, the drill
drill and
and mandrill
mandrill (two
(two species
species of forest
forest primate
primate related
related to the
the baboon),
baboon),
chimpanzees
chimpanzees and and gorillas,
gorillas, and
and are
are often
often scattered far from
scattered far from thethe mother
mother plant.
plant. However,
However,
significant germinationalso
significant germination also occurs
occursnear
near to
to the
the parent
parent plants
plants through
through natural
natural fruit
fruit fall
fall and
and
further predation
further predation by by rodents
rodents accounts
accounts for
for some
some additional,
additional, although
although limited,
limited, dispersal.
dispersal.
Interestingly, despite
Interestingly, despite intensive
intensivefield
field work
work and
and herbarium
herbariumcollection
collectioninin the
the past
past two
two years,
years,
there
there appears
appears to be be no
noobvious
obvious phenological
phenological pattern
pattern toto flower
flower development
development and and seed
seed
production for the majority ofof the species.
88
88
Because
Because of their
their proclivity
proclivity for
for the
the colonisation
colonisation of
ofrecently-disturbed
recently-disturbed forest,
forest, rattans
rattans are
are
widespread
widespread throughout West and
throughout West and Central Africa and are aa common
Central Africa common component
component of thethe forest
forest
flora. Some species, such as
flora. as the
the two
two main
main commercial
commercial species,
species, Laccospenna
Laccospermasecundiflorum
secundiflorum
and Eremospatha
Eremospatha macrocarpa, have large ranges and and occur
occur from
from Liberia
Liberia to
to Angola,
Angola, whilst
whilst
Calamus deerratus
Calamus deërratus occurs
occurs from
from C6te
Cote d'Ivoire to Kenya.
Kenya. In
In terms
terms ofofdiversity,
diversity, the
the greatest
greatest
concentration
concentration of rattan species
species is found
found in
in the
the Guineo-Congolian
Guineo-Congolian forests
forests of
ofCentral
CentralAfrica.
Africa.
Over 90% of all the
the known
known rattan species occur in Cameroon
Cameroon and and during
during a recent survey of
the small territory
territory of Rio Muni
Muni in in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea (an
(an area
area of
of only
only 26
26000
000km2),
km2), eleven
eleven
species
species of rattan
rattan were
were recorded; 70% of
recorded; 70% of the
the total number known to
number known to occur
occur on the
the whole
whole
continent (Sunderland, 1998).
1998).
Box 1.
Box 1. The
The African
African Rattan
Rattan Research Programme
The African
The African Rattan
Rattan Research
Research Programme
Programme isis a multi-disciplinary initiative of
multi-disciplinary initiative of the Royal
Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, and University College,
College, London, in close collaboration with a number
of local
local institutions
institutions including
including the
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, Cameroon
Cameroon and and thethe National
National
Herbarium of
Herbarium of Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea. The
The Programme's
Programme's aim aim isis to
to undertake
undertake a regional
regional (Central
(Central
and West Africa) survey of of the biology, distribution and
and utilisation ofof African
African rattans
rattans toto assess
assess
their role in indigenous management systems
systems and
and the regional
regional forest
forest economy,
economy, as as well asas their
potential to
potential to contribute
contribute to the thriving world
world export market.
market. It is hoped
hoped that
that this
this information
information
will provide the basis for further development of the rattan resource by conservation agencies,
community-based research initiatives and for-profit concerns.
However, despite
However, despite the
the relative
relative abundance
abundance of of rattans
rattans throughout West and Central
throughout West Central Africa
Africa in
in
areas where
areas large quantities
where large quantities of cane are sold
sold and
and processed,
processed, such asas Yaoundé
Yaound6 inin Cameroon
Cameroon
and Bata in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, over-harvesting
over-harvesting and poor management practices are causingcausing
considerable local scarcity. Many of these urban centres are currently experiencing significant
price
price increases of raw cane
increases of cane due
due totothe
themounting
mountingcosts
costsofoftransportation
transportation (Defo,
(Defo, 1997;
1997;
Sunderland, 1998).
1998).
4. The
4. The importance
importance of
of basic
basic ethnobotany
ethnobotany and
and taxonomy
taxonomy for
for conservation
conservation and
and
development
The long flexible stems of of rattan make it ideal for for furniture,
furniture, basket
basket making
making and
and aa multiplicity
multiplicity
of other uses.
uses. Rattan canes are are used
used extensively
extensively across
across West and Central
Central Africa
Africa by
by local
local
communities
communities and and play an important
important role inin indigenous
indigenous subsistence
subsistence strategies
strategies for
for many
many rural
rural
populations.
populations. The range of indigenous uses of rattan canes is vast; from baskets to beds; from
indigenous uses
fish traps to
to furniture;
furniture; from
from crossbow
crossbow strings
strings to fishing
fishing rods;
rods; from
from food
food to
to medicine
medicine (author
(author
pers. obs).
obs). Despite
Despite these
these many
many uses,
uses, there
there isis aacommon
commonmisconception
misconception among
amongdevelopment
development
agencies that
agencies that all rattans
rattans are
are useful,
useful, and
andtherefore
thereforehave havepotential
potentialcommercial
commercial applications.
applications.
Recent work has has highlighted that while
highlighted that while there
there may indeed
indeed be substantial spontaneous
spontaneous useuse for
for
species, the large-diameter
many species, only two species, large-diameter cane cane Laccosperma
Laccosperma secundifiorum
secundiflorum andand the
the
small diameter
small diameter cane,
cane, Eremospatha
Eremospatha macrocarpa,
macrocarpa, form form the
the basis
basis of both
both subsistence
subsistence andand
commercial-level utilisation in Central Africa (Morakinyo,
commercial-level utilisation (Morakinyo, 1995;
1995; Sunderland
Sunderland 1997a;
1997a; Trefon
Trefon
and Defo, 1998;
1998; Sunderland
Sunderland 1998).
1998).
is only
It is only through
through aa thorough
thorough understanding
understanding of
of both
both ethnobotany
ethnobotany and
and taxonomy
taxonomy that
that
meaningful development
meaningful development of the rattan resource can take place. Until recently,
recently, very
very little
little was
was
known about the taxonomy
known taxonomy of the African
African rattans and
and estimates
estimates ofof species
species numbers
numbers ranged
ranged
from 12 or so (Dransfield, 1982)
1982) to 30 or
or more
more (Beccari,
(Beccari, 1908)
1908) and
and inin Africa
Africa the
the name
name rattan
rattan
became ubiquitous for
became Ubiquitous for all
all climbing palms and
climbing palms and their
their presumed
presumed utilisation;
utilisation; hence
hence the
the lack
lack of
distinction between species
distinction between species and
and the
the misunderstanding
misunderstanding thatthat "all
"all rattans
rattans are
are useful".
useful". This
This
89
situation prevailed
situation prevailed until
until recently,
recently, despite
despite the
the calls
calls of many
many palm
palm workers
workers that aa thorough
thorough
understanding of
understanding of the
the taxonomy
taxonomy and and utilisation of the
utilisation of the African
African rattans
rattans should
should precede
precede anyany
development of the resource (Fosberg, 1960;1960; Tomlinson, 1962;
1962; Moore,
Moore, 1971;
1971; Letouzey,
Letouzey, 1978;
1978;
Shiembo, 1987;
Shiembo, Thomas et al.,
1987; Thomas aI. , 1989;
1989; Dransfield, 1993;
1993; Morakinyo,
Morakinyo, 1994;
1994; Tuley
Tuley 1995
1995 and
and
1996).
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Laccosperma
Laccosperma secunchflorum,
secundijlorum, a light-demanding species of
light-demanding species of rattan
rattan prefened
preferred for its
large diameter stems. (Photo: T. Sunderland).
The poor knowledge of the African rattans may be best explained by:
• The paucity
The paucity ofof material
material held botanical collections:
held in botanical collections: rattans areare notoriously
notoriously
unpleasant
unpleasant to collect because
because of the fiercely
fiercely spiny
spiny leafleaf sheaths
sheaths and
and barbed
barbed climbing
climbing
whips.
whips. The frequent presence of ants
frequent presence ants amongst
amongst the
the spines
spines and
and bee
bee nests
nests higher
higher in
in the
crown mean also that attack
crown attack by
by ants
ants and
and bees
bees is
is aa common
common occurrence
occurrence for
for collectors
collectors
1994).
and harvesters (Falconer, 1994).
• The considerable morphological variation between

morphological variation between juvenile
juvenile and
and mature
mature canes
canes of
of the
same
same species: this is
is often
often evident
evident within
within single
single clumps.
clumps. Species
Species descriptions
descriptions have
have
been based
been based on
on juvenile
juvenile herbarium
herbarium material
material of
of previously
previously described
described species.
species. For
example, 0.
example, O. acanthocnemis
acanthocnemis is is undoubtedly
undoubtedly aa juvenile
juvenile form
form of O.
0. mannii
mannii (Russell,
(Russell,
1968).
• The considerable infraspecific

infraspecific variation
variation tiu-oughout the geographic range of
throughout the of the
the rattan
rattan
taxa: some species, notably the genus Calamus, have been split based
based on
on undoubtedly
undoubtedly
natural geographic variation
variation (Beccari, 1908).
1908).
Recent work by the African Rattan Research Programme has concentrated

Programme has concentrated on addressing this
situation by
situation by undertaking an intensive
undertaking an intensive programme
programme ofof botanical
botanical collection
collection of
of all species
species of
of
90
rattan.
rattan. To ensure
ensure that
that the
the research
research isis asascomprehensive
comprehensive as
as possible,
possible, the
the programme
programme is
is
attempting to undertake collections in as many areas
areas of West and Central Africa as is feasible.
feasible.
surveys have been undertaken in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio
To date, extensive surveys (Rio Muni)
and SESE Nigeria
Nigeria with
with further
further field
field work
work planned
planned for
for Bioko
Bioko (Equatorial
(Equatorial Guinea),
Guinea), the Niger
Niger
Delta,
Delta, Ghana and Gabon during the next twelve twelve months.
months. The importance
importance of this field
field work
work
cannot be over
over emphasised.
emphasised. The
The taxonomic
taxonomic confusion
confusion surrounding
surrounding the African
African rattans
rattans has
has
been
been clarified
clarified somewhat and the field study
somewhat and study has
has provided
provided aa clear
clear understanding
understanding ofof rattan
rattan
utilisation in terms
terms of
of which
which species
species have
have potential
potential commercial
commercial application.
application.
Table
Table 1. Currently recognised
1. Currently recognised genera
genera and
and species of
of African rattans.
Genus Species Authority
Calamus deërratus
deerratus G. Mann &
G. & H. Wendl.
Laccospenna
Laccosperma secundiflorum (G.
(G. Mann & & H. Wendl.)
Kuntze
acutiflorum (Becc.) J. Dransf.
laeve (G.
Drude
opacum
opacwn (G.
Drude
Eremospatha cabrae Wilde.
cuspidata (G.
(G. Mann & & H. Wendl.) H.
Wendl.
hookeri (G. Mann & Wendl.) H.
& H. Wendl.) H.
Wendl.
laurentii Wilde.
macrocarpa
11lacrocarpa (G. Mann & Wendl.) H.
& H. Wendl.) H.
Wendl.
haullevilleana Wilde.
wendlandiana Becc.
sp. nov.
Oncocalamus mannii
11lannii (G. Mann & H. Wendl.)
Wendl.) H.
H.
Wendl. &
& Drude
sp. I.
sp.1.
sp.
sp. nov.
5. The use of folk taxonomy
The
The value
value of
of folk
folk taxonomy
taxonomy has
has long
long been
been recognised
recognised and has has often
often been
been adopted
adopted into
into
Linnaean-based classification
Linnaean-based classification(Berlin,
(Berlin, 1992;
1992; Cunningham,
Cunningham, 1994).1994). However,
However, both
both folk
folk
taxonomy and customary
taxonomy and customary knowledge
knowledge of important
important plant
plant species
species remain
remain under-utilised
under-utilised in
in
conservation and management strategies for both wild and crop plants, yet knowledge of local
nomenclature, and often use and management,
management, is is integral
integral to
to the understanding
understanding of the resource
resource
(Berlin, 1992).
During the course ofof the

the field
field work
work undertaken
undertaken so
so far,
far, aa number
number of
ofindigenous
indigenous classification
classification
systems throughout the
systems throughout the Central
Central African
African region
region have
have been
been studied.
studied. As
As there
there are over
over 230
230
linguistic groups in Cameroon alone, this has not been a straightforward process. However, as
discussed below, this activity
activity has highlighted
highlighted the complimentarity
complimentarity between the studystudy of
of local
local
classification and nomenclature
classification and nomenclature alongside
alongside classical
classical Linnaean
Linnaean taxonomy.
taxonomy. Of immense
immense
91
assistance to the study is the fact that
that because
because of the high level of spontaneous use, many
spontaneous use, many of
the species are
are ascribed
ascribed local
local names.
names.
In many
In many dialects
dialects,, one rattan species can have two local names based on the the usage
usage of of the
the plant
plant
part used highlighting
part used highlighting the different properties juvenile and
properties of juvenile and mature stems.
stems. For example, in
example,
the Fang/Bulu tribal group group of of southern
southern Cameroon,
Cameroon, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea and and Gabon.
Gabon ,
Eremospatha niacrocarpa and Oncocalamus sp. have different names for juvenile - (asa-
Eremospatha macrocarpa and Oncocalamus sp. have different names for juvenile (as a-
nlong) and mature stems
nlong) and mature stems (ongam). Differentiation is also often
Differentiation is also often made between the raw cane
between the raw cane
and the cleaned product e.g.
and the cleaned product e.g. the stems wild Laccosperma secundiflorum are termed 'aka'
stems of wild Laccosperma secundiflorum are termed 'aka'
prior to
prior to harvesting
harvesting andand *nkan' after cleaning.
'nkan' after cle~ning. InIn addition
addition, use of umbrella
, use terms such
umbrella terms such asas
''nlong'
nlong ' or
or `melong'
'melong' for
for juvenile
juvenile forms of Eremospatha
Eremospatha macrocarpa and Oncocalamus Oncocalamus sp., sp., for
for
two distinct
two distinct species
species led many
many workers
workers notnot to
to differentiate
differentiate between
between these
these species
species during
during
resource inventories (van Dijk, 1995) 1995) despite oneone species
species having
having considerable
considerable economic
economic valuevalue
and the other being of little value.
and value. In
In contrast, the
the use
use ofof local
local nomenclature
nomenclature hashas helped
helped clarify
clarify
the taxonomic
the taxonomic differences
differences between
between species
species such as Laccosperma
Laccosperma secundiflorum
secundiflorum (aka, nkan, nkan ,
meka) and
meka) and L. acutiflorum (ekwass),
L. acutiflorum (ekwass), two
two morphologically
morphologically similar similar species
species but
but the
the latter
latter is not
utilised on any level by local people.
Figure 2. Rattan plays

2. Rattan plays an integral role in
in indigenous
indigenous subsistence
subsistence strategies.
strategies. Fish trap from
from
Equatorial Guinea. (Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland) .
The understanding
The understanding of folkfolk classification for African
classification for African rattans
rattans has
has been
been crucial
crucial in the
determination of
determination of species
species delimitation, through an
delimitation, through an understanding
understanding of the radical
radical changes
changes in in
morphology from the juvenile to adult forms for most
morphology from most species,
species, but also
also through
through the
the utilisation
utilisation
both
both of preferred
preferred species
species for
for large-scale
large-scale subsistence
subsistence and
and commercial
commercial purposes
purposes but also
also for
for
more limited spontaneous use.
92
Table 2:
2: Fang/Bulu
FanglBulu names
names for
for rattans
rattans in
in southern
southern Cameroon
Cameroon and
and Rio
Rio Muni,
Muni, Equatorial
Equatorial
Guinea.
secund~florum
Laccosperma secundiflorum aka, nkan, meka
L. acutiflorum
L. acutifloruni ekwass
L. laeve
L. ndele
L. opacum
L. npue-nkan
Eremospatha macrocarpa asa-nlon~ ongam
melong, asa-nlong, on~am
E. laurentii
E. ebuat
E. wendlandiana
E. akot
E. cuspidata ndera
Oncocalamus sp.
Oncocalamus sp. 11 melong, asa-nlong, ongam
6. Harvest
6. Harvest and management of the wild resource
Harvesting rattan is is currently undertaken

undertaken solely
solely from
from the
the wild
wild and
and is is an unpleasant and oftenoften
occupation with dead branches being dislodged ~rom
dangerous occupation with dead branches being dislodged from the canopy, as well as ants
dangerous the canopy, as well as ants
and wasps being disturbed.
disturbed. The raw cane is bundled and then head-portered out of the forest
and either used at thethe village
village site
site or
or transported
transported further
further afield
afield to
to urban
urban centres
centresofofproduction.
production.
The majority of of harvesting,
harvesting, for commercial
commercial trade
trade in particular,
particular, isis undertaken
undertaken by byindividuals,
individuals,
usually farmers, hunters
usually farmers, hunters or other people primarily involved in
primarily involved in other occupations
occupations (see
(see Defo,
Defo,
this volume).
volume). Rattan harvesting
harvesting provides
provides anan invaluable
invaluable source
source of extra revenue, especially at
time of need such as for medical expenses or the payment of of annual
annual school
school fees
fees (Trefon
(Trefon and
and
Defo, 1998;
Defo, 1998; Sunderland,
Sunderland, 1998). Many cash-crop
1998). Many farmers also
cash-crop farmers also harvest
harvest rattan
rattan to obtain
obtain extra
extra
capital to
capital to purchase
purchase chemicals, planting stock
chemicals, planting stock and
and other necessary
necessary items items for their
their primary
primary
occupation.
In
In general,
general, harvesters
harvesters collect
collect cane
cane from
from the
the same
same area
area ofof forest.
forest. On
On each
each visit,
visit, if the harvester
harvester
is not local to the area,
area, the Chief of the local village isis often paid a small retainer for access to
forest. Through their regular trips to the forest, many harvesters know the position of
the forest. of each
clump that
clump that is potentially harvestable and
potentially harvestable and prefer
prefer toto collect
collect as
as close
close to aa motorable
motorable road as as
possible to avoid head-portering the bundled cane cane too
too far.
far. The
The development
development of a widewide network
network
roads throughout many
of logging roads many forest
forest areas
areas in West and Central Africa has enabledenabled greater
greater
access
access to otherwise
otherwise inaccessible areas of
inaccessible areas of forest.
forest. This
This is especially
especially the case
case where
where local
local
is forcing harvesters to cut cane further from many urban centres.
scarcity is
From each rattan clump, harvesters

harvesters tend to cut only the mature canes; canes; young
young stems
stems are
are often
often
left and can bebe harvested
harvested during
during a later visit.
visit. The stems
stems selected
selected areare those
those with no lower
leaves and often only the bottom 6m (2 lengthslengths of cane)
cane) are cut and harvested.
harvested. This is because
the
the living
living nodes
nodes provide
provide aa considerable obstructionwhen
considerable obstruction whenthe thecane
caneisis split
split and
and so the
the
remaining
remaining 30m or so so of
of each
each mature
mature stem
stem isis left
left in
inthe
thecanopy.
canopy.Previously
Previouslyharvested
harvested rattan
rattan
clumps are
clumps are often marked by
often marked by the
the presence
presence of of many
many drydry stems
stems in in the
the canopy.
canopy. The major
major
disadvantagetoto this
disadvantage this harvesting
harvestingprocedure
procedureisisthat,
that,with
withthethe top
top sections
sections ofof the
the cut stems
stems
remaining
remaining inin situ,
situ, there
there is little
little or
or no
no light
light penetration
penetration to to the
the clump.
clump. This
This often
oftenmeans
means the
the
rhizome has little or no regeneration capacity and, and, when
when all
all of the adult stems have been cut,
the clump
the clump often
often dies.
dies. However,
However, in in some
some areas
areas in South
South West
West Cameroon
Cameroon and South South East
Nigeria, their is some
Nigeria, their some level
level of
of management
management of wild wild rattan.
rattan. Often,
Often, the cut cut stems
stems are
are also
also
removed to deliberately allow adequate light penetration which is sufficient for the the clump
clump toto
regenerate.
regenerate. The same
same clump can then then be
be harvested
harvested again,
again, 3-5
3-5 years
years later.
later. Some
Some clumps
clumps have
have
been known to have been harvested up up to
to four
four times
times (author,
(author, pers.
pel's. obs.).
obs.).
93
Many harvesters
Many harvesters interviewed
interviewed during
during the
the course
course of our field
field work have lamented the fact that that
in the
in the immediate
immediate vicinity
vicinity of
of many
many urban
urban centres
centres where
where indigenous
indigenous management
management of the the
resource
resource is is not practised,
practised, they
they were having to
were having to travel further and
travel further and further into the forest to
further into to
obtain sufficient
obtain sufficient quantities
quantities of raw
raw cane.
cane. AsAs discussed above, this
discussed above, this added
added porterage
porterage is slowly
causing price
causing price increases
increases of
of raw
raw cane.
cane. The
The lack
lack of management
management of of rattan
rattan in
in some
some areas
areas is
undoubtedly due
undoubtedly due to
to the
the lack
lack of tenure or ownership
ownership of many forest products
many forest per se, and
products per and as
as
resource. The majority of rattan harvesters believe that
such, are considered as an open access resource.
even if they
they did
did manage
manage their
their wild
wild rattan
rattan clumps
clumps there
there is
is no
no guarantee
guarantee that
thatsomebody
somebody else
else
would not come and harvest instead.
The African Rattan Research Programme is undertaking long-term monitoring monitoring of the potential
yields
yields and growth rates of rattan to determine
growth rates determine possible levels of sustainable
possible levels harvest of the
sustainable harvest
commercial species
species of rattan.
rattan. Table
Table 3 shows
shows the
the potential
potential yield
yield and
and value
value of a one-off harvest
harvest
from selectively-logged forest in
selectively-logged forest in southern
southern Cameroon
Cameroon although
althoughthis
this figure
figure isis much
much less
less than
estimated projections of income from the harvest of of rattan from
from the
the forest
forest of
ofSESEAsia (B~gh,
Asia(BOgh,
1996). Future
1996). Future estimates
estimates of
of off-take
off-take will
will include
include aa consideration
consideration of of the
the growth rates for each
growth rates
species; information that
species; information that is
is essential in order to achieve and maintain levelslevels ofof economically
economically
(Peters, 1996).
and biologically sustainable exploitation (Peters, 1996).
Table 3.
3. Yield
Yield and
and potential
potential value
value of
of one-off
one-off harvest
harvest of
of Laccospenna
Laccosperma secundiflorum in 11
secllndijlorllm in
hectare of
of selectively-logged
selectively-logged forest, Campo,
Campo, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Total no. of Average stem length Total harvestable Market

Market value
value
harvestable stems (m)
(m) stem length (m)
56 21 1,180 78 700 CFA
(US$132)
As well as taking
taking into
into consideration
consideration the ecological
ecological and market factors of of the
the rattan
rattan resource,
resource,
ultimately sustainability isis also
ultimately sustainability also dependent upon the
dependent upon the issues
issues of tenure
tenure and
and long-term
long-term control
control
over and benefits from that resource (Cunningham,
(Cunningham, this this volume).
volume). Recent forest legislation in
Cameroon now allows for the community management of forest resources to ensure that forest
communities benefit from
communities benefit from the
the management
management and and income
income from
from those
those resources.
resources. Similar
Similar
legislation will
legislation will soon
soon also
also be in place in Equatorial Guinea and
Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
Gabon. TheThe empowerment
empowerment of of
rural communities
rural communities through
through recognising
recognising of community
community forests
forests asas aa legal
legal entity will
undoubtedly provide
undoubtedly provide the
the impetus
impetus to to the
the undertaking
undertaking of of the
the baseline
baseline biological
biological andand ecological
ecological
research needed for sustainable resource
resource management.
management. For For example,
example, inin Gabon,
Gabon, local
local scarcity
rattan has
of commercial quality rattan has forced
forced many
many harvesters
harvesters to to collect
collect cane
cane further
further into
into the forest
where local
where local communities
communities exert exert strong
strong resource
resourcerights
rights over
over much
much of this this forest.
forest. These
These
communities now
communities now benefit
benefit from
from these
these rights
rights both
both in
in monetary
monetary terms
terms (harvesters
(harvesters pay pay aa fee
fee to
collect on communal
collect forest lands)
communal forest lands) as well
well as
as ensuring
ensuring that
that harvesting
harvesting isis undertaken
undertaken with
with
regard
regard for the
the future
future resource
resource through
through monitoring
monitoring and and control
control of
of the
the harvesting
harvesting process
process
(Profizi, this
(Profizi, this volume).
volume).Without
Withoutdoubt,doubt,asasaa high
high value
value NWFP
NWFP thatthat isis capable
capable of rapid
regeneration, rattan will
will play
play an
an integral
integral role
role within
within the
the management
management of ofcommunity
community forests.
forests.
7. Local
Local trade
Across the Central African

Across African region,
region, the
the unit
unit of
of trade
trade for
for commercial
commercial cane
cane isis the
the "packet".
"packet". For
For
the large diameter cane (Laccosperma
(Laccosperma secundiflorum)
secundijlorum) a packet represents twenty
twenty stems,
stems, with
with
each stem being 3-4m in length.
length. For the small
small diameter
diameter cane (Eremospatha
(Eremospatha macrocarpa) aa
packet equals twenty stems
stems of 5m length.
length. In general,
general, however,
however, the harvester is paid per stemstem
and,
and, depending quality, each
depending on quality, each stem (of both species)
species) is worth
worth between 100 100 CFA
CFA and
and 200
200
CFA (US$
(US$ 0.16 - 0.32).
0.32). For
For very
very large
large diameter
diameter stems
stems of
of Laccosperma
Laccosperma secundiflorum,
secundijlorum, the
94
price per stem can be 250 CFA to 300 CFA (US$0.40
(US$Oo4O - 0048).
0.48). In general,
general, a good harvester can
cut around 140
140 stems a day, providing a potential daily income of 35 000
000 CFA
CFA (US$
(US$ 58.50).
58.50).
When the average
When the daily wage
average daily wage in
in Cameroon
Cameroon isis at
at present
present 1 500
500 CFA
CFA (US$
(US$ 2.50),
2.50), this
this
represents a significant income.
Large quantities
Large quantities of raw cane enter the urban centres of Central Africa each day day (Trefon
(Trefon and
and
Defo, 1998; Sunderland, 1998).
Defo, 1998). An attempt was recently made to quantify
quantify the
the trade
trade in
in Bata,
Bata,
Equatorial Guinea,
Equatorial Guinea,through
throughthe theinterview
interviewofof aa sample
sample of artisans
artisans and
and rattan
rattan traders
traders
(Sunderland, 1998).
(Sunderland, 1998). Artisans
Artisans were
were selected
selectedtoto represent
represent as
as wide
wide a range of of workshops
workshops as as
possible, from the smallest operator to the largest. All of the
possible, the artisans
artisans encountered
encountered were
were male
male
and generally
and under the
generally under the age
age of forty.
forty. The older men in the business
business are responsible
responsible for thethe
design and production of the furniture
design furniture and generally, the young
generally, the young boys
boys ("apprentices") provide
provide
labour for
labour for the laborious
laborious task of cleaning and preparing raw cane
preparing raw cane for production,
production, as well as
basic weaving and
and other
other time-consuming
time-consuming activities.
Table 4:
Table The artisans
4: The artisans of
ofBata,
Bata, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, and
and raw cane quantities used
used per
per month.
Company No. of cane used

Amount of cane used per
per month
month Value CFA
workers
AFROM GUINEA 20+ 360 packets (7,200 stems)

stems) 1440000
1 440 000
Estabon OVONO 7 120 packets
packets (2,400 stems) 480000
480 000
Crisantos OBIANG
OBlANG 10 75
75 packets (1,500 stems) 300000
300 000
S.A.G.E2. 5 40~ackets
40 packets (800 stems)
stems) 160000
160 000
Antonio A. NGUEME 3-4 40 packets (800 stems) 160000
160 000
Thomas OBIANG 2 20 packets (400 stems) 80000
80 000
Fernando EDU 5 12packets
12 stems)
packets (240 stems) 48000
48 000
ANISETTO 2 7 packets (140 stems) 28000
28 000
Pedro ESONO 33 6 packets (120 stems)
stems) 24000
24 000
Martin MBO
MartinMBO 33 5~ackets stems)
packets (100 stems) 20000
20 000
TOTAL == 22740000
740 000
(US$4560)
(US$4 560)
Almost
Almost without exception,
exception, the artisans stated that the demand for rattan was was increasing
increasing and
and aa
much greater amount of cane is being processed in Bata today than than was
was being
being worked
worked five
five or
or
ten years
ten years ago.
ago. This
This is also
also the
the case
case in
in other
other high-consumption areas such
high-consumption areas such asas Douala and
Douala and
Yaounde in Cameroon (Defo, 1997; 1997; Trefon and Defo, 1998) 1998) and Lagos, Nigeria (Morakinyo,
(Morakinyo,
1995). The
1995). The high
high value
value of rattan
rattan indicates
indicates that,
that, as aa non-wood
non-wood forest
forest product,
product, itit compares
compares
favourably with other forms ofof forest extraction
extraction and,
and, whilst
whilst quantitative
quantitative date
date for
for other
otherNWFPs
NWFPs
is incomplete, rattan exploitation
incomplete, rattan exploitation and
and trade
trade isis probably
probably one ofof the
the most
most important sources
sources of
forest-based revenue outside
forest-based revenue outside ofof the
the bushmeat
bushmeat trade
trade and
and commercial
commercial timber
timber exploitation
exploitation
(Ndoye, 1998).
(Ndoye, 1994; Sunderland, 1998).
8. Propagation and cultivation
Rattans
Rattans are harvested almost
almost exclusively from wild populations in Africa Africa and
and elsewhere.
elsewhere. In
In
some areas
areas of SE Asia, rattan is cultivated
cultivated as part of of mixed
mixed gardens by sedentary
sedentary cultivators,
or is
is planted
planted in
inrecently-burned
recently-burned forest
forest by
by shifting
shifting cultivators
cultivators (Godoy,
(Godoy, 1992).
1992). NoNo known
known
similar
similar cultivation practices exist
cultivation practices exist in West
West and
and Central
Central Africa,
Africa, although
although the
the ecological
ecological and
and
social factors prevalent there
there are
are favourable toto aa cultivated
cultivated and
and managed
managed rattan
rattan resource.
resource.
22 Societe
Societe Artisanal
Artisanal de Guinea Ecuatorial.
95
Recent research by the African Rattan Research Programme,
Progrannne, in collaboration with with the
the Limbe
Limbe
Botanic
Botanic Garden, Cameroon, has
Garden, Cameroon, has initially
initially concentrated
concentrated on on the
the aspects
aspects of seed
seed technology
technology
of propagation trials,
through a series of trials, aimed
aimed at
at breaking thethe prolonged
prolonged germination
germination of ofthe
the seed
seed
of many of the African taxa. The material made made available
available by by these
these trials
trials has
has led to the recent
establishment
establishment ofof an
an experimental
experimental silvicultural
silviculturaltrial.
trial.The
The trial
trial consists
consists ofof aa 1 hectare
hectare plot of
Laccosperma secundiflorumplanted
Laccosperma secundiflorum plantedbeneath
beneath obsolete
obsoleterubber,
rubber, andand has
has been undertaken
undertaken in
collaboration with the Cameroon
collaboration with Development Corporation
Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC).
(CDC). Growth
Growth rates
rates as
as well
well as
as
the economic viability of cultivating an African rattan in a plantation system such as this will will
be monitored and assessed during the seven-year
assessed during seven-year trial
trial period.
period. Further
Further on-farm
on-farm trials
trials will
will take
take
place as planting
place planting material
material becomes
becomes available with the
available with the aim of of introducing
introducing thethe commercial
connnercial
species of African
species of African rattan
rattan into
into agroforestry systems. This
agroforestry systems. This work
work will
will be undertaken
undertaken in In
collaboration with the International Centre for Research in in Agroforestry
Agroforestry (ICRAF).
(ICRAF).
In 1995, a rattan arboretum was

was established
established at
at the
the Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden and
and now
now has
has good
good
semi-mature specimensof
semi-mature specimens of aa number
number ofof species.
species. The
The intention
intention of
of this
this living
living collection
collection isis to
to
monitor changes
monitor changes inin morphology
morphology as as the
the plants
plants develop
develop from
from juvenile
juvenile to
to mature
mature providing
providing an an
invaluable taxonomic, as well as an educational resource.
9. Conclusion
Within the current milieu of forestry reforms taking root across Central Africa, allowing for
direct community
connnunity forest control and access through applied resource management regimes, as
regimes, as
well as the
well the inclusion
inclusion of
of rattan
rattan ininsmall-scale
small-scale agroforestry
agroforestry systems,
systems, African
African rattans
rattans could
could
provide a real opportunity for the
the development
development of
of aa non-wood
non-wood forest product
product that
that would
would make
make
a meaningful contribution to forest conservation
meaningful contribution conservation whilst augmenting
augmenting rural incomes.
incomes. There
There is
is
also considerable
also scope for
considerable scope for the
the African
African taxa
taxa to
to be introduced
introduced to the
the thriving
thriving world
world rattan
rattan
market, further increasing the potential growth
growth of
of forest-based economies.
economies.
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97
EXTENDING ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH TO MEET
MEET LOCAL
LOCAL NEEDS:
NEEDS:
A CASE FROM BRAZIL
Patricia Shanley
Abstract
Rural
Rural communities who make
communities who make their
their living
living within
within regions
regionsbeset
beset by
by logging
logging and
and fire
fire are
are
increasingly faced with biotically impoverished
increasingly faced forests. Although
impoverished forests. Although a multitude
multitude of scientific
scientific
research projects have been undertaken, little of this has direct, immediate relevance for forest
communities. In eastern Amazonia, when the loss of game, fruits and fibres began began toto outweigh
outweigh
the financial benefits of selling
selling timber,
timber, some
some rural communities
communities asked:
asked: "Are there
there NWFPs
NWFPs
that we can sell
sell in
in lieu
lieu of
oftimber?"
timber?" ToToanswer
answer questions
questions posed
posed by
bythe
thecommunities,
communities, research
research
was
was designed
designed to describe
describe the the density,
density, regeneration
regeneration and
and production
production of
ofregionally
regionally valued
valued
NWFPs. Parallel research efforts examined
examined the
the markets for and household
household use of NWI-Ts.
use of NWFPs.
Generating locally useful

useful information
information was
was only
only a first step; disseminating results to isolated,
isolated,
semi-literate communities posed
semi-literate communities posed additional
additional challenges.
challenges. These
These were
were overcome
overcome by designing
designing
participatory workshops
participatory workshopsinin which
which data
data was
was given
given back through
through posters,
posters, skits,
skits, songs
songs and
and
illustrated booklets
illustrated booklets on
on the
the ecology,
ecology, use and
and management
management of NWHis.
NWFPs. Outcomes
Outcomes of of these
these
extension efforts
extension efforts have
have been
been substantial:
substantial: increased use, processing
increased use, and sale of
processing and of NWFPs,
NWFPs,
improved negotiations
improved negotiations with
with loggers
loggers and
and the creation
creation ofof community
community forest
forest reserves.
reserves. Results
Results
is an underutilized
indicate that rural education is and under
underutilized and under explored
explored tool
tool for
for conservation
conservation andand
development.
Key words: Non-wood forest

words: Non-wood forest products,
products, environmental
environmental education, ethnobotany, extension
1. Introduction
Introduction
The ecological
ecological research process often
research process often involves
involves an
an outside
outside team
team entering
entering an area,
area, taking
taking
rneasurements, posing questions,
measurements, posing questions, leaving
leaving and
and writing
writing scientific
scientific articles.
articles. Unfortunately, the
Unfortunately, the
results presented in scientific articles rarely reach
reach the
the local communities
communities in in which they were
generated. Indeed, if
generated. Indeed, if the
the pages
pages of such manuscripts ever were
manuscripts ever were to
to reach the local level, it isis
they would be useful for
doubtful that they for anything
anything other
other than
than rolling
rolling tobacco
tobacco or
or lighting
lighting fires.
fires.
Although policy-makers and

Although policy-makers and scientists
scientists are
are important
important audiences
audiences for
for research
research results,
results, forest-
forest-
based
based communities are also
communities are also aa critical
critical public to reach.
public to First, there is aa strategic
reach. First, strategic reason
reason for
for
sharing
sharing research results with
with forest-dependent
forest-dependent communities:
communities: local communities
communities represent
represent a
critical group of people in determining
determining how forest resources are used and and protected.
protected. Second,
Second,
forest-dependent communities
forest-dependent communities often
often have
have their
their own
own key
key research
research questions
questions upon which their
livelihoods may depend.
livelihoods may depend. Third,
Third, after
after taking
taking up
up considerable
considerable amounts
amounts of a host community's
time, eating their food and involving them in the research process, there
there is
is aa moral
moral imperative
imperative
for outside researchers to
to give back
back their results in aa locally
locally useful
useful form.
form.
To
To meet
meet the
the needs
needs ofofboth
bothlocal
localandandinternational
internationalcommunities,
communities, an anecological
ecological research
research
programme must often accommodate two distinct research agendas: on on the
the one
one hand,
hand, itit needs
needs
to generate rigorous data aimed at at informing
informing the scientific
scientific community
community andand policy-makers;
policy-makers; on
the
the other, itit needs
needs to
to produce
produce and
anddisseminate
disseminate information
information useful
useful to
to communities
communities directly
directly
dependent on forest resources.
resources. Juggling these two agendas may require that data data is
is collected,
collected,
analysed and presented in different ways for different audiences.
99
This paper addresses
addresses this challenge describing the
challenge by describing the education
education and
and extension
extension spin-offs
spin-offs of
of a
non-wood forest product
non-wood forest product (NWFP) research project
(NWFP) research project in
in the Brazilian
Brazilian Amazon.
Amazon. After a brief
brief
outline of the
outline of the research
research setting,
setting, aa description
description isis given
given of
of each
each facet
facet of
of the
the project
project
economic), conventional
(ethnobotanical, ecological and economic), conventional scientific
scientific products resulting from the
research and the
the limitations
limitations of
of these
these products
products in
in meeting
meeting local
local needs.
needs. Subsequent
Subsequent sections
sections
describe how
describe how results
results of the research were presented in a practical way for local
local communities
communities
and how they were disseminated through extension and education.
2. Background:
Background: NWFP
NWFP research
researchdesigned
designed to
to meet
meetlocal
local needs
needs
In Pará,
Para, the
the easternmost
easternmost state
state of
of the
the Brazilian
Brazilian Amazon,
Amazon, aa recent
recent explosion
explosion of
ofselective
selective
logging, fire
logging, fire and ranching has diminished
diminished the diversity and abundance of non-wood forest
diversity and abundance of non-wood forest
products (Verfssimo etet al.,
products (Verfssimo al., 1992, Martini et
1992, Martini et al., 1994,
1994, Vieira et
et al.,
al., 1996).
1996). While
While logging
logging
costs of
offers much needed cash to shifting agriculturists, the local costs of timber
timber extraction,
extraction, such
such as
as
lower densities of fruit and
and medicinal
medicinal species,
species, longer
longer travel
travel time
time to
to collect
collect forest
forest resources,
resources,
and lower game
game populations,
populations, catalyzed
catalyzed some
some communities
communities to search
search for
for forest
forestmanagement
management
alternatives.
By the early
early 1990s,
1990s, several
several caboclo
caboclo communities
communities (peasant farmers of mixed descent)
(peasant farmers descent) along
the Capim River (120 km from the logging center of of Paragominas)
Paragominas) felt that
that the
the loss
loss of
ofgame,
game,
fruit
fruit and fibre
fibre was
was beginning
beginning to outweigh
outweigh the financial
financial benefits
benefits of selling
selling timber
timber and
and
questioned
questioned ifif there
there were
were NWFPs
NWITs that they could
could sell in lieu of wood.
wood. With the assistance
assistance of
the Rural Workers Union of Paragominas,
Paragominas, they sought
sought out research collaborators.
collaborators. Our team of
multi-disciplinaryresearchers
multi-disciplinary researchersfrom
from the
the Woods
Woods Hole Research
Research Center
Center (forester,
(forester, wildlife
wildlife
biologist,
biologist, ethnobotanist/environmental educator) was
ethnobotanistlenvironmental educator) was contacted
contacted and,
and, in conjunction
conjunction withwith the
the
community, developed a research plan and objectives.
The foremost questions posed

foremost questions posed byby the community included: "Are
community included: "Are the resources
resources we lose from
logging more
more valuable to us
valuable to us than
than the
the cash
cash we
we get
get from
from selling
selling our
our trees?" and "Are there other
(i.e.,
(i.e., non-wood) forest resources
non-wood) forest resources wewe might
might sell
sell in
in lieu of timber?"
timber?" At
At that
that time,
time, these
these same
same
questions were
questions were concurrently
concurrently being
being posed
posed by
by the
the international
international conservation
conservation community.
community In this
case, by tackling
case, relevant questions,
tackling locally relevant questions, the
the research
research could
could also
also contribute to filling gaps
conceming the
concerning the role of NWFPs in aa potential
potential conservation/development strategy (Scoones
conservation/development strategy (Scoones etet
al., 1992; Godoy and Lubowski, 1992).
In spite
spite of
of the
the similarity
similarity of
ofquestions,
questions, many
many differences
differences nonetheless
nonetheless existed
existed between
between the
communities regarding
scientific and local communities regarding the
the time
time frame
frame and
and products.
products. For instance, caboclo
communities soughtrapid
communities sought rapidanswers
answerswhich
whichwould
wouldresult
resultinin cash
cash for
for forest
forest goods and an
goods and
increased density of
increased density of game
game and
and fruit species.
species. Due to
to the
the inconsistent
inconsistent phenology
phenology of locally
locally
valuable forest products, however, rigorous ecological and economic study of selected
valuable forest products, however, a rigorous ecological and economic study of selected
NWFPs would require many years. Juggling these two two agendas
agendas took
took flexibility
flexibility and
and patience
patience
on the part of both the research team
team and the community.
3. Ethnobotanical inventory
As a first step in the

the research
research process,
process, a one
one hectare
hectare ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical inventory was conducted
to document
document thethe floristic
floristic composition
composition of of the
the region
region and to to identify
identify species
species with
with high
high use-
use-
values
values (Alexiades,
(Alexiades, 1996).
1996). Traditional outcomes
outcomes of ethnobotanical inventories are lists of of the
the
scientific names of plants and collections of voucher specimens
specimens which are sent to national and
Although critically
international herbaria. Although critically important
important to to botanists, such such products
products are
inaccessible to
inaccessible to semi-literate rural communities.
semi-literate rural communities. To To address
address this, our research
research team
team gathered
gathered
extra plant specimens
extra specimens for for the community's
community's use in in addition
addition toto those
those collected
collected for
for herbaria.
herbaria.
Although they
Although they will
will disintegrate
disintegrate with
with time,
time, the
the specimens
specimens catalyzed
catalyzed group
group discussion,
discussion,
100
100
promoted an exchange
exchange as to
to plant
plant uses,
uses, and
and demonstrated
demonstrated how
how scientific
scientific names
names clarify
clarify the
the
identity
identity of plants
plants possessing
possessing various
various common
common names.
names. To
To familiarize
familiarize literate
literate community
community
members with
members with botanical
botanical nomenclature
nomenclatureand and toto remove
remove doubt
doubt about
about the
the identity
identity of certain
certain
aluminum tree
species, common names as well as scientific names were placed on aluminum tree tags.
tags.
Instead
Instead of abandoning the study
abandoning the study hectare
hectare after
after the
the inventory
inventory was
was concluded,
concluded, the
the hectare
hectare
continues to
continues to support ongoing research
support ongoing research efforts
efforts aimed
aimed atat documenting
documenting the
the longitudinal
longitudinal use
use of
of
non-wood forest products. To this day (six years later) the owner of of the hectare and and his
his family
family
weigh the
weigh the game, fruit, fibre
game, fruit, fibre and medicinal
medicinal plants which they consume from the the study
study site.
site.
Annually, we jointly compare the subsistence value of these products with that that of
of the
the value
value of
of
the hectare if logged.
logged. While a graph of net present valuevalue might mean little
little to
to the
the family,
family, they
they
know that their long-term survival
survival is
is linked
linked to
to the
the fruit
fruit trees
trees and the game their fruit attracts.
This is in contrast to the sale of their trees, which offers
offers a single,
single, and relatively trivial,
trivial, amount
amount
of money.
To ensure the usefulness

usefulness of the hectare to thethe wider
wider community,
community, we designed
designed it as aa forest
forest
"reserve." To
"reserve." To this
this purpose,
purpose, aa winding trail was
winding trail was constructed
constructed toto guide
guide visitors
visitors byby trees
trees of
economic interest. Underneath several of of the largest trees, small
small clearings
clearings were
were made
made to to serve
serve
as resting and meeting points.
as points. As research in the Capim basin bore results, the the small
small reserve
reserve
served as
served as a "forest value" workshop
workshop site in which villagers shared the project's results
villagers shared results with
with
neighbouring communities. One
neighbouring communities. One weekend
weekend workshop
workshop drew
drew 140
140 elders,
elders, mothers,
mothers, children
children and
villagers
villagers of all ages
ages who
who trekked to the
trekked to the site
site by canoe andand foot from as far away
away as as 50
50 km.
km.
Villagers who had been involved
involved in the
the research
research process
process presented
presented ecological
ecological and
and economic
economic
data
data through
through stories
stories and
and illustrated posters. Upon
illustrated posters. Upon viewing
viewing the
the grandeur
grandeur of the
the piquiá
piquia
(Caryocar villosum)
villosUln) and
and bacuri (Platonia insignis)
insignis) trees,
trees, visitors
visitors from
from aaheavily
heavily deforested
deforested
neighbouring region spontaneously hugged trees and filled their pockets withwith seeds.
seeds.
In addition
addition to
to sharing
sharing data
dataresulting
resulting from
fromthe
theresearch,
research,community
communitymembers
members exchanged
exchanged
recipes, management
management techniques,
techniques, NW1-4P processingtips,
NWFP processing tips,and
and lore.
lore. Hands-on
Hands-on sessions
sessions with
local experts included
included medicinal plant preparation,
medicinal plant preparation, soap
soap making
maldng from
from forest
forest fruits,
fruits, jam and
basket
basket making.
making. Such
Such traditional
traditional ethnobotanical information had
ethnobotanical information had immediate utility for
immediate utility
households, manyofof which
households, many whichno no longer
longerrecalled
recalledhow
howtoto extract
extractoiloil from
from the
the fruit
fruit of uxi
uxi
(Endopleura uchi), how much oil of andiroba
andiroba (Carapa guianensis) was was needed
needed to make soap,
or
or the
the proper
proper dosage
dosage of pau
pau d'arco
d'arco bark
bark (Tabebuia
(Tabebuia spp.)
spp.) for
for the
the relief
relief ofofinternal
internal
inflammation.
Population ecology
4. Population ecology studies
To explore the marketing potential of products with the highest use-values as as indicated
indicated byby the
the
ethnobotanical inventory, itit was
ethnobotanical inventory, was necessary
necessary toto know
know how much of the various
various resources
resources were
were
present
present in the
the forest.
forest. Therefore,
Therefore, basic
basic ecological
ecological information
information was
was gathered
gathered concerning
concerning thethe
density, distribution,
density, distribution, size
size class
class and
and fruit production
production of the
the three
three most
mostpromising
promising species
species
(Caryocar villosum,
villosum, Platonia insignis,
ins ignis, Endopleura uchi).
uchi). Local research assistants
assistants took
took part
part
in species selection and helped to to locate
locate conspecific
conspecific trees
trees throughout
throughout aa 33 000
000 hectare
hectare area.
area.
Due to the extreme irregularity of of annual fruit production, production studies
studies were
were carried
carried out
out
over a relatively long-term time frame
frame (six years).
years). The work involved was often often tedious
tedious and
and
time-consumingand
time-consuming andthe
the routine
routine results,
results, histograms
histogramsandandregressions
regressionsdodo nothing
nothing toto fill
fill the
stomachs of hungry smallholders.
To provide more
more rapid results to the
the community,
community, preliminary
preliminary data from the first and and second
second
years
years were presented.
presented. Research assistants
assistants who had learned how to useuse aa compass
compass and
and create
create
transects exhibited the information on maps. Other villagers made posters displaying
displaying the
the mean
mean
of different species, showing
fruit production of showing how entire trees sell for values
values equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the
101
101
cost of aa meager
cost meager basket
basket of
of ten
ten fruits.
fruits. The
The escalation
escalation of
of prices
prices along
along the
themarketing
marketing chain
chain
became abundantly clear when villagers presented posters showing the prices of of wood
wood asas sold
sold
from their own forests
forests ($5 - $40/tree)
$40/tree) as opposed
opposed to the
the prices
prices of
of wood
wood asas sold
sold in
insawmills
sawmills
($40 - $300/m3).
$300/m3),
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Presenting
Presenting ecological
ecological data.
data.
To make
To make data
data fully
fully accessible,
accessible, data
data give
give back
back toto locals
locals required
required different
different analyses
analyses and
and
presentationthan
presentation for aa scientific
than for audience.For
scientific audience. For instance,
instance, aa commonly
commonly used used unit
unit of
of
measurement for
measurement for ecologists
ecologists and
and economists,
economists,yield
yield per
per hectare,
hectare, was
was ofof little
little use to
to caboclos
caboclos
when applied
when applied to
to species
species which
which exist
exist in
in densities
densities of less
less than
than one tree
tree per
per hectare.
hectare. Instead,
Instead,
illustrations
illustrations depicted
depicted production
production per
per tree.
tree. Similarly,
Similarly, the
the economic
economic value
value ofof aa pile of fruit may
meaningless in
be meaningless in monetary
monetary terms
terms to
to persons
persons with little access to cash.
cash. However,
However, comparing
comparing
prices and sacks of fruit with sacks of farina (the primary agricultural commodity) was clearly
offruit
understood, as was the amount of labour involved in each activity.
To determine where clumped densities of economic species occurred, the the research
research team
team made
made
poster-size maps indicating
poster-size maps indicating different
different species
species of
of fruit
fruit trees
trees and
and the
the trails which linked these.
these.
Although mapping the forest resources was time consuming and did did not
not offer
offer any
any immediate
immediate
source of cash to the
source the community,
community, understanding
understanding how how much
much ofof the
the resource
resource existed
existed in
in the
community's forest was a first stepstep in estimating
estimating the economic value of their standing forest
was critical for successful negotiations
and was negotiations with with loggers.
loggers. Prior
Prior to
to mapping
mapping the the trees,
trees, residents
residents
had severely
severely overestimated the abundance
overestimated the abundance of particular fruiting species species occurring
occurring on on their
their
land, inaccurately assuming that
inaccurately assuming that itit was
was possible
possible to
to sell
sell timber
timber from
from large
large swaths
swaths of land
land and
still retain a profusion of fruit and medicinal oil trees. Mapping the economic species present
on their 3,000 hectares made clear that,
on that, instead of the estimated thousands of particular fruit fruit
trees, a few hundred actually existed.
102
Wood prices:
prices: Paragominas,
Paragominas, 1998
1998
Standing 1 m3 roundwood 1m3 sawnwood

1m3
madeira branca R$ 55
R$ R$ 10 R$
R$ 100
100
magaranduba
mac;;aranduba R$10
R$ 10 R$ 25
R$ 25 R$ 120
120
piquid
piquia R$ 15
R$15 R$ 45
R$ 45 R$ 140
140
ipe R$ 40 R$ 105
105 R$ 300
300
Figure 2.
Figure 2. AAcomparison
comparison of
of wood
wood prices: value
value of
ofstanding
standing tree;
tree; and values of 1 m3
m3 in
in
sawnwood for 4 different timber
roundwood and sawnwood timber species
species (in
(in Brazilian
Brazilian real,
real, R$).
R$).
5. Market
5. Market studies and subsistence use of NWFPs
NWFPs
To examine
examine the
the comparative
comparative economic
economic value
value of non-wood
products and
and timber,
timber, the
the
research team conducted market surveys
surveys of locally valued fruits,
fruits, medicinals, game and fibres
in the closest
in closest city,
city, Paragominas,
Paragominas, and and in the
the state's
state's capital,
capital, Belém.
Belem. Rather
Rather than
than offering
offering
complicated economic analysis
complicated economic analysis to
to villagers,
villagers, we
we discovered
discovered that
that the
the research
research team's greatest
the community's
contribution to the community's economic
economic understanding
understanding waswas simply
simply keeping
keeping them
them informed
informed
prices. Time and again villagers underestimated the value of
of up-to-date market prices. of forest
forest goods
goods
(two to ten-fold).
The community
community hadhad hoped
hoped that the research
research would
would demonstrate
demonstrate that theythey could
could gain
gain more
more
from the sale of NWFPs than timber.
timber. While
While thethe combined
combined ecological
ecological and
and economic
economic results
results did
did
highlight the significantly higher
higher economic
economic value
value of select forest
forest fruits and medicinal
medicinal oils
oils as
as
opposed to timber, this did not necessarily
necessarily translate
translate into
into increased
increased income
income for
for many
many villagers.
villagers.
Logging companies
Logging companies arrive
arrive in
in distant
distant communities;
communities; fruitfruit vendors
vendors do not.
not. Because
Because loggers
loggers
appear with money-in-hand, cash-poor villagers
money-in-hand, cash-poor villagers commonly
commonly accept
accept anything they are offered
offered
from timber companies.
The tendency of of many

many communities to market wood wood inin lieu
lieu of
ofNVVFPs
NWFPs does does not
not signify
signify that
that
NWFPs
NWFPs have have no economic
economic value.
value. Subsistence
Subsistence (direct
(direct use)
use) of
of non-wood
non-wood' forest
forest products
products
contributes significantly to the well being of of rural households
households (Schreckenberg,
(Schreckenberg, 1996;1996; Melnyk,
Melnyk,
1996; Falconer, 1990). However, both smallholders and economists rarely account for
1996; Falconer, 1990). However, both smallholders and economists rarely account for the
economic value of subsistence
economic subsistence useuse of NWFPs.
NWFPs. One reasonreason for
for this is that measurement
measurement of the the
"invisible"
"invisible" economic value of subsistence
ecol}omic value subsistence utilization
utilization of NWFPs
NWFPs requires
requires tedious,
tedious, invasive
invasive
methodologies (i.e.
methodologies (i.e. daily
daily diaries).
diaries). In
In this
this instance,
instance, our
our research
research team
team asked
asked 3030 families
families from
from
one community
community to to weigh all fibres, fish, game and medicinal plants and
weigh all fibres, fish, game and medicinal plants and to count and record
all fruits they consumed each day throughout the course of an entire year. year. While
While thethe exercise
exercise
itself may have acted as a learning
learning tool
tool for
for the
the families
families involved,
involved, the
the conventional
conventional products
products
103
(i.e.
(i.e. graphs
graphs of fruit
fruit consumption and pie charts
consumption and charts of game
game off-take)
off-take) did nothing to solve
solve the
the
problem of
of decreasing game capture and hunger.
What did appear

What appear to bebe useful
useful to
to the
the community
community waswas to portray
portray the economic
economic value
value of the
the
direct-use
direct-use (subsistence
(subsistence or or non-market)
non-market) value
value of
of NVVEPs
NWFPs to to individual
individual households.
households. For For
example, the heads of four families
families stood
stood in
in front
front of
ofthe
the community
community holding
holding posters
posters (hidden
(hidden
behind their backs) with a number representing the weight of game game or the fruits their families
had consumed
had monthly and
consumed monthly and the
the cost of these
these products
products ifif purchased
purchased inin the
thenearest
nearestmarket.
market.
Other community members guessed
community members guessed the
the market
market value
value of the game or fruit thesethese families
families had
had
consumed. They
consumed. They frequently
frequently based
based their
their estimates
estimates onon the
the household's
household's hunting
hunting ability,
ability, the
the
number of of children, the proximity of the the home
home toto forest
forest or,
or, in
in one
one case,
case, the
the size
size of
of the
the father's
father's
stomach. Invariably,
stomach. Invariably, the
the value
value of NWFPs
NWFPs consumed
consumed from
from forests
forests was
was hugely underestimated,
underestimated,
awakening villagers
awakening villagers to
to the
the very
very substantial
substantial "invisible
"invisible income"
income" thatthat they
they daily
daily gain from
from their
forest.
6. Forest
Forest value workshops
Generating information
information andand giving
giving itit back
back to
to the
the communities
communities inin which
which it was generated was
was
only
only aa first
first step.
step.Disseminating
Disseminating concrete
concrete information
information to
to surrounding
surrounding communities
communities under
under
pressure
pressure from
from logging and ranching
logging and posed additional
ranching posed challenges. In
additional challenges. In the
the hopes
hopes of slowing
slowing
rampant
rampant deforestation throughout the
deforestation throughout the region,
region, extension
extension teams
teams composed
composed of villagers
villagers and
and
researchers traveled
researchers traveled to
to neighbouring communities,sharing
neighbouring communities, sharingthethe data
data described above in
described above
participatory workshops (Shanley et al., 1997).
al., 1997).
To effectively reach different

effectively reach different audiences
audiences andand to accurately portray the value
accurately portray value ofof NWFPs
NWFPs in in
various regions,
various regions, itit was
was necessary
necessary to
to recognize
recognize the
the fact
fact that fruits
fruits and medicinal plants were
not the most
not most highly
highly valued non-wood forest products.
non-wood forest Instead, to
products. Instead, to a chronically
chronically hungry
hungry and
sometimes protein-deficient population,
sometimes protein-deficient population,game
game animals
animals often
often took
took precedence
precedence as as the
the forest
forest
product of
product of greatest
greatest local
local value
value (Bodmer
(Bodmer et 1997; Redford
et al., 1997; Redford et al., 1992). 1992). Data
Data
demonstrating that during one year, 79% of game consumed
demonstrating consumed by the the community
community was was captured
captured
in the mature forest
forest (as opposed to secondary
secondary forests
forests or agricultural fields) offered
agricultural fields) offered a strong
incentive for habitat protection and and the
the creation ofof community
community forest reserves (Cymerys
(Cymerys et al.,
1997).
1997). ByBy ranking
ranking select
select fruit
fruit species
species according
according to to their
their ability
ability toto attract
attract game,
game, hunters
hunters
quantified the
quantified the fact
fact that
that the
the economic
economic value
value of
of particular
particular species
speciesisis not
not limited
limited to
to the
the fruit
fruit that
that
they produce. Over time, avid hunters
hunters became workshop
workshop leaders and proponents of of reserves,
reserves,
recognizing that without an area to reproduce, the game population would continue to steadily
decline.
To further highlight the value of of standing

standing forests and and the
the substantial
substantial economic
economic loss
loss that
that often
often
accompanies their sale,
accompanies their sale, socioeconomic
socioeconomic and and ecological
ecological data
data were
were woven
woven together and used in
skits.
skits. Caboclos acted out the roles
roles ofof loggers,
loggers, ranchers
ranchers andand fruit
fruit vendors,
vendors, while
while their
their fellow
fellow
villagers watched
watched with a mixture of of mirth
mirth and
and sorrow
sorrow asas smallholders
smallholders were
were sweet-talked
sweet-talked out out
of their forest for aa pittance.
pittance. Based
Based onon real-life
real-life tales,
tales, 40
40 hectares
hectares of
of virgin
virgin forest
forest were
were traded
traded
to a logger for a stove; one hectare of forest worth hundreds hundreds of dollars in fruit and
and game
game was
"sold" to aa logger
logger for one
one fifth
fifth of
of its
its non-wood
non-wood value;value; and
and one
one logger
logger removed
removed thousands
thousands of
dollars worth of trees from a villager's forest and left, without ever paying.
As our extension team traveled to different

As different villages,
villages, we
we collected
collected additional
additional ethnobotanical,
ethnobotanical,
ecological and
ecological and market
market information,
information, songs,
songs,stories
stories and
and lore
lore on
on a wide range of of species.
species. We
We
preferentially focused on locally and regionally
regionally valued
valued forest
forest tree
tree and
and palm species,
species, with wide
wide
distribution throughout
distribution throughout Amazonia,
Amazonia, and
and on
on those which
which hadhad received
received insufficient
insufficient research
research
attention. As
attention. As the
the team's species
species specific
specific knowledge base grew,
knowledge base grew, so did the
the relevance
relevance ofof our
our
workshops throughout a greater geographic range.
104
Figure 3.
3. AAforest
forestvalue
valueworkshop
workshopcomparing
comparing the
the value
value of
oftimber
timber harvesting
harvesting and
and fruit
fruit
collection (Photo: P. Shanley).
Shanley).
A different
7. A different kind of manuscript: Illustrated
Illustrated booklets
booklets
After
After traveling on foot,
traveling on foot, canoe
canoe and
and muddy
muddy logging
logging roads
roads to arrive
arrive in
in remote
remote villages
villages
throughout Pará, our
throughout Para, our extension team realized
extension team realized that
that the
the need
need for such
such information
information in isolated
isolated
niches
niches of Amazonia
Amazonia was far far greater
greater than
than direct
direct outreach
outreach efforts
efforts could
could meet.
meet. Although
Although thethe
written word is not fully understood
understood by all residents of rural communities, we we wondered
wondered if it
would be possible toto put
put our
our workshops
workshops on paper in in book
book form,
form, in
in aa way
way that
that would
would bebe readily
readily
comprehensible
comprehensible to to both
both literate
literate and
and semi-literate
semi-literate audiences.
audiences. Such
Such an illustrated
illustrated text
text could
could
reinforce outreach efforts
reinforce outreach efforts where
where workshops
workshops were
were conducted,
conducted,be be used
used as
as aa training tool for
training tool
extensionists,
extensionists, and arrive
arrive in
in distant
distant communities
communities which
which our
our team
team could notnot reach.
reach.
We
We took
took the
the ecological
ecological and market
market data, posters,
posters, songs and lore used
songs and used in
in workshops
workshops and
and
presented them on paper. The resulting book describes describes thirteen forest fruit and medicinal
medicinal oil
species
species which
which have
have broad
broad distribution
distribution and
andeconomic
economicsignificance
significancethroughout
throughout Amazonia
Amazonia
(Shanley
(Shanley et al.,
aI. , 1998).
1998). Simple,
Simple, accompanying
accompanying text text conveys information in
conveys information in the
the language
language of
small holders, describing the ecology,
ecology, use,
use, nutrition, economics
economics and management
management of of the
the trees,
trees,
many
many of which
which had had received
received scant
scant prior
prior study.
study. Blending
Blending scientific
scientific literature,
literature, market
market data,
data,
forest inventory results, lore
lore and
and traditional
traditional knowledge,
knowledge, the book offers an example
example of
of how
how to to
return relevant data to communities to assist in improving rural rural livelihoods
livelihoods and
and in conserving
conserving
forest resources.
resources. To helphelp all
all populations
populations comprehend
comprehend the the book, many
many botanical and popular
botanical and
illustrations are
are included
included on
on each
each page
page (See
(See Figure
Figure 4).
4).
Practical outcomes
8. Practical outcomes of give back
When
When the
the extension
extension team
team began
began toto give
give back
back our
our research
research data
data totocommunities
commumtles through
through
workshops and books, we did so the hope that the information could, in small way,
workshops and books, we did so in the hope that the information could, in a small way,
contribute to lessening
contribute to lessening deforestation and to
deforestation and to improving rural livelihoods.
improving rural The outcome
livelihoods. The outcome of
workshops exceeded
workshops exceeded our
our expectations.
expectations.We We discovered
discoveredthatthat the
the skits,
skits, posters
posters and
and stories
stories
embedded
embedded in in the
the forest
forest value
value workshops
workshops and and the
the fruit
fruit book
book served
served not
not only
only to
to expose
expose
unfavourable prices,
unfavourable prices, but to catalyze
catalyze improved
improved strategies for negotiating
negotiating logging
logging contracts.
contracts. In
In
105
subsequent interactions
subsequent interactions with
with timber
timber companies,
companies, villagers
villagers began
began negotiating
negotiating to conserve fruit
and medicinal oil species (see Figure 5). They also limited the number of hectares logged, in
some cases
some cases preserving areas with clumped
preserving areas distributions of economic
clumped distributions species as forest
economic species forest and
and
game
game reserves. In a number
reserves. In number of of cases,
cases, logging
logging contracts
contracts were
were cancelled.
cancelled. Return
Return visits
visits to
to
communities
communities in in which
which workshops
workshops had had been
been conducted
conducted demonstrated that in
demonstrated that in each
each case
case
favourable forest management choices had been made.
Months of flowering
flowering and
and fruit production
J F M A M J J A s o N D
0,5-1,5 árvores
arvores 2-7 árvores
2-7 arvores
hectare
por rectare por alqueire
Figure 4.4. Flowering

Flowering and
and fruit
fruit months
months of
of Catyocar
Caryocar villosum
villosum (a(a timber
timber species
species with
with edible
edible
fruits), and presented in number of trees per hectare and per àlqueires'
'alqueires' (a
(a local 'unit of
local'unit of land
land
measurement).
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Small
Smallholder
holderinsisting
insistinglogger
loggerabides
abides by
by contract.
contract.
lO6
106
Through the
Through the rescue
rescue and exchange
exchange of traditional
traditional NWFP
NWFP recipes, families preserved
recipes, families fruit by
preserved fruit
making jams, jellies
making jams, jellies and soaps,
soaps, thereby
thereby increasing the use and processing
increasing the processing of
of NWFPs
NWFPs while
while
decreasing timber sales. Women of the communities,
communities, who
who customarily
customarily said little regarding the
community meetings, urging the
sale of timber rights, began to speak up and to attend community the men
men not
to sell
sell the
the logging
logging rights
rights cheaply and to
cheaply and to preserve the fruit
preserve the fruit and
and medicinal oil trees
medicinal oil trees for the
the
future.
Newly aware
Newly aware of market
market prices
prices for
for NVVFPs, women began
NWFPs, women began experimental
experimental sales
sales of fruit and
and
medicinal oils and
medicinal oils and contributed
contributed aa section to the book
section to book entitled:
entitled: "Lessons
"Lessons learned from
from fruit
sales" which
which offers
offers practical
practical tips
tips on
on packaging,
packaging, transport
transport and
and marketing.
marketing. The
The incremental
incremental
income that they earned was wisely invested in goods to benefit their families and and community.
community.
This was
This was in stark
stark contrast
contrast to the
the profits
profits from timber
timber sales
sales which, landing in
which, landing in the
the hands
hands of
husbands, was commonly spent on parties, radios and liquor.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Preparing
Preparingand
and selling
selling medicine
medicine oil of Carapa guianensis.
guianensis.
9. Rural
9. Rural extension: Underutilised potential
extension: Underutilised potential in conservation
conservation and
and development
development
In spite of the success that can result from solid educational programmes, a cautionary
cautionary note
note is
is
needed.
needed. Even the best extension programmes
best extension programmes cannot forestall the waves of logging and fire
waves of logging and fire
that are sweeping
that sweeping forested
forested regions
regions worldwide. While smallholders
worldwide. While can make
smallholders can make fire
fire barriers,
barriers,
conserve forest
conserve forest fruit
fruit trees and
and create
create reserves,
reserves, fundamental
fundamental changes f~rest policy
changes in fo'rest policy are
are
desperately needed to lessen both biotic and human impoverishment.
Moreover, as deforestation proceeds

proceeds at an unprecedented pace,
pace, it is imperative that ecologists
ecologists
begin
begin to recognize
recognize that
that scientific publications are
scientific publications are no
no longer
longer a tenable
tenable measuring stick of
measuring stick
success for
success for our
our research
research endeavours. Ratherwe
endeavours. Rather we need
need to
to question
question who
who the
the primary
primary
beneficiaries of
of our research really are, as well as
as the
the common assumption that our research is
complete once the scientific article has been sent to press. Rural extension is an an underutilized,
underutilized,
cost-effectiveway
cost-effective way toto ensure
ensure that
that hard
hard won
won field
field data
data not
not only
only lands
lands on the
the desks
desks of
of other
other
scientists but is also given back to the forest-based communities who need it most.
107
107
Acknowledgements
The author would

would like to
to thank
thank the
the Earth
Earth Love Fund, the
the International
International Center
Center for
for Research
Research on
on
Women, the Netherlands
Women, the Committee for
Netherlands Committee for the
the International Union for
International Union for the Conservation
Conservation of
Nature, the Rufford Foundation and the Durrell Trust for
for Conservation
Conservation for
for support
support to
to conduct
conduct
the
the education/extension activitieson
education/extension activities on which
which this
this paper
paper is based.
based. Ecological
Ecological research
research was
was
conducted
conducted while
while the author was Research Associate
Associate with the Woods Hole Research
Research Center
Center
and
and was
was generously
generously supported
supported byby the
the Biodiversity
Support Program
Program USAlD/GCC,
USAID/GCC, the the
Educational Foundation
Educational Foundation of America,
America, the
the Merck Foundation
Foundation and the Netherlands
Netherlands Committee
Committee
for the International Union for the
the Conservation of
of Nature.
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108
SOCIO-POLITICAL ISSUES
SOCIO-POLITICAL ISSUES
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
SOCIO-ECONOMIC RESEARCH
RESEARCH AND
AND NON-WOOD
NON·WOOD FOREST
PRODUCTS: AN OVERVIEW
Christine Kabuye
Abstract
Forest people and communities neighbouring forests forests who

who depend on them for their livelihood
have
have a wealth
wealth ofof knowledge
knowledge about
about useful
useful non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products.
products. They use use thethe forest
forest
resources for food, medicine and many other needs. They usually have first hand hand information
information
on location,
location, abundance,
abundance, and management
management of such resources
resources and methods
methods of of obtaining
obtaining thethe
products. Any
products. Any research that deals
research that deals with conservation, utilisation and
conservation, utilisation and development
development of forestforest
resources has
resources has to take
take into
into account
account thethe socio-economic
socio-economic aspects
aspects related
related to
to them.
them. Socio-
Socio-
economic research
economic research inin NWFPs
NWFPs has has in
in the past been low key, mostly treated as aa by-the-way
by-the-way
subject to support other aspects.
subject aspects. It is emphasised that this be the the starting
starting point.
point. Considering
Considering
that any research on NWFPs is in the the first
first instance
instance to
to benefit
benefit the
the local
local people,
people, starting
starting from
from
what they know and value, would be very rewarding to the development process.
Priorities in socio-economic
socio-economic research centre around indigenous knowledge on what what is
is useful
useful
and for what
and what purpose,
purpose, value attached to the
the products
products both inin socio-cultural
socio-cultural and
and economic
economic
terms, and
terms, and practices
practices which
which govern
govern harvesting and sustainability
harvesting and sustainability ofof the resources.
resources. The
The
understanding of
understanding of these
these and
and related
related issues
issues should
should form
form the
the basis
basis for the
the conservation andand
development of the resources.
development Moreover, the
resources. Moreover, the participation
participation of
of local
local people in identifying and
formulating the research agenda andand decision-making
decision-making on research projects
projects on
on NWEE's
NWFPs would
undoubtedlybenefit
undoubtedly benefitfuture
future development
developmentofofforest
forestresources
resourcesforfor local
local use
use and
and income
income
generation.
Key words: socio-economic, communities,

words: socio-economic, communities, non-wood
Introduction
1. Introduction
Non-wood forest products,

Non-wood forest products, which
which have
have in
in the
the past
past ten
ten years
years attracted
attracted the attention
attention of many
development agencies,
development agencies, have
have always
always been
been the
the life support for many rural communities. These
communities have
communities have lived
lived in
in and
and out
out of the forests
forests using
using forest
forest resources
resources for their daily needs.
needs.
NVVI-Ps
NWFPs have havecontributed
contributedtotothethelivelihood
livelihoodofofrural
ruralpopulations
populationsas as they
they depend
depend onon them for
food production,
production, health care systems,
systems, shelter,
shelter, clothing, home crafts and many
clothing, home many other
other needs.
needs.
Historically,
Historically, this fact tended to be ignored
ignored byby early
early forest
forest workers
workers whowho thought
thought that
that forests
forests
were good
were good only
only for
for the
the continued
continued supply
supply of timber.
timber. Many
Many people
people whowho had depended
depended on
forests
forests for millennia
millennia were alienated from the ancestral lands as forests forests became
became "protected"
"protected"
from the people as they werewere converted into forest reserves
reserves with the sole
sole purpose
purpose ofof timber
timber
production. Fortunately, not all forest lands were were protected under thesethese draconian
draconian conditions
conditions
and some
and some have
have continued
continued to to be used by by rural
rural communities
communities for for their needs,
needs, while
while in
in other
other
areas regulations
areas regulations were
were later
later relaxed
relaxed to allow
allow rural
rural communities
communities to to collect
collect firewood
firewood andand
other low-impact
undertake other low-impact uses.
uses.
In addition, as societies
societies have
have developed
developed in recent
recent years,
years, new
new food
food production
production systems
systems have
have
been introduced, the sick now go to
introduced, the to hospitals,
hospitals, no
no longer
longer relying
relying on
on traditional
traditional health
health care
care
systems, and
systems, and clothing and many household items
items formerly made from forest resources
formerly made resources have
have
been replaced by imported products. However,
However, not all daily needs can be satisfied in this
this way
way
and not all rural communities
communities can afford the new systems.
systems. The continuation of obtaining the
necessary products from
from the
the forests
forests isis not
notby
bydesign
designbut
butby
bynecessity.
necessity.With
WithNVVFPs
NWFPs being the
111
life support
life support for survival
survival of many
many rural
rural communities, they have
communities, they have thus
thus continued
continued to be
be very
very
the lifestyles
important in the lifestyles of
of forest
forest dwellers.
dwellers.
We have also witnessed in recent years that often the same forest products are required, even
desired, by people
people in
in urban
urban centres.
centres. With
With the
the ever-increasing
ever-increasing market
market economy,
economy, thethe demand
demand
for forest products has extended
extended from being
being for subsistence-level
subsistence-level use to to trading
trading in
in both
both local
local
and international
and markets.With
international markets. Withthis
this increase
increaseinin demand
demand there
there isis a possible
possible threat
threat to the
the
resources themselves, questions of sustainability.
themselves, raising questions sustainability. If
If the
the resources
resources are threatened,
threatened, then
of rural communities
the livelihoods of communities are
are threatened
threatened too.
too.
Developing the NWFP

Developing the NWFP sector
sector has
has many
many facets
facets to
to it and
and serious
serious thinking
thinking must
must go
go into
into
sustainability issues.
issues. One of the most important areas to start with
with should
should be
be socio-economic
socio-economic
research.
2. Why socio-economic research?

socio-economic research?
This question
This question isis an
an intricate
intricate one.
one.ItIt has
has been
been stated
stated that
that one
one of
of the
the main
main aims in the
aims in the
development and
development and promotion
promotion of NWI-4Ps
NWFPs isisininthethefirst
first instance
instance to
to alleviate poverty of the
alleviate poverty the
communities by
communities by marketing
marketing the
the products.
products. As
As the
the issue
issue involves
involves thethe people
people and the resources
that are to be promoted, number of factors
promoted, a number factors have
have toto be
be considered.
considered. These
These are
are relevant
relevant to
to the
the
relationship between the
the people
people and
and the
the resources.
resources. The
The following
following may
may bebe the
the questions
questions that
need answers before other steps are taken:
• What is the role of forests in people's livelihoods?

• What is known to be useful?
• Who owns and who uses the resources?
• What value is attached to them?
• commercialisation and
Would the people be interested in commercialisation and if
if so,
so, would the production
be sustainable and would there be alternatives?
• What skills are available for resource and product development?
• What institutional framework exists for management?
management?
• How are the local people to participate?
2.1. The role of forests in people's

people's livelihoods
livelihoods
is known
While it is known that
thatmany
manyrural
ruralcommunities
communitiesdepend
dependon
onNVVI-iPs
NWFPs for
fortheir
their livelihoods,
livelihoods, the
the
of dependency needs to be established.
extent of
2.2.
2.2. What is known to be useful?
carrying out
The materials used can only be ascertained by carrying out socio-economic
socio-economic studies
studies among
among the
the
communities
communities asas the uses vary from community to community, even within
community, even within small geographic
geographic
locations. The information
locations. The may relate
information may relate to
to food
food items,
items, medicine,
medicine, home
home crafts,
crafts, building
building
materials and other products, including their relative importance.
2.3 Who
2.3 Who owns
owns and
and who
who uses
uses the
the resources?
resources?
communities the
In some communities the resources
resources are
are owned
owned oror inherited
inherited by
by different
different individuals,
individuals, family
family or
or
clan and use may be limited to the owner, thus controlling access.
112
2.4. Value attached
2.4. Value attached to the resources
Some resources may be for cultural or religious purposes, which

which may
may not
not allow
allowdevelopment
development
for markets.
2.5. Interest in commercialisation

2.5. Interest
One can
One can find
find out if any
any of
of the
the products
products are
are actually
actually sold
sold and
and the
the size
size of
ofthe
the markets.
markets. The
The
community members
community membershavehave toto decide
decide whether to commercialise.
whether to This could
commercialise. This could depend
depend on
on
sustainability or other considerations.
2.6. Skills
2.6. Skills available
available
Particular people may be skilled in producing items; for

producing particular items; for example while men may
be involved in collecting honey,
honey, women would be
women would be better at making baskets. The number
number of
of
such skilled
such skilled individuals would make
individuals would make planned
planned production
productioneasier.
easier. The
The special
special skills
skills of
traditional healers would make exploitation of medicinal plants especially useful.
2.7. Management institutions

2.7. Management
Communities mostly have

Communities mostly have organised
organised institutional frameworks under
institutional frameworks under which resources
resources are
are
managed
managed and activities controlled.
controlled. With such
such frameworks
frameworks the the decision-making
decision-making on
on practices
practices
for development, conservation and
development, conservation and suggestion
suggestion of of alternatives
alternatives where
where needed
needed would
would make
make it
easier for the community to choose options.
2.8. Participation
2.8. Participation
The existence of management institutions could

management institutions could ease the participation of
of the
the community
community in
in
developing market ventures and mechanisms
mechanisms forfor sharing benefits.
The above points are not inclusive but they can show that it would would make sense
sense if
if these
these socio-
socio-
economic issues were researched
economic issues researched at the beginning
beginning of any intended venture in developing and
marketing of NWFPs.
marketing NWFPs. In the past when planning started from from aa product,
product, working
working backwards
backwards
to local communities,
to communities, it it tended
tended to leave gaps
gaps inin socio-economic issues. The advantage
socio-economic issues. advantage of
starting from
starting from socio-economic
socio-economicissuesissuesisisthat
thatitit makes
makes itit possible
possible to
to see what
what can
can lead
lead to
to
practicable ventures
practicable ventures from
from the
the beginning
beginning and
and saves
saves time,
time, and considerable effort, in thethe long
long
run.
3. Indigenous
3. Indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge encompasses

Indigenous knowledge encompasses the
the body
body of knowledge
knowledge which indigenous people have
have
accumulated over
accumulated over generations
generations concerning
concerning their
their environment.
environment. ItIt includes
includes knowledge
knowledge on on
identification, utilisation and and management
management of resourcesresources built through observation,
experimentation and
experimentation and innovation.
innovation.Although
Althoughititisis passed
passed onon from
from generation
generation to to generation
generation itit isis
not static. People adopt what is passed on, add newer inventions and the whole is then passed
on to the next
on next generation.
generation. Indigenous
Indigenous knowledge
knowledge and its application
application is perpetuated
perpetuated through
through
practices, norms
practices, norms and
and beliefs
beliefs which
which are
are embedded
embedded in in different cultures. It
different cultures. It is this knowledge
knowledge
that has guided men through
through ages
ages in
in living
living within
within their
their environment.
environment. They
They have
have hunted
hunted and
and
gathered from
gathered from forests
forests for
for food,
food, medicine
medicine andand other
other materials
materials for
for their needs and and they
they have
have
also
also used
used the
the forests
forests for
for religious
religious and
and ceremonial
ceremonial purposes.
purposes. InIn essence,
essence, developing
developing a
relationship with nature.
relationship with nature. Indigenous knowledge therefore
Indigenous knowledge therefore holds
holds what
what isis known
known by any one
anyone
community about the useful
community about useful resources
resources that support livelihoods.
livelihoods. Rural
Rural communities
communities who who have
have
continued to use these resources have tremendous
tremendous knowledge them. Through the long
knowledge about them.
113
association with the
association with the resources, they<are
resources, they are the
the best source
source of
of information
information on what
what can
can be
be
NWFPs can be
exploited. The important NWFPs be easily
easily identified
identified using
using indigenous knowledge. ItIt has
indigenous knowledge. has
to be
be remembered
remembered that in in aa community
community some
some people
people are
are more
more knowledgeable
knowledgeable than others
others
knowledgeable about food
about certain resource use; for example women would be more knowledgeable food as as
feeding their
they are responsible for feeding their families.
4. Values
Rural communities have different values of forests. Apart from the fact that that they
they obtain
obtain food,
food,
medicine and other utility items, they havehave cultural
cultural values
values connected
connected toto forests.
forests. Some forests
forests
are sacred and used
used for religious
religious and
and cultural
cultural ceremonies.
ceremonies. Harvesting
Harvesting ofof products
products from
from these
these
forests is regulated by elders andand mostly only
only allowed
allowed for
for the
the extraction ofmedicinal
extraction of medicinalplants.
plants.
This regulated
This access to
regulated access to the forests helps to
forests helps to conserve large number
conserve a large number of species
species acting as a
acting as
reservoir for future use,
use, especially
especially as aa source
source of
of germplasm
germplasm for establishing useful plants on
farms. A number
farms. number of NWFPs
NWFPs themselves are used for
themselves are for cultural
cultural purposes.
purposes. Socially
Socially there
there is
is
definite interest in conserving the sources of of these
these products.
products.
5. Practices
The practices
The practices connected
connected to NVVFPs
NWFPs aim aimatat the
the conservation
conservation andand management
management of product
product
sources within sustainable levels, thus care is normally taken not to to over-harvest.
over-harvest. Some
Some plants
plants
are tended in the forest,
forest, encouraging survival
survival of
of seedlings,
seedlings, while
while some
some are
are introduced
introduced directly
directly
to the farm and others are left on farmland
farmland when
when clearing
clearing the
the standing
standing forest.
forest. These
These practices
practices
ensure some level of of conservation.
conservation. Other
Other practices
practices touch
touch on
onNVVFP
NWFP processing
processing and
and go hand-
in-hand with
in-hand with the
the skills
skills and
and craftsmanship
craftsmanship in producing
producing items
items from forest
forest products.
products. In
In
addition, the
addition, the roles
roles of women, farmers and
women, farmers and traditional
traditional healers
healers and
and other
other groups
groups have
have to
to be
specially noted.
6. The potential for markets
Based onon the

the existing
existing indigenous
indigenous knowledge
knowledge of ofNVVFPs,
NWFPs, their
their value
value and applied practices in in
use and
and management,
management, attention can be pointed to to the
the potential
potential for
for marketing.
marketing. The Thepotential
potential
for wider markets can be explored with products that have often appeared in barter trade or in
urban markets,
urban markets, such
such as
as fruits,
fruits, medicines,
medicines, honey,
honey, crafts
crafts and
and others.
others. But
But itit must
must be
be shown
shown that
that
the
the demand doesdoes not or is not likely
likely to
to exceed
exceed supply.
supply. The
The local
local communities
communities will will decide
decide on
on
this
this depending
depending on theirtheir knowledge
knowledge about
about distribution
distribution and
and abundance
abundance of of the
the resources.
resources.
Decisions taken would
Decisions taken would ensure
ensure sustainability and where
sustainability and where necessary
necessary leadlead to
to looking
looking forfor
alternatives or introduction
introduction ofof some
some critical
critical species
species on-farm.
on-farm.
7. Developing NWFPs
Developing NWFPs for

Developing NWFPs for income
income generation
generationshould
should be
be guided
guided by by possible
possible markets
markets andand
decisions
decisions taken
taken by local
local communities
communities based
based on the
the results
results ofofsocio-economic
socio-economic research
research
described above. Thus,
described above. Thus, itit is clear
clear that
that the
the development
development of NWFPs
NWFPs has to to start
start from
from basic
basic
socio-economic studies if it is to be seen as a local people's programme.
8. The necessary socio-economic research

socio-economic research
the success
For the success of
ofdeveloping
developingNW1-41's
NWFPs aimed
aimedatatalleviating
alleviatingpoverty
poverty of
of rural the
rural communities, the
following research issues
issues are
are recommended:
recommended:
114
• Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge ofof any
any chosen
chosen community
community covering
covering what
what isis useful,
useful, what
what is
used for
used for home
home consumption (some of
consumption (some of which
which may
may be
be developed
developed forfor income
income
generation), what appears in barter trade or in markets;
• Indigenous Management
Indigenous Management Systems
Systems on
on uses,
uses, harvest,
harvest, processing
processing and
and conservation
conservation
including product
including product substitution
substitution and
and domestication,
domestication, tools
tools and
and techniques;
• Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous Knowledgeof of the
the Resource Base, covering
Resource Base, covering the
the ecological
ecological factors
factors of
of
NWFPs such as distribution, regeneration and seasonality of the products;
• Subsistence Requirements
Subsistence Requirements ofof local
local people
people and
and the
the impact of market
market forces
forces on
on their
their
livelihood, and possible conflicts;
• Traditional Institutional
Traditional Institutional Framework for guidance
Framework for guidance and
and decision-making,
decision-making, business
business
management, social value systems
systems and
and gender
gender division
division of
of labour;
labour;
• Traditional Resource
Traditional Resource Rights
Rights,, ownership,
ownership, access
access and
and control,
control, and
and possible
possible benefit
benefit
sharing from the income generating activities.
activities.
Of course, all the

the above
above activities
activities should
should be
be undertaken
undertaken with
with the
the local
local communities
communities as
as full
full
participants in
in the
the research.
research.
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Decomposing
Decomposing fruits
fruits of
of bush
bush mango
mango (Irvingia
(/rvingia gabonensis)
gabonensis) prior to
to sowing
sowing (Photo:
(Photo:
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
9. Conclusion
Considering that
that development
development andand promotion
promotionof ofmarkets
marketsfor
forNVVFPs
NWFPs is in the firstfirst instance
instance to
to
alleviate poverty rural communities, the socio-economic research has to be the starting
alleviate poverty in rural communities, the socio-economic research has to be the starting
point for any
any activities
activities before
before this can
can take
take place.
place. This
This will
will also
also be
be an
an exercise
exercisetotoidentify
identify
products with which local communities
communities are are familiar and for which they may have skills
familiar and skills and
and
understanding.
understanding.
115
115
COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT OF NON-WOOD
FOREST
FOREST RESOURCES:
RESOURCES: A
A CASE
CASE STUDY FROM
THE KORUP FOREST, CAMEROON
Ruth Malleson
Abstract
'Community' involvement
'Community' involvement inin forest
forest resource
resource management
management isis now
now regarded
regarded as an
an essential
essential
component of forest conservation projects. However, progress in community consultation
consultation and
and
processes has
participatory processes has largely
largely been poor.
poor. This paper contends that this is partly
partly because
because
some projects
some projects have
have overlooked
overlooked somesome ofof the
the most
most pertinent
pertinent social and and economic
economic
characteristics of the individuals, institutions and settlements that make up what is referred to
as the 'community' and other groups
groups from
from outside
outside the
the 'community,' who also have an interest
in the forest.
forest. Forest conservation projects
projects have
have also generally failed to take into account
generally failed account the
historical, social and economic context in which forest users are placed.
This paper looks at the

the case
case of
of the
the Korup
Korup Forest,
Forest, home
home ofof the
the Korup
Korup Project,
Project, established
established to
to
surrounding areas. It
conserve and develop the Korup National Park and surrounding analyses:
It analyses:
• the various types of individuals and institutions with an interest in the forest;
• the potential and constraints ofof their
their forest
forest resource
resource use
use strategies;
strategies;
• the conflicts that exist
exist within
within and
and between
between them;
them;
• the ways forward.
dependent on
In conclusion, this paper argues that sustainable forest management is crucially dependent on
a thorough understanding ofof how forest products feature in
in people's livelihood
livelihood strategies.
strategies.
Key words:
words: Rainforest,
Rainforest, Cameroon,
Cameroon, conservation,
conservation, community,
community, participation
participation
1. Introduction
The Korup
The Korup National Park is 125,000
National Park 125,000 ha.
ha. of
of tropical
tropical rainforest
rainforest in
inCameroon's
Cameroon's Southwest
Southwest
Province which thethe Korup
Korup Project,
Project, an
an internationally
internationally funded
funded programme,
programme, aims aims to
to conserve
conserve
and develop. started over
develop. Despite having started over a decade
decade ago,
ago, the
the Project has
has made poor progress.
progress. I
contend this
contend this is
is because
because it has
has largely
largely failed to take
take into
into account
account the
the social
social and
and economic
economic
of the area.
characteristics of
This paper
paper presents
presents some
some of
of the
the key
key issues
issues relating to
to community
community forest
forest management:
management:
• forest livelihoods in the distinct settlement

settlement types;
• the
the potential
potential and
and constraints
constraints ofof the
the local
localinstitutions to forest
institutions relating to forest resource
resource
management;
• the implications for community forest management.
The findings are drawn from the fieldwork carried out between 1992 1992 and 1994.
1994. Prior to
to this
this
the author worked
worked for six years
years as
as aa rural development
development adviser
adviser for the
the Korup
Korup Project.
Project.
117
types in
2. Settlement types in the
the Korup Forest
Settlements in
Settlements in the Korup
Korup Forest can be grouped broadly on the basis
grouped broadly basis of differences in forest
conditions, demographic
conditions, demographic changes,
changes, and
and accessibility
accessibility to markets.
markets. I have
have termed
termed these
these groups:
groups:
Settlements', 'Creek Settlements',
'Remote Settlements', Settlements', 'Roadside Settlements'
Settlements' and
and 'Plantation Camps'.
Remote settlements
settlements areare surrounded
surrounded by by relatively
relatively intact
intact high
high forest,
forest, but
but poor
poor market
market access
access
limits the range
limits range ofof livelihoods.
livelihoods. For
For this
this reason,
reason, Remote
Remote Settlements
Settlements areare largely
largely socially
socially
homogenous. Many Many people
people have
have moved
moved to to Roadside
Roadside Settlements
Settlementsinin search
searchof of aa better
better
standard of living.
standard living. Remote
Remote Settlements
Settlements are are distinguishable
distinguishable by by their
their access
access to high
high forest.
forest.
High Forest
ForestEdge
Edgesettlements
settlements are
are surrounded
surrounded by by intact
intact forests
forests with
with a relative abundance
abundance of
wildlife, whilst
wildlife, whilstAbandoned
Abandoned Forest
Forest Frontier
Frontiersettlements
settlements areare sunounded
surrounded by by old
old fallow
fallow land,
wildlife and
with little wildlife and few valuable
valuable timber
timber trees.
trees.
Creek Settlements
Creek Settlementsare
aretotoaalarge
largeextent
extentalso
also surrounded
surrounded by
by high
high forest.
forest. However, in contrast
to Remote Settlements,
Settlements, they
they have
have access
access to
to markets
markets in
in Cameroon
Cameroon andand Nigeria.
Nigeria. This
This has
has led to
the development
development of a widewide range
range of
offorest,
forest, mangrove
mangrove and
and farm-related
farm-related livelihoods,
livelihoods, and
and aa
ethnically diverse
more ethnically diverse population.
population.
Roadside Settlements
Settlements have
have access
access to
to the
themarkets
markets of ofSouthwest
Southwest Province,
Province, Cameroon,
Cameroon, but,
but,
because of relatively higher population densities,
densities, the
the forests
forests surrounding them are relatively
surrounding them
degraded.
degraded. These settlements are the most ethnically diverse,
settlements are migrants from
diverse, with migrants from the Remote
Settlements as well as 'outsiders' mainly from Northwest Province and eastern Nigeria.
Plantation
Plantation Camps
Campsare
arealso
alsoethnically
ethnicallydiverse.
diverse. Over
Over half
halfthe
theworkers
workers are
are from
fromNorthwest
Northwest
Province and others are from elsewhere in Southwest Province and
and Nigeria.
3. Local institutions
3.1. Village councils
The Government is the most

Government Chief is most prominent
prominent political figure
figure at the
the settlement
settlement level.
level. He
He isis
elected by
elected by the village council which
village council which isis mainly
mainly composed
composed ofof elderly
elderly men
men and
and aa few
few elderly
elderly
women. Village councils
women. councils are the traditional custodians of land and forest resources within the
settlement boundaries.
boundaries. According to traditional land tenure
tenure conceptions, land
land may
may bebe divided
divided
into two types:
CD areas where
areas where indigenes have acquired
indigenes have acquired customary
customaryrights
rights toto farm,
farm, either
either by
by clearing
clearing or
or by
inheritance;
CD village forest known as `moliki
'moliki nwamoki' which
which no
no individual
individual cancan claim
claim rights
rights to.
to.
Access to village forest

forest depends
depends on
on whether
whether you
you are
are aa citizen
citizen or
or aa 'stranger' i.e.
i.e. from outside
the village.
village. Every
Every indigene has the
indigene has the right
right to harvest
harvest forest
forest resources
resources on on village
village land,
land, but
but
strangers must ask
strangers must ask permission from the
permission from the Chief and village
village council.
council. The Chief
Chief and and village
village
councillors have the
councillors have the potential
potential to play an
an influential
influential gate-keeping
gate-keeping role role in relation
relation to forest
forest
resource management but there are some constraints.
In contrast to to some
some neighbouring
neighbouring ethnic groups
groups where
where the
the Chief
Chief has
has considerable
considerable political
political
influence
influence overover his
his subjects, the Chiefs
SUbjects, the Chiefs of the Korup
Korup Forest
Forest tend to
to be
be less
less powerful.
powerful. As
As
Ngwane
Ngwane (1992)(1992) puts
puts it:
it: "the
"the Chief
Chief cannot,
cannot, with
with the
the wave
wave of his
his hand, order his
hand, order his subjects
subjects to
up ... "
line up..."
118
The Chief serves
serves as aa spokesperson
spokesperson and
and aa mediator
mediator between
between villagers
villagers and
and the
the Government
Government
and other outsiders (such as local officials, extension workers,
workers, thethe Korup
Korup Project and timber
concessionaires).But
concessionaires). But"this
"thisdual
dualrole
roleisis often
often hard
hard toto reconcile,
reconcile, asas the
the wishes
wishes of the
the
Government and those of the people may not coincide..."
coincide ... " (Devitt, 1988).
1988).
3.2. Traditional
3.2. Traditional societies
societies
Traditional societies,
Traditional societies, which
which involve
involve both
both men
men and
and women,
women, are largely
largely responsible
responsible for the
the
settlement's cultural
settlement's cultural and
and ritual
ritual affairs.
affairs. Although their political
Although their political influence
influence is declining,
particularly in Roadside
particularly in Roadside Settlements, they play
Settlements, they play an
an important
important judicial
judicial role dealing,
dealing, for
for
example, with many offences relating to the misuse of natural resources.
3.3. The elites

3.3.
The
The elites
elites are
are the
the most
most prominent
prominent political
political representatives
representatives of rural
rural communities
communities at the
the
level. They
regional level. They are
are largely
largely successful,
successful, influential and wealthy
influential and wealthy people
people such as
as civil
civil
servants, business
servants, business people,
people, politicians
politiciansand
andclergy.
clergy.Elites
Elitesare
are often
often senior
senior members
members ofof the
the
traditional societies and this enables them to win the support of village council members and
effectively control them.
Elites play an extremely

Elites influential role
extremely influential role in
in relation
relation to
to forest
forest resources,
resources, acting
acting as
as brokers
brokers or
intermediaries with
intermediaries with other
other forest
forest stakeholders
stakeholders at at regional
regional and national
national levels,
levels, including
including
government bodies and
government bodies and non-government
non-government organisations
organisationssuchsuchasas the
the Korup
Korup Project
Project and
and timber
timber
concessionaires.
3.4. Cultural development associations

3.4.
These were formed

formed during the 1970s,
1970s, largely in response to the need for unity
unity and
and collective
collective
action for regional development
action projects, particularly
development projects, particularly for
for the construction of roads into
into the
the
hinterland area (Achu, 1988; Elangwe, 1988).
1988).
3.5. Youth
3.5. Youth groups
Youth groups
Youth groups tend
tend to involve
involve men
men and
and women
women ranging
ranging from
from their
their teens
teens totomid-thirties.
mid-thirties.
Membership is usually restricted to young people living in
in a particular town or belonging to a
specific ethnic
specific ethnic group.
group. They
They function
function as
as fora
fora for young people to discuss development issues
young people issues
and for socialising.
Youth
Youth groups
groups are
are one example
example of aa growing
growing number
number ofof relatively
relatively new
new local
local institutions
institutions
established in response
established in response to aa decline
decline ininconfidence
confidence inintraditional
traditionalleadership
leadershipstructures,
structures,
particularly amongst the youth.
Mistrust has
Mistrust has stemmed mainly from
stemmed mainly from the
the conflict
conflict of
of interests
interests between
between the
the youth,
youth, elites
elites and
and
'elders' over
over issues
issues relating to land and forest
forest resources.
resources. Many
Many youths accuse the settlement
settlement
leaders
leaders of selling
selling land
land to
to strangers
strangers and
and giving
giving out
out logging
logging concessions
concessions for
for personal
personal gain
gain
rather than in the
the interest of
of the
the community
community as a whole (Sharpe, 1998).
1998).
3.6. Village
3.6. Village development
development committees
As part of
As of their
their remit,
remit, Ministry
Ministry of
ofAgriculture
Agriculture extension
extension workers
workers have
have established
established village
village
development committees in
development committees in each settlement,
settlement, to co-ordinate
co-ordinate village
village development
development activities,
activities,
such as building a school or new classroom, or improving drinking water supplies.
119
Committee
Committee members
members are
are elected
elected by
by the
the village
village as
as aa whole
whole and
and therefore
therefore tend
tend to
to be less elitist
than the village council. Although they often include young people and and women,
women, thethe less
less vocal
vocal
strangers and poorer households may not
strangers and poorer households may not be fairly represented.
represented. The achievements of such
achievements
committees tend to be extremely varied depending on the settlement.
4. Forest
4. Forest livelihoods the Korup
livelihoods in the Korup Forest
4.1. Remote
Remote settlement
settlement livelihoods
livelihoods
The relative
The relative abundance
abundance of of wildlife
wildlife around
around high
high forest
forest edge
edge settlements
settlements offers
offers good
good
opportunities for
opportunities for hunting and trapping. 'Bushmeat', being relatively
trapping. `Bushmeat', being relatively light to carry and highly
highly
valued, is
valued, is the
the main source
source of income
income for most men in thesethese settlements.
settlements. Male youths,
youths, who
had left to find work
work in
in urban
urban areas,
areas, are
are increasingly
increasingly returning home to hunt because of the the
lack of job opportunities. As a consequence,
consequence, High
High Forest
Forest Edge
Edge Settlements
Settlements tend
tend to
to have
have much
much
higher
higher proportions
proportions of of young
young andand middle-aged
middle-aged menmen than
than Abandoned
Abandoned Forest
Forest Frontier
Frontier
Settlements.
Settlements. InIn addition
addition to
to indigenous
indigenous hunters
hunters and
and trappers,
trappers, there
there are
are groups
groups of strangers
strangers who
who
hunt
hunt within
within the
the Korup
Korup Forest
Forest from
fromAbandoned
Abandoned Forest
Forest Frontier
Frontier settlements,
settlements, francophone
francophone
Cameroon and Nigeria.
Most inhabitants of High Forest Edge Settlements

Settlements are
are well
well aware of the economic and social
decline
decline that has taken place inin Abandoned
Abandoned Forest Frontier Settlements.
Settlements. In response,
response, men in
some High
some High Forest Edge Settlements
Settlements have decided to prevent
prevent strangers
strangers from
from hunting
hunting within
within
village boundaries.
their village boundaries.The
Themen's
men'straditional
traditionalsociety
society'Ekpe'
'ape' and
and local Youth Groups play
play an
an
important role
role in enforcing this,
this, illustrating that local institutions can play
playaa significant
significant role
role
in forest resource management.
Whilst fairly
Whilst fairly good income-earning opportunities exist
income-earning opportunities exist for
for young
young men
men in High Forest
Forest Edge
Edge
Settlements, the
Settlements, the situation in Abandoned
Abandoned Forest
Forest Frontier
Frontier Settlements
Settlements is
is very different.
different. Cocoa
Cocoa
and
and coffee
coffee were
were important
important sources
sources of income, but poor market
income, but market access
access and relatively
relatively low
selling prices currently make the cost of trading with other areas prohibitive.
The shortage
The shortage of income-generating opportunities for
income-generating opportunities for young
young women
women in Remote Settlements,
Settlements,
and for young
and young men in Abandoned Forest Frontier
Abandoned Forest Frontier Settlements,
Settlements, has
has led
led them
them to search
search for
elsewhere. Many
work elsewhere. Many are
are involved
involved in
in the
the trade of bushmeat and forest spices,
spices, buying from
selling to traders in
people in Remote Settlements and selling in Roadside Settlements.
Settlements.
The
The sale
sale of
of forest
forest spices,
spices, such
suchasasbush
bushmango
mango(Irvingia
(lrvingiaspp.)
spp.)njansang
njansang(Ricinodendron
(Ricinodendron
heudelotii) and
heudelotii) and sleeping
sleeping mats
mats (made
(made from
from Pandanus
Pandanus spp.),
spp.), provide the main source
source of
of cash
cash
for women in Remote Settlements.
Settlements.
4.2. Creek settlements
Easy access to Nigerian markets means that cross-border trade

trade is an important activity in the
creek area.
area. Broadly
Broadly speaking,
speaking, the main
main imports
imports from
from Nigeria
Nigeria are
are fuel,
fuel, manufactured
manufactured and
and
processed goods, whilst the main exports from the Korup Forest are forest products.
products.
The chewing
The stick species
chewing stick ikongo (Massularia
species ikongo (Massularia acuminata)
acutninata)isis one
one of the
the principal
principal forest
forest
product exports from
product exports from the Creek
Creek Settlements. Almost all
Settlements. Almost all of the
the cross-border
cross-border chewing
chewing stick
stick
trade
trade is in
in the
the hands
hands of
ofstrangers,
strangers, most
most ofofwhom
whom are
are Nigerians.
Nigerians. Even
Even though
though considerable
considerable
quantities
quantities of chewing sticks are exported,
exported, the inhabitants
inhabitants gain very little income from them.them.
This is mainly because village leaders normally accept only a small, small, one-off
one-off payment
payment usually
usually
in the form of several bottles of afofo
afofo (distilled
(distilled palm
palm wine),
wine), or aa small
small amount
amount of of cash
cash from
from
120
the
the chewing
chewing stick dealers
dealers to allow
allow the
the collection
collection of
ofunlimited
unlimited amounts
amounts of
ofchewing
chewing sticks
sticks
forest.
within the settlement's forest.
The situation appears to be very different over the border in Cross River State, Nigeria. Here
the inhabitants charge individual collectors and dealers according to the quantity
quantity of
of chewing
chewing
sticks collected
sticks collected and
and transported;
transported; inin addition
addition to
to the introductory fees paid by
introductory fees by the
the dealers
dealers
(Okafor, 1989). Indigenes as well as non-indigenes are
(Okafor, are involved
involved in
in the
the collection,
collection, processing
processing
and marketing
and marketing of chewing
chewing sticks, thereby generating
sticks, thereby generating aa regular
regular source
source of income
income both
both for
for
individuals and the settlements as a whole.
The chewing stick business is relatively new to the Korup Forest.Forest. This may explain why it is
not as
as well
well organised
organised as
as in
in Cross
Cross River
River State.
State. However,
However, the
the situation
situation in
in Nigeria
Nigeria illustrates
illustrates
that there is potential
potential for
for the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of the
the Creek
Creek Settlements
Settlements to increase
increase their income
income
opportunities exist
from this trade, and that opportunities exist to
to improve
improve the
the management
management of of this
this resource.
resource.
4.3. Plantation camps
Wages make up the largest proportion of men's income in plantation settlements.

settlements. Since these
are generally
generally low,
low, and delays
delays in
in their
their payment
payment are
are common,
common, forest products
products often
often provide
provide
significant sources of supplementary income for many labourers.
labourers. Some workers, mainly from
from
involved in the production of rattan furniture, whilst others hunt
the Northwest Province, are involved
and trap. The sale of pepe soup (made with bushmeat), forest spices and edible snails are also
important sources of income for plantation workers'
workers' wives and children.
4.4.
4.4. Roadside settlements
Forest spices,
Forest bushmeat and
spices, bushmeat and pepe
pepe soup
soup tend
tend also
also to
to be important
important sources
sources of income
income for
women, particularly for
women, particularly for relatively
relatively poor
poor elderly
elderly widows
widows and
and single
single mothers
mothers inin Roadside
Roadside
Settlements. Elderly men
Settlements. Elderly men also
also gain significant income
income from rattan cane basketry
basketry and
and palm
palm
wine. However, income
wine. However, income from
from these
these sources
sources will
will probably decline as
probably decline as their access
access to
to forest
forest
restricted, as
resources becomes more restricted, as more
more land is
is converted to
to farmland,
farmland, and as
as competition
competition
from other forest users increases.
Elites are one of

of the
the main
main groups
groups competing
competing with these
these relatively
relatively poor
poor households.
households. They
They use
use
capital accumulated
capital from permanent
accumulated from permanent salaried
salaried positions,
positions, or
or other
other ventures,
ventures, to develop other,
often forest-related
often forest-related enterprises.
enterprises. For
For example,
example, aa large
large proportion
proportion of the local
local timber
timber trade
trade is
is
controlled by
controlled by elites
elites who
who not
not only
only have
have access to capital
access to but also to
capital but to land
land through
through their
their
powerful influence over village Chiefs and councillors.
farming methods have been adopted by elites which entail clearing large areas
New farming areas of
of land
land to
to
make way
make way for
for the
the cultivation
cultivation of yams,
yams, cassava
cassava and
and other
other crops.
crops. These
These methods
methods are
are not
not only
only
used to
used to eam
earn cash from farm sales
sales but also to
to generate
generate income from the timber trees felled
income from
during clearing.
during clearing. Some
Some of these valuable
valuable tree species, such as njabe (Baillonella
(Baillonella toxisperma)
toxisperma)
and komea
and komea (Cottla
(Coula Mulls)
edulis) also
also provide
provide economically
economically important
important forest
forest products
products for
for less
less
wealthy households.
5. Implications
5. Implications for
for community forest management
I have
have shown
shown that
that communities in the
communities in the Korup
Korup Forest
Forest consist
consist of
of a variety
variety of social
social and
and
economic groups with competing
economic groups competing and often
often conflicting
conflicting forest-related
forest-related livelihood
livelihood strategies.
strategies.
The Korup Project's approach to community participation has has focused
focused firstly
firstly on working
working with
with
a limited number of local institutions,
limited number namely Chiefs,
institutions, namely Chiefs, councillors
councillors and
and elites
elites and,
and, secondly,
secondly,
with project initiated natural
natural resource
resource management
management committees.
committees. Arguably, this approach
approach has
has
121
not,
not, to
to date,
date, promoted
promoted effective
effective participation
partIcIpation of
of all
all local
localforest
foreststakeholders
stakeholders groups.
groups.
Traditional leadership
leadership institutions
institutions are dominated by the
dominated by the elites whose interests
interests often
often conflict
conflict
forest users,
with other forest users, such
such as
as youth
youth and
and women.
women.
Other
Other local
local institutions such as
institutions such as Youth
Youth Groups
Groups have
have been
been largely
largely excluded
excluded in
in Project
Project
discussions over forest
discussions over forest management
managementalthough
althoughthey
theyhave
havebeen
been involved
involvedinin some
some ofof the
Project's
Project's development interventions.The
development interventions. Themobility
mobilityof
of the
the youth
youth often excludes
excludes them
them from
from
involvement in traditional local institutions where
where forest resource
resource management
management issues
issues may
may be
be
discussed.
If forest
forest users
users see the value
value of, and
and their
their access
access to,
to, forest
forest resources
resources diminishing, they will
diminishing, they will
have little incentive
have incentive to manage
manage them sustainably. The formation
sustainably. The formation of new structures
structures such as
as
natural resource
natural resource management
management and and village
village development committees does
development committees does not automatically
automatically
overcome the
overcome the conflict
conflict of interests
interests between
between different
different forest
forest users
users or guarantee their effective
participation. The sustainability
participation. The of such
sustainability of such committees
committees is is also
also questionable;
questionable; there
there must,
must,
arguably, be clear economic advantages for maintaining them (Mosse, 1996). 1996).
I contend
contend the
the way
way forward
forward is,
is, firstly,
firstly, to
to focus
focus ononstrengthening
strengthening existing
existing local
local institutions
institutions
which I have shown,
which shown, currently
currently or potentially,
potentially, toto have
have significant contributions to
significant contributions to make
make toto
forest
forest management; secondly, to
management; secondly, to lay
lay more
more emphasis
emphasis on on involving
involving specific
specific groups
groups of forest
forest
users
users whose
whose interests so far have
interests so have generally
generally beenbeen overlooked. Above all,
overlooked. Above all, to
to ensure
ensure the
the
sustainable management of forest resources, it is vital to give the people of the Korup Forest
sustainable management of forest resources, it is vital to give the people of the Korup Forest
more power to make decisions
decisions relating to the forest and its resources. Without engaging engaging and
empowering all of those people who have have a stake in the forest,
forest, the Korup Project
Project isis unlikely
unlikely
its aims.
to achieve its aims.
Acknowledgements
This
This research
research was
was part
part of
of aawider
widerproject
projectentitled
entitled the
theCultural
Cultural Context
Context ofofRainforest
Rainforest
Conservation
Conservation inin West Africa
Africa funded
funded by thethe Economic
Economic and
and Social
Social Research
Research Council,
Council, (ESRC)
(ESRC)
U.K. Funding by
u.K. Funding by ESRC
ESRC isis gratefully
gratefully acknowledged.
acknowledged. ESRC
ESRC bears
bears no responsibility for the
responsibility for
research findings, which are the
the author's
author's own.
own.
References
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1988. A brief of the settlement of some
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Oroko speaking
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East
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the Korup
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& P. Konings. 1993. Pathways to to Accumulation in Cameroon. Kathala,
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Paris.
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project
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No.1: 25-45.
25-45.
122
THE USE OF FARMER
FARMER KNOWLEDGE IN
NON-WOOD FOREST
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCT
PRODUCT RESEARCH
Jonathon Okafor
OkafoI'
Abstract
Farmers
Farmers and other
other rural
rural inhabitants
inhabitants possess
possess considerable
considerable indigenous knowledge arising
indigenous knowledge arising from
from
their long utilization of NWFPs.
NWFPs. This knowledge is chiefly documented through ethnobotanical
surveys. Ethnobotanical
surveys. Ethnobotanical information
information isis essential
essential for assessing
assessing plant
plant diversity,
diversity, intra-specific
intra-specific
variation, selection of superior strains,
variation, strains, adaptation and the introduction of NWFP species within
traditional farming
traditional farming systems.
systems. TheThe farmers'
farmers' vision
vision as
as well asas their
their classification
classification of
of biodiversity
biodiversity
was
was applied in recent work on indigenous
indigenous fruit
fruit trees
trees in Nigeria (OkafoI',
in Nigeria (Okafor, 1990),
1990), and
and isis presented
presented
in this paper. The problems as as well
well as the prospects
prospects for
for conservation
conservation of of biodiversity
biodiversity (including
(including
NWFPs)
NWFPs) as perceived
perceived by farmers
farmers areare essential
essential inin focusing
focusing andand implementing
implementing research
research onon
NWFPs
NWFPs (Okafor,
(OkafoI', 1995).
1995). The potential
potential for
for commercial
exploitation of indigenous
indigenous species
species is
is
discussed. The major lessons learned from farmer-participatory
farmer-participatory projects,
projects, and a suggested action
action
plan, are also highlighted.
Key words:
words:Non-wood
Non-wood forest
forest products,
products, indigenous
indigenous knowledge, genetic diversity,
diversity, ethnobotany
ethnobotany
1. The importance
importance of
of indigenous
and forest dwelling

Farmers and dwelling people possess aa great
great deal
deal of
of indigenous
knowledge arising
arising from
from
their utilization
their of NWFPs
utilization of NWFPs and and agricultural
agriculturalcrops.
crops.Local
Localpeople
peopleare
areaware
awareof of the
the extent
extent of
of
variation as well as the traits
traits displayed
displayed by
by genetically
genetically superior
superior individual
individual trees
trees or
or infraspecific
infra specific
taxa. This
taxa. This knowledge
knowledge of tree-to-tree variation and
tree-to-tree variation and consumption uses isis valuable
consumption uses valuable in NWFPNWFP
development. This paper examines the genetic
research and development. genetic gain
gain and
and other
other contributions
contributions made
made
by farmer
farmer knowledge
knowledge in context of applied
the context
in the applied NWFP
NWFP research,
research, through
through extensive
extensive
ethnobotanical and socio-economic surveys.
2. What is ethnobotanical information?
The information that local communities possess about their natural resources
communities possess resources are concentrated
concentrated
on how plants are
are used,
used, how
how plant
plant resources
resources are
are distributed
distributed across
across the
the ecosystems
ecosystemsthey
theymanage,
manage,
the classification
classification and identification
identification of plant
plant diversity,
diversity, and
and the
the relationships
relationships between
between plants,
plants,
people and animals
animals in
in their
their ecosystem
ecosystem (Eyzaguirre,
(Eyzaguirre, 1995;
1995; Aameeruddy,
Aameeruddy, 1994).
1994). Ethnobotanical
Ethnobotanical
information which emanates
information which emanates from ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical and socio-economic
socio-economic surveys
surveys and literature
literature
reviews often
reviews often represents
represents thethe indigenous
knowledgeof oflocal
local people.
people.The The farmer's
farmer's vision
vision of
biodiversity classification is also often crucial for NWFP research and development.
development.
3. Surveys to obtain
obtain an
an idea
idea of
of indigenous
knowledge (IK)
and methods
The procedure and methods adopted in conducting
conducting ethnobotanical and socio-economic surveys,
which generate information on IK, (Shepherd and OkafoI', 1991)
and Okafor, 1991) consist
consist of
of the
the following:
following:
• Stratification of
of the area according to
to ecological
ecological zones,
zones, urban
urban and
and rural
rural setting;
setting;
• Selection of
of sample villages or communities;
• Village
Village group
group meetings;
meetings;
• Interviews
futerviews with
with key informants using
using structured
structured questionnaire
questionnaire forms;
forms;
123
• Study of natural resources of of the area including uses
uses of
of forests, wild
wild and
and planted
planted species;
species;
• Traditional classification
classification systems based on ecological distribution, taxonomic
differentiation
differentiation in in relation
relation to local
local cultivar
cultivar designations
designations (e.g.
(e.g. fruit
fruit types,
types, phenological
phenological
social symbolic
attributes etc.) and social symbolic roles;
roles;
• Field observation
observation of of the
the traditional
traditional farming
farming systems
systems including
includinghome
homegardens/compound
gardens/compound
farm subsystems and fetish groves;
• Market survey to document various products emanating from the local environment;
• Collection specimens, seeds,
Collection of herbarium specimens, seeds, seedlings
seedlings and
and wood
wood samples
samples to authenticate
authenticate the
various products identified during the various stages of the survey.
4. Using ethnobotanical information to target

target collecting
collecting and development of plant
plant genetic
genetic
resources
resourcesofofNVVFPs
NWFPs
that ethnobotanical
Eyzaguire (1995) has stated that ethnobotanical information is essential for assessing
assessing diversity
diversity
and adaptation
adaptation of crops
crops and
and that
that in
in eco-geographical
eco-geographical terms
terms "much
"much still
still remains
remains to
to be
be learned
learned
about socio-eco-edaphic
socio-eco-edaphic diversity of crops, and to to understand
understand crop
crop adaptation
adaptationtotomicro-niches
micro-niches
and micro
micro environments".
environments". When collecting
collecting genetic resources
resources ofof cultivated
cultivated and
and economically
economically
useful species,
species, ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical information
information (including
(including cultural
cultural differences,
differences, thethe socio-economic
socio-economic
systems,
systems, the institutional
institutional environment,
environment, as as well
well as land use
use locations)
locations) isis important
important in
in targeting
targeting
the areas where
where collecting can capture significant variation within the species. Ethnobotanical
Ethnobotanical
information
information isis also
also essential
essential for
for identifying
identifying micro-environments
micro-environments and and niches
niches (spatial
(spatial and
and
system and its surrounding non-agricultural environments.
temporal) within the farming system environments.
Finally, ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical data provides infoimation
information onon selection
selection and
and intra-specific
intra-specific variation,
variation, the
the
adaptation
adaptation of plants
plants to their environment (i.e. indications of
their environment of aa plant's competitive,
complementary and
complementary and symbiotic
symbiotic relationships
relationships with
with other
other species,
species, and to pests
and its resistance to pests and
and
diseases). The application of ethnobotanical information research (especially
infoimation is useful in NWFP research (especially
in the domestication and selection of desired
desired genotypes
genotypes of fruit
fruit trees) within the forest zone ofof
Nigeria, as discussed below.
5. Selection
5.1. Diversity
The enormous
The enormous rangerange of forest
forest species
species and
and their
their corresponding
corresponding multifarious
multifarious range
range of uses
uses
illustrate one aspect
illustrate aspect of
of the
thediversity
diversity ofofNVVFPs
NWFPs in tropical
tropical West Africa. The
West Africa. The existence
existence of
natural variation
variation within
within fruit trees, resulting in well-defined
well-defined intra specific
specific taxa
taxa sometimes
sometimes atat
varietal level, is another aspect of diversity.
varietal level, is another aspect of diversity. Both of these aspects diversity
these aspects of diversity are crucial
crucial in
efforts aimed at the domestication of edible forest species (Okafor, 1985).1985).
During the
the course
course of
of our
our research,
research, nineteen
nineteen rapidly-disappearing
rapidly-disappearing woody
woody species
species were
were selected
selected
for intensive
intensive study by our
our programme
programme (funded
(funded by the
the Biodiversity
Support Programme
Programme of of the
the
World Wildlife
World Wildlife Fund).
Fund). These
These species
species were
were selected
selected because
because of
of their
their importance
importance asas known
known
sources of spices,
sources fruits, nuts,
spices, fruits, nuts, seeds
seeds and
and leafy
leafy vegetables, and were
vegetables, and were identified
identified by
by farmers
fanners as
being of primary importance for their livelihoods.
5.2. The
5.2. The extent
extent of
ofintraspecific
intraspecific variation
variation
The existence of intraspecific

intraspecific variation is useful in the
variation is the selection,
selection, breeding
breeding and
and utilization
utilization of
of
many tree species (Whitmore, 1976; 1976; Okafor, 1980a). Examples of varietal delimitation in West
African fruit trees include Irvingia gabon ens is (Okafor, 1975),
InJingia gabonensis 1975), in which one
one of
of the
the varieties
varieties was
raised to the
the rank
rank of
of species
species (hvingia
(Irvingia ivomboltt)
wombolu) by byHarris
Harris (1996);
(1996); Treculia
Treculia africana
africanasubsp.
subsp.
african (Okafor,
african (Okafor, 198 lb); and
1981b); and Dacryodes edttlis (Okafor,
Dacryodes edulis (Okafor, 1983).
1983). These
These examples
examples show
show great
great
124
potential for
potential for extending
extending the
the period
period of fruit
fruit availability, increasingthe
availability, increasing the range
range of products and
products and
yield, and
yield, and choosing the desired
choosing the desired pattern,
pattern, as
as well
well as the season
season of
of yield
yield (Okafor,
(Okafor, 1978,
1978, 1981a;
1981a;
Okigbo, 1977). Some
Okigbo, 1977). Some taxa
taxa also
also exhibit intraspecific variation
exhibit intraspecific variation in
in traits
traits such
such as more
more profuse
profuse
flowering,
flowering, early flowering,
flowering, lower
lower height
height of fruit
fruit set,
set, greater yields
yields of fruit, and better quality of
fruits,
fruits, than others (Okafor 1985).
Table 1. Species
Table 1. Species studies
studies with
with ethnobotanical value (Okafor, et al., 1996a)
Botanical
Botanical Name Family Vernacular
Vernacular Name
Name Part Traditional
(iliQ, English)
(i122, English) Eaten Food Type
Trees
Chrysophylltan albidum
Cll1ysophylllllll Sapotaceae udara, star apple Fruit pulp Fruit
Dacryodes
DaC/yodes edulis B urseraceae
Burseraceae ube, pear Fruit pulp Fruit
Dannettia tripetala Annonaceae mmimi Fruit Spicy
Garcinia kola Guttiferae akuilu, bitter kola Seeds Seeds as kola
Irvingia
Ill Jingia gabonensis Irvingiaceae African mango Fruit/seeds Fruit pulp,
seed condiment
Monodora myristica Armonaceae
Annonaceae ehuru, nutmeg Seeds Spice
Pentaclethra Mimosoideae ukpaka, oil bean Seeds Fermented
macrophylla product
Pterocatpus Mildbra
Pterocmpus edii
mildbraedii Papillionoideae oha Leaves Leafy vegetable
P. santalinoides
P. salltalinoides Papillionoideae nturukpa Leaves Leafy vegetable
P. soyauxii Papillionoideae oha Leaves Leafy vegetable
Treculia
Treculia africana Moraceae ukwa, breadfruit
breadfruit Nuts Roasted
Roasted nuts
Xylopia aethiopica
Xylopia aethiopica Annonaceae uda Seeds Spice
Climbers
Dioscoreophyllunt
Dioscoreophyllum Menispermaceae utobili, serendipity Fruit Sweetener
cumminsii
c1l11l111insii berry
Gnetum ajricanll1Jl
GnetU1Jl africanum Gnetaceae okazi Leaves Leafy vegetable
G. bliChholzianlllll
G. buchholziaman Gnetaceae okazi Leaves Leafy Vegetable
Gongronema latifolium
latifoliulIl Sapotaceae utazi Leaves Leafy vegetable
Piper guineensis Piperaceae Guinea
uziza, Guinea Seeds Spice
pepper
Plukenetia
Plllkenetia conophora
cOllophora Euphorbiaceae ukpa, conophor
.!!km!,conophor Nuts Nuts
Shrubs
Vernonia al1lygdalina
amygdalina Compositae onugbu, bitter leaf Leaves Leafy vegetable
5.3. Biodiversity:
Biodiversity: The farmer's
farmer's vision
vision
Aumeeruddy (1994) reports

Aumeeruddy (1994) reports several
several accounts
accounts which
which support
support the view that traditional
traditional societies
societies
have their own systems of classification, based on
classification, based on the
the representation
representation of the natural world.
world. For
example, plants may
example, plants may be be classified into "hot"
classified into "hot" oror "cold",
"cold", according
according toto wider
widersymbolic
symbolic
representations of
of the environment. According to this mode of classification, all elements elements 9fqf the
the
environment, whether inert or alive,
alive, are
are attributed
attributed aa hot
hot or cold value.
value. Water
Water isis associated
associated with
with
cold. Consequently
cold. the rivers,
Consequently the rivers, springs
springs and
and flooded
flooded low-lying
low-lying land
land are
are cold,
cold, as are
are the
the plants
plants
associated with
associated with them.
them. Any
Any plant
plant with
with fleshy
fleshy parts
parts and
and watery
watery exudate
exudate is
is regarded
regarded as as a "cold"
plant. Plants
plant. Plants with
with an
an acid
acid taste
taste are also classified as "cold",
classified as "cold", as
as are species
species with
with strong
strong and
persistent perfumes, such Ocimum spp.
such as Ocimum spp. and members of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae.
"Hot" plants are those with

with an
an irritant
irritant character
character (latex
(latex or
or irritant
irritant leaves)
leaves) or
or very
very spicy
spicy perfumes.
perfumes.
These are plants that release a hot essence which distinguishes
distinguishes them from other cold perfumed
125
plants such
plants such as
as Ocimum spp. Spiny
OCi111U111 spp. Spiny plants
plants and
and plants
plants which
which dry
dry out
out soils
soils (e.g.
(e.g. Imperata
Imperata
cylindrica) are also
cylindrica) are also hot plants. The classification
plants. The of plants
classification of plants as
as either
either hot or cold
cold has
has various
various
implications regarding
implications regardingplant
plant use,
use, notably
notably medicinal
medicinaland
and food
food plants,
plants, as
as well
well as agricultural
agricultural
practices (Aumeeruddy,
practices (Aumeeruddy, 1994).
1994).
A second system
system of classification, founded upon symbolic representation separating plants into into
male and female
female according
according to
to functional,
functional, utilization,
utilization, ecological
ecological distribution
distribution or
or morphological
morphological
attributes,
attributes, isis also used in
in Nigeria.
Nigeria. Plants
Plants are
are classified
classified as
as "male" or or "female"
"female" according
according toto
criteria such as the size and shape of the fruit, length of internodes, leaf pilosity (hairiness), etc. etc.
Some plants
plants are also classified according to their
according to their distribution.
distribution. For
For example,
example, Uvaria
Uvaria chamea is
found in distant farms fallows which
farms and fallows which are
are called
called 'uda
ùda ofia',
ofia', the name
name by by which the plant is
which the is
referred. This is distinct from some members of the Xylopia
also refened. Xylopia genus
genus which
which are
are called simply,
simply,
ùda',, on compound farms.
'uda' fauns.
Without
Without doubt,
doubt, these
these indigenous
indigenous classification systems
systems are fundamental in the identification and
and
use of biodiversity.
5.4. Pre-requisites
5.4. Pre-requisites and
and stages
stages of
of selection
The diversity and variation of NWFP species provide the basis for selection selection of
of superior
superior strains.
strains.
selection is the
The first prerequisite for selection the availability
availability of
of information and
and distribution
distribution data
data on
on the
the
species of interest.
species interest. This requires
requires surveys
surveys and exploration
exploration of natural forests,
forests, traditional
traditional farms,
farms,
local and urban
urban markets and relevant literature, as well as the identification, classification and
literature, as
general evaluation
evaluation of NWFP species,
species, e.g.
e.g. indigenous
indigenous fruit trees
trees (Okafor,
(Okafor, 1993).
1993). The
The second
second
is the
prerequisite is the study
study of
of their
their taxonomic
taxonomic variation
variation and
and phenology.
phenology.
5.5. Parameters
Parameters considered
considered in the selection of superior
superior strains
As illustrated in Table
Table 2,
2, the
the following
following parameters
parameters or desirable
desirable characters were identified for
three of
of the study species.
Table 2.
Table 2. Desirable
Desirable characteristics
characteristics for
for three
three highly
highly valued
valued agroforestry trees (Okafor, 1990)
hyingia gabonesis&& wombolu

Irvingiagabonesis wombolu Daciyodes
DaClyodes edulis
edlllis Treculia africana
TreClllia
e• Fruit size e• Fruit size e• Fruit size
e• Fruit
Fruit yield
yield (quantity)
(quantity) • Fruit yield (quantity) e• Number of of fruits heads /I
e• Flavour • Pulp thickness
thickness tree
0• Lack of
of fibrousness e• Flavour • Number of individual fruits
e• Short time to reproductive • Extended
Extended fruiting
fruiting season I/ head
maturity e• Size of
of nuts
e• Wide range of of products e• Cooking quality
e• High quality and value e Consistent fruiting (all year
It
round)
6. Research outputs
6.1. Development
6.1: Development of
of nursery
nursery practices
In order to determine the suitability

determine the suitability of
of potential
potential inclusion
inclusion into
into agroforestry
agroforestry systems
systems of
of many
many of
of
the species
the species identified
identified in Table
Table 1, is necessary
1, it is necessary toto investigate
investigate the
the optimum
optimum means
means of
propagation. Seed propagation
propagation. Seed propagation and and pre-treatments needed to ensure
pre-treatments needed ensure germination
germination were
were
investigated.
126
Table
Table 3:
3: Optimum
Optimumseed
seedgermination
germination conditions
conditions for
for selected
selected species
species (Okafor,
(Okafor, et
et al.,
al., 1996a)
1996a)
Species Days to first Pre-treatment Germination

germination requirment
%
Chrysophyllum
Cluysophyllum albidum
albidlllll 18 Remove testa and 98.9
overnight
soak overnight
with cold water
Dacryodes
Dacryodes edttlis
edlllis 12
12 Remove endocarp 85,0
85.0
Dennettia tripetala 28 De-pulp only 66.0
Dioscoreophyllunz cUl1lminsii
Dioscoreophyllum cununinsii 68 De-pulp and sun- dry 69.6
for 1 day
Garcinia kola 55 Bury inside plantain
Bury 80.0
pseudo-stem
for 3 weeks
Gongronema latifoluium
latifoluiwlt 6 None 81.6
Irvingia gabonensis
gabollensis 14 De-pulp and air-dry 80.0
for 2 days
Pentaclethra macrophylla 21 None 84.3
84,3
Piper
Piper guineensis 33 None 16.2
Plukenetia conophora
cOllophora 15 None 80.0
Treculia ajricana
Treculia africana 7 Remove pericarp and 86.0
soak overnight
in cold water.
Vernonia amygdalilla
Vernonia amygdalina 16 None 92.0
Bud grafting was also

also investigated
investigated and was successful
successful for some
some twenty-seven
twenty-seven of the
the species
species
selected.
selected. This method
method of vegetative propagation has
vegetative propagation has been
been reported
reported to
to reduce
reduce fruiting
fruiting age
age from
10 years
years or more to 2-4 years,
years, and
and height of fruit
fruit at 1-3 meters
meters instead of 8m or more, in several
fruit trees (Okafor and Lamb, 1994, Okafor et al., 1996a).
al., 1996a).
6.2. Benefits to
6.2. Benefits to local
local farmers
farmers
As research information
As became available,
information became training seminars
available, trammg seminars and
and workshops
workshops were
were used
used to
disseminate the techniques
disseminate techniques of plant propagation to participating farmers.
farmers. The techniques of in-
situ budding,
situ as described
budding, as described in Okafor
Okafor (1990)
(1990) were
were demonstrated
demonstrated inin the
the field
field and have
have been
been
adopted on a widespread basis.
As a conservation strategy, the local farmers

farmers have been involved in establishing hedgerows with
leguminous shrubs
shrubs such as
as Cajanus cajan, Pterocarpus
Pterocarpus santalinoides,
santalinoides, etc.,
etc., and
and non-leguminous
non-leguminous
species such
species such asas Acioa
Acioa harten,
barteri, Moringa
Moringa cleifera
deifera andand Ricinodendron
heudelotii forfor soil
soil
enrichment
enrichment and the provision of useful
useful products
products (e.g.
(e.g. fodder,
fodder, stakes,
stakes, leafy
leafy vegetables).
vegetables). Many
farmers also planted species developed in the project nursery (and their home home nurseries)
nurseries) in their
home
home gardens
gardens and traditional
traditional farms.
farms. Agroforestry practices such
Agroforestry practices such asas the use of of inter-planting,
inter-planting,
banier-hedges, live fences,
barrier-hedges, fences, live
live stakes
stakes and
and alley
alley farming
fanning were
were also adopted by many
also adopted them. In
many of them. In
addition, the farmers participating in the
the project
project voluntarily
voluntarily formed
formed aa biodiversity
biodiversity conservation
conservation
co-operative society which led toto the establishment
establishment ofof aa vigorous
vigorous tree
tree planting
planting campaign.
campaign.
During the technology transfer stage of the programme, the constraints or problems encountered
by pmticipating and are
participating farmers were recorded and are listed
listed in
in Table 5.
Table 5.
127
Table 4:4: Trees
Trees with
withedible
edibleparts
partssuccessfully
successfully propagated
propagated by
by bud
bud grafting
grafting inIIISoutheastern
Southeastern
Nigeria (Okafor,
Nigeria (Okafor, 1998)
1998)
Species No. Species Name Family
1.
1. Afzelia africana
Afzelia africana Caesalpiniaceae
2. Trilepisium l1ladagascariense
Trilepisiul1l madagascariense Moraceae
3. Detarimn
Detariul1l microcarpum
lIlicrocmpum Caesalpiniaceae
4. Dialitun
Dialium guineense Caesalpiniaceae
5. Afzelia bella
AJzelia bella val'.
var. bella "
6. Myrianthus arboreta
Myrianthus arboreus Moraceae
7. Treculia africana "
8. Parkia biglobosa
biglobosa Mimosaceae
9. Pentaclethra
Pentaclethra macrophylla
Illacrophylla "
10. Tertrapleura tetraptera "
11. Canarium
Canarium schweninfitrthii
schweninfurthii Burseraceae
B urseraceae
12. Ceiba pentandra
pentandra Bombacaceae
13. Cluysophyllum albidium Sapotaceae
14. Cola accuminata Sterculiaceae
15. C.
C. gigantea "
16. C.
C. hispida "
..
17. Hildegardia barteri "
18. Monodora
Monodora nzyristica
myristica Annonaceae
19. sp.
Xylopia sp. "
20. Pterocarpus mildbraedii
Pterocmpus lIlildbraedii Papilionaceae
21. P. santa linoides
santalinoides "
22. P. soyauxii
soyazo:ii "o
23. Spondias mombin
Spondias 1110111bin Anacardiaceae
24. Vitex doniana
Vitex doniana Verbanceae
25. Irvingia gabonensis
InJingia Irvingiaceae
26. Daczyodes
DaClyodes edulis Burseraceae
27. Ricinodendron heudelotii Euphorbiaceae
Table Problems encountered

5: Problems
Table 5: encountered by
by representative
representative farmers
Problem Percentage of farmers response
Seedling mortality and survival 91.7

Lack of capital 91.7
Lack
Lack of
of seeds
seeds and planting material 83.3
Working tools and materials 66.7
Damage by grazing animals 66.7
Lack
Lack of
of available
available labour 66.7
Lack of
of water 58.3
Lack
Lack of
of land / poor tenure 50.0
Lack of
Lack of knowledge
knowledge onon preservation,
preservation, 41.7
storage and utilization techniques
Lack of
of knowledge on germination/
germination! 25.0
growing techniques of species
128
7. The potential for commercial
7. connnercial exploitation
exploitation of
of indigenous species
A number of food products from forest/farm species species that have significant commercial
commercial potential
potential
have been described by Okafor (1991), Okafor
Okafor (1991), Okafor and
and Lamb
Lamb (1994),
(1994), Okafor
Okafor etet al.,
al., (1996a), and
(1996a), and
Ejiofor and Okafor
Ejiofor and (1997). The
Okafor (1997). The products
products include
include jams, jellies and
jams, jellies and fruit juice from Irvingia
Irvingia
gabonensis,
gabonensis, Chtysophyllum albidum;non-alcoholic
Cluysophyllum albidum; non-alcoholicbeverages
beveragesfrom fromthe
the powdered
powdered fruits
fruits of
drinks from
Treculia africana, health drinks
Treculia from seeds
seeds of Garcinia kola and calyx of of Hibiscus
Hibiscus sabdariffa
and seasoning
and seasoning from
from seeds
seeds of
of Piper
Pipergttineensis,
guineensis, Monodora
Monodora myristica,
myristica, Xylopia
Xylopia spp.
spp. etc.
Medicinal preparations
preparations from
from plant
plant parts
parts include
include balm
balm for
for arthritis
arthritis using leaves
leaves of Cassia tora,
tora,
and
and an
an anti-malaria
anti-malaria teatea using
using Morinda
Morinda lucida,
lucida, Azadirachta indica, Carica
Azadirachta indica, Carica papaya
papaya andand
citratus. Medicated herbal soaps can be made with leaves of various species such
Cymbopogon citratus.
Cymbopogon
as Aloe
Aloe vera,
vera, Cassia alata,
alata, Azadirachta
Azadirachta indica
indica and
and Lonchocarpus
Lonchocarpus cyanescens.
cyanescens. The
The commercial
commercial
exploitation of these species
species results
results in increased
increased revenues
revenues and
and health
health care
care benefits.
benefits. The
The value
value of
of
these
these products
products has
has implications for both development
implications for potential and
development potential and the need
need for
for large-scale
large-scale
of the species on which they are based.
conservation of
Lessons from
Lessons from the projects
The future
future of NWFP research,
research, development and utilization
development and utilization in
in Southeastern
Southeastern Nigeria
Nigeria and
and other
other
tropical
tropical regions,
regions, can
can be
be favourably
favourably affected
affected by
by the
the lessons
lessons learned
learned from
from the research outlined
above. These are summarised as follows:
CD There is great
There great potential
potential for
for the
the commercial
exploitation ofof nutritional
nutritional and
and medicinal
medicinal
uses of biodiversity, thereby justifying their large scale development
development and and conservation.
conservation.
Local participation isis greatly
greatly enhanced
enhanced if if the
the objectives
objectives ofof the
the project
project are
are geared
geared toto the
needs and priorities of the local people who themselves have a great deal of of indigenous
knowledge of their socio-economic setting.
The supply
supply of various
various inputs
inputs and conservation education isis necessary
conservation education necessary to to promote
promote thethe
conservation and sustainable utilization of of indigenous species
species in
in rural
rural communities.
communities.
Financial
Financial support
support andand other
other incentives are are required stimulate and
required to stimulate and sustain
sustain
conservation interest among local people.
There are prospects for employment opportunities through the development of nursery
opportunities through
among participating
procedures among participating farmers
farmers and
and their
their families.
families.
Fainters
Farmers are able
able to
to prioritize
prioritize their
their production
production constraints,
constraints, including
including lack
lack ofof cash,
cash,
labour, land, planting materials, and improved propagation methods.
Plant propagation techniques
techniques areare useful
useful for ex-situ conservation of forest
ex-situ conservation forest and derived
savanna species
savanna species inin home
home gardens
gardens and and distant
distant farms.
farms. This
This maymay counteract
counteract the
unsustainable exploitationofofwild
unsustainable exploitation wild resources
resourcesdue due toto large
large demands
demands for food food andand
medicinal materials.
Suggested action plan
In view of the tremendous

ill importance of
tremendous importance of food
food and
and medicinal
medicinal plants
plants and
and the
the attendant
attendant loss
loss of
biodiversity due
biodiversity due to deforestation
deforestation andand population
population pressure,
pressure, the
theconservation
conservationneeds/problems
needs/problems
identified during
identified during these
these studies
studies such
such asas access
access totonatural
naturalforest/woodland,
forest/woodland, thethe increasing
increasing
difficulty of procurement of plant samples and the need for aa coherant
difficulty coherant conservation
conservation awareness
awareness
campaign, need to be addressed on a continuous basis. Prioritized suggestions for the increased
campaign,
use of medicinal
use and food
medicinal and food plants
plants in the
the rural
rural economy
economy of of the
the local
local populace
populace should
should be
be
developed in
developed in consonance
consonance withwith the
the perceptions
perceptions of local
local people,
people, at the
the individual,
individual, community,
community,
local government,
government, state,
state, national,
national, and
and at
at international
international levels
levels (Okafor,
(Okafor, 1998). Examples of
1998). Examples of such
such
suggestions include:
129
129
• Training and information
information sharing;
sharing;
• Organising and financing
financing awareness
awareness campaigns
campaigns through
through workshops
workshops involving
involving community
community
leaders;
• Organising enlightenment campaigns to generate awareness awareness on on the
the economic
economic andand ecological
ecological
importance of of medicinal andand food
food plants;
plants;
• The enaction of of by-laws
by-laws for
for protection
protection and
and conservation
conservation ofof the
the flora
flora from
from bush
bush burning
burning and
and
indiscriminate clearing;
clearing;
• The support of of conservation
conservation initiatives
initiatives of
of local
local communities
communities e.g. fetish grovesgroves (Okafor
(Okafor and
and
Ladipo, 1994);
Ladipo,1994);
• The formation of of village
village conservation committees;
committees;
• The provision
provision of support to local local and
and national
national herbaria
herbaria for documentation
documentation of the national
national
flora;
• The facilitation
The facilitation of training
training of of requisite
requisite personnel
personnel forfor taxonomic,
taxonomic, ecological
ecological and
ethnobotanical inventories
ethnobotanical inventories andand studies,
studies, of
of forests
forests and
and woodlands,
woodlands, in in order to assess
assess and
and
demonstrate their conservation and and socio-economic
socio-economic values.
values.
Figure
Figure1.1.Rattan
Rattandrying
drying(Photo:
(Photo:T.T.SLmderland).
Sunderland).
8. Conclusions
Conclusions and
and recommendations
local farmers
Involving local farmers inin the
theconservation
conservationand
andevaluation
evaluationofofthe
theuse
useofof NWFPs has been
NIANFPs been shown
shown
to be a viable strategy for research,
research, development and enhancement of the utilization
utilization potential
potential ofof
indigenous woody
indigenous woody species
species in in Southeastern
Southeastern Nigeria.
Nigeria. This
This work
work has
has shown
shown that
that there
there isis an
an urgent
urgent
need
need for increased
increased applied
applied research
research responding
responding toto the
the needs,
needs, opportunities
opportunities andand constraints
constraints
actually faced by farmers
actually faced farmers themselves. These efforts
themselves. These efforts should
should focus
focus onon helping
helping to to identify
identify
changing demands and
changing demands and emerging
emerging novelnovel products
products that
that farmers
farmers could
could exploit.
exploit. The
The potential
potential of of
many of the selected
selected species
species for for agroforestry
systems should be further explored for for increased
increased
sustainable production and environmental protection (Okafor. (Okafor, 1989, 1990b, 1992; Shepherd and
Okafor, 1991).
1991).
130
130
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Okafor J.C. Int. Tree
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1981a. Woody plants of
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nutritional importance
importance in in traditional
traditional farming
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edible woody forest species of
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1994. Fetish groves in the conservation
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132
THE MANAGEMENT FOREST RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT OF FOREST
BY LOCAL PEOPLE AND THE STATE
IN GABON
Jean-Pierre Profizi
Abstract
The
The management of NWFPs
management of in Gabon
NWFPs in Gabon highlights the role of
highlights the of well-developed
well-developed markets for
markets for
forest products that contribute to the increased
increased pressure
pressure on
on the
the natural
natural environment.
environment. A A strong
strong
rural exodus and high revenues have combined to increase the rate of of harvesting
harvesting of
ofNWFPs,
NWFPs,
especially near urban centres, for high-value products such as rattan. The concept of of resource
management through
management through the
the negotiation
negotiation of contracts
contracts involving
involving all
all user-groups
user-groups is the main focus
of the framework of the current Gabonese forestry legislation reform.
1. Introduction
In Central
In Central Africa,
Africa, the management
management of of forest
forest resources
resources byby local people has deeply
deeply altered
altered
during the
during the past
past few
few decades. Gabon isis a good
decades. Gabon good example
example ofof this
this change
change in forest use.
use. The
country is
country is 80%
80% covered by forest
forest and one of the
the most
most forested
forested countries
countries of
of the
the region
region (See
(See
Map 1).
1). The majority
majority of these
these forests
forests are
are rich
rich in
in okoumé
okoume (Aucoumea klaineana), a species
(Aucoumea klaineana), species
international markets for the manufacture of
prized in international of high quality plywood.
plywood.
Gabon has
Gabon has been
been subject
subject to intensive
intensive rural de-population and today,
de-population and today, around
around 75%
75% of the
the
population live in urban areas, especially in the Libreville and Port-Gentil areas
areas (See
(See Map
Map 2).
2).
This population drift from rural areas has also been accompanied by the grouping of villages
along
along roads
roads and rivers
rivers (see Map 3).
3). The obvious consequences
consequences of this mass migration are the
presence
presence of an imbalance
imbalance in population
population numbers between towns
numbers between towns and
and the remaining
remaining rural
rural
regions.
2. Traditional, modern and industrial forest management
With regard to NWFPs, it isis common

common to distinguish
distinguish two
two types
types of
of environmental
environmental management
management
by local people.
people. One is considered
considered "traditional"
"traditional" and
and the
the other "modern". In addition to
other "modern". to these
these
forms
forms of forest
forest management,
management, large commercial
commercial concerns
concerns apply "industrial" management
management of
some forest products with the support of the state (See Figure 1).
1). '
The "traditional"
The "traditional" management
management system
system isis linked
linked toto the survival
survival of individuals
individuals andand
communities in the equatorial forest environment which is considered
considered innately hostile
hostile but
but is
is aa
regular and limitless
regular limitless supplier of plant and animals products. This
animals products. This system is characterised by by
mobile and diffuse harvesting,
mobile low impact on the environment and little
harvesting, low little exchange,
exchange, either
either in
in
terms barter or monetary remuneration, with outside parties. This
terms of barter or monetary remuneration, with outside parties. This form of traditional
of traditional
management is is practised by the majority of forest people for a wide range of forest products.
contrary, the "modern" management

On the contrary, resources is characterised by intensive
management of forest resources intensive
harvesting
harvesting and
and exploitation,
exploitation, with products
products being channelled
channelled through organised
organised and
and well-
well-
established marketing
established routes. In
marketing routes. In general,
general, the revenues
revenues from forest
forest products
products are
are commonly
commonly
low,
low, badly distributed, with little control by the state. However, often such exploitation is the
sole cash
sole cash income
income of rural
rural people
people and
and often
often the
the need
need for
for immediate
immediate cash
cash means
means that
that
destructive harvesting systems are often practised.
133
Map
Map 1:
1: a)
a)Distribution
Distributionofofdense
denseforest-
forest- and
and savannah
savannah forest
forest areas
areas in
in Central
Central and
and West
WestAfrica,
Africa,
and wood
and wood exports
exports of major
major exporting countries; b)
exporting countries; b) Member
Member states
states of the African
African Timber
Timber
Organization (ATO,
Organization (ATO, headquarter
headquarter in
in Libreville);
Libreville); c)
c) Ranking
Ranking of countries withwith highest
highest forest
forest
cover rate (forest
(forest area
area as
as percentage
percentage of
of country).
country).
(R.Pourtier, 1995 -- Atlas
(R.Pourtier, 1995 Atlas de
de la zone
zone franc
franc en
en Afrique
Afrique sub-saharienne, Ministere de
sub-saharienne, Ministere de la
la
Cooperation, La Documentation Francaise, Paris, 1995). 1995).
a)
NIGER
MALI
TCHAD
BURKINA .J SOUDAN
SOU DAN
GUINEE, FASO
BISSAU GUINEE
SIERRA' NIGERIA
CÔTE
LEONE IR
REP
LIBERIA CENTRAFRICAINE
foret-savane
foret dense
forèt
mangrove
360 1000
500 km
exportation en milliersde
en milliers m3 (1993)
dem3 (1993)
b) c)
oo 10 20 30 40 50
50 60 70 80
Gabon
Guinee Equat.
Guinée Equal.
Congo
Zaire
ZaTre
Centrafrique
LIBER
ANA
GLIINEE EQ. Liberia
-"t ZAIRE Cameroun

tTANZANI f-
Ghana 1
Tanzanie
Tanzania l
Cote
Cqte d'ivoire
d'Ivoire
!=-- I _ I'UDEAC
pays de l'UDEAC
• Libreville (siege
(siege de
de l'OAB
Organisation Africalne
I'OAB
Africaine du Bois) \
Angola
I [j I'UEMOA
pays de l'UEMOA
Nigeria
Nigeria ' .....•.•.
I ~_ .J
[77.1 Pays hors
Pays hors zone franc
134
Map 2:2: Population
Population migration
migration of
of rural
rural people
people towards
towards Libreville
Libreville and Port-Gentil,
Port-Gentil, and their
respective amount in the total number ofof habitants of
of these 2 cities. (in
(in R.
R. Pourtier,
Pourtier, Le
Le Gabon,
Gabon,
L'Harmattan, Paris, 1989).
LHarmattan,
~
~; population
population née
n~e dans
dans la
la regiOn
region
base des
base triangtes
des triangles : 1 mm :: 1t 000
000 personnes
personn
L'ATTRACTION
L'ATIRACTION MIGRATOIRE NATIONALE
MIGRATOlRE NATION LII3REVILLEm'
DELIBREVILLE
ALE DE ETPORT-GENTIL.
PORT-GENTIL.
Population rcsidente
résidente scion
scIon Région
Region de naissance en 1970.
135
Map
Map 3:3: Difference
Difference of
ofpopulation
population density
density and
and distribution
distribution in
in Gabon
Gabon between
between 1940
1940 and
and 1970.
1970.
(in R. Pourtier, Le Gabon, LHarmattan, Paris, 1989).
1989).
DENSITB DU POPULATION
AU GALION
L'ESPACE LltffiAlRE
L/NRACRECOIITEMPORAIN.
CONTEMPORAIN.
DISTRIDtrrlON DB LA
DISTRIBUTION DE LA POPULATION
POPULATION AU
AU OOBtrr
DEBUT DES
DES ANNEEs 1940.
ANNÉES 1940.
R&luclion de la carte
Reduction 6tablie par
ewe EtaIdle par R. Delaroziereela Y.
R. Delaroziere Y. Thierry.
Thierry. ORSC 1944. Repartition par points
Répartition de 100
points de 100 hab, de 1.
hab. de la population des
des villages.
Situation 1970.
Situation
Map 4:4: Expanding

Expanding harvesting areas for
harvesting areas for rattan
rattan around the city
around the city of
of Libreville
Libreville along
along the
roads: I) Libreville
following roads: Libreville - Cap
Cap Esterias;
Esterias; II) Ntoum -- Cocobeach;
Cocobeach; III) Kougouleu -
III) Kougouleu
Medouneu.
136
Figure Overview of
Figure 1.1. Overview ofthe
the NWFP
NWFP sector
sectorin
in Gabon.
Gabon.
Subsistence strategy Commercial strategy

"Traditional" management
management "Modern" management
"Modern" management
(simplified overview)
Individuals, communities
communities maker (company)
decision maker (company)
harvesting harvesting done by

by employed
employed
self-consumption ----. surplus ____0,.

~
labour
intermediate
intermediate markets
markets
(volume accumlation)
traders
intermediate traders
final market
urban consumers
Socio-economic results: Socio-economic results:

- monitary incomes linked to - income: low along the chain
periodical surpluses, except for the decision
- NWFP are essential for maker (company),
harvester's livelihood, - NWFP not essential for
- regulation
regulationof
ofharvesting
harvesting levels
levels harvester's subsistence,
is strong and immediate. - harvesting is adjusted
according to
according to resource
availability.
Species concerned: Species concerned:
majority of known NWFP
NWIT only "commercial" NWFP
(rattan, Garcinia, leaves for
wrapping, ... )
wrapping,...)
In
In the
the case
case of
of rattan,
rattan, for
for example,
example, many
many harvesters have begun
harvesters have begun to
to be displaced
displaced due
due to
considerable over-exploitation
considerable over-exploitation along
along many
many of of the
the country's
country's main transport routes,
routes, especially
especially
the
the roads
roads from
from Libreville
Libreville toto Cap
Cap Esterias,
Esterias, Ntoum
Ntoum totoCocobeach
Cocobeach and,and, more
morerecently,
recently,
Kougouleu to
Kougouleu to Medouneu,
Medouneu, the the preferred
preferred areas
areas for
for harvesting
harvesting due
due to
to easy access to to the
the raw
raw
material. Exploitation now
material. now hashas to take place deeper into the forest and and the
the issues
issues of
ofresource
resource
managementare
management are rapidly
rapidly changing
changinginin asas much
much as as many
many local
local people
people areare now
now allowing
allowing
harvesters access to
harvesters access to the
the rattan
rattan on
on their
their forest
forest lands
lands and
and transporting
transporting itit to
to the roadside
roadside forfor
direct sale to rattan traders. Many communities
communities are are now
now able
able to
to make
make money
money from the accessaccess
to their land and are also able to monitor levels of rattan exploitation and transportation
transportation (See
(See
Map 4).
"Industrial" forest management isis practised by for-profit

for-profit concerns,
concerns, and is often supported
supported by
the state
the state for which
which it ensures
ensures considerable revenues.ItIthas
considerable revenues. hashad
had aa deep
deep impact
impact in
in the
the
exploitationofof forest
exploitation forest products
products and
and has
has increased the transition
increased the transition of
of local
local people
people from
from
"traditional" to
to more "modern"
"modern" management
management systems.
systems.
However, these classifications are limited as there

there is
is no
no general
general forest
forest resource
resourcemanagement
management
by local people. There
There isis aapatchwork
patchwork of
of behaviour
behaviour and practices whose diversity is linked to
product, to traditional property rights,
the species and the product, rights, to
to the country and local community
history, and to the organisation of channels of commercialisation and marketing.
137
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE PROMOTION OF
FOREST PRODUCTS
Mrs. G.E.
G.B. Burnley
Abstract
In Cameroon,
In as in many
Cameroon, as many other
other developing
developing countries,
countries, people atat the
the grassroots,
grassroots, especially
especially
women, are
women, are unaware
unaware of the majority
majority of the debates
debates on
on "the
"the changing
changing environment".
environment". It is
postulated that there are direct links between poverty and environmental
environmental degradation.
degradation. Recent
Recent
field experiences
experiences show that alternate means
means of making
making aa livelihood
livelihood can
can save
save the
the environment
environment
from resource
from resource over-exploitation
over-exploitation and degradation,
degradation, especially
especially when
when alternative
alternative income-
income-
generating activities are aimed primarily at at women.
women. This
This paper
paper discusses
discusses some
some of thethe projects
projects
undertaken by women in Southwest
Southwest (SW)
(SW) Province,
Province, Cameroon,
Cameroon, both
both on
on an an individual
individual basis
basis
and in groups
and groups aimed
aimed atatprotecting
protecting the
theenvironment
environment andandimproving
improvingtheir
theirsocio-economic
socio-economic
situation, as
situation, as well as
as gaining
gaining time
time for
for leisure
leisure and
andincreased
increased training
training opportunities.
opportunities. Some
Some
preliminary results are
preliminary results are presented,
presented, highlighting some of
highlighting some of the successes
successes and and associated
associated
problems.
Key words:
Key words: Women,
Women, poverty,
poverty, deforestation,
deforestation, environment
environment protection,
protection, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
products
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
In Cameroon, poverty and hardship,

hardship, following
following changes
changes in
in foreign
foreign trade
trade balances deepened in
balances deepened in
the early
the early 1990s
1990s with
with devaluation
devaluation of the the CFA
CFA franc
franc in
in1994
1994bringing
bringing further
further economic
economic
crisis" caused
difficulties. This "economic crisis" caused mass redundancy in the public and private private sectors,
sectors,
dismissals, salary cuts,
dismissals, salary cuts, early
early retirement
retirement andand freezing
freezing of assets,
assets, arrears
arrears and debts
debts owed
owed to to
people,
people, particularly
particularly civil servants. Many people
servants. Many people turned
turned to farming to to sustain
sustain their
their families
families
and consequently there has been significant
consequently there urban to rural migration.
significant urban migration. As forests have have been
been
cleared for subsistence
subsistence agriculture,
agriculture, the availability of products from the the original
original forest
forest such
such
as firewood,
firewood, forest fruits,
fruits, vegetables,
vegetables, leaves
leaves for
for wrapping,
wrapping, nuts,
nuts, seeds,
seeds, spices,
spices,medicines,
medicines,
stimulants
stimulants or craft materials has been been reduced.
reduced. In In addition,
addition, organised,
organised, yet
yet illegal,
illegal, fuelwood
fuel wood
merchants have destroyed private farms farms and
and forest
forest reserves
reserves inin public lands often felling trees,
including fruit and coffee trees
including fruit trees to
to supply
supply the
the market
market for
for fuelwood
fuelwood which
which sold
sold atatincreasing
increasing
prices
prices because
because of the high
high demand.
demand. Large trucks
trucks with
with firewood
firewood towering
towering high in in tottering
tottering
vehicles have become a common feature of our towns and cities.
To halt this fast-deteriorating situation, new forestry

situation, a new forestry law
law was
was passed in Cameroon in 1994
to define measures to be taken to ensure the wise management of forestry resources. The new
measures call for
measures call for the
the equitable
equitable sharing of benefits,
sharing of benefits, the
the sustainable and viable
sustainable and viable use
use of
of
resources, the enhancement of effective popular participation and the need for more more effective
effective
partnerships to
partnerships to surmount
surmount environmental difficulties. In
environmental difficulties. In particular,
particular, the new
new legislation
legislation has
has
targeted
targeted women
women as as playing an increasingly important role
increasingly important role in forest conservation
conservation and rural
development initiatives.
139
2. Organisation
Women's groups
Women's groups began
began timidly
timidly in colonial
colonial days
days and,
and, although
although becoming
becoming stagnant
stagnant in thethe
1970s and
1970s and 1980s,
1980s, have
have gained much ground
gained much ground in terms of numbers,
numbers, intensity
intensity of
of activities
activities and
and
political importance
importance in recent years.
years. Growing
Growing interest
interest in
in women's active role inin development
development
in
in the last
last few
few years
years culminated
culminated in
in aa massive
massive participation
participation and
and contribution
contribution of of Cameroon
Cameroon
women at Dakar, 1994, and at the Beijing Conference in 1995.
There
There are many
many international NGOs with
international NGOs with a strong
strong presence
presence in Cameroon,
Cameroon, such
such as
as the
the
Associated Country Women of the World, International Council of of Women,
Women, the
the International
International
Federation of Business
Business andand Professional
Professional Women,
Women, Soroptimist
Soroptimist International,
International, the
the Association
Association
for Creative
Creative Teaching
Teaching which
which waswas succeeded
succeeded byby Business
Business Enterprise
Enterprise Development
Development
(ACT/BEDO). There
(ACTIBEDO). There isis also aa plethora
plethora of
oflocal
localcommunity-based
community-based organisations,
organisations, common
common
initiative groups
initiative groups and
and co-operatives.
co-operatives. ManyMany of these groups
groups are
are involved
involved ininenvironmental
environmental
activities linking
activities linking the
the desire
desire for
for forest
forest conservation
conservation with
with the
the need
need toto support
support the
the family
family unit
unit
from forest-based activities.
3. Women and the cultivation of forest

forest products
The
The cultivation of fuelwood
cultivation of trees and
fuelwood trees and other forest products
other forest products byby women
women seemed
seemed to to be aa
practical way
practical way to help
help solve
solve one
one aspect
aspect ofof the
theenvironmental
environmental destruction
destruction by reducing
reducing the
pressure on the harvesting of
of wild stocks whilst providing substantial benefits
benefits to
to the
the family
family or
or
group concerned. Involving women
concerned. Involving women in in large
large numbers
numbers inin the cultivation and distribution of aa
wide
wide variety
variety of forest products
products seemed
seemed to to make
make sense
sense because
because women
women constituted
constituted the the vast
vast
majority of both farmers and end-users of many of the products concerned.
3.1. Fuelwood
Fish,
Fish, especially dried fish,
especially dried fish, a local
local staple
staple in
in many
many parts
parts of
of Cameroon,
Cameroon, has
has become
become very
very
expensive because firewood
firewood and charcoal are becoming rather scarcescarce and
and difficult
difficult to
to obtain.
obtain.
Women often have to travel far into the hills to collect twigs
twigs or
or wait
wait for
for the
the firewood
firewood dealers,
dealers,
illegal timber
illegal timber merchants,
merchants, to bring the
the overloaded
overloaded vehicles
vehicles with
with their
their merchandise.
merchandise. ManyMany
women's groups
groups identified the
the need and
and desire to cultivate
cultivate fast-growing fuelwood
fuel wood species on
their
their farms.
farms. To address this need,
address this need, a joint
joint Limbe
Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden and and Women
Women in in
Development/Business
DevelopmentlBusiness Environment Development initiative began in 1994 1994 with
with funding
funding from
from·
Africa 2000 and, more recently, thethe Rainforest Alliance.
The project began with the

the selection
selection and construction ofof a permanent nursery. Once
Once this
this was
was
established,
established, suitable species were selected,
selected, seed material
material for propagation
propagation was
was obtained
obtained and
and
many thousands of seedlings were raised.
raised. Technical training
training for
for extension workers
workers and other
interest groups as
interest groups as well
well as
as advice
advice on
on planting
planting and
and care
care preceded
preceded the
the distribution
distribution of thethe
seedlings
seedlings to a wide range of women's groups,
groups, often in demonstration workshops.
demonstration workshops. The extent
of planting
planting and preliminary results are discussed
preliminary results discussed below.
below. InIn addition
addition to the
the distribution
distribution of
of
seedlings, improved wood stoves have also been introduced to ensure fuel fuel wood
wood economy
economy by by
both domestic and commercial users.
3.2. Medicinal plants, stimulants

stimulants and
and spices
spices
Many
Many forest
forest products
products which were once
which were once cheaply
cheaply obtained in the
obtained in the market
market are
are becoming
becoming
increasingly scarce and prohibitively expensive.
expensive. It has long been proposed that many of these
products could be easily cultivated
products could cultivated in home
home gardens for both subsistence
gardens for subsistence use and
and possible
possible
sale.
sale. In aa series
series of
of workshops,
workshops, a wide
wide range
range of
of forest
forest products
products were
were introduced
introduced to
to many
many
women's
women's groups
groups during excursions toto the
during excursions the Botanic
Botanic Gardens, where they
Gardens, where they could
could see
see for
for
140
themselves the
themselves the possibility of cultivating many
many of the plants
plants they
they knew
knew well
well from
from the
the forest.
forest.
This was especially the case with many medicinal
This medicinal plants,
plants, notably
notably those
those species
species of
of aa "general"
nature, stimulants such as kola nuts and a number of forest
nature, forest spices,
spices, many
many of which
which areare integral
integral
Cameroonian cuisine.
to Cameroonian cuisine. This
This has
has led
led to a visible increase in ih the expanding of manymany kitchen
oardens and
gardens and compound farms, both
compound farms, both in
in terms
terms of size
size and
and diversity.
diversity. Many
Many of of the
the women
women
involved
involved inin this activity
activity state that the benefits
benefits include a drop in health
health care
care expenditure
expenditure as as
more traditional
more traditional home remedies are available. In addition, the high high value
value of
of many
many medicinal
medicinal
plants, local
plants, local spices and kola
kola nuts
nuts mean
mean that
that aa surplus
surplus beyond
beyond immediate
immediate home
home consumption
consumption
provides aa significant
provides income to
significant income to the
the household
household and and many
many of these products
products are prepared,
prepared,
packaged and sold in local shops or market
market stalls.
A number
A number of medicinal
medicinal andand spice
spice tree
tree crops,
crops, including
including Prunus
Prunus africana,
africana, have
have also
also been
been
successfully introduced
successfully introduced intointo capital
capital extensive
extensive cultivation systems managed
cultivation systems managed by by women's
women's
groups (see Nkefor et al.,
groups ai. , this
this volume).
volume). This
This isis an
an indication
indication that
that many
many of
ofthe
theco-operatives
co-operatives
are concerned with the long-term
long-term benefits of of cultivation as wellwell as immediate
immediate profits.
3.3. Fruit
3.3. Fruit trees
A number
A number of high-value
high-value and
and high-yielding fruit trees
high-yielding fruit trees have
have been
been propagated
propagated as as part
part of
of this
this
programme and distributed
programme and distributed to
to many women's groups
many women's groups andand individuals. Species such
individuals. Species such as bush
bush
mango (Irvingia gabonensis) and bush
mango (lrvingia bush plum
plum (Dacryodes
(Dacryodes edulis)
edulis) are
are extremely
extremely popular
popular and
and
provide potential for income
income generation
generation through
through the sale ofof surplus
surplu s fruits
fruits after
after harvesting.
harvesting.
Figure 1. Non-Wood
Figure 1. Non-WoodForest
Forestproducts
productson
onsale
saleatataalocal
localmarket
market (Photo:
(Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland) .
141
3.4. Eru (Gnetum
3.4. africanum)
(Gnetuin ajricanuln)
Foo-foo and
. Foo-foo and eru
eru is popular
popular throughout Cameroon and
throughout Cameroon and isis an important
important component
component of of the
the
national cuisine.
national cuisine. Demand
Demandfor foreru
eru has
has reached
reachedthe the point
point that
that itit is now
now being
being exported
exported to
neighbouring countries
neighbouring countrieslike
like Nigeria
Nigeria and,
and, from
from there,
there, further
further afield
afield toto Europe andand North
North
America (See
America (See Tabuna,
Tabuna, this
this volume).
volume). The
The leaves
leaves of of eru
eru fetch
fetch very
very high
high prices
prices and
and the high
demand has increased
demand has increased pressure
pressure onon this
this non
non timber forest product
timber forest product which
which is fast
fast becoming
becoming
locally extinct in many areas (See Shiembo, this volume).
volume). Cultivation trials have proved very very
successful. Eru, as
successful. Eru, as a fast growing climber using
using the
the planted trees
trees asas support,
support, provides another
valuable component to the tree-planting
tree-planting programme.
programme.
4. Some Results
Target villages in SW Province: Activities and progress to date
Wovia Lysoke Munyenge Banga-Bakundu

1995: 600 seedlings 1996: 1995: planting of 400
1995: 1995: 1st and 2nd
distributed but were lost Distribution of 600 seedlings of Terminalia distribution of
of 600
in the nursery stage. Cedrela odorata superba
sllperba and
and Cedrela Prunus
Przmus africana
seedlings for fuelwood.
fuel wood. odorata in
in forest
forest planted 5m apart
planted 5m apart in
in aa 11
Planted between small-
small- completely devastated hectare land inside a
scale oil-palm and by timber exploitation,
exploitation. valley bounded on each
rubber farms.
farms. Height of 2nd visit in 1998. Trees side by palm and rubber
plant on inspection 33 in very good condition, plantations.
metres (average). All 98% survival, fast State offarm
State of farm- 60%
60%
plantings presently in growing at 11 metre survival, weedy. Small
good state. annually; in a well
well family farm with
1998: Distribution 450
1998: managed state. insufficient labour
of Prunus africana force.
seedlings. Still in Trees of
of varying
varying sizes
sizes
nursery provided by with a mean height of of
villagers due to late 85cm.
arrival of rains. All in Advised on the need for
good state - will be more labour, clearing
planted soon following and mulching with palm
planting demonstration cones.
workshop.
5. Conclusions
In many villages, women have

villages, women have difficulty
difficulty owning
owning land.
land. The
The planting
planting of trees
trees on farmland is a
traditional claim
traditional claim to
to ownership
ownership for
for many
many cultural
cultural groups
groups and
and this
this programme,
programme, through
through
encouraging women in planting trees, has also allowed them to own land for the first time.
time.
In addition to problems of tenure, to improve the programme we need to:

to:
.. Encourage backyard/kitchen gardens and small tree plantations of of NWFP;

NWFP;
• Encourage cultivation ofof marshes, riverbanks and fringes of
of villages;
villages;
• Use easily managed multipurpose tree-seedlings
tree-seedlings known
known to
to villagers
villagers for
for fuel
fuel and other
uses rather than exotic
uses exotic species,
species, beginning
beginning with
with fast
fast growing
growing species
species for
for quick
quick
financial returns.
142
THE MANAGEMENT OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
IN PROTECTED AREAS:
LESSONS FROM A CASE STUDY
LESSONS STUDY OF
OF MULTIPLE-USE
MULTIPLE-USE IN
BWINDI IMPENETRABLE NATIONAL
NATIONAL PARK,
PARK, UGANDA
UGANDA
A.B. Cunningham
1. Introduction
A primary goalgoal of this CARPE

CARPE meeting is to assess
meeting is assess the
the potential
potential role
role ofofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest
product (NWFP) use in contributing to forest forest conservation.
conservation. In this
this presentation,
presentation, the the example
example
of the
the multiple-use
multiple-use programme
programme at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
Impenetrable National Park (BINP),
(B INP) , Uganda,
Uganda, isis
used to illustrate
illustrate the potential
potential and
and pitfalls
pitfalls ofof processes
processes leading
leading toto NWFP
NWFP use use within
within
protected areas.
protected areas. AsAs we
we all hope to to conclude
conclude this meeting
meeting with aa series
series ofof pragmatic
pragmatic "take
"take
home messages"
home messages" thatthat will
will help organisations
organisations andand individuals interested in
individuals interested in this issue
issue move
move
forward in policy
forward policy andand practice,
practice, II have
have structured
structured this
this paper
paper by
by stating
stating a series
series of points (the
"take home messages"), illustrating each one one through
through examples
examples from
from the
the B1NP
BINP case-study
case-study oror
from other cases. In this process, I hope that this paper may sharpen the focus of of the
the CARPE
CARPE
programme's
programme's goalsgoals of identifying
identifying the most
most promising
promising forest
forest products,
products, thethe most
mostpromising
promising
conditions and
conditions and exploitation systems which
exploitation systems which lead
lead to forest conservation
conservation through
through NWFP use, use,
rather than
than aa situation
situation where
where aapolicy
policyofofincreased
increaseduse useofofNVVFPs
NWFPs leads to species-selective
species-selective
over-exploitation of the "most valued, most vulnerable" sub-set of NWFPs.
By taking Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Impenetrable National Park and
and its
its Afromontane
Afromontane forest
forest as
as a case-study,
case-study, I
able to highlight the
am able the potential and many pitfalls
pitfalls of NWFPs
NWFPs which may not yet be evident
in massive
massive forested
forested areas such
such as
as the
the Zaire
Zaire basin
basinororAmazonia
Amazoniawhere
wherehuman
humanpopulation
population
densities are
are 1-10
1-10 people/km2. Secondly, it is
people/km2. Secondly, is located near the border
border of
of Uganda,
Uganda, Rwanda
Rwanda andand
the Democratic Republic of Congo
Democratic Republic Congo (former Zaire) in aa region
(former Zaire) region characterised
characterised by
by political
political
instability as much as by endemic species.
2. Location and historical background

background to
to the
the case-study
case-study
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, while

while large
large (330 km2) by comparison to most remaining
(330 km2) rem~ining
Afromontane forests (generally
Afromontane forests (generally <1-20
<1-20 km2
km2 in in size) is still relatively
size) is relatively small
small compared
compared toto
lowland tropical forests
forests and is surrounded
surrounded by 100-320 people/km2. As
100-320 people/km2. As aa result,
result, due to high
high
demand
demand and lower stocks of somesome species,
species, it provides
provides aa very
very useful
useful case-study
case-study from
from which
which
valuable lessons can
valuable lessons can be
be drawn
drawn so that NWFP
NWFP policy is cautioned by practice.
policy is practice. At the
the same
same
time, is important to recognise that the extensive and more sparsely populated lowland
time, it is important to recognise that the extensive and more sparsely populated lowland
forests in the
the CARPE
CARPE region ofof interest
interest offer
offer the
the greater
greater opportunity
opportunity for
for harvest
harvest due
due to
to large
large
stocks and lower local (but not necessarily international) demand
demand for
for NWFPs.
NWFPs.
In 1990, a public inquiry around Bwindi Impenetrable Forest recorded strong strong local
local opposition
opposition
to the creation
creation ofof aa national
national park,
park, primarily
primarily because
because local
local people
people believed
believed they
they would
would be
be
deprived of the use of
deprived of forest
forest resources
resources (Hamilton
(Hamilton et et al.,
ai., 1990)
1990) so
so that
that "white
"white people
people can
can
watch gorillas" (Wild and Mutebi, 1996). 1996). Nevertheless, in 1991,
1991, Bwindi
Bwindi Impenetrable
Impenetrable forest
forest
changed its
changed its status
status from
from a forest
forest reserve
reserve to
to aa national
national park.
park. With
With this
this proclamation
proclamation came
came aa
rapid change
rapid change from
from easy
easy access
access toto forest
forest resources
resources during
duringaa 1515 year
year period
period of turmoil
turmoil in
Uganda (during the Amin/Obote period), period), to
to the
the situation where access to any forest resources
was stopped. By By 1990,
1990, following
following recommendations
recommendations made by Butynski (1984), the destructive
activities of agricultural clearing, pit-sawing and gold mining in Bwindi Bwindi Forest
Forest Reserve
Reserve were
were
143
stopped and in 1991
stopped 1991 Bwindi
Bwindi Impenetrable forest was
Impenetrable forest was declared
declared aa national
national park.
park. Consistent
Consistent
with national
with park legislation
national park legislation in
in many
many parts
parts of
of the
the world, this change
world, this change of legal status
status also
precluded natural
precluded natural resource
resource use
use within
within the
the boundaries
boundaries of thethe national
national park.
park. The result was an
upsurge of public opinion against the new
upsurge new national
national park
park from
from thethe surrounding
surrounding community
community.
This was stimulated
This stimulated onon one
one hand
hand by loss
loss of access to forest
forest resources
resources and on on the
the other
other by
by
some foresters
some being embittered
foresters being embittered by by loss
loss of revenue
revenue from
from illegal
illegal timber
timber loggers
loggers andand gold-
gold-
miners in Bwindi forest.
forest. A consequence of thisthis was
was increased firefire damage
damage through little or no
community
community control
control of accidental
accidental fires
fires or arson
arson in
in the dry season of late-1991
late-1991 and early 1992.
1992.
Fire
Fire thus
thus became
became a significant threat to
significant threat to parts
parts of the
the national
national park.
park. It was
was under
under these
these
circumstances that networking and resource management planning at aa local local community
community level
level
first began.
To some extent conflict is inherent

inherent in
in any
any protected
protected area
area management
management programme
programme due due toto the
the
difference between
difference between the
the long-term
long-term goals
goals of conservation
conservation and
and peoples
peoples shorter-term
shorter-term needs.
needs.
These conflicts increase with higher human population densities, higher arable potential soilssoils
and with resource scarcity. Richard Bell (1987) points out
out with
with his characteristic
characteristic clarity:
clarity:
"Any programme that emphasises

Any programme emphasises long-term
long-term communal
communal benefits
benefits atat the expense
expense of
ofshort-term
short-term
individual benefits will
individual benefits will meet
meet with
with resistance. The problems
resistance. The problems and
and costs
costs of
ofconservation
conservation are
are
proportional to the extent of the
proportional the conflict
conflict between these two sets of interests.
interests. For aa conservationist
conservationist
programme to
programme develop and survive
to develop survive without
without external
external enforcement,
enforcement, the
the benefits
benefits conferred
conferred must
must be
real and they must
must not
notbe
belong
longdelayed"
delayed"(Bell,
(Bell, 1987).
Multiple use, not just

just of
of NWETs,
NWFPs, but but through
through other
other consumptive
consumptive and and non-consumptive
non-consumptive uses
plays
plays an important
important part in this this process.
process. InIn 1992,
1992, aasurvey
surveyaround
around BINP
BINP recommended
recommended aa
"middle-road" where use of of high-value,
high-value, low-impact resources (bee-keeping,
(bee-keeping, medicinal plants plants
and basketry fibre use) should
should bebe permitted
permitted within
within multiple-use
multiple-use zones
zones (Cunningham,
(Cunningham, 1992). 1992).
In theory, two approaches
theory, two approaches could
could bebe taken.
taken. First,
First, not
not to
to allow
allow any
any use
use of
of wild
wild plants
plants by by local
local
people until potential sustainable
sustainable yields had had been determined.
determined. However,
However, this
this was
was not
not practical
practical
given the diversity species and
diversity of species and short
short time
time needed
needed before
before decisions
decisions had
had toto be
be made
made on on the
the
people/protected area
people/protected area conflict
conflict. TheThe second
second option
option is to to take
take ananadaptive
adaptivemanagement
management
approach, allowing harvesting
approach, allowing harvesting and and monitoring
monitoring the the response
response of harvested
harvested populations
populations as as
described by Walters (1986). In
described by Walters (1986). In the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park case, we took
Bwindi hnpenetrable National Park case, we took an
approach mid-way between these two options. options. Neither
Neither the money,
money, thethe time
time nor
nor the manpower
manpower
were
were available
available for determining
determining productivity
productivity or sustainable
sustainable yields
yields of all
all harvested
harvested species.
species.
Equally, it would
would have
have been
beencounterproductive
counterproductive to repeat repeat over-exploitation
over-exploitation problemsproblems
experienced elsewhere
experienced elsewhere in Africa with building poles (Hall (Hall and
and Rodgers,
Rodgers, 1986;
1986; Muir,
Muir, 1990),
1990),
craftwork resource or medicinal
medicinal plants (Cunningham
(Cunningham and and Milton,
Milton, 1987;
1987; Cunningham,
Cunningham, 1991) 1991)
or fuelwood (Leach and
fuelwood (Leach and Mearns,
Mearns, 1989).
1989). IfIf harvesting
harvestingisis not
not sustainable,
sustainable, thenthen itit is
is a false
false
land-use conflict by putting off the real solutions
solution providing brief respite from land-use solutions to to the
the
problem.
For this reason,

reason, the
the CARE
CARE Development
Development Through
Through Conservation
Conservation Programme
Programme (DTC),
(DTC) , which
which
supports the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA)(UWA) in implementing this integrated conservation
and development project (ICDP),
(ICDP), has placed an emphasis on providing
providing viable
viable alternatives
alternatives to
to
high volume
volume uses
uses such as fuelwood, building materials and bean-stakes outside the the national
national
park through agroforestry and rural development programmes
programmes (Wild and Mutebi, 1996).
1996). The
UM/A
UWA and and the
the Uganda
Uganda Forest
Forest Department recognised that
Department recognised that the
the needs
needs of
ofneighbouring
neighbouring
communities
communities have to be considered and met, met, if protected areas are to have a long
long term
term future.
Methods
Methods developed
developed to to meet
meet these
these needs
needs include, the sharing
include, the sharing of
of tourism
tourism revenues,
revenues,
activities in
development activities
development in park
park adjacent
adjacent areas, conservation education
areas, conservation education and
and resource
resource
utilisation.
144
3. "Take
"Take home
home messages"
Point 1:
1: When
When NWFP
NWFP useuse forms
forms part
partofofaamultiple-use
multiple-use (and
(and conflict
conflict resolution)
resolution) strategy
strategy
between local communities
between communities and and protected
protected areas,
areas, we
we must
must seek a "middle-road" between the
"middle-road" between the
"fences
"fences and fines"
fines" preservationist
preservationist approach
approach and
and "conservation"
"conservation" programmes
programmes driven
driven almost
solely by short-term
short-term benefits
benefits through "people's participation" which
"people's participation" which take no account
account ofof the
the
local peoples resource needs the long-term. A short-term approach may provide aa
local peoples resource needs in the long-term. A short-term approach may provide
temporary "bonanza"
temporary "bonanza"ofof resources
resourcesnow now scarce
scarce outside
outside the
the protected
protected area,
area, but
but itit will
undermine the primary goal of any protected area, i.e. the maintenance of of habitat
habitat and
and species
species
diversity. The
diversity. The common
common ground
ground isis that if aa valued
valued but
but vulnerable
vulnerable resource
resource is
is overexploited,
overexploited,
local people and conservation both lose out.
out.
Over the past few decades and particularly since the late 1980s, there has been aa strong strong move
away from
away from a "fences and fines"
fines" preservationist
preservationist approach
approach to to protected areas to one
one stressing
stressing
sustainable use
sustainable use and
and community development.This
community development. Thisbroader
broaderapproach
approachisis evident
evident in in the
the
different IUCN
different IUCN categories
categories of of Protected
Protected Areas
Areas which
which were
were developed
developed in the mid-1980s
mid-1980s and and
recently modified at the the IV
N World
World Congress
Congress on on National
National Parks
Parks and
and Protected
Protected Areas
Areas inin1992.
1992.
part, this
In part, this change
change in in approach
appmach to to conservation
conservation came
came through
through the
the recognition
recognition thatthat
conservation attempts to
conservation attempts to maintain
maintain the
the integrity
integrity of
of protected
protected areas
areas by
by excluding all types
excluding all types of
local
local community interaction and
community interaction and use
use has largely
largely been
been unsuccessful
unsuccessful (Wells
(Wells and
and Brandon,
Brandon,
1992).
1992). InIn some
some cases, the the pendulum
pendulum has swung
swung so so far
far towards
towards the
thelocal
localcommunity/rural
community/rural
development
development side side that
that Katrina
Katrina Brandon
Brandon (1997)
(1997) recently
recently wrote
wrote that
that "the
"the majority
majority of of
conservation programmes are in fact large and complicated social social programmes" and and that
that "the
"the
attention
attention to sustainable
sustainable development
development and and poverty
poverty alleviation,
alleviation, while
while important,
important, does
does notnot
address environmental issues. If anything,
environmental issues. these concerns
anything, these concerns broaden
broaden the agenda and dilute the
message". Oates' (1995) cautionary tale from a forest conservation programme in Nigeria is a
message".
good example of of this.
We need to
We to be
be able
able totolook
lookbeyond
beyondthe thesmokescreen
smokescreen of of "bio-politics"
"bio-politics" and
and untangle
untangle thethe
complex interplay
complex interplay of ecological,
ecological, political,
political, religious,
religious, economic
economic and and social
social undercurrents
undercurrents
behind successful
successful or failed
failed examples
examples of of resource
resource conservation.
conservation. There has has been
been too
too much
much
generalisation on a range of of very
very diverse
diverse and
and dynamic
dynamic situations.
situations. For
For every
every claim
claim that
that "rural
"rural
people have
have sophisticated
sophisticated systems
systems ofof natural
natural resources
resources management
management whichwhich have
have maintained
maintained
biodiversity for
biodiversity for thousands
thousands of years"
years" and that "people living
living adjacent to protected areas have
found themselves
found deprivedof
themselves deprived of resources
resourceswhich
whichforforthousands
thousandsofofyearsyears they
they had
had aa right
right to
to
utilise" (lIED,
utilise" (TIED, 1994),
1994), there
there are
are cases
cases where
where local
local people
people have
have destroyed
destroyed high
high diversity
diversity
habitats, or where the people living adjacent to protected areas are are recent
recent migrants.
migrants.
The recent
recent pendulum
pendulum swing
swing back
back to
to "preservationism"
"preservationism" called
called for
for by
by several
several prominent
prominent
expatriate biologists who have worked in the tropics (Kramer, van SchaikSchaik and
and Johnson,
Johnson, 1997)
1997)
is unworkable
unworkable anywhere
anywhere inin tropical
tropical Africa.
Africa. Reasons
Reasons for
for this
this are
are that protected
protected areas
areas need
need to
to
be maintained under circumstances of political turmoil, lack of funds, changes of of government
and a "brain
and "brain drain"
drain" of senior
senior park staff
staff -- with
with expatriates
expatriates often those who leave
leave first and
fastest. As Jonathan Kingdon
Kingdon (1990)
(1990) points
points out:
out:
""...the
... the realities
realities of
of power
power are
are exactly
exactly the opposite
opposite to those perceived by most of the participants
participants of
this struggle to conserve key areas of of high
high endemism
endemism and biodiversity because the long-term future
future
of Africa's
of Africa's Centres
Centres of Endemism
Endemism lies with with local
local peasantries
peasantries rather more
more than
than with
with transient
transient
governments or
governments or enthusiastic
enthusiastic conservationists,
conservationists, yet
yet locals
locals seldom
seldomreceive
receive the
the respect
respect that
that isis generally
generally
accorded to
accorded to those that
that wield
wield power.
power. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, both populations
populations and resentments
resentments grow
grow ..... The
conservationists' answers should not lie inin propaganda campaigns, which are are generally
generally seen
seen forfor what
what
they
they are,
are, but
but in
in aashared
sharedgrowth
growth ofofknowledge
knowledge and and debate.
debate. The
Theminimal
minimal demands
demands of of local
local
communities will include sustained, not ephemeral programmes
programmes of action in which their own people
can find meaningful, decisive and dignified roles".
145
Several forest conservation areas in the
the borderlands
borderlands of
of western
western Uganda/eastern
Uganda/eastern DR
DR Congo
Congo
(formerly Zaire) and
(formerly Zaire) and north-west
north-west Rwanda,
Rwanda, including B1NP are
including BINP are prime
prime examples
examples of this.
this.
Despite the fact that three of these forested national parks form the stronghold of one of the
"ultimate"
"ultimate" flag-ship
flag-ship species
species for
for international
international conservationists (the (the Mountain
Mountain Gorilla
Gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla
gorilla berengei)
berengei) and
and BINP
BINP is the
the first
first African
African protected
protected area
area to
to receive
receive funding
funding
through an international Trust Fund,
international Trust Fund, it only has
has 30 park staff
staff for
for an
an area
area of
of330
330km2
krn2 for
for aa
national park sunounded
sunounded byby 100,000
100,000 people
people living
living in
in immediately
immediately adjacent
adjacent parishes.
parishes. Under
Under
these circumstances, total protection
protection is
is not possible.
possible.
A basic principle behind

behind multiple-use
multiple-use (and
(and NWFP
NWFPuse)use)isis to
to help
help off-set
off-set some
some of of these
these lost
lost
opportunity costs
opportunity costs and
and better justify conservation
conservation as
as aa form of land-use.
land-use. In principle, benefits
benefits
need to be directed to those living closest to the protected area. area. In most
most cases,
cases, these
these are
are the
the
people who are most affected by crop raiding animals and loss
raiding animals and loss of access to plant resources
plant resources
inside protected areas.
areas. This is well illustrated
illustrated by the household
household surveys
surveys by the the CARE-DTC
CARE-DTC
project
project recording
recording the
the number
number ofof respondents
respondents from communities
communities adjacent
adjacent to to the
the Bwindi
Bwindi
Impenetrable National Park collecting forest products, pit-sawing or affected by crop-raiding
animals prior
animals prior to
to park closure, compared to
closure, compared to those
those away
away from
from thethe forest
forest (Wild and Mutebi,
Mutebi,
1996).
1996).
Benefit sharing,
sharing, including that from eco-tourism
including that revenue should
eco-tourism revenue should take
take place through
through local
local
community institutionsset
community institutions setup
up for
for this
this purpose,
purpose, which
which should
should be representative of the
representative of the
communities
communities andand of resource
resource users.
users. This
This is often easier said
said than
than done.
done. Protected
Protected areas
areas are
are
often located in more remote areas where access access to literacy skills is limited.
limited. In
In many
many cases,
cases,
resource users
users are from a sector of the local community with the
community with the least economic political
economic or political
power.
power. For these reasons, local resource users are generally not well represented, even at
well represented, even at the
the
lowest level of formal local government,
fonnallocal government, although
although they
they may
may be
be highly
highly influential
influential members
members of of
their
their own communities.
communities. In In addition,
addition, the
the administrative boundaries that
administrative boundaries that form
form the
the basis for
for
local government within
within the nation state rarely
rarely conform to the territorial boundaries of of local
local
communities. This
communities. This may
may further
further skew
skew the
the relationship
relationship of
ofwho
who"represents"
"represents"·communities
communities
sunounding protected areas.
surrounding
Point 2:
Point 2: We
We need
need to
to better
better use
use the
thepredictive
predictive ecological,
ecological, anthropological
anthropological and
and economic
economic tools
tools
we have to avoid situations where resource over-exploitation and conflict develop
develop despite
despite (or
(or
because
because of)
of) good
good intentions
intentions which
which then
then lead
lead totoworsened
worsened circumstances
circumstances for local
local
communities and for conservation.
conservation.
We have thethe advantage

advantage ofof hindsight
hindsight fromfrom successes
successes and failuresfailures in in many
many conservation
conservation and
and
development case studies, not only in forests, but also in savannah woodlands and grasslands.
We also know that sustainable use of of NWFPs depends as much on a predictive understanding
of the biological component as as it does on the social and economic aspects of NWFP use. We
have many of those predictive tools based on key issues drawn from from ecological,
ecological, social and
economic studies of
economic studies of tenure,
tenure, trade
trade and
and NWFP
NWFP use use or
or abuse.
abuse. ItIt is
is essential that we
essential that we use these
tools
tools to avoid
avoid cases
cases where
where good
good intentions
intentions catalyse
catalyse resource
resource depletion.
depletion. While sustainable
sustainable
of any NWEiPs
harvest of NWFPs isispossible
possible inin theory,
theory, itit isis often
often more
more complex
complex than than people think.
think. What
is often glossed over is that
that high
high conservation
conservation priority habitats, with a high species species diversity
diversity
and slow-growing, species require
slow-growing, habitat specific species require a level of management of an intensity that
is not
is not possible
possible with
with the
the economic
economic constraints
constraints that
that are
are aa feature
feature ofofmany
manyconservation
conservation
departments.
For all interest

interest groups,
groups, whether resource users, rural
resource users, rural development workers or
development workers or national
national park
park
managers, it is far better to
managers, to have
have pro-active
pro-active management
management and to stop
stop or
or phase
phase out
out destructive
destructive
harvesting in favour of suitable alternatives
alternatives before over-exploitation occurs, than to have
have the
the
146
"benefit" of hindsight in the midst of a devastated resource. Marilyn Hoskins (1990)
(1990) puts this
on forestry and
well in her paper on and food
food security:
security:
All research and management

"All management byby outsiders
outsiders must
must remember
remember that
that their
their activities
activities come and go, but
food security -- land and resources surety -- is a long-term, life and death issue for rural peoples".
Point
Point 3:
3: The
The complexities
complexities of
ofimplementation
implementation increase
increase exponentially
exponentially with
withincreasing
increasingnumbers
numbers
of species coupled with aa high
of high number of
of resource users.
The culture/nature interface ofof Afromontane

Afromontane forests and and surrounding
surrounding farming
farming communiiies
communities isis
a very
very different
different and
and more
more complex
complex situation
situation to
to resolve. Firstly, resource sharing is focused
resolve. Firstly, focused
on aa wide
wide range
range ofofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products andand ononeco-tourism
eco-tourism revenues
revenues from
from gorilla
gorilla
viewing rather than hunting.
viewing rather hunting. Secondly,
Secondly, because
because of their
their structural
structural complexity
complexity andand higher
higher
diversity, forests
species diversity, forests provide a very different
different situation to harvesting of plant resources in
several other African protected areas. Muir (1990),
(1990), for
for example,
example, working
working with
with local
local wood-
wood-
cutters in Afromontane forest in southern
southern Africa,
Africa, has demonstrated
demonstrated that
that cultivating
cultivating alternative
alternative
sources of building material outside indigenous
indigenous forest
forest can be
be over ten times cheaper than the
cost of an intensive monitoring programme for sustainable use of of that resource.
In savannah parks in southern Africa, harvesting commonly focuses on plants from wetland
commonly focuses wetland
or disturbed grassland
grassland situations.
situations. Examples
Examples areare harvesting
harvestingof of Phragmites
Phragmites australis
australis reeds and
Cymbopogon validus thatch
CY111bopogon validus thatch grass
grass from
from wetlands
wetlands or disturbed
disturbed grasslands.
grasslands. Unlike
Unlike forests,
forests,
these
these vegetation types have
vegetation types have a wide
wide distribution,
distribution, low species
species diversity
diversity and
and high
high biomass
biomass
production
production of annual
annual stems
stems which
which are
are resilient
resilient to
to harvesting
harvesting forfor hut-building
hut-building purposes
purposes
(Cunningham, 1985; Shackleton,
(Cunningham, 1985; Shackleton, 1990).
1990). Managed
Managed harvesting
harvesting of
of reeds
reeds and thatch-grass
thatch-grass isis also
facilitating late
facilitating late autumn and winter
winter cutting
cutting when
when disturbance
disturbance to to nesting
nesting birds
birds isisminimised.
minimised.
Similarly, at a species level inin African
African savannah,
savannah, harvesting usually
usually applies
applies to
to common,
common, fast-
fast-
growing thatch
growing thatch or
or encroaching woody species
encroaching woody species such
such as
as Acacia
Acacia karroo,
karroo, Acacia
Acacia nilotica,
nilotica,
Dichrostachys cinerea
cinerea (Fabaceae)
(Fabaceae) and
and Euclea
Euclea divinorum
divinorwn (Ebenaceae) which are harvested as
an aid to management objectives for the savannah parks.
In contrast
contrast to
to reeds
reeds and
and thatch
thatch species,
species, data
data on
onabundance,
abundance, productivity
productivity and
and population
population
biology of Afromontane forest
forest trees,
trees, even those of major economic
economic importance, are limited.
limited.
This applies
applies even
even more
more to
to the
the hundreds
hundreds ofofspecies
speciesrepresenting
representing "minor
"minor forest
forest products".
products".
Concern over loss
loss of access to wild forest plant resources
resources is
is an important local issue as wild
plants provide craft and building materials, fuel, medicines, food supplements or or are
are aa source
source
of honey to people
people around thethe forest.
forest. The question is, once
once resources have
have been
been identified,
identified,
how does one decide whether uses uses are
are sustainable or not?
sustainable or not ? In
Inthe
the Bwindi
Bwindicase-study,
case-study, based
based
on ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical surveys
surveys of the forest, local markets and households,
households, wild plant
plant resources
resources
were divided into three categories:
First, a low impact, high

First, highvalue
valuecategory,
category, where
where impact
impact is
is low
low due
due to
to harvesting
harvesting of
of small
small
volumes
volumes of plant material by specialist users,
users, particularly
particularly where
where leaves,
leaves, fruits
fruits or flowers
flowers are
used. This includes non-commercial harvesting of medicinal plants by traditional
traditional healers
healers and
and
midwives or
midwives or for veterinary
veterinary medicines, occasionalfelling
medicines, occasional felling ofof the
the secondary
secondary forest
forest tree
tree
Polyscias fulva
MI/a byby traditional
traditional blacksmiths,
blacksmiths, harvesting
harvesting basketry
basketry materials
materials ororbee-keeping.
bee-keeping. All
All
of these uses have low low biological
biological impact but high social
social value
value through this harvesting
harvesting to aa
large sector of
of the community.
community.
Meetings with bee-keepers have led to mutually accepted regulations printed

printed on
on Bee-keeping
Bee-keeping
Society Membershipcards.
Society Membership cardsrequested
requestedbybythis
thisforest
forestuser
user group.
group. To To date,
date, nearly
nearly 500
500 bee-
bee-
keepers in four
keepers four parish bee-keeping societies are
bee-keeping societies are registered
registered to
to keep
keep an
an estimated
estimated 33 000
000 hives
hives
within
within multiple-use zones.In
multiple-use zones. In addition,
addition, the
the DTC
DTC project
project is assisting
assisting bee-keepers
bee-keepers with
with
processing
processing and marketing
marketing of surplus
surplus honey.
honey. Initial
mitial ethnobotanical
surveys with traditional
traditional
147
healers and
healers and basket-makers have been
basket-makers have been followed
followed upup with
with PRA
PRA work in in three
three pilot-study
pilot-study
parishes, leading
parishes, leading to harvesting
harvesting of selected
selected species.
species. Each of these activities falls within
within Joint
Joint
Forest Management (JFM)
UFM) agreements developed withinwithin each of these parishes and signed by
the Forest Societies and Uganda National Parks (UNP), including access to certaincertain footpaths
footpaths
through the forest and to a hot spring site considered to have spiritual healing
healing qualities.
qualities.
Second, aa monitoring
Second, monitoring adaptive
adaptive management
managementcategory,
category, where
where subsistence
subsistence demand
demand was
was high
high
relative
relative to supply
supply or
or where
where species
species selective
selective commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting was
was beginning
beginning to
develop. This included
develop. This included seasonal
seasonal and rotational management to specialist harvesters
management to harvesters of the
the
montane bamboo, Synarundinaria
montane bamboo, Synarundinaria alpina,
alpina, a slow'
slow' growing
growing forest
forest climber
climber Loesneriella
Loesneriella
apocynoides (Celastraceae), medicinal plant species such as Hallea HaIlea rubro stipulata
rubrostipulata
(Rubiaceae) whose
(Rubiaceae) whose bark
bark is
is gathered
gathered on aa small-scale
small-scale commercial
commercial basis, and
and the
the secondary
secondary
forest tree Rapanea melanophloeos (Myrsinaceae), which is used by woodcarvers.
woodcarvers.
Third, substitution category,

Third, a substitution category,of
ofcontinued
continued closed
closed access
access to
to resources
resources where sustained use
sustained use
is not
not possible
possible due
due to
to either
either complexity,
complexity, high
high demand
demand or slow
slow growth
growth rates where
where the
the
national park.
emphasis needs to be placed on providing alternatives outside the national park.
This
This was considered
considered toto be the
the case
case for
for some
some wood
wood uses
uses (beer
(beer boats,
boats, bean
bean stakes,
stakes, building
building
poles, fuelwood)
poles, fuelwood) due
due to the combination
combination of past impacts,
impacts, high demand
demand and limited staff for
monitoring or management
monitoring management of multiple-use species in an uneven-aged,
multiple-use species uneven-aged, high diversity forest.
forest.
To foresters, whose objective is is hardwood
hardwood timber
timber production,
production, saplings
saplings ofof"reserved
"reserved species"
species"
represent regenerating
represent regeneratingtimber
timber trees.
trees. To
To people
people from
from local
local rural
rural communities
communities theythey also
also
represent an important source of beer boats (>50cm diameter at breast height (dbh), (dbh), building
material (5-15cm
material (5-15cm dbh)
dbh) or bean poles
poles (1.5-5cm
(1.5-5cm dbh)
dbh) with
with high
high density
density wood
wood favoured
favoured due
due to
greater resistance
greater resistancetoto borer
borer attack
attack oror fungal
fungal infection. These species
infection. These species are
are not
not only
only anan
immediately useful
immediately useful resource
resource toto local
local people.
people. However,
However, they also
also represent
represent the
the future
future forest
forest
canopy of the next century which needs to be conserved if the forest is to survive.survive.
Provision
Provision of alternatives
alternatives toto harvesting
harvesting ofof beer
beer boats,
boats, bean stakes
stakes and
and building
building polespoles was
was
recommended
recommended on on the
the basis
basis of their
their widespread
widespread use,use, the high
high volumes
volumes used,
used, thethe focus
focus on
on
hardwood species
hardwood species and
and problems
problems that have
have arisen in in other
other Afromontane
Afromontane and and coastal
coastal forests
forests
(Cunningham,1992).
(Cunningham, 1992).ItIt was
was also
also recognised that the
recognised that the success
success of forest
forest conservation
conservation and and
community relations
community relations strongly
strongly depends
depends onon how
how effectively
effectively tree cultivation
cultivation is is implemented.
implemented.
Shortages of
Shortages of fuelwood,
fuelwood, building
buildingpoles
poles and
and bean
bean stakes
stakes are
are being
being experienced
experienced in in the
the DTC
DTC
area, and
area, and a shortage
shortage of large trees for beer boats can be be expected
expected inin the
the future.
future. Reasons
Reasons for
for
wood scarcity,
scarcity, and solutions
solutions to the
the problem
problem areare recognised
recognised by local
local people.
people. Cultivation
Cultivation ofof
trees is widely
widely practised
practised in
in the
the DTC
DTC area
area already.
already. Elephant
Elephant grass
grass (Pennisettim
(Pennisetum purpureum)
purpureum)
and trees (particularly Eucalyptus)
Eucalyptus) are also planted for bean stakes, while while Ficus
Ficus cuttings
cuttings are
are
planted for beer boats.
boats. In at
at least
least one
one area,
area, even
even hardwood
hardwood timber
timber trees
trees have
have been
been planted,
planted,
with Entandrophragma
Entandrophragma (Meliaceae)
(Meliaceae) reaching
reaching aa diameter
diameter of
of 90
90 cm
cm within
within 40
40 years.
years. Such
Such local
local
and encouraged.
initiatives need to be recognised and
In a recent survey conducted in the DTC area, for example, Eucalyptus (88% (88% ofof respondents)
respondents)
and Acacia mearnsii
inearnsii (49%) were the species most preferred for building and and had
had respectively
respectively
been planted
been by 77%
planted by 77% (92)
(92) and
and 36%
36% (43)
(43) ofofrespondents
respondents (Kanongo,
(Kanongo, 1990).
1990). From
From field
field
observation,
observation, it is clear that many homes in the DTC area area are
are built
built from
from these
these cultivated
cultivated tree
tree
species
species (particularly Eucalyptus), with
(particularly Eucalyptus), with the
the use
use ofof exotic
exotic species
species increasing
increasing with
with distance
distance
away from the forest.
away from forest. Over 125
125 fanner-tree
farmer-tree nurseries have now been been developed.
developed. Guided
Guided by
local farmer
local farmer preferences, the focus
preferences, the focus has been on on Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus woodlots
woodlots andand the
the agroforestry
agroforestry
species Sesbania sesban,
species Sesbania sesban, a nitrogen fixing
fixing species
species useful for bean stakes.
useful for stakes. In addition,
addition, two
two
indigenous
indigenous tree nurseries
nurseries have been maintained,
maintained, with
with 5 000 trees distributed in the past year.
Local Conservation
Conservation Extension Agents
Agents (CEA's)
(CEA's) employed
employed by CARE are are also
also assisting
assisting local
local
148
fanners with
with climbing
climbing bean
bean variety
variety trials,
trials, banana
banana plantation
plantation management,
management, soil
soil conservation
conservation
and vegetable growing with the aim of sustainable agricultural production.
Point 4:
Point 4: ItIt is
is crucial
crucialthat
that any
any forest
forest conservation/NM/FP
conservationJNWFP harvest programme takes the specific
specific
needs and roles of the pygmy peoples, peoples, who are the ancestral inhabitants of these forests (e.g.
(e.g.
Baka, Mbuti, Batwa), into into account.
account.
There are several

several reasons for this.
reasons for this. Firstly,
Firstly, it is
is crucial
crucial to
to work
work with
with them
them as
as an
animportant
important
forest user group.
group. Many
Many pygmy
pygmy comrnunities
communities are not only heavily
hel}vily involved inin the
the bush-meat
bush-meat
trade, often in aa "protein
"protein for
for starch
starch exchange"
exchange" with
with agriculturists,
agriculturists, but
but they
they are
are also
alsoinvolved
involved
at the lower
lower endend of
ofthe
the commercial
commercial marketing
marketing chain
chain for
for many
many timber
timber loggers
loggers andandfor
forNWFTs
NWFPs
such as commercial
such commercial collection
collection of of Pausinystalia johimbe bark,
Pausinystalia johimbe bark, Gnetwn leaves and forest
Gnetum leaves forest
tubers (e.g. Dioscorea
Dioscorea yams)yams) and and forest
forest fruits
fruits (e.g.
(e.g. Irvingia,
irvingia,Ricinodendron
Ricinodendronhettdelotii
heudelotiietc.).
etc.).
Secondly, throughout the
Secondly, throughout the region,
region, they
they also place great cultural and religious value value on
on some
some
species which can exceed
species which exceed the barter barter or or commercial
commercial value value of of those
those NWFP
NWFP species
species (e.g.
(e.g.
Dioscorea).
Dioscorea). Thirdly,
Thirdly, this
this isis an
an issue
issue of
ofcultural
culturalsurvival.
survival. InInthe
theBwindi
BwindiImpenetrable
ImpenetrableNational
National
Park base, thethe Batwa
Batwa (or(or Abayanda
Abayanda people as they they call
call themselves)
themselves) have faced an historical
historical
situation where encroachment of Bantu agriculturists agriculturists over
over many
many centuries
centuries (Taylor,
(Taylor, 1993)
1993) has
has
cleared the
cleared the forest
forest and
and built up to to aa situation
situation today
today where
where there
there is
is strong
strong social
social pressure
pressure
against the Batwa having access access to to farmland.
farmland. At the same time, time, the
the game
game resource
resource that was
was a
major barter source
source has been over-hunted, timber overexploited
over-hunted, timber overexploited and and access
access toto large
large areas
areas of
the forest
forest for
for harvesting
harvesting purposes
purposes lost.lost. Multiple-use
Multiple-use has has taken
taken many
many of these
these needs
needs into
into
account such as use of stingless bees, yams and forest fruits. Although extensive research has
been done in in the
the lowland
lowland tropical
tropical forests
forests ofof the
the CARPE
CARPE region region (e.g.
(e.g. by
by the
the University
University of of
Kyoto, Hart
Hart and
and Hart,
Hart, 1986
1986and andothers),
others),thetheconservation
conservationand andNVVFP
NWFP harvesting programmes
programmes
that consider
consider the specific
specific needs
needs and roles roles of
of pygmy
pygmy communities
communities need need to be be taken
taken into
into
to aa greater
account to greater extent.
extent.
Point
Point 5:
5: Most
Most NWFPs
NWFPs with
with commercial
commercial value are already
already traded by local people who
who have
access to markets
access to markets - but
but some
some "wild
"wild cards",
cards", not
not recognised
recognised byby local
local people
people as
as having
having
commercial value, exist
commercial value, exist which
which have
have high
high potential
potential for
for international
international trade
trade with
with "green
"green
marketing" premium prices through more direct marketing.
marketing. This
This can
can play
play an important role in
raising living standards
raising living for communities
standards for communitiesinin or
or adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the forest,
forest, but
but it is
is crucial
crucial that
that
strong
strong tenure systems
systems and
and simple,
simple, robust
robust monitoring
monitoring programmes
programmes are are established
established prior
prior toto
large-scale marketing.
Examples from
Examples from the
the Bwindi
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
Impenetrable National Park case
case which
which were
were identified
identified in in the
initial 1992 survey we we did
did were
were Carapa
Carapa grandiflora
grandiflora and and Allanblackia stuhlmannii, which are are
both sources
both sources of oils/vegetable fats. The
oils/vegetable fats. The same
same two two genera
genera occur
occur in
in the CARPE
CARPE regionregion of
interest. In the Amazon,
interest. Amazon, Carapa seed seed oil
oil is
is an
animportant
important medicinal
medicinal which
which isis commercially
commercially
harvested and
harvested and in
in the
the Eastern
Eastern Arc
Arc region
region of ofTanzania,
Tanzania, Allanblackia fruits have
Allanblackia fruits have been
been
commercially harvested
commercially harvested forfor many
many years
years for
for soap
soap making.
maldng. However,
However, both
both of these
these genera are
classic cases
classic cases of tropical
tropical trees
trees which
which bear
bear relatively few, yet
relatively few, yet very
very large
large fruits
fruits where
where
recruitment into
recruitment into the "seedling
"seedling bank"
bank" can be be seriously
seriously disrupted
disrupted by
by commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting
Peters, 1994).
(See, for example, Peters, 1994).
Point 6:
Point 6: Too
Toomany
manyNW1-4P utilisation programmes
NWFP utilisation programmes assume
assume that
that sustainable harvesting will will
take place
take place and do not take take the costs
costs of
of monitoring
monitoring into account. Monitoring the
account. Monitoring the success
success ofof
multiple-use programmes
programmes is is essential
essential but,
but, for this to
to be
be sustainable,
sustainable, monitoring
monitoring programmes
programmes
must be robust, pragmatic and cheap.cheap. Before any monitoring starts, it is crucial to decide
monitoring starts, decide on
on
monitored, at what scale
what is to be monitored, scale (landscapes,
(landscapes, popUlations,
populations, individuals),
individuals), at at what
what levels
levels of
of
detail and
detail and by whom.
whom. Once Once aa few
few key
key species
species have
have been
been selected
selected forfor population
population level
level
monitoring, then itit is
is important
important to set
set up
up permanent
permanent plots
plots for
for long-term
long-term monitoring.
monitoring.
149
When Bwindi Impenetrable National Park was a forest reserve, the 1964 1964 Ugandan Forest Act
allowed controlled harvest of forest plant resources, including "minor forest products". This
was
was based
based on on aapermit
permitsystem
systemintended
intended totogenerate
generategovernment
government revenue
revenue and
and facilitate
facilitate
monitoring. This
monitoring. This system
system broke
broke down
down duedue to political
political and economic
economic upheaval.
upheaval. During
During the
period of political
period political turmoil
turmoil in Uganda, the buying
Uganda, the power of forestry
buying power forestry staff salaries declined
declined
dramatically (Howard,
dramatically (Howard, 1991).
1991). As
As a result,
result, control
control systems for hardwood
systems for hardwood and "minor
"minor forest
harvesting broke down. By 1983,
product" harvesting 1983, an estimated 140-280 people were involved in pit-
sawing,
sawing, and an estimated
estimated 100-200
100-200 were
were people
people involved
involved inin panning
panning gold
gold from
fromriver-valleys
river-valleys
inside Bwindi
inside Bwindi forest
forest (Butysnki,
(Butysnki, 1984).
1984). As
As aa result,
result, an estimated
estimated 10%
10% of the
the forest
forest reserve
reserve
remained intact, 61%61 % had been heavily
heavily exploited by pit-sawyers
pit-sawyers and 29% "creamed"
"creamed" of thethe
best hardwoods
hardwoods by by selective
selective pit-sawing
pit-sawing (Howard,
(Howard, 1991).
1991). InIn addition,
addition, Butynski
Butynski (1984)
(1984)
estimated that 10-20
10-20 people a day entered the forest daily for bee-keeping purposes or to hunt
for wild
wild bee-hives,
bee-hives, whilst
whilst 25-50
25-50 people
people went
went to
to collect
collect fuelwood,
fuel wood, bamboo
bamboo and
and building
building
materials.
In many countries with high

high biological
biological diversity,
diversity, adequate control is too expensive
adequate control expensive for
for the
the
State. Effective in situ
situ conservation
conservation for black
black rhino,
rhino, forfor example,
example, would
would cost
cost $400
$400 per
per km2
km2
1993). Based on his experience in East Africa, for example,
(Martin, 1993). example, John
John Hall
Hall suggests
suggests that
that
patrolling
patrolling of forest reserves
reserves generally requires two
generally requires two forest
forest guards
guards per
per 500ha
500ha (or four guards
guards
lOkm2) (Hall,
per 10km2) (Hall, 1983). In most
1983). In most cases,
cases, neither
neither this
this level
level of
of funding
funding nor staffing are available.
terrain, for
Situated in rugged, forested terrain, for example,
example, Bwindi Impenetrable
Impenetrable National
National Park, 330km2
Park, 330km2
in extent, has 30 patrol rangers, rather than than the
the 130
130 guards
guards deemed
deemed necessary
necessary byby Hall
Hall (1983).
(1983).
Implementationof
Implementation of a sustainable logging
logging programme
programme requires requires even
even more
more staff. In
Afromontane forest in South Africa,
Afromontane forest Africa, which
which hashas a relatively
relatively low species diversity and where
only a single product (timber)
(timber) andand few
few species
species are
are involved,
involved, aa marking
marldng team
team ofof one
one forester
forester
and only two staff selecting trees
trees >30cm dbh dbh is
is only
only able
able to
to cover
cover 5ha per
per day
day (Seydack
(Seydack et al,
1995). For
1995). For these
these reasons
reasons alone,
alone, it is necessary
necessary to design
design programmes
programmes for protected areas areas oror
the land around
around them
them that
that takes
takes local
local institutions,
institutions, tenure
tenure and
and resource
resource management
management systems
systems
account.
into account.
Point 7:7: AAlarge

largecomponent
componentofof"resource
"resourcemanagement" actually about
management" is actually about "people
"people
management", often dealing
management", often dealing more
more with
with human
human behaviour
behaviour than
than with
with resources. For good
resources. For good
science to become good management
science requires wide social acceptance of
management requires of management
management plans
plans
or regulations.
regulations. Low
Low tenure
tenure and
and high
high NWFP
NWFP prices,
prices, coupled
coupled with
with potentially
potentially destructive
destructive
harvest (bark, root, tuber)
(bark, root, tuber) use can spell
spell disaster.
disaster. Low prices with
with secure
secure tenure
tenure mean
mean little
little
incentive to conserve
incentive to for the
conserve for the long term. The
long term. The challenge
challenge isis to
to design and develop
design and develop a situation
situation
where there is
where there is both
both secure
secure tenure
tenure and
and high
high price
price coupled
coupled with
with aapractical
practical resource
resource
management plan.
Secure tenure
Secure tenure is is an
animportant
important ingredient
ingredient forforresource
resourcemanagement
management and andconservation.
conservation.
However, whether
However, whetheryou you are
are working
workinginin areas
areas that
that areare privately owned, in
privately owned, in a national
national park
to the
belonging to the state
state or in a communal
communal area,
area, itit isis crucial
crucial not
not to
to fall
fall into
into the
the trap
trap of simplistic
simplistic
assumptionsoror simple
assumptions simple classification
classificationofof different
different types types ofof tenure.
tenure. This
This is is particularly
particularly
important in much of Africa (and(and in
in many
many other
other sub-tropical
sub-tropical and
and tropical
tropical regions)
regions) where
where local
local
people
people or
or indigenous
indigenous communities
communities havehave established
established complexcomplex rules
rules controlling access to
controlling access
communal land,
communal land, which
which inin tum
turn has
has been
been overlapped
overlapped by by State
State control
control (as
(as in
in the
the case of many
national parks or
national parks or forest
forest reserves). It is also
reserves). It also important
important to recognise
recognise that
that land tenure
tenure and
and
tenure may
resource tenure may be very different.
At BINP, key steps to establishing

establishing aa mind-set
mind-set of
of more
more secure
secure tenure
tenure amongst
amongst local
local resource
resource
users were the
the demarcation
demarcation of
of multiple-use
multiple-use zones based on agreed
agreed andand clearly
clearly recognisable
recognisable
boundaries
boundaries (Scott,
(Scott, 1992);
1992); the identification
identification and nomination
nomination of individuals
individuals to small,
small, locally
locally
based user groups (basket-makers, bee-keepers, herbalists etc.) in aa process of
of community
community
150
BOX 1. Setting priorities for harvested
harvested species
species based on ethnobotanical surveys
surveys
STEP 1.1. IDENTIFY

IDENTIFY ON ON SPECIES
SPECIES IN INHIGHEST
HIGHESTDEMAND:
DEMAND: An An important
important focus
focus would
would be species used in
species used in
high
high volume locally
locally (building
(building poles,
poles, fuelwood)
fuelwood) or in
in smaller
smaller volumes
volumes in
in highly
highly species
species specific
specific trade
trade(crafts,
(crafts,
medicines, edible plants). The identification of speciesspecies in trade can be done at "both ends" :: in source source areas
areas and
and in
in
sites
sites where
where they
they are used
used (or
(or on
on sale).
sale). Correct
Correct identifications
identifications areare best
best done
done inin source
source areas.
areas. ItItisisextremely
extremely
important that
important that this
this is done
done through
through collection
collection and
and expert
expert identification
identification of good
good voucher
voucher specimens.
specimens. If you are are
working from ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical studies
studies of markets
markets linked
linked to
to informal
informal trade
trade networks,
networks,itit isis useful
useful to
to survey
survey thethe largest
largest
(regional and central)
(regional and markets which
central) markets which carry
carry the
the widest
widest range
range of species, then work
species, then work "up-stream"
"up-stream" to to source
source areas
areas
identified on the basis ofof discussions
discussions with
with commercial
commercial collectors and and traders
traders to
to collect
collect fresh
fresh voucher
voucherspecimens.
specimens. In In
the case of
of the
the international
international export
export trade
trade this
this could
could be
be through
through listings
listings of
ofexporting
exporting companies
companies or orfrom
from customs
customs
data and phytosanitary certificates.
certificates.
SHORT-LIST OF
STEP 2. PREPARE A SHORT-LIST OF SPECIES
SPECIES WHICHWHICH AREARE::
• roots, bulbs,
Destructively harvested (bark, roots, bulbs, stems,
stems, wood,
wood, whole plants);
plants);
• Slow growing (separation on the basis of life-form can
can be
be useful);
useful);
• Present in
Present in local
local markets and are
markets and are (i)
(i) the
the most
most popular
popular and/or
and/or most
most expensive
expensive and/or (ii)
(ii) are
are sold in
greatest number (small plants) and/or
and/or volume;
volume;
• considered to be scarce by market traders oror commercial
commercial collectors.
collectors.
STEP 3. IDENTIFY SPECIES WHICH

WHICH MAY
MAY REQUIRE SPECIAL
SPECIAL CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION EFFORT:
EFFORT:
suggested five categories of species that may need special attention:
Conservation biologist Reed Noss has suggested
• Ecological indicator
Ecological indicator species:
species: that
that signal
signal the
the impact
impact ofof events
events that
that will affect
affect other species with similar
requirements. Afro-alpine plants
habitat requirements. plants such as as giant lobelias and giant senecios,
senecios, which will be affected
by global warming areare aa good
good example;
example;
• Keystone species
Keystone species that playa
play a pivotal role in the the community
community or or ecosystem
ecosystem suchsuch as
as fig
fig species
specieswhose
whosefruits
fruits
support many
support many primate,
primate, bird
bird and
and fig-wasp
fig-wasp species,
species, but
but are exploited
exploited on a large
large scale
scale for
for maldng
making drums
drums
and beer brewing troughs in Uganda;
• Umbrella species
species which have large area requirements
requirements and, if if given
given enough
enough protection,
protection, will will enable
enable the
the
conservation
conservation of of many
many other
other species
species inin the
the same
same area.
area. The
The plant
plant equivalents
equivalents of of eagles
eagles and
and large
large
mammalian carnivores
mammalian carnivores would
would bebe dioecious
dioecious tropical
tropical tree
tree species
species which
which occur
occur atatlow
low densities
densities and
and require
require
of forest to maintain
large areas of maintain viable
viable populations;
popUlations;
• Flagship species; popular,
Flagship species; popular, charismatic
charismaticspecies
speciestotothethe public
public which
which are are symbolic
symbolic of of the
the need
need forfor
conservation and stimulate
conservation stimulate conservation
conservation initiatives.
initiatives. Several
Several medicinal
medicinal plants,
plants, such as the the Madagascan
Madagascan
Periwinkle (Catharanthlls
Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) have been
rosells) have been used
used asas "flagships".
"flagships". Culturally
Culturally important species
species can
also be "flagships";
• rare species
species : rare
Vulnerable species : with low
species with low reproductive ability and
reproductive ability and low genetic variation.
variation. This would
include
include species that are
species that are prioritised
prioritised by other
other Steps
Steps 4-6,
4-6, which
which are are particularly
particularly vulnerable
vulnerable to to human
human
impacts.
STEP 4. SHORT-LIST THESE FURTHER FURTHER ON ON THE BASIS OF COMMONNESS OR RARITY on the basis basis
of their characters of geographic
geographic distribution,
distribution, habitat
habitat requirements
requirements and
and local
local population
population size.
size. (For details
details of this
see Rabinowitz et al, 1986.) From
ai, 1986.) From an
an international
international (and
(and often local) perspective, the highest priority is given
given to
to aa
species with narrow geographical distribution,
distribution, a restricted habitat and small population size.
5. WITHIN THE RESULTING

STEP 5. RESULTING SHORT-LIST,
SHORT-LIST, SET SET PRIORITIES
PRIORITIES ON ON THE
THE BASIS
BASIS OF OF
PHYLOGENETICDISTINCTIVENESS:
PHYLOGENETIC DISTINCTIVENESS:Aljos AljosFarjon
Farjonoutlines
outlinesthis
thisapproach
approachusing
usingaarating
ratingsystem
system (see
(see
"Species" 24:65, June 1995), with highest priority given in descending order to :
• Species in a mono typic families
monotypic families (highest priority);
priority); then
• genus; then
Species in a monotypic genus;
• Species in a segregate
segregate genus,
genus, subgenus or section of a medium to to large
large genus;
genus;
• Species in a small genus (2-5 species);
species);
• Species in a medium to large genus;
• Species which are
are part of a species-complex;
species-complex; with
with the
the lowest
lowest priority
priority aligned
aligned to
to an
an
• Infraspecific taxon in a medium-size to large genus.
STEP 6. PRIORITISE
PRIORITISESPECIES
SPECIESACCORDING
ACCORDINGTO
TOIUCN
mCNCATEGORIES
CATEGORIES OF
OFTHREAT:
THREAT:In
Incommon
common with
with
these priorities were developed for application
Step 5 above, these application on aa global
global scale,
scale, such
such as
as judging
judgingthe
theextinction
extinctionrisk
risk
of
of the whole species. In many cases, this will differ from the local perspective of resource users. It is important that
international perspectives
local, national and intemational perspectives are
are taken
taken into
into account.
account.
151
participation, the provision
participation, the provision of licenses
licenses to those
those individuals
individuals who were
were recognised
recognised by the
the
national park authorities,
authorities, and the
the signing
signing of aa written
written MoU
MoU between
between the
the communities
communities and
and
Uganda Wildlife
Uganda Wildlife Authority
Authority (UW
(UWA) whichclearly
A) which clearly spelt
spelt out
out the
the mutual
mutual obligations of the
obligations of
and UW
community and UWA (Wild and
A (Wild and Mutebi,
Mutebi, 1996).
1996). These
These principles
principles are
are common
common ingredients
ingredients for
for
based management
successful community based management as
as well
well (See
(See Box
Box 1).
1).
Eight years ago, at aa meeting

meeting ofof several
several hundred
hundred villagers,
villagers, the chairman
chairman of of Mpungu
Mpungu Parish
presented aa letter
letter on
on behalf
behalf of
of the
the community
community expressing
expressing their
their opposition
opposition toto the
the national
national park
park
and asking
asking why "innocent
"innocent Ugandans
Ugandans shouldshould be
be made
made to suffer by creating
creating aa National
National Park"
Park"
(Hamilton, et al., 1990).
(Hamilton, 1990). illIn April
April 1994, the same
1994, the same parish
parish chairman
chairman inin aa speech
speech to to the
the Director
Director
of Uganda
Uganda National
National Parks,
Parks, made
made during
during the
the signing
signing ofofthe
thememorandum
memorandumofofunderstanding,
understanding,
said: "Mr Director,
said: Director, allow me to express
allow me express our sincere
sincere and greatest appreciation
appreciation to to the new
new
concept of UNP.
UNP. Allowing
Allowing us us an
an area
area of
ofthe
the park
parktoto collect
collect ensuli
ensuli (Smilax
(Smilax kraussiana) and and
[medicinal] herbs ... . . . We were strongly and bitterly opposed to the idea of of Bwindi
Bwindi becoming
becoming
a national park, but as I say,say, this
this attitude
attitude has
has completely
completely changed.
changed. We have made a complete
turn from negative to positive .... . . We used to refer to to the
the national park
park asas 'their'
'their' forest;
forest; now
now
we call it 'our'
'our' national
national park".
park".
Point
Point 8:
8: Inventories
Inventories are
are aa very
very important
important first step
step to
to priority
priority setting. They are also
also part of
of aa
networking process
process which is ideally conducted by a multidisciplinary team, or more often often in
in
practice by researcher and local research participants who are aware of of ecological, econornic
economic
and local cultural/institutional issues.
issues.
Lowland and montane forests are a dynamic and diverse mix of species and and life-forms
life-forms with
with aa
multiplicity of
multiplicity of users,
users, soso too
too are rural communities with their
communities with their complex
complex mix
mix ofof political
political and
and
socio-economic hierarchies, user groups, jealousy and hidden agendas. The higher higher the
the species
species
diversity, the
diversity, the higher
higher thethe number
number ofof wild
wild plant
plant uses
uses and
and users
users would
would be expected.
expected. The first
step
step to unravelling
unravelling this
this complexity
complexity isis fieldwork with resource
fieldwork with resource users
users in
in forests
forests and
and the
the
surrounding community, enabling
surrounding community, enabling identification
identification of
of both
both species
species and resource
resource users
users groups.
groups.
This is as much a method as a process towards credibility and communication at a local level.
Inventory surveys
Inventory surveys ofof plant
plant or
or animal
animal species are often the first
species are first step
step in
in identifying
identifying unique
unique
biological components within protected areas. areas. Conservation managers
managers do not have the luxury
of time.
time. Facing
Facing the
the pressures
pressures on on protected
protected areas
areas they
they have
have to to make
make decisions.
decisions. Skilled
Skilled
biologists and taxonomists
biologists and taxonomists are are a scarce resource
resource in most
most tropical
tropical countries.
countries. Uganda
Uganda is no no
exception. Neither
exception. Neither isis most
most of the CARPE region.region. Under
Under these
these circumstances,
circumstances, folkfolk taxonomic
taxonomic
knowledge
knowledge can can be
be invaluable
invaluable in inventory
inventory work,
work, followed
followed up through
through identification
identification of
voucher specimens.ill
voucher specimens. In this
this case,
case, inventory
inventory ofof plants
plants or
or edible
edible insects
insects in the
the forest
forest with
with
knowledgeable local people
knowledgeable local people was
was combined
combined with
with discussion
discussion on
on ecological
ecological or or social issues
relating to these resources or to to sites
sites of
of cultural
cultural importance.
importance. Separate
Separate discussions
discussions were
were held
held
with
with specialist
specialist users
users groups
groups (such
(such asasbee-keepers,
bee-keepers, midwives,
midwives, bamboo
bamboo basket-makers)
basket-makers) or or
Batwa people on species
species used,
used, species most favoured
species most favoured and
and whether
whether resources
resources were
were available
available
(Cunningham, 1992;
or not outside the national parks (Cunningham, 1992; Cunningham et al., 1993;1993; Scott,
Scott, 1992).
1992).
Local communities
Local communities often
often have
have good
goodreason
reasontotobe
be suspicious
suspiciousof ofconservation
conservationmotives.
motives. In
In the
the
past, conservation has often meant evictions,
evictions, resource loss and harassment with few positive
benefits to the community
benefits community in in general.
general. Networking
Networking to to develop
develop credibility
credibilityin
in the
the eyes
eyes of
of local
local
leaders can be extremely important in this process, requiring time, transparency, patience and
constancy. Community
constancy. Community members
members are are very good judges of humanhuman nature.
nature. In the minds
minds of
community members
community membersarearequestions
questionssuch
suchasas::What
What attitudes
attitudesdo dopark
park managers
managershave?have? How
much do
much do they
they understand the resources
understand of the resources themselves?
themselves? In ill the
the Ugandan
Ugandan case-study,
case-study, it took
took
several
several sessions over nine
sessions over nine months
months to establish
establish that
that the
the communities
communities of of Mpungu
Mpungu Parish
Parish
152
adjacent to Bwindi
adjacent to Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
Impenetrable National Park had
had most
most confidence
confidence in
in the
the Stretcher
Stretcher
Societies as key
key organisations forming
forming Forest Societies
Societies (Wild
(Wi ld and
and Mutebi,
Mutebi, 1996).
1996).
Point 9:
9: Although
Although predictive
predictive models
models (Point
(Point 2) enable
enable us
us to
to attain
attain aa"first
"firstapproximation"
approximation"
level of what
level what is likely to succeed
succeed or fail,
fail, multiple-use
multiple-use (and NWFP use) programmes need to
programmes need to
be developed on a case-by-case
case-by-case basis. They CANNOT be developed on a "recipe book" basis
from other socio-economic or ecological circumstances.
Managed use of resources within national parks or in buffer zones around them has become a
widespread strategy to
widespread strategy to defuse
defuse land-use conflicts. As
land-use conflicts. As early
early as
as the
the 1940s,
1940s, resource
resource sharing
sharing
arrangements were started
arrangements were started in Africa
Africa to
to address
address some
some ofof these
these lost-opportunity
lost-opportunity costs
costs (Bell,
(Bell ,
1987). Forty
1987). Forty years
years later,
later, these
these are
are now
now termed
termed Integrated
Integrated Conservation
Conservation andand Development
Development
Programmes (ICDPs) (Wells
Programmes (ICDPs) (Wells and
and Brandon,
Brandon, 1992).
1992). Although
Although the
the concept
concept is
is well
well established,
Wells and Brandon (1992) found almost no examples
examp les of resource use within buffer zones on
the
the edges
edges of
of the
the protected
protected areas
areas in
in their
their survey
survey of the
the 23
23most
mostpromising
promising ICDPs.
ICDPs .
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, a few ICDPs
ICDPs have
have been
been well
well documented
documented in in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe and
and Zambia
Zambia (Martin,
(Martin,
1986; Lewis
1986; at., 1990).
Lewis et al., 1990). These
These examples
examples are
are primarily
primarily from
from savannah
savannah regions
regions with
with high
high
game
game biomass, low densities
biomass, low of people,
densities of people, low
low arable
arable potential and, in several
potential and, several cases,
cases, the
the
occurrence
occurrence of tsetse flies.
flies . In
In these
these savannah
savannah regions,
regions, the major
major focus has
has been
been on
on benefits
benefits
derived from tourism, trophy hunting or venison
venison from culling operations (Martin,
(Martin, 1986;
1986; Bell,
Bell,
1987).
Innovative, decentralised approaches to conservation outside protected areas also

also have
have aa way
way
of catching
catching on
on and
andspreading.
spreading. Three
Threeexamples are CAMPFIRE
examples are CAMPFIRE (Communal
(Communal Areas
Areas
Management Programme for
Management Programme for Indigenous Resources) in
Indigenous Resources) in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (Martin,
(Martin, 1984;
1984; Child,
Child,
1996),
1996), the Luangwa valley in Zambia (Lewis,
(Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya,
Mwenya, 1990) and Joint Forest
Management (JFM) Programme projects spread across India and Nepal (Poffenberger
(Poffenberger et
et al.,
al.,
1992; Fischer, 1995).
1992; Although small,
1995). Although small, and
and started
started in
in isolation,
isolation, these programmes
programmes have
have built
up
up experience
experience and
and common
common ground
ground that
that has
has been
been more
more widely
widely applied
applied --sometimes
sometimes in
in
problematic socio-economic and ecological circumstances.
Figure
Figure 1.
1.Sign
Sign protecting
protecting community
community agroforestry
agroforestry woodlot
woodlot (Photo:
(Photo: T. Sunderland).
153
The Mount Kilum
The example in
Kilum example in Cameroon
Cameroon isis aa local
local example
example of of the
the blind
blind application
application of the the
JFM recipe from Nepal to Afromontane Africa. Africa. Surrounded
Surrounded by by high
high densities
densities of local people
and with very different
and ecological circumstances
different ecological circumstancestotothe the JFM
JFM areas
areas of
of Nepal
Nepal or India,
India, the
the
montane
montane forests
forests of Cameroon
Cameroon are home home to 23 23 endemic
endemic birdbird species,
species, making
making them
them aa major
major
African bird
African bird conservation priority site
conservation priority site (Collar
(Collar and and Stuart,
Stuart, 1988). Several rare
1988). Several rare species
species of
barbets, woodpeckers hornbills are deadwood
woodpeckers or hornbills deadwood dependant
dependant species,
species, with populations limited
limited
by nest-site availability. Claimed as
availability. Claimed as a successful case of JFM (Fischer, (Fischer, 1995),
1995), the
the agreement
agreement
reached
reached at Mt. Mt. Kilum
Kilum through
through participatory
participatory approaches
approaches with with thethe local
local community
community for for
deadwood harvesting
deadwood harvesting from
from this
this small and extremely
extremely important Afromontane
Afromontane forest reserve
reserve
promises to be a conservation disaster. The JFM agreement has not only led to the the collection
collection
deadwood, but also
of fallen deadwood, also to
to the felling
felling of very
very large
large trees
trees such asas Nuxia
Nuxia congesta, some in
excess
excess of 70cm
70cm diameter
diameter at breast
breast height
height (dbh)).
(dbh». This This represents
represents aa major
major removal
removal of an
ecological niche providing nest sites or shelter for rare birds, small mammals and reptiles in a
forest reserve.
reserve. (Predictably
(Predictably onon the
the basis
basis of existing
existing information,
information, itit would
would have
have been
been far
far better
better
to put effort
effort into
into identifying
identifying and supporting
supporting the provision of alternative sources of fuelwood
sources on
sources on farm
farm or from fuel efficient stoves).
stoves). OnceOnce thethe "Pandora"
"Pandora" of the JFM agreement
agreement
with the local community
with community isis out
out of the
the box,
box, itit is
is very
very difficult
difficult to
to retract
retract such agreements
agreements and and
get them back into the box again.
Point 10:
10: Predicting
Predicting the
the sustainability
sustainability of
of harvesting
harvesting requires
requires an assessment
assessment both ofof the
the
biological factors
biological factors influencing
influencing resilience
resilienceoror vulnerability
vulnerabilitytoto harvesting
harvestingand
and of
of the socio-
socio-
economic factors that
economic factors that drive
drive demand.
demand Ethnobotanical surveys of
Ethnobotanical surveys of local
local markets
markets are aa very
very
useful step in this process.
From a resource
resource management perspective, there
management perspective, there are
are several reasons
reasons why the marketing
marketing andand
sale of wild
wild plants should be the focus
focus of
of ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical surveys.
surveys. First, commercial
commercial trade
trade or
or
barter reflect
reflect demand. If demand
demand. If demand forfor a species resource category
species or resource category (such
(such asas fuel,
fuel, basketry
basketry
fibre,
fibre, herbal medicine)
medicine) is
is high,
high, then these
these species
species or
or resource
resource categories
categories will
will be
be sold in many
many
marketplaces.Conversely,
marketplaces. Conversely,a aspecies
speciesororcategory
categoryofofplant
plant inin low
low demand would be
demand would be less
less
common in marketplaces.
The most useful species

species will be frequently
frequently sold by more sellers in many
many more
more markets
markets than
species for which there is little demand. Systematic market surveys
surveys therefore provide a useful
way not only of classifying the species on sale, but also also of
of arranging
arranging them
them into
into hierarchical
hierarchical
levels which
levels which reflect
reflect their relative
relative popularity
popularity and
and usefulness. However, some
usefulness. However, some of thethe most
most
useful
useful and popular species
species no
no longer
longer feature
feature in
in markets,
markets, due
duetotoover-exploitation.
over-exploitation. Second,
Second,
price reflects resource
resource supply
supply in
in relation
relation to
to demand.
demand. Locally
Locally common
common species
species are
are rarely
rarely sold
sold
in local marketplaces unless it is bulk-sale for processing or retail elsewhere.
elsewhere.
When
When a popular
popular species
species is scarce,
scarce, whether
whether due
due to
to geographical
geographical distribution or to
distribution or to over-
over-
exploitation, then trade occurs from resource-rich areas areas to the places where
where there
there isis demand
demand
but little or
or no
no supply.
supply. As
As scarcity
scarcity increases,
increases, soso does
does the
the price.
price. When
When alternatives
alternatives are are not
not
available, the
available, the higher
higher the
the price,
price, the
the greater
greater the
the incentive
incentive toto go
go further
further and
and further
further afield
afield forfor aa
scarce
scarce species. Improved roads
species. Improved roads and
and cheaper
cheaper transport
transport reduce
reduce this
this cost.
cost. As
As a result, internal
internal
marketing systems change in
systems change in two ways,
ways, each shortening the marketing
shortening the chain. First, cheaper
marketing chain.
transport enables rural people
enables rural people to get to to larger
larger centres
centres to
to sell
sell their
their products.
products. Second,
Second, better
better
roads
roads improve
improve the access
access that
that outsiders
outsiders have
have to
to more
moreremote
remoteplantplantresources.
resources. Outsiders
Outsiders
frequently have more buying power than local people in remote,
more buying remote, resource-rich areas. If this this
takes
takes place
place and resource
resource tenure
tenure starts
starts to break down,
down, then this hastens
hastens the
the scramble
scramble for
resources inin high
high demand.
demand.
Ethnobotanical surveys of
Ethnobotanical surveys of local
local markets provide aa means
markets provide means through
through which
which we can
can filter
filter out
out
international or
or local
local priority
priority species
species in
in the
the series
series of
ofsteps
steps listed
listedbelow:
below:
154
BOX 2. Influences
Influences on
on successful
successfulcommunity-based
community-basednatural
natural resources
management: (CBNRM)
management: (CBNRIVI)
l. LAND-USE CONTEXT
Land-form and
Land-form andland-use
land-useoptions
options: evaluation
: evaluationand
andcomparison
comparisonofofbenefits
benefitsthat
thatcould
couldbe beexpected
expected from
from the
the same
same land
land
under different forms of land-use, and ofof the possibly gap between benefits from conservation
conservation and
and other
otherforms
forms of
ofland-
land-
use.
use. Where this gap
gap (the
(the "opportunity
"opportunity costs")
costs") is non-existent
non-existent or small,
small, there is aa good
good chance
chance that
thatCBNRM
CBNRMwill will
succeed. Where it is large,
succeed. Where large, then special conservation zones may
conservation zones may have
have to
to be established where local
established where local "lost opportunity
opportunity
costs" are bridged through international and
and national support.
2. LAND AND RESOURCE BOUNDARIES AND AND TENURE

TENURE
Clear,
Clear, accepted,
accepted, controllable
controllableboundaries
boundaries: : boundaries
boundariesaround
aroundthe
thecommon
commonproperty
propertyresource
resourcearea
areaneed
needto
tobebeclearly
clearly
defined and small enough to be controllable
Secure tenure
Secure : successful
tenure: successfulresource
resource management
management and
and conservation depends
depends on long-term
long-term tenure,
tenure, whether
whether the
the land
land or
or
themselves are
the resources themselves are privately
privately or
orcommunally
communally owned.
owned.
3. RESOURCE PREDICABILITY AND MOBILITY MOBILITY

Predicability andlow/no
Predicability and low/nomobility
mobility: thegreater
: the greaterthe
theresource
resourcepredicability
predicabilityininspace
spaceorortime,
time, the
thegreater
greaterthe
theincentive
incentive for
for
rights or managed use. Examples are the strong rights attached
establishing property rights attached to long-lived
long-lived perennial
perennial resources
resources
that provide
that provide a predictable resource in
predictable resource in unpredictable environmentssuch
unpredictable environments suchasaswildwildtree
tree species
species that
that are
are sources
sources of
of
productive, favoured
productive, favoured fruits
fruits or
or provide
provide browse
browse in
in arid/semi-arid environments (eg:
arid/semi-arid environments (eg: Boscia
Boscia trees
trees in
in East
East and Southern
Southern
Africa) or the widespread private
Africa) private rights
rights to beehives
beehives or trees
trees with
with wild
wild hives.
hives. The converse
converse applies
applies to mobile resources
resources
such as game animals fish. In such cases private or common
animals or fish. comtnon property rights
rights apply
apply to traps and trapping sites, rather
than to the resource itself.
4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESOURCES AND THE USER GROUP

Resource value
Resource value and scarcity :: the the resource
resource must
mustbe be important
importanttoto the
the group.
group.ItIt must
must also
also be
be seen
seen as scarce
scarce and
and
vulnerable to
to human
human impact. If If the
the resource users belief
belief system does not link human impactimpact (such
(such as
as overhunting)
overhunting) with
with
resource depletion then thenthis
this poses
posesaaproblem
problem that
that may
may even exacerbate overexploitation.
overexploitation.
Size of user group
group: : aasmaller
smallernumber
numberof ofusers
users is
is better
better than a larger group, but the group should not be so small that that it
has no social
social influence.
influence.
Group identity
Group identity: : the
themore
moreclearly
clearlydefined
definedthe
theuser
usergroup,
group,the
thegreater
greaterthe
thechance
chanceofofsuccess
success(eg:
(eg:local
localbeekeepers,
beekeepers,
herbalists, midwives, basketmakers).
Location
Location ofof resource
resourceusers
users:: ideally
ideallythe
theresource
resourceusers
usersneed
needtotolive
livenear
neartotothe
theresource,
resource, or
oramongst
amongstmobile
mobile or
or semi-
semi-
nomadic communities,
communities, or frequent the the resource regularly. In either case, this simplifies monitoring who is
resource area regularly. is using
using
the resource or resource area and helps
resourCe area helps keep
keep outsiders
outsiders out.
out. Community
Conununity homogeneity :: socialsocial control
control over
over resource
resource
use is more likely to occur in homogenous than than heterogenous communities
communities.
Multiple-use
Multiple-use lands,
lands, resources
resourcesand
andmultiples
multiplesofofusers : the
users: themore
moreuses
usesand
andusers
usersthere
thereare
areofofaaparticular
particularlandscape
landscapeor or
resource, the more complex
resource, complex and
and potentially
potentially conflicting
conflicting management becomes. CBNRM
management becomes. CBNRM is is favoured in sites
sites and
and for
for
resources with fewer, rather than more uses.
5. LOCAL INSTITUTIONS
Religious/ritual belief
belief systems
systems widely
widely accepted : These
accepted: Thesemaintain
maintain group
group pressure
pressure for
for actions
actions that
that encourage
encourage short-
short-
term individual sacrifice
sacrifice in favour of longer-term group
group benefit.
benefit. This
This is an important way in which
which group
group pressure
pressure is
is
maintained in small-scale societies where hierarchical political control is weak.
weak.
Long-term or
Long-term or hereditary
hereditary leadership
leadership rather
rather than temporary "big men" men" : hereditary leadership,
leadership, often backed
backed by
ritual power
ritual power and
and continuity
continuity with
with ancestors
ancestors provides
provides more
more effective
effective resource
resource control
control than
thanpopulist
populistleadership
leadership
maintained through "display distribution" of
"display and distribution" of resources.
resources. In
In both
both cases,
cases, control
control of
of access
access to
to resources
resources isis one
one means
means
of
of maintaining political power. The
The difference
difference is in
in time
time scale
scale:: long
long term
termhereditary
hereditary leadership
leadershipvs.vs.short-term
short-termcontrol
control
where there is less incentive to leave valued resources unharvested.
unharvested.
6. SETTING AND MAINTAINING LIMITS
Users knowledge
Users knowledge: bestbuilt
: best builton
onexisting
existinglocal
localknowledge
knowledge of
ofsustainable
sustainable yields,
yields, resource status.
Rules for resource

resource use
use: :need
needtotobebedeveloped
developedthrough
througha aprocess
processofoflocal
localparticipation,
participation,mutually
mutually agreed
agreed simple,
simple,
practical, enforceable and appropriate.
Maintaining obligations
obligations : mutual
mutual agreements reachedon
agreements reached onresource
resourceuse
useneed
needtoto be
be kept
kept and
and there
there need
need to be
be
disincentives against individuals exploiting resources at the expense of the group.
"Free riders"
"Free riders"should
shouldbebedetectible
detectible: people
: peopletrying
tryingtotoabuse
abusethe
thesystem,
system,need
needtoto be
be easy
easy to
to detect.
detect. This
This largely depends
depends
on having small,
small, clearly defined boundaries
clearly defined boundaries around
around thethe resource,
resource, aa small
small and
and a identifiable
identifiable group
group of resource users
resource users
who live near the resource.
155
Conflict resolution
resolution:: well
well developed
developed mechanisms
mechanisms for
for conflict
conflict resolution
resolution should be established.
established. These may be internal
internal
mechanisms, such as resolution
mechanisms, such resolution of
of conflicts
conflicts which
which are
are expressed
expressed through
through witchcraft
witchcraft accusations
accusations resolved
resolved through
through
cleansing rituals
lituals and
and therapy.
therapy.
Punishments
Punishmentsagainst
againstrule
rulebrealdng : consensus
breaking: consensusneeds
needstotobebereached
reachedononpunishments
punishments for
for breaking
breaking agreed
agreed rules. There
IUles. There
should
should be
be aa sliding
sliding scale
scale of
of punishments
punishments but
but punislunents
punishments forfor serious
serious offences
offences need
need "bite"
"bite" in
in social
social or
or material
material terms.
terms.
7. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GROUPS AND THE STATE
The state should support
support and
andencourage,
encourage, and
andbe
becareful
carefulnot
nottotoundermine
underminedecentralised
decentralisedcontrol : where
control: whereresource
resource
groups are
are effective in preventing
preventing an
an open-access
open-access situation
situation and
and are
are managing
managing resource
resource use
use on
onaasustainable
sustainablebasis,
basis,State
State
control should
should be
be minimised.
minimised.
Point 11:
11: When
Whenwe welook
lookatatecological
ecological impacts,
impacts, we
we must
must see
see beyond
beyond thethe individual
individual plant
plant
level
level and understand
understand impacts and conduct
impacts and conduct monitoring
monitoring atat the plant
plant population
population and
and forest
forest
dynamics/forest system
dynamics/forest system level.
level. We
We also
also need
need to be very
very selective
selective in
in choosing
choosing which
which plant
plant
populations are monitored.
In diverse and dynamic

dynamic habitats, with many
habitats, with many hundreds
hundreds of species harvested, yet with limited
species harvested, limited
funding and
funding and time,
time, we
we have
have toto carefully choose where
carefully choose where to
to focus
focus detailed
detailed studies
studies atat aa plant
plant
population level. The
population level. The first
first steps
steps in
in this process are to short-list
this process short-list the species
species which
which are most
valued and
valued and used
used inin greatest
greatest quantity
quantity or enter
enter commercial
commercial trade.
trade. In
ill terms
terms ofof resource
resource
management and
management and monitoring,
monitoring, thethe plant
plant resource
resource categories
categories of greatest
greatest concern are are cases
cases
where destructive
where harvesting isis taking
destructive harvesting taking place,
place, particularly
particularly where
where species
species areare scarce,
scarce, slow
slow
growing, habitat
growing, habitat specific
specific and
and where
where roots,
roots, bark,
bark, stems
stems or
or the whole
whole plant
plant are
are harvested.
harvested.
Conversely, this
Conversely, this process
process also
also highlights
highlights species
species which
which are
are likely
likely to
to be most
most tolerant
tolerant of of
continued harvest and those which are unpopular, rarely used and would be less of of aa priority
priority
for quantitative work at a species population level.
Although the response of of individual plants to harvesting impacts provides useful information,
it is crucial
crucial to
to avoid
avoid getting
getting side-tracked
side-tracked when we see see destructive
destructive harvest
harvest at
at the
the individual
individual
plant
plant level.
level. Harvesting impacts need
Harvesting impacts need to
to be
be seen
seen from
from the
the perspective
perspective of
of the
the population
popUlation
dynamics of that particular species.
dynamics species. Harvested
Harvested plant
plant populations
populations in
in tum
turn need to be viewed in
terms
terms of how they are influenced by disturbance and succession.
Point
Point 12:
12: Multiple-use
Multiple-use programmes
programmes in protected areas need to take
take ecological
ecological impacts
impacts into
account.
This issue is most evident in Afromontane and coastal forest protected

protected areas,
areas, which
which are
are small
small
and are surrounded by high numbers
and numbers of rural
rural farmers.
farmers. High volumes
volumes of hunting
hunting or deadwood
deadwood
removal
removal both have complex
complex ecological
ecological impacts.
impacts. In
ill the
the Bwindi
Bwindi Impenetrable
Impenetrable National Park
case, fuelwood use was not allowed within the multiple-use
fuelwood use zones, but
multiple-use zones, but was
was a candidate
candidate for
development
development of alternatives
alternatives (on-farm
(on-farm agroforestry
agroforestry production,
production, fuel-efficient
fuel-efficient stoves)
stoves) outside
outside
the protected area.
area. The ecological impact of dead
ecological impact dead tree felling
felling at Mt.
Mt. Kilum in Cameroon
Cameroon is is a
good example ofof a case where this has been ignored
ignored (See
(See Point
Point 10
10 above).
above).
Point 13:
13: Training
Training and
and employment
employment of people
people from
from communities around the
communities around the park area are
very important, providing a real benefit from the existence of the park
very important, providing a real benefit from the existence of the park and a resilience
resilience in
of political turmoil.
terms of staffing in times of
This has not been sufficiently catered for in many African protected areas,
areas, including
including Uganda.
Uganda.
quote::
This point is best made by the following quote
""...that vehicles, buildings,

... that vehicles, buildings, and
and short-term consultants supported
short-term consultants supported by
by large multi-nationals
multi-nationals do
do
not
not make
make aaconservation
conservation project.
project. Instead, achieved by
illstead, conservation is achieved by people
people with
with
commitment. Project personnel recruited from
from the
the local
local population
population who
who demonstrate
demonstrate qualities
qualities
156
of leadership and commitment,
commitment, who
who receive regular hands-on
hands-on training that empowers them to
take responsibility for the management
responsibility for management ofof their
their natural
natural resources,
resources, are
are the
the formula
formula proven
proven toto
sustain long-term
sustain long-term conservation
conservation efforts
efforts under
under difficult
difficult conditions.
conditions.The
The combination
combination of
of aa few
few
dedicated
dedicated individuals, together with
individuals, together with the
the support
support ofofa non-governmental
a non-governmentalorganisation
organisation
(independent of
(independent of political
political constraints)
constraints) with
with a long-term commitment to
long-term commitment to conservation,
conservation, is is the
best recipe for achieving
achieving lasting success
success in countries
countries where
where political
political stability
stability is
is in
in question,
question,
1997).
or perhaps anywhere" (Hart and Hart, 1997).
Two
Two Central African examples
examples highlight
highlight the the need for training
training hand-picked
hand-picked locallocal people
people in in
protected area
protected area management.
management.One One ofof the
the strongest tests of conservation
strongest tests strategies isis how
conservation strategies how
resilient they
resilient they are to the chaos
chaos of of civil
civil conflicts.
conflicts. Recent
Recent tests
tests of
of this
this stem
stemfrom
from conservation
conservation
areas
areas in Rwanda and Zaire (now Democratic Republic of
Democratic Republic of the
the Congo)
Congo) engulfed
engulfed by conflict
conflict
(Hart and Hart, 1997;
1997; Fimbel
Fimbel andand Fimbel,
Fimbel, 1997).
1997). These
These Central
Central African
African examples
examples highlight
highlight
the crucial
the crucial need
need for
for appropriate
appropriate training
training for for hand-picked
hand-picked local peoplepeople atat various
various levels
levels
(rangers, technical staff,
(rangers, technical staff, research
research professionals
professionals and and managers)
managers) to to take responsibility
responsibility for for
conservation programmes.
conservation programmes. International
International non-governmental
non-governmentalorganisations
organisationshavehaveaakey key role
role in
in
this process,
this process, and
and one
one of these is to support this training process. In both cases, international
training process. international
funding was
funding was disrupted
disrupted and
and ex-patriate
ex-patriate staffstaff left
left or
or were
were evacuated
evacuated due due to
to conflicts
conflicts in or or
around the Nyungwe
around Forest Conservation
Nyungwe Forest Conservation ProjectProject in
in Rwanda
Rwanda andand four World Heritage Sites
in Zaire.
Zaire. What maintained these conservation
conservation areasareas during
during these conflicts were local people
connected to
connected to these
these projects.
projects. The
The important
important lesson
lesson from
from both
both cases
cases isis summed
summed up up from
from the
the
Rwandan case, where Nyungwe forest, forest, an Integrated Conservation and Development Project
(ICDP) and
(ICDP) and a priority
priority area for
for conservation
conservation was was held
held together
together in
in the face of lawlessness and
land-grabs. Four
land-grabs. Four local
local people
people with
with exceptional
exceptional leadership
leadership qualities
qualities continued
continued to to collect
collect and
and
safeguard project records
safeguard records and
and liaise
liaise with people neighbouring
neighbouring thethe park and local government
government
representatives.
representatives. Of Of 45
45 local
local staff,
staff, all
all from
from villages
villages bordering
bordering the the conservation
conservation area,
area, 4040
remained, continuing to
remained, continuing to undertake forest patrols
undertake forest patrols without
without salaries
salaries or communications
communications from from
former supervisors or senior staff staff who had fled.
4. Conclusion
The CARPE programme

programme is is working
working in
in a large region
region with many challenges. This region
challenges. This region is
also
also one which
which really requires practical support
requires practical support to
to a region
region of great
great importance
importance for forest
conservation.
conservation. One of the advantages that a relatively
advantages that relatively new
new initiative like CARPE has is that it
can
can learn
learn from
from the
the research,
research, conservation
conservation and
and development
development lessons
lessons learned
learned from
from other
other
African forest
African forest conservation programmesasaswell
conservation programmes well asas from
from tropical
tropical forest
forest research
research by
by
ecologists, anthropologists and
ecologists, anthropologists and economists
economists inin other
other parts
parts of
of the
the tropics.
tropics. I sincerely hope that
sincerely hope that
the programme
the will succeed
programme will succeed and
and lead
lead to long-term
long-term support
support forfor forest
forest conservation
conservation in this
this
region.
Acknowledgements
I would
would like
like to
to thank
thank the
the CARPE
CARPE programme and USDA
programme and for funding
USDA for my travel
funding my travel to this
this
meeting and in particular Terry Sunderland and Mark Buccowich for the invitation to attend.
This overview of lessons learned from the BINP case-study has been possible due to support support
from the CARE-DTC
CARE-DTC programme,
programme, whichwhich in
in early
early 1992
1992 commissioned
commissioned me me toto carry
carry out the
survey and
survey and make
make recommendations
recommendations for for multiple-use around the
multiple-use around the national
national parks,
parks, and
and
subsequent support from the WWFfUNESCO/Kew
WWF/UNESCO/Kew "People "People and
and Plants
Plants Initiative",
Initiative", which
which has
has
funded
funded Ugandan students at
Ugandan students at the Institute
Institute for Tropical
Tropical Forest
Forest Conservation
Conservation at at BINP.
BINP. In
particular
particular I would
would like
like to
to thank
thankJacob
JacobBandusya,
Bandusya, Z.Z. R.R.Bukenya,
Bukenya,Dominic
Dominic Byarugaba,
Byarugaba,
Onesimus
Onesimus Muhwezi,
Muhwezi, Maud
Maud Kamatenesi
Kamatenesi and
and Alan
Alan Hamilton
Hamilton for
for company
company and
and participation
participation in
stimulating discussions in the field over the past six years.
157
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159
THE DOMESTICATION OF INDIGENOUS AGROFORESTRY TREES:
ICRAF'S STRATEGY IN THE HUMID
HUMID TROPICS
TROPICS OF
WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA
Zacharie Tchoundjeu, Bahiru Duguma, Marie-Laure Tiencheu

and Marie-Laure
Marie-Laure Ngo-Mpeck
Ngo-Mpeck
Abstract
The tropical
tropical rain forests
forests of
of West
West and
and Central
Central Africa
Africa are
are endowed
endowed withwith abundant
abundant high
high value
value
indigenous fruit
indigenous fruit and medicinal tree species.
medicinal tree species. Many
Many rural households
households of the the region
region heavily
heavily
depend on these resources for their fruit, medicinal, food, food, and construction needs. Moreover,
Moreover,
some of thesy
these products, particularly medicinal
medicinal plants,
plants, are
are traded
traded internationally,
internationally, significantly
significantly
contributing to
contributing to the
the economy
economy of thethe countries
countries of the region.
region. Currently,
Currently, thethe majority
majority of these
these
products are exploited
exploited exclusively from the wild. The accelerated
accelerated rate of of destruction
destruction ofof the
the
forest of the
the Central
Central Africa
Africa region is currently estimated
estimated at at 60%
60% per year (FAO, 1997). 1997). The
clearance ofof forest
forest for
for agriculture,
agriculture, increased
increased urbanisation
urbanisation andand other
other economic
economic developments
developments
makes
makes the need to to domesticate
domesticate many high value forest resources
resources an imperative.
imperative. It is hoped
hoped
that this
this will
will enable
enable small-scale
small-scale farmers
farmers toto cultivate
cultivate these
these species
species ininananenvironmentally-
environmentally-
sustainable and economically-profitable system. In order to
system. In to enhance the potential adoption of
cultivation, the importance of identifying greater market opportunities
opportunities through transformation
transformation
to value
value added
added goods
goods and
and developing
developing aa sound
sound policy
policy environment
environment is is also
alsoadvocated.
advocated. This
This
paper presents ICRAF's tree domestication approachapproach and preliminary results obtained so far
in West and Central
Central Africa.
Africa.
words: Domestication,
Key words: Domestication, vegetative
vegetative propagation,
propagation, seed,
seed, marcotting
marcotting
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Throughout the humid

Throughout the humid tropics
tropics there
there are
are numerous
numerous perennial
perennial woody
woody species
species that
that have
have
provided
provided indigenous people with
indigenous people with many
many of their needs for millennia
millennia (Leakey,
(Leakey, 1998;
1998; Okafor
Okafor
and Lamb, 1994; Abbiw, 1990).1990). With the rapid population growth, these resources are are being
being
increasing demand for productive
depleted owing to the increasing productive land for
for agriculture,
agriculture, which
which isis met
metby
by
clearing more
more forest.
forest. Deforestation reduces species
Deforestation reduces species diversity
diversity and
and erodes
erodes the
the genetic
genetic base
base of
tropical trees, including those
those vital
vital for
for the
the very
very survival
survival of
of the
the population
population of
ofthe
the region.
region.
The rain forest environment, as as rich and diverse

diverse as
as itit is,
is, is
is also
also known
known to to be
be extremely
extremely fragile.
fragile.
As
As aa result,
result, the
the region's
region's forest
forest land
land cleared
cleared for
for crop
crop cultivation
cultivation (based
(based on on the
the traditional
traditional
shifting cultivation) remains
shifting cultivation) remainsproductive
productivefor forless
less than
than three
three years.
years. It
It requires
requires a fallowfallow oror
resting period
resting period of over
over 20
20 years
years before
before land
land can
can again
again be bebrought
broughtunder
undercultivation.
cultivation. The The
practice of shifting cultivation destroys
destroys the vegetation
vegetation and and exposes
exposes the
the soil to harsh climatic
factors (intense solar radiation and heavy raindrops).
factors raindrops). This,This, in
in tum,
turn, leads to disruption of the
closed nutrient recycle and severe degradation of the natural resource base base with
with itsits attendant
attendant
consequences on the global environment (Ahn, 1974; Lal,
(Ahn, 1974; Lal, et al., 1975;
1975; JhaJha et
et al.,
al., 1979).
1979). The
The
practice of shifting
practice shifting cultivation
cultivation isis reported
reported to
to account
account for for 60%
60% of forest
forest losses
losses eacheach year
year
1997).
(FAO, 1997).
In response
In response to both environmental concerns and
environmental concerns and the
the need
need to
to ensure
ensure the
the sustenance of the
sustenance of the
livelihood of the population of the region, agroforestry
livelihood is advocated
agroforestry is as a potential
advocated as potential solution
solution
(Leakey, 1998).
(Leakey, sustainable form of
1998). The aim is to develop a more sustainable of land use
use that
that will
will improve
improve
161
farm productivity while at same time improving
productivity while improving the welfare of the
the community.
community. Traditional
Traditional
agroforestry systemsare
are part
part and
and parcel
parcel of
of the
the cropping systems of the humid
cropping systems humid tropics
tropics of
Africa.
Africa. Simple
Simple indigenous multi-strata
indigenous multi systems such
-strata systems such as
as the
the cacao
cacao (Theobroma
(Theobroma cacao)
cacao)
cultivation system and
cultivation system and compound gardens composed
compound gardens composed ofof several
several medicinal
medicinal and
and fruit
fruit tree
tree
species already exist in the region (Okafor and Fernandes, 1987).
1987).
Elsewhere in the world, similar tree-based

Elsewhere home gardens
tree-based home gardens have
have been
been found
found to
to be capable of
providing 44% people's carbohydrate needs and 32%
providing 44% of people's carbohydrate needs and 32% of their protein intake, while
intake, while using
using
only
only 7%
7% of their
their time
time (Cooper
(Cooperet et al.,
al., 1996).
1996). In
In addition
addition to
to their
their economic
economic and
and nutritional
nutritional
importance, these systems are also biologically diverse and environmentally
environmentally resilient.
resilient.
In West and
and Central
Central Africa,
Africa, the
the production
production objective
objective of some
some ofof these
these simple
simple agroforests,
agroforests,
such as the cacao or coffee systems, are often
systems, are often targeted to a single commodity,
commodity, such as as cocoa
or coffee.
coffee. This exposes farmers
farmers to high risk at
at times
times of
of price
price fluctuation,
fluctuation, policy
policy changes
changes or
or
natural disasters such
such as
as prolonged
prolonged and debilitating disease outbreaks.
outbreaks. For
For example,
example, when
when the
the
world cocoa
world cocoa price
price fell
fell drastically
drastically and
and remained depressed from
remained depressed from the
the late 1980s through
through the
early 1990s, both producers and nations suffered
suffered immense
immense economic
economic setbacks.
setbacks. Many
Many farmers
farmers
responded by either abandoning the farm or clearing the cacao field completely and and replacing
it with other crops (Duguma et al., 1998).
1998).
As indicated above, farmers different types

farmers grow different types of indigenous
indigenous fruit
fruit and medicinal plants
plants in
almost all of the simple agroforests. However, none of these species have been systematically
quality or
selected and bred for quality or quantity.
quantity. The inter-cropping
inter-cropping system informally developed by
farmers has never benefited from modem
modern science in order
order to
to optimise
optimise resource
resource use
use efficiency
efficiency
for environmental quality as well as increased return on on investment.
investment. Although
Although different
different types
types
of species are known to bebe inter-cropped,
inter-cropped, the simple
simple agroforests of West and and Central
Central Africa
Africa
are
are reported
reported toto be
be less
less diverse
diverse and
and under
under utilised
utilised compared
compared to to the
the highly
highly complex
complex
agroforestry systems of Southeast Asia (ICRAF, 1987, Duguma et al., 1990; 1990; Duguma,
Duguma, 1994).
1994).
This suggests there is considerable potential for the development
development of these
these systems
systems in
in the
the West
West
and Central African region.
years however, there has been a growing interest in optimising the value
In recent years value and
and role of
of
indigenous species
high value indigenous species in the tree-based cropping system of West and and Central
Central Africa.
Africa.
The International
The International Centre
Centre for
for Research
Research inin Agroforestry
(ICRAF) began
began such
such an
an initiative
initiative in
in
1994.
1994. The aim is to first identify priority (from the farmers' perspective)
perspective) high
high value
value species,
species,
with a view to improving their genetic base and, secondly, to integrate these
with these species
species through
through
domestication into improved
domestication into multi-strata systems
improved multi-strata systems developed
developed through
through thethe application
application of
agroforestry
agroforestry science and indigenous
indigenous knowledge.
knowledge. The
The strategy
strategy of
of the
the initiative and preliminary
preliminary
results obtained are provided below.
below.
2. Species
Species prioritisation
prioritisation
With only
With only rare exceptions,
exceptions, the
the tree
tree germplasm used or available
germplasm used available for immediate
immediate use
use in
in
agroforestry
agroforestry isis wild
wild and
and unimproved.
unimproved. TheThe number
number ofof species
species inin existing
existingagroforestry
agroforestry
technologies is enormous: 100-2 500 (Simons,
100-2500 (Simons, 1996).
1996). Of
Of course,
course, aa domestication
domesticationprogramme
programme
cannot effectively handle so many species,
species, nor would all species even warrant domestication
anyone
at any one time.
For this
this reason,
reason, ICRAF
ICRAF has
has developed
developed aadecision-making
decision-making framework
framework toto determine
determine whether
whether
domestication of
domestication of a particular species should proceed, and
should proceed, and if so at what level of
of intensity
intensity and
and
in what
in what direction
direction (Jaenicke
(Jaenicke et et al., 1995;
1995; Franzel
Franzel etet al.,
al., 1996).
1996). This
This priority
priority setting
setting is
is
important,
important, as
as it identifies the 'top
'top' species
species as
as farmers view
view them and which can can best
best contribute
contribute
to achieving
to research objectives,
achieving research objectives, while
while focusing
focusing on
on key
key factors
factors that minimise
minimise costs
costs while
162
increasing benefits.
increasing benefits. In
In the primity-setting
priority-setting exercise, farmers indicate
exercise, farmers indicate which
which trees are
are most
most
them and
important for them and in
in what
what ways
ways they
they would
would like
like them
them improved.
improved.
These guidelines
These guidelines for for setting
setting priority
priority species
species constitute
constitute aa great
great advance
advance inin procedural
procedural
methodology. The process involves seven
seven stages:
stages:
• Building aa multi-disciplinary
Building multi-disciplinary team
team (economists,
(economists, foresters,
foresters, agronomists, social
scientists) and
and planning;
• Assessing client (farmers
(farmers and
and users)
users) needs;
needs;
• Assessing species currently used
used by
by clients;
• Ranking importance
Ranking importanceofof tree
tree products
products according
according toto several
several criteria
criteria (food
(food and
and
nutritional security, market value and potential value);
value);
• Identifying priority species;
• Evaluating and ranking priority species;
species;
• The production of a final list of priority species for domestication.
The researchers
researchers then target their collections
collections of germplasm
germplasm to individual
individual trees
trees that
that farmers
farmers
deem superior.
deem superior. This
This priority-setting
priority-setting methodology
methodologyhas hasnow
nowbeen
beenused
usedin
in aa number
number of eco-
eco-
regions: the
regions: the semi-arid lowlandsof
semi-arid lowlands of West
West Africa,
Africa, the
the humid
humid lowlands
lowlands of
of West
West Africa, the
Africa, the
lowlands of
lowlands of the Peruvian
Peruvian Amazon,
Amazon, the Yucatan
Yucatan Peninsula
Peninsula in Mexico
Mexico andand the
the Miombo
Miombo
(ICRAF, 1994).
woodlands ecozone of Southern Africa (ICRAF, 1994).
priority-setting exercise
The priority-setting exercise in
in the
the humid
humid lowlands
lowlands of West Africa (HULWA)
(HULW A) identified the
following species for domestication work
work (listed
(listed in
in order
order of
of importance):
importance):
• Irvingia gabonensis,
• Dacryodes edulis,
• Chrysophyllum albidum,
• Ricinodendron heudelotii,
• Garcinia kola.
Garcinia kola.
In addition,
addition, on the basis
basis of their value in existing
existing and future international markets
markets and
and as
as a
potential source
potential source of
of income
income inin the
the region,
region, and because both trees
because both trees are currently being
being over-
over-
and harvested
exploited and harvested unsustainably
unsustainably in
innatural
naturalstands
standstwo
twomedicinal
medicinaltrees,
trees,Prunus
Prunus africana
africana
and Pausinystalia
and Pausinystalia johimbe,
johimbe, were
were also
also added
added totoICRAF's
ICRAF'sdomestication
programme
(Cunningham and
(Cunningham and Mbenkum,
Mbenkum, 1993;1993; Dawson,
Dawson, 1997;
1997; Ndibi
Ndibi and
and Kay,
Kay, 1997;
1997; Leakey,
Leakey, 1997;
1997;
Sunderland et al., 1997).
1997).
3. Genebank establishment
3.
Establishment
Establishment ofof aa genebank
genebank of of priority
priority species
speciesisis aa crucial
crucial first
first step
step in the process
process of tree
domestication
domestication after
after the
the species
species prioritisation.
prioritisation. First
First of all,
all, it serves as a "bank" for continuous
supply of diverse
supply diverse genetic
genetic material
material of
of the
the priority
priority species
species forfor further
further selection.
selection. Of course this
this
is possible
is possible only
only if the initial
initial germplasm collection isis undertaken
germplasm collection undertaken in in as
as wide
wide and diverse
diverse a
geographical spread
geographical spread asas possible
possible throughout
throughoutthe the native
native range
range of of the species.
species. This
This enables
enables
researchers to obtain preliminary field information on growth performance, tree architecture, architecture,
susceptibilityoror resistance
susceptibility resistancetoto pests
pests and
and diseases
diseases etc.,
etc., which
which areare crucial
crucial in
in the
the selection
selection
process.
process. ICRAF's experience with
ICRAF's experience with Irvingia
lrvingia gabonensis, Irvingia wombolu,
gabonensis, Irvingia Prunus africana
wombolu, Prunus
Pausinystalia johimbe is reported
and Pausinystalia reported below.
below.
3.1. Irvingia
3.1. Irvingia gabonensis
Farmer preference surveys in HULWA identified Irvingia gabonensis (bush

(bush mango)
mango) as
as aa top
top
priority species for the eco-region. The bush mango is marketed widely throughout the region
163
(Ndoye, 1995), people eat the nutritious fruit and from the cotyledons, or kernels, they they derive
a thickening agent for stews.
stews. There is tremendous potential for
tremendous potential for improvement
improvement as as there
there is
is great
variation in the
variation in the quality, taste and
quality, taste and size of the fruit, the size of
of the
the kernel,
kernel, the
the timing
timing of
of fruit
fruit
production and in
production and in the maturation
maturation process. Farmers cultivate
process. Farmers cultivate the
the tree
tree widely
widely and tendtend toto
collect wildlings from the forest and plant these in their
their home gardens.
To launch the domestication programme, seeds

domestication programme, seeds were
were collected
collected from
from tree
tree farmers
farmers viewed
viewed as
their best'
best' or
or superior
superior individuals
individuals in Gabon,
Gabon, Cameroon
Cameroon and Nigeria.
Nigeria. This seed was
was used
used to
to
establish three
establish three live genebanks:
genebanks: in Mbalmayo (Cameroon)
(Cameroon) and and Ibadan and Onne
Onne in
in Nigeria.
Nigeria.
Preliminary results from these multi-site gene
genebank trials revealed great variation between and
bank trials
among accessions. For the Nigerian genebanks, the difference
among accessions. For the Nigerian genebanks, the difference in height
height development
development was
was
significant.
There was also a statistically significant difference in the collar diameter between provenance
in the
the Nigerian
Nigerian genebanks.
gene banks. The number
number of of branches
branches was
was another
another parameter
parameter recorded.
recorded. In
In
genebanks
gene banks in Mbalmayo,
Mbalmayo, there was also significant variation among and between
between accessions
accessions
for height, stem diameter and number of branches. Twelve months after planting
planting (MAP),
(MAP), one
one
accession from Gabon
Gabon (G1)
(G1) and two from Nigeria performed well both in terms of
performed well of diameter
diameter
and height.
In general, genebanks
genebanks in Nigeria were in better shape than the one one in
in Cameroon.
Cameroon. Variation
Variation inin
height, stem diameter
height, diameter and phenological development between
phenological development between and
and within
within populations
populations of I.I.
gabonensis
gabon was highly
ellS is was highly significant
significantatat this
this stage
stage of development
development (12 (12 and
and 24 MAP MAP for for
Cameroon and and Nigeria respectively).
respectively). Should
Should the
the same
same trends
trends be
be observed when the plants are
mature enough
mature enough toto display traits
traits that farmers
farmers view as desirable (size of of the
the fruit,
fruit, kernels,
kernels, sell
sell
cracking property
cracking property for
for I.I. wombulu) then the
womblllll) then the research
research focus
focus will
will be
be on identifying appropriate
appropriate
propagation techniques, cloning,
cloning, mass
mass propagation
propagation and
and on-farm
on-farm evaluation
evaluation of
of superior
superior lines.
lines.
3.2. Marcotting
3.2. Marcotting Irvingia gabonensis
Marcotting is a vegetative
Marcotting is technique undertaken
vegetative propagation technique undertaken on
on intact
intact branches.
branches. It involves
involves
bark girdling and wrapping
girdling and the girdled
wrapping the girdled area
area in
in a damp
damp medium
medium to induce rooting.
rooting. It is an
an
approach that has
approach that has been
been widely
widely used
used in
in horticulture
horticulture to Multiply traditional fruit
multiply traditional fruit trees
trees in
in
temperate
temperate regions. application to
regions. Its application to indigenous
indigenous tropical species is very
tropical species very recent
recent and
and
preliminary results are extremely encouraging indeed.
marcotting
For marc or air
otting or layering of I.I. gabonensis,
air layering gabonensis, national
national teams
teams went
went out
out to interview
interview farmers
fanners
and to set marcotts on trees farmers viewed as superior. In all, 11 200 farmers were
were involved
involved in
in
setting 2 000 marcotts ,in
in Ibadan, Onne (Nigeria), Ebolowa and Mamfe (Cameroon).
While the technique

technique produced propagules,
propagules, the success
success rate was low (30%)
(30%) and
and the
the survival
survival
rate was even lower (10%). The rooting rate can probably be
be improved
improved by
by the
the use
use of rooting
rooting
hormones, and better
hormones, and better management
management of of the fragile
fragile rooted
rooted propagules
propagules should
should increase
increase the
the
survival rate.
survival rate. ItIt is also
also assumed
assumed that
that the
the weaning
weaning of ofrooted
rootedpropagules
propagules under
under non-mist
non-mist
propagators (describedby
propagators (described by Leakey
Leakey et al., 1990),
et al., 1990), asas for
for rooted
rooted leafy
leafy cuttings,
cuttings, could
could
considerably improve the survival
survival rate.
Despite the
Despite the low
low success rate, marcotting
success rate, marc otting isis still
still preferable to rooting
preferable to rooting of cuttings, as it is
cuttings, as is
notoriously difficult to
notoriously difficult to get cuttings
cuttings from mature trees to root.
mature trees root. The only
only alternative
alternative is
is to
to fell
fell
the tree
tree and
and to
to root
root cuttings
cuttings from
from juvenile
juvenile coppice
coppice shoots
shoots that develop subsequently
subsequently on the
stump. While this
stump. While this is
is feasible,
feasible, it would
would result inin aa long
long delay
delay before
before the
the propagules
propagules would
would
again
again become
become sexually mature.
mature. Once selected
selected phenotypes
phenotypes have been been captured,
captured, techniques
techniques
must be
must be developed
developed to to root
root cuttings
cuttings from
from thethe rooted
rooted marcotts,
marcotts, soso they
they can
can be
be rapidly
rapidly
164
multiplied. Of particular
multiplied. Of interest in
particular interest in the selection
selection for desirable
desirable traits,
traits, another
another species,
species, I.
1.
wombulu, has
wombulll, has individuals
individuals with
with nuts
nuts that are self-cracking,
self-cracking, exposing the kernel and making it
much
much easier to extract.
extract. Such a trait
trait could
could have
have enormous
enormous economic and social spin-offs
spin-offs by
saving considerably on the labour needed to crack open the hard seed coat with aa machete
machete to
extract kernels from the nuts of
of unimproved trees.
3.3. Prunlls
3.3. Prunus africana
Prunus africana (formerly

Prunus (fOlmerly Pygeum africanum) isis an indigenous
Pygell1n africanwn) indigenous timber
timber tree of of tropical
tropical
montane areas
montane areas of West,
West, Central, East Africa
Central, East Africa and
and Madagascar.
Madagascar. TheThe bark extracts
extracts are used in
the
the treatment
treatment ofof benign
benign prostatic
prostatic hyperplasia
hyperplasia and
and prostrate
prostrate gland
gland hypertrophy,
hypertrophy, ailments
ailments
suffered by
suffered by 60%
60% of men men inin Europe
Europe and and USA.
USA. The
The complexity
complexity ofof the
the extract
extract apparently
apparently
precludes
precludes the likely synthesis
synthesis of this
this drug
drug (Waterman,
(Waterman, 1994).
1994). The
The compound
compound is extracted
extracted
almost exclusively
almost exclusively from
from the
the raw
raw bark
bark ofof this
this tree,
tree, the trade of which
which is
is worth
worth some
some $220
$220
million a year
year (Cunningham
(Cunningham et al.,al., 1997).
1997). However,
However, unsustainable
unsustainable methods
methods of of exploitirig
exploiting the
bark have seriously
seriously eroded natural populations
populations of this montane species
species in
in both
both Madagascar
Madagascar
and Cameroon
and Cameroon (Cunningham
(Cunningham and and Mbenkum,
Mbenkum, 1993).1993). The
The international
international trade
trade of Prunus
Prllnus
africana is now
africana now controlled,
controlled, inin theory,
theory, by by the
the placing
placing of
of the
the species on Appendix
species on Appendix IIII of
of the
the
Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
ICRAF, in collaboration with UNESCO (United (United Nations Educational, Scientific

Scientific and
and Cultural
Cultural
Organization), Limbe Botanic
Organization), Limbe Botanic Garden,
Garden, CDC
CDC (Cameroon
(Cameroon Development
Development Corporation)
Corporation) and
IRAD (Institut de
WAD de Recherches
Recherches Agricole pour Ie Developpement),
pour le Developpement), hashas developed
developed aa programme
programme
to investigate the possibility of
of domesticating
domesticating the species.
species. This
This programme
programme is is concerned
concerned with
with
the selection
selection of
of populations
populations that produce the greatest
greatest quantity
quantity of
of bark,
bark, or
or alternatively,
alternatively, the
the
best quality
quality and quantity
quantity bark extracts
extracts for medicinal use. This
medicinal use. This work was
was initiated
initiated with
with aa
survey of the genetic variation of P.
P. africana
africana in
in the
the wild,
wild, followed
followed by
by seed
seed collection
collection and
and the
the
establishment ofof live genebanks
genebanks.
Seeds
Seeds for the
the genebanks
genebanks were
were collected
collected in
in three
three areas
areas ininCameroon
Cameroon(Mendankwe,
(Mendankwe, Kilum
Kilum
Cameroon). Seed collected from 80 trees were set
Mountain and Mount Cameroon). set in
in aa genebank
genebank at
at Tole
Tole
near
near Limbe,
Limbe, while leaf
leaf samples
samples from 31 31 trees
trees were
were also
also harvested
harvested for
for molecular
molecular genetic
genetic
and results are
analysis. The genetic analysis is still underway and are pending.
pending.
The preliminary results

results from genebanks
genebanks in Limbe
Limbe analysed
analysed byby the Mount Cameroon Project
showed that the survival
showed that rate of all
survival rate all provenance's
provenance's varied
varied from
from 60%
60% to to 100%.
100%. There
There was
was
statistically
statistically significant variation in
significant variation in early plant growth among the various
various accessions.
accessions. There
was a variation in mean height of 5-month-old
5-month-old plants
plants of less
less than 40 em,
cm, to over 100cm.
100cm. The
variation observed in
variation observed in survival rate and
survival rate and early height
height development does not
development does not seem
seem to relate
directly to the provenance
directly provenance of the seeds.
seeds. Regardless
Regardless of the source
source of
of the
the seed,
seed, however,
however, the
the
existence of
existence of such
such variation is a good
variation is good indication
indication that
that there
there is great
great potential
potential for
for genetic
genetic
improvement of this species through careful selection.
4. Genetic improvement
4. Genetic improvement through
through vegetative
propagation
Vegetative propagationtechniques
techniquesare
are the
the quickest
quickest and
and most
most efficient
efficient means
means to select,
select,
capture and multiply traits that farmers have
capture have stated
stated are
are desirable
desirable in
in these
these priority,
priority. species in
anticipation of their incorporation into different
different agroforestry
agroforestry systems.
systems.
Vegetative propagation offers
offers the
the tree
tree geneticist the ability
geneticist the ability to replicate traits
traits of
of particular
particular
interest and
interest and also to overcome the problem of lack of seeds.
overcome the seeds. The latter is
is important
important because
most of the rain forest species are irregular in their fruiting pattern. Vegetative propagation is
also a relatively straightforward technique to multiply,
multiply, test,
test, select and utilise the full range of
of
165
165
genetic diversity
genetic diversity present
present in
in most
most tree
tree species
species that
that can
can easily
easily be practised
practised by farmers.
farmers. ill
In this
this
way,
way, selected
selected and highly
highly productive
productive but unrelated
unrelated clones
clones can
can be
be used
usedcommercially,
commercially, for for
reforestation
reforestation and different agroforestry technologies. ICRAF's programme
different agroforestry technologies. ICRAF's programme uses vegetative
vegetative
propagation techniques
techniques such asas rooting,
rooting, grafting
grafting and
and air
air layering
layering to
to capture
capture desirable
desirable traits
traits for
for
high-value species.
4.1. Rooting
4.1. Rooting of
of leafy
leafy stems:
stems: Prunlls
Prunus africana
Rooting of juvenile cuttings has been shown to be an effective tool in vegetative

(Tchoundjeu and
(Tchoundjeu and Leakey,
Leakey, 1996;
1996; Tchigio and Duguma,
Duguma, 1998). Advances
Advances in the development
development
of low cost
cost non-mist
non-mist propagators are a key
propagators are key to
to the
the success
success of
ofthis
thistechnique
technique(Tchoundjeu,
(Tchoundjeu,
1997;
1997; Leaky
Leaky et al., 1990).
The objective of
of the
the vegetative
vegetative propagation research programme of ICRAF in HULWA HULW A is to
determine the main factors that affect the rooting of juvenile
juvenile leafy cuttings of
cuttings P. africana. For
P. For
this reason, we tested aa variety
variety of
of factors, including
including type
type of
of substrate
substrate and
and leaf
leafarea
area effects.
effects.
Substrates tested
Substrates tested included
included sawdust,
sawdust, sand
sand and
and aa mixture
mixture of the two. Rooting of of cuttings
cuttings was
was
significantly better in
significantly better in sawdust
sawdustand
and the
the sand-sawdust
sandsawdust mixture than itit was
mixture than was in sand
sand alone.
alone. A
similar trend was noted regarding
regarding the
the highly
highly significant
significant difference
difference between percentages
percentages of
dead cuttings
cuttings in each treatment.
treatment. The greatest
greatest number of dead
dead cuttings
cuttings was
was observed
observed inin the
the
sandsawdust
sand-sawdust mixture,
mixture, followed
followed by
by sawdust
sawdust and
and sand
sand substrates,
substrates, respectively.
respectively. Despite
Despite the
low rate of rooting
rooting success
success in sand,
sand, paradoxically this medium
paradoxically this medium also
also produced
produced aa low
low rate of
mortality of cuttings. Sand seems to be an appropriate rooting substrate for conserving fragile
cuttings.
cuttings. This is valid in the humid environment of a tropical forest.
forest. Similar results would be
unlikely in the Sahel where atmospheric humidity is lower.
Leaf area was also an important factor and and accounted

accounted for significantly
significantly different rooting ratesrates
P. africana. As
of P. As observed
observed inin many
many similar
similar experiments
experiments with tropical trees, the first cuttings
cuttings
rooted only
rooted only two
two weeks
weeks after
after the
the trial
trial was
was set
set up.
up. The
The presence
presence of of aa leaf
leaf is
is crucial to the
crucial to
process; no leafless cuttings rooted in this experiment.
rooting process; experiment. Furthermore, rooting success
appeared to
appeared to improve with increased
improve with increased leaf
leaf size.
size. Cuttings
Cuttings with
with leaves
leaves of 20 and 25 cm2 rooted
cm2 rooted
significantly better than those with areas of only 5 and 10 10 cm2. Although previous
cm • Although
2 previous experience
experience
with other tropical species such as Lovoa trichilioides has
Lovoa trichilioides has shown that larger leaf areas can in
fact impede rooting
rooting (Tchoundjeu,
(Tchoundjeu, 1998),
1998),this
thiswas
wasnotnotthe
thecase
caseinin this
this trial
trial with
with P.
P. africana
where 80% of the cuttings
cuttings with leaf areas of 20-25 cm2 cm rooted.
2 rooted. Follow-up
Follow-up experiments
experiments to to test
test
a range of larger leaf areas should help clarify this issue.
When
When dead
dead cuttings
cuttings were
were examined,
examined, itit appeared
appeared that
that the
the mortality
mortality rate
rate was
was inversely
inversely
proportional
proportional to the leaf areas.
areas. No leafless cutting survived
survived atat the
the end
end of the experiment, and
experiment, and
leaves and leaf area are both requisites to successful rooting of P.
P. ajricana.
africana.
Contrary to
Contrary to the
the inverse
inverse relation
relation between
between the
the mortality
mortalityrate
rate and
andthe
the size
size of
of the
the leaf
leaf area,
area, the
the
mean number of roots per rooted cutting was proportional to the leaf areas. Cuttings with leaf
areas of 20 and
and 25
25 cm2 produced the highest mean
cm2 produced mean number of roots, although the difference
significant.
was not significant.
experiments with
These two experiments with P.
P. ajricana
africana clearly indicated that this species can be multiplied
by rooting.
rooting. However, more studies
However, more studies on
on the
the effects
effects of different
different types
types and
and concentrations
concentrations of
hormones are
hormones are needed
needed to
to shed
shed more
more light
light on
on the
the process
process of rooting
rooting of this important species.
species.
This could
This could help
help pave
pave the
the way for
for domestication
domestication of of P.
P. africana,
ajricana, aa species
species that
that produces
produces
recalcitrant seeds
seeds which lose their ability
ability to
to germinate
germinate only a few days after collection.
collection. This
This
166
has proved to be aa particular
particular constraint
constraint to
to cultivating
cultivating the tree
tree in
in Madagascar
Madagascar where
where farmers
farmers
have a long tradition of
of tree
tree propagation
propagation and
and planting.
planting.
The
The work
work to
to develop
develop vegetative
propagation techniques for this
techniques for this species
species will
will enable
enable
researchers and their farmer
researchers and farmer partners
partners to produce
produce aa stable
stable domesticated
domesticated population
population of of the
the
species. This
species. This will
will serve
serve to
to guarantee
guarantee income
income toto the
the rural
rural population
population using
using this
this improved
improved
germplasm, while decreasing
germplasm, while decreasingpressure
pressureonon aa valuable
valuable natural
natural resource
resource that is is currently
currently
throughout its
harvested unsustainably throughout its natural
natural range.
range.
4.3. Rooting of leafy stems: Pausinystaliajohimbe

Pausinystalia johimbe
P. johinzbe
P. johimbe is is a late
late secondary
secondary forest
forest tree
tree species,
species, the
the bark
bark ofofwhich
whichisiscommercially
commercially
exploited. ItIt forms
exploited. forms the
the main
main ingredient
ingredient inin many
many pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical and herbal
herbal remedies
remedies to to
alleviate the symptoms
alleviate organic impotence
symptoms of organic impotence (Sunderland
(Sunderland et et al.,
al., 1997). On aa local
local level,
level, the
the
bark is used as an aphrodisiac and as a mild stimulant
stimulant to prevent drowsiness. This species
species is
thus
thus important for the
important for the supply
supply of
of raw
raw material
material forfor well-developed
well-developed local
local and
and international
international
markets.
Because of its many

many uses,
uses, its
its value
value on
on the
the international
market and
and the
the destructive
destructive methods
methods
used to harvest
used harvest the
the bark,
bark, P.
P. johimbe
johimbe isis now
nowseriously
seriously threatened,
threatened, especially
especially in South
South
Cameroon. Entire
Cameroon. Entire trees are felled
felled and then cut into logs, from which bark is stripped. To date,
has been taken entirely from
bark has from trees
trees in
in natural
natural stands
stands and
and there
there has
has been no no effort made
made to
to
develop strategies of sustainable
develop strategies sustainable exploitation
exploitation of the
the wild
wild resource
resource nor,
nor, until
until recently,
recently, had
had any
any
attempts
attempts been made to to domesticate
domesticate thethe species
species (see Sunderland et
(see Sunderland et al.,
al., this volume).
volume).
ICRAF
ICRAF together
together with
with Boehringer Ingelheim have
Boehringer Ingelheim have initiated
initiated aa programme
programme to assess
assess the
the
domestication potential of this species, using vegetative propagation techniques. The ICRAF
domestication
collaborative team have
collaborative team have tested
tested the effectiveness
effectiveness of different
different types of of substrates
substrates for
for rooting
rooting
leafy
leafy stem
stem cuttings
cuttings under
under non-mist
non-mist propagators
propagators in in the
the nursery
nursery atatMbalmayo,
Mbalmayo,Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Material used for rooting
rooting in
in this
this experiment
experiment waswas harvested
harvested from
from the
the stumps
stumps where
where exploiters
exploiters
have carried out destructive felling.
felling. These
These trials
trials clearly
clearly indicate
indicate that
that the rooting success of P.
rooting success P.
johimbe differs significantly depending
depending on the substrate used. used. Cuttings set in sawdust
sawdust alone
alone
and in aa sand/sawdust
sand/sawdust mixture rooted significantly
mixture rooted significantly better
better than
than did
did cuttings
cuttings in
in a medium of
pure
pure sand.
sand. Although the percentage
Although the percentageof of cuttings
cuttings that
that rooted
rootedin in the
the sawdust
sawdust inin the
the first six
six
weeks was quite
weeks was quite low,
low, the rooting
rooting rate increased rapidly from
increased rapidly from week
week seven,
seven, to
to attain
attain a
maximum rooting rate of 74% by week nine, when the experiment ended.
Observations of the
Observations of the mortality
mortality rates
rates of
of the cuttings
cuttings in the
the various
various media
media showed
showed that
that no
no
cuttings died in the sand
sand substrate. The number of of dead cuttings in the the sand/sawdust
sand/sawdust medium
medium
was significantly
was higher than
significantly higher than in sawdust
sawdust alone.
alone. Sand is is aa porous
porous medium,
medium, wherewhere cuttings
cuttings
could easily absorb humidity from the water table of non-mist
from the non-mist propagator by capillarity.
capillarity. This
This
could explain the
could explain the fact
fact that
that non-rooted cuttingswere
non-rooted cuttings werestill
still alive
alive after
after six
six weeks
weeks in in the
the
propagator. Moreover
propagator. Moreoveritit isis also
also aa good
good indication
indication of
of the
the resilience
resilience ofof P.
P. johimbe
johimbe cuttings.
cuttings.
Therefore the
Therefore the collection
collection of cuttings
cuttings under
under appropriate conditions could
appropriate conditions could be be extended over
extended over
many days.
days. This points to the possibility of of collecting
collecting germplasm
germplasm from from this
this threatened
threatened species
species
neighbouring countries,
from neighbouring countries, such
such as
as Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, where
where extensive
extensive natural
natural stands
stands still
still
exist.
The mean number

The number of roots per rooted cutting also varied
varied according
according to the
the rooting
rooting medium.
medium.
Sand produced cuttings with the highest mean number of roots, compared with fewer roots in in
the sand/sawdust
the mixture and
sand/sawdust mixture and in
in sawdust alone.
alone. The evidence
evidence from this trialtrial suggests
suggests that
that
cuttings using
rooting P. johimbe cuttings using non-mist
non-mist propagators
propagators is
is entirely
entirely feasible.
feasible.
167
Further research is being carried
research is carried out on the germination
germination of seeds of
of this
this important
important species.
species.
The seeds
The seeds are
are extremely small and
extremely small and so far attempts
attempts to geiminate
germinate this
this species
species has
has proven
proven
difficult, with
with extremely high mortality of the young seedlings.
5. Conclusion
The domestication research programme

domestication research programmeininthe the humid
humidlowlands
lowlandsof ofWest
West Africa
Africa isis still
still in
in its
very early stages. far, work has begun
stages. So far, begun onon only a few
few priority species (In)ingia
(/n1ingia gabonensis,
Prunus
Prunus africana,
africana, Pausinystalia
Pausinystalia johimbe,
johimbe, Daelyodes
Dacryodes edulis,
edulis,Ricinodendron
Ricinodendronheudelotii,
heudelotii,
Garcinia cola
cola and
and Cola
Cola nitida).
nitida). As
Asthe
theprogramme
programme advances
advances and and improved
improved germplasm
germplasm for
species that farmers
species farmers view
view as potentially lucrative
as potentially lucrative or vital
vital to their household welfare is made
available, these
available, these agroforestry trees will be incorporated
agroforestry trees incorporated into
into the
the planting
plantingculture
cultureininfat-ming
farming
systems throughout
systems throughout thethe region.
region. Once
Once incorporated
incorporated and developed
developed to to complex
complex agroforests,
agroforests,
they have the potential to become major income producers in themselves because of of the range
of highly
highly marketable
marketable products produced
produced in suchsuch systems.
systems. Such
Such agroforestry
agroforestry strategies
strategies also
also
reduce risks; should any
anyoneone product lose its market
market value,
value, the
the diversity
diversity of
of trees
trees that
that farmers
farmers
will be cultivating will reduce the impact this potential
impact of this potential loss
loss of revenue.
revenue. Not
Not only
only are
are such
systems economically viable, they are also also biologically diverse,
diverse, creating
creating aa veritable
veritable marriage
marriage
between
between environmentally sustainableproduction
environmentally sustainable productionand andprofitability;
profitability;the
the ultimate
ultimate aimaim of all
ICRAF's research programs.
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169
A FARMING SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE TO NWFP EXPLOITATION
SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE EXPLOITATION IN
THE SUPPORT
SUPPORT ZONE OF
OF THE
THE KORUP
KORUP NATIONAL
NATIONAL PARK
PARK OF
OF
CAMEROON: DETERMINING THETHE CONNECTIONS
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
BETWEEN THE
THE
HOUSEHOLD AND
AND THE FOREST
Michael B. Vabi and Nicodeme

Nicodème Tchamou
1. Introduction
Forests have
Forests have always been exploited
always been exploited by
by people
people living
living in
in and
and around
around them for millennia.
them for millennia. InIn
addition to their socio-cultural value, the use of natural resources by forest
dwelling/dependent people has
dwelling/dependent people has been
been confirmed
confirmed by many studies describing
describing the
the relationship
relationship
between people and the forest.
forest. Results of studies highlighting the relationship
relationship between people
people
and
and the
the forest
forest show
show that
that NWFI's
NWFPs constitute
constitute complementary sources of
complementary sources of food
food security
security and
medicine for households, and are increasingly important sources of cash income. Against Against this
this
NWFPs have become
background, NWFPs become one of the focal themes
themes in
in discussions
discussions about
about forest-people
forest-people
Similarly, campaigns
relationships. Similarly, campaigns focussing
focussingon on the
the promotion
promotion of of sustainable
sustainable forest
forest
exploitation techniques,
exploitation techniques, including
includingthat
that of
of NWFPs,
NWFPs, have
have been
been high
high on the agenda
agenda of of many
many
conservation and development agencies.
Using household cash income

Using income sources,
sources, income-generating
income-generating activities
activities and
and household
household activity
activity
calendars, this
calendars, this paper
paper introduces
introduces thethe concept
concept of of farming
farming systems into the exploitation
systems into exploitation of
NWFPs and
NWFPs and outlines
outlines the
the pattern
pattern of
ofadaptive
adaptive response
response bybyforest
forestdependent/forest
dependent/forest dwelling
dwelling
four villages
households in four villages of the
the support zone
zone of the
the Korup
Korup National
National Park.
Park. The household
household is is
used here as
used as aasociological
sociological concept
concept representing
representing aa collection
collection of
ofdifferent
differentsocio-economic
socia-economic
units, with overlapping
units, functions or
overlapping functions or roles.
roles. The
The household represents aa mix
household represents mix of production,
production,
consumption, and food-sharing units. Similarly, a farming
consumption, and food-sharing units. Similarly, a farming system as described in this
this paper
paper
comprises the household, farm, forest (including any surface water) and and livestock.
livestock. Within
Within this
this
broad
broad framework,
framework, keykey elements
elements ofof the
the rural
rural setting
setting are
are manipulated
manipulated by by members
members of the the
household to ensure their food security.
security.
One virtue
One virtue of introducing
introducing the the farming
farming systems
systems perspective
perspective to anan examination
examination ofof NWFP
NWFP
exploitation isis that
exploitation that itit highlights
highlights the
the dynamic
dynamic interactions
interactions between
between households
households and
and their
their
components. We
components. We argue
argue that
that it is
is not the farm,
farm, it is not wage labour,
labour, it is not livestock, it is not
not
remittances, but all
remittances, but all ofof these
these components,
components, in in sometimes
sometimes minuscule
minuscule amounts,
amounts, that ensure
ensure
household food security.
household food security. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the contribution
contribution ofof NWFPs
NWFPs to ensure
ensure household
household
survival and
survival and food
food security
security is is also an important component.
component. In In terms
terms of actors
actors involved,
involved, thethe
entire household participates in the exploitation, consumption and marketing of NWFPs.
2. Selection of study villages,

villages, data
data collection procedures
procedures and
and analysis
analysis
The Korup National Park,

Park, situated in SW Province,
Province, Cameroon,
Cameroon, was was created
created in
in October 1986
1986
and covers
and covers an
an area of about
about 11 259 kni. In addition
259 km2. addition to the
the core-protected
core-protected area,
area, three forest
reserves surround the park:
park: the Ejagham,
Ejagham, Nta-Ali
Nta-Ali and the Rumpi
Rumpi Hills
Hills Forest Reserves.
Reserves. These
reserves, together
reserves, together with
with the
the 172 villages situated within
villages situated within and
and around the park,
around the park, constitute
constitute the
Korup Project Support Zone.
Zone. The park itself and
and the
the Support Zone
Zone make
make up
up the
the Korup
Korup Project
Project
Area covering an area of about
about 3 500 km2• To date,
500 km2. date, the major donors of thethe Korup
Korup National
National
Park Project have been the European
European Union,
Union, WWF-UK, DFID DFID andand GTZ
GTZ ..
171
According to Thomas et aZ.,al., (1989), and Mutuba & & Balinga
Balinga (1996)
(1996) the
the local population
population of the
the
project
project area
area can be
be grouped
grouped into five
five major
major linguistic
linguistic groups. These are
groups. These are the Ejagham,
Ejagham, the the
Balong,
B along, the
the Korup,
Korup, the
the Isangele
Isangele and
and the
the Oroko.
Oroko. As
As a result of slight language variations,
variations, these
these
ethnic
ethnic groups
groups could be broken
broken down
down into
into more
more than
than ten
ten tribal
tribalgroups
groupsincluding
including Njamaya,
Njamaya,
Ngunaya, Obang, Keru, Korup, Bakoko, Batanga, Bima, Bakundu and Ngolo.
Based on this socio-cultural

socio-cultural background,
background, a household survey
survey was and
was conducted in the North and
Northeast of the Korup Project area,
area, which lies
lies within
within the
the intervention
intervention zone
zone of GTZ.
GTZ. This
This area
area
of the ethnic/tribal
has a full representation of ethnic/tribal groups
groups described
described above.
above.
Using ethnic/tribal
Using affiliationasas the
ethnic/tribal affiliation the initial
initial stratification factor, the
stratification factor, the study
study villages
villages were
were
selected using
selected using stratified
stratified sampling
sampling procedures. However, because
procedures. However, because selected
selected villages
villages had
had to
to
satisfy both
satisfy both the sampling
sampling procedure and concern
procedure and concern forfor the
the development
development of people
people centred
centred
conservation within
conservation within the
the support
support zone,
zone, the
the villages
villages of Abat,
Abat, Bakebe,
Bakebe, Banyo
Banyo and OtuOtu were
were
selected for
selected for study.
study. These case study
study villages
villages maintain
maintain important
important trade relations with many many
feeder villages
feeder villages within
within the
the Korup
Korup Project
Project area
area (see
(see Table
Table 1).
1). Indeed,
Indeed, the
the four
four villages
villages serve
serve as
as
gateways out
gateways out of the enclave
enclave project area for the surrounding villages. Furthermore,
sUlTounding villages. Furthermore, Otu
Otu isis an
important cross-border
important cross-border trade
trade centre
centre and
and shares
shares the same socio-cultural history with the other other
Ejagham villages
villages in
in the
the Cross River State
Cross River State of Nigeria. Banyo is
Nigeria. Banyo is on the border with the park,
park,
immediately adjacent to
immediately adjacent to one
one of the villages within the
villages located within the park boundary
boundary which
which has
has been
proposed for resettlement.
Table
Table 1:
1: Villages
Villages having
having trade
trade relations
relations with
with survey
survey villages.
villages.
ABAT BAKEBE BANYO OTU

Bayib-Ossing Fortabe Barika-Batanga Ayaoke
Mgbegati Tinto-Kore Babianbanga Ekoneman
Os selle
Osselle Tinto-Wirye Ijoye Ekang (Nigeria)
.Bakut Tinto-bu Mofako Nfamiyen (Nigeria)
Ekogati Ashum Lobe (Nigeria)
Kamen (Nigeria)
Basu Nfaitock Ndoyle Bebang (Nigeria)
Bajoh Eyang Dibonda-Mosina Ojock (Nigeria)
Nchamba 11 Itali Debiji (Nigeria)
Mbiyo Ipongi Owom (Nigeria)
Nfaichang Bobange Nyaje (Nigeria)
Mbinjong Masaka
Baromba
Dienge-Mwangale
Mokwalibe
Sikan
Ayong
3. Collection
Collection procedures
procedures and analysis
Selected
Selected Participatory
Participatory Rural
Rural Appraisal
Appraisal (PRA)
(PRA) tools
tools and techniques were used to collect
and techniques collect both
both
qualitative
qualitative and
and quantitative
quantitative information.
information. InIn each
each village
village activities of socio-economic
socio-economic
importance,
importance, including NV/FPs collection, were determined through a Direct Matrix Ranking.
NWFPs collection, Ranking.
The criteria used
The used in
in this
thisranking
rankingincluded
includedcash
cashincome,
income,household
householdconsumption/utilisation,
consumption/utilisation,
activities.
and the estimated number of people within the village carrying out the activities.
172
3.1.
3.1. Community interviews
The socio-economic
The rankings were
socio-economic rankings were followed
followed by topic-focused
topic-focused interviews
interviews with different
different
exploiters of NWFPs:
exploiters NWFPs: men, men, women,
women, youths,
youths, children and hunters.
hunters. During
During these
these interviews,
interviews,
identified socio-economic activities were classified using the pair-wise ranking ranking technique.
technique. The
The
first six
six income-generating activities were retained for subsequent
income-generating activities were retained for subsequent in-depth discussions
discussions with
the different groups of of NWBP
NWFP exploiters.
exploiters. In all,
all, four
four community
community interviews
interviews were
were conducted
conducted
(one for
(one for each village)
village) and several focus group
several focus group interviews
interviews (at
(at least
least two
two in each village)
village) with
men, women, youths and children, separately.
separately. Discussions were also held with with village
village chiefs,
chiefs,
traditional councillors
traditional councillors and
and village
village socio-cultural
socio-cultural andand farming
farming groups.
groups. A A number
number of income
income -
generating activities
generating activities (subsistence
(subsistence farms,
farms, palm-wine
palm-wine tapping,
tapping,and
and garri
garri processing)
processing) were
were also
also
their development
visited to appraise their development potential andand problems.
problems.
Similarly, individual
Similarly, individual interviews
interviews were
were conducted
conducted to
to collect
collect quantitative
quantitative information
information on
on cash
cash
income generated
income generated over
over the
the last
last twelve
twelve months
months from
from aa total
total of 57 individual
individual village
village people
people
chosen on the basis
basis of
of availability
availability and
and willingness
willingness to cooperate.
cooperate. Thirty-six percent of those
those
women and
interviewed were women and the
the rest
rest were
were men.
men.
The quantitative
information collected
collected was
was analysed using simple
simple mean
mean standard
standard deviation
deviation
and direct frequency counts.
counts.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Patterns
Patterns of
of income-generating activities by gender
Table 2 shows that farm, forest, rivers and livestock constitute

constitute equally
equally important
important sources
sources of
household incomes
household incomes to to both
both men
men and women.
women. The NWFPsNWFPs that are are included
included in in women's
women's
income-generating activities are
are eru
eru (Gnetum
(Gnetum spp.),
spp.), bush
bush mango
mango (Irvingia
(Irvingia spp.)
spp.) and
and njansang
njansang
(Ricinodendron heudelotii),
(Ricinodendron heudelotii), while
while male
male activities
activities included
included hunting
hunting andand trapping along with
bush-mango
bush-mango and bush-onion
bush-onion (Afrostyrax spp.) collection.
(Afrostyrax spp.) collection. ItIt is evident that
that NWFPs
NWFPs play play an
an
important role in supplementing conventional food supplies,
supplies, the
the main
main household
household foodfood supply
supply
being the
the farm.
farm. NWI-iPs supplement seasonal
NWFPs supplement seasonal shortages
shortages in food within these these villages,
villages, which
which
regularly
regularly occur
occur between
between June
June and
and July.
July. Bush-mango,
Bush-mango, njansang,
njansang, egusi
egusi (pumpkin
(pumpkin seeds),
seeds),
bush-onion and bush-pepper
bush-pepper (Piper guineensis)
guineensis) are generally added to
generally added to sauces and soups that
accompany staple
accompany staple foods
foods such
such as
as plantains, bananas and yam and cassava
plantains, bananas cassava flour.
flour. The
The fleshy
fleshy
mesocarp
mesocarp of sweet bush-mango (Irvingia gabonensis),
bush-mango (Irvingia gabonensis), isis reported
reported to to be eaten as as aa snack
snack by
by
children and women.
A paired-wise ranking of the income-generating

paired-wise ranking sourcesreported
income-generating sources reportedthat
that cocoa
cocoa isis the
the most
most
important cash-generatingactivity
important cash-generating activityfor
for men,
men, comparing
comparing very
very closely
closely with
with hunting
hunting andand
trapping.
trapping. This qualitative
qualitative assessment
assessment was confirmed
confirmed by quantitative
information obtained
obtained
of 37
from a sample of 37 men. In both cases,
In both cases, fruits (essentially
(essentially oranges,
oranges, pineapples
pineapples and
and bananas),
bananas),
food-crops and palm wine tapping
food-crops and tapping are
are insignificant
insignificant cash-generating activities for
cash-generating activities for men.
men. A
substantial proportion of the food produced by both men and and women is consumed
consumed within
within the
the
household. NWFPs only accounted
accounted for about 6% of of male annual
annual cash
cash incomes.
incomes.
Using
Using the paired-wise
paired-wise ranking
ranking technique,
technique, the most
most important
important cash-generating
cash-generating activity for
activity for
sale, or
women was cassava, either transformed (into water-fufu or garri) before sale, or sold
sold directly.
directly.
This
This qualitative assessment was
qualitative assessment was again
again confirmed
confirmedby
by data
data collected
collectedfrom
from aa sample
sample of 20
women selected for individual
individual interviews.
interviews.
173
2: Pattern
Table 2: Pattern of
of Income-generating Sources by Gender within some Villages
Villagesof
ofthe
theKorup
Korup Park
Park
ABAT BAKEBE BANYO om

OTU
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
FARM
FARIVI FARM FARM FARM FARM FARM FARM FARM
Cocoa Cassava Cocoa Cassava Cocoa Cassava Cocoa Cassava
Coffee Cocoyams Coffee Cocoyams Coffee Cocoyams Plantains Cocoyams
Plantain Pepper Plantain Egusi Plantains Egusi Bananas Egusi
Oranges Vegetables Yams Bananas Yams Palm-oil Yams
Beans FOREST Bananas Pepper Plantains
FOREST Maize Tapping FOREST Vegetables FOREST Beans
Hunting Groundnuts Hunting FOREST Tapping Beans Tapping Maize
Trapping Egusi Trapping Njansan Hunting Maize Hunting Vegetables
Tapping Yams Fishing Eru
Ern Trapping Groundnuts Trapping Groundnuts
Fishing Bush-mango Fishing Fishing Potatoes Fishing Pepper
Palm-oil FOREST Bush-onions Bush-mango Plantains Bush-mango Okra
Bush-mango LIVESTOCK Timber
OFF-FARM Njansan LIVESTOCK LIVESTOCK Chickens FOREST Kola-nuts FOREST
Petty trading Eru
Ern Goats Chickens Njansang Bush-mango
Eru
Ern LIVESTOCK Njansan
OFF-FARM OFF-FARM OFF-FARM Bush-mango Sheep Eru
Ern
Petty trading Petty trading Petty trading Agkwana Goats LIVESTOCK
Goats
OFF-FARM OFF-FARM OFF-FARM
Petty trading Petty Trading Petty trading
It should be noted that women
women sell an important proportion
proportion of cassava when it is is converted
converted
into water-fufu and garri.
gaui. This is
is sold
sold in
in combination
combination with
with vegetables
vegetables including
including eru
eru(Gitetum
(Gnetum
africanwn). Also, much
africanum). Also, much ofof the
the bush
bush pepper
pepper cultivated by women
cultivated by women is usedused in
inpreparing
preparing
pepper-soup dishes with wild-game meat meat and
and plantains.
plantains. This
This makes
makes the
the sale of food crops and
petty trading by women mutually dependent income-earning activities throughout the villages villages
surveyed. As
surveyed. As shown
shown in
in Table 2,
2, NWFPs
NWFPs accounted for about 20% of the annual cash cash incomes
incomes
reported by women.
women. The relative positions
positions of the income sources for women were consistent
across the villages surveyed.
4.2. Relative
4.2. importance of household income~generating
Relative importance income-generating activities
Table 3 shows
shows that
that the
the cash
cash crop,
crop, cocoa,
cocoa, is
is the
the most
mostpopular
popularincome-generating
income-generating activity
activity for
for
about 81%
about 81% of the men,
men, with
with aa mean
mean annual
annual cash
cash income
income ofof CFA
CFA 176
176 859.
859. Hunting
Hunting and and
was reported
trapping was reported to be an important supplementary
supplementary income-generating
activity to
to 51
51%% of of
men. NWFPs were reported to be popular income-generating activities to 46%
the men. 46% ofof the
the men,
men,
procuring a mean annual cash income of CFA 23 459. Only 32% of the men
23459. men included
included in in the
the
individual interviews
individual interviews reported
reported earning
earning cash
cash incomes
incomes from
frorn palm wine tapping, petty trading
trading
and coffee.
The sale of food-crops was reported to be a popular income-generating

activity to
to 90%
90% of of the
the
women included
women included in
in the
the case
case study sample. Women
study sample. Women reported
reported aa mean
mean annual
annual cash income
income of
CFA 40
CFA 40 366
366 from
from the sale ofof food
food crops.
crops. This
This was
was closely
closely followed
followed by petty
petty trading
trading and
NWFPs,
NWFPs, from whichwhich 70%
70% of the women reported earning
women reported earning annual
annual cash
cash incomes
incomes of of CFA
CFA
34 269. Fifty percent of women's
34269. annual cash
women's annual cash incomes
incomes were
were reported
reported toto come
come from
from the
the sale
sale of
of
vegetables.However,
vegetables. However,mostmostof of the
the vegetables
vegetables and
and food-crops,
food-crops, especially
especially cassava
cassava and and
plantains, are cooked and sold in road-side restaurants. Also, a substantial amount
amount of of the food
food
crops cultivated
crops cultivated are
are consumed
consumed within
within households
householdsand/or
and/orgiven
givenoutout as
as gifts
gifts to visitors,
visitors, less
able friends and relatives within and outside the village.
The data
data presented
presented in
in Table
Table 33shows
showsthe
therelative
relativecompetitiveness
competitiveness of
ofhunting
hunting(including
(including
trapping) and cocoa production as cash income-generating
trapping) income-generating activities for men.men. While
While hunting
hunting
and trapping
trapping were reported to bebe popular
popular income-generating
activities with aa mean
mean annual
annual
cash income of CFA 163 163269,
269, cocoa compares very very closely
closely with
with these activities. It accounts
these activities.
for a mean annual cash income of CFA 176 859 for 8% of the men included in the the case study
study
sample.
sample. Similarly, the sale of agricultural crops compares very closely with with NWFPs
NWFPs and and petty
petty
trading for women.
trading for women. Considering that wild-game
Considering that wild-game meatmeat constitutes
constitutes aa major
major trade
trade item
item inin
women's
women's income-generating activities, they
income-generating activities, they indirectly
indirectly tend
tend to
to encourage
encourage the the hunting
hunting
expeditions of
expeditions of men.
men. The variation reported in annual cash earnings
variation reported earnings from petty
petty trading
trading and
and
NWFPs
NWFPs compared
compared toto the
the variation
variation in cash income
income from NWFPs
NWFPs suggests
suggests that NWFPs
NWFPs (see
standard deviations)
standard deviations) represent
represent aa regular
regular cash
cash income
income generating
generating activity
activity to the
the women
women
included in the case study
study sample.
sample.
Across the
Across the villages
villages surveyed, no consistent pattern
surveyed, no pattern of income generating activities
activities between
villages emerged. However,
villages emerged. However,forfor Abat
Abat and
and Bakebe,
Bakebe, hunting
hunting andand trapping
trapping accounted
accounted forfor the
highest annual cash income for men.
men. In Banyo and Otu, cocoa production accounted for 39% 39%
and 50% of mean annual cash incomes, respectively.
respectively. The second annual cash income source
reported for Banyo was coffee, while hunting and trapping were reported to be
reported for be the
the second
second
most
most important cash income
important cash income earning
earning source
source in in Otu.
Otu. Across
Across the
the villages
villages studied, the least
studied, the
income was
was earned from fishing,
fishing, tapping,
tapping, fruits
fruits and
and the
the sale of sheep,
sheep, goats and chickens. It is
important to note that most of the palm-wine
palm-wine harvested
harvested is is not
not sold,
sold, but
but consumed.
consumed.
175
Table 3: Relative importance
importance of
of income
income sources
Number of Farmers Reporting Incomes

Incomes Totals
Income Source ABAT BAKEBE BANYO BANYO OTU N % Mean Standard
(FCFA) deviation
ALL MEN 10 7 9 11 37 100 -- --
Cocoa 6 5 8 11 30 81 176860
176 860 104727
104 727
Coffee 4 33 55 N/A 12 32 54925
54 925 10 328
Petty trading 4 2 4 2 12 32 129125
129 125 88066
88 066
NWFPs
NW FPs 33 2 4 88 17 46 38797
38 797 23459
23 459
Food-Crops 3 5 6 88 22 59 26897
26 897 7 248
7248
Hunting 4 33 7 55 19 51 163279
163 279 81439
81 439
Trapping N/A 4 6 2 12 32 25 392
25392 14197
14 197
Fruits 2 3 3 55 13 35 17763
17 763 4 449
4449
ALL WOMEN 3 5 6 6 20 100 - -

Food-crops 3 5 6 5 18 90 57542
57 542 40 366
40366
Vegetables 3 33 N/A 4 10 50 55903
903 3333
3 333
Petty trading 11 55 5 33 14 70 60750
60 750 34270
34 270
NWFPs 33 4 2 55 14 70 33 138
138 7123
7 123
4.3. Household
4.3. Household activity calendars
Except
Except for eru
eru and
and cassava,
cassava, the
the peak
peak period
period for
for the
the harvesting
harvesting of
ofmost
most crops
crops grown
grown by by women
women
was reported to be between June and August (Tables 4 and 5). 5). This period corresponds to the
peak hunting and trapping period for men.
period for men. While trapping, some men
trapping, some men in Bakebe
Bakebe and Otu Otu
reported joining
reported joining their
their wives
wives in the collection
collection of
of bush-mango
bush-mango (Irvingia spp.).
spp.). Most of of these
these
activities are dictated by their seasonal availability,
availability, rather than by drops in labour demand for
other activities. example, in
activities. For example, in the rainy season,
season, men are more preoccupied with trapping trapping
because the increased vegetation growth on the forest floor makes it easier easier toto identify
identify regular
regular
paths used by animals. Therefore, trapping becomes
becomes moremore profitable
profitable at
at this
this period of the
the year,
year,
and attracts the attention ofof many
many more hunters. Similarly,
Similarly, bush-mango fruits (Irvingia
(Irvingia spp.)
spp.)
are more abundant
are abundant in the
the rainy
rainy season,
season, maldng
making collection
collection easier.
easier. Also,
Also, many
many women
women taketake
advantage of this period in order to prevent the fruits from germinating.
There was no clear pattern

pattem for the
the marketing
marketing of
of most
most women's
women's agricultural
agricultural produce.
produce. However,
However,
bush-mango (Irvingia spp.)
bush-mango (Irvingia spp.) andand njansang
njansang (Ricinodendron
(Ricinodendron heudelottii)
heudelottii) were
were marketed
marketed
generally between
generally between October
October andand November.
November. This
This corresponds
corresponds to
to the
the period when
when the
the roads
roads
leading into
leading into the
the suburban centres of
suburban centres of the support
support zone
zone are almost
almost impassable. This has
impassable. This has a
NWFPs collected,
negative effect on the marketing of bush-mango and other NVVITs collected, and
and therefore
therefore on
on
the prices paid to collectors.
The prices of
of all products sold by women were reported to have been increasing over the past
five years.
five years. Men reported that coffee and cocoa prices, though though fluctuating,
fluctuating, have been on the the
decline. Most, if not
decline. Most, not all
all the
the'cocoa,
cocoa, NV/14Ps
NWFPs and and other
other agricultural products from
agricultural products from Otu
Otu are
either sold in Nigeria
either Nigeria or
or bought
bought by
by Nigerian
Nigerian traders
traders in the
the village.
Village. The
The marketing
marketing ofof most
most
NWFPs and agricultural products
NWFPs products reflects
reflects their seasonal nature.
nature. Prices are
are low
low at
at harvesting
harvesting
and tend toto increase
increase as
as supply
supply diminishes.
diminishes. InIn general,
general, the
the period
period between
between November
November and and
January corresponds
January corresponds to to a period
period of boom in the villages included in the survey.
villages included survey. This is the
the
period when cocoa, coffee, oranges, bush pepper, njansang and smoked smoked bush-mango (Irvingia
spp.) are sold.
These data
These data show that there
show that there is virtually no period
virtually no period when
when a given
given activity
activity is carried
carried out by
by
inhabitants of
inhabitants of the
the support
support zone.
zone. Rather,
Rather, men
men and
and women
women carry
carry out
out aa range
range of activities
activities at
different periods
different periods of the year and take up other
other activities
activities when
when they
they see
see that
that they
they can
can make
make
reasonable social or financial gains.
gains.
5. Conclusion and implications
Results of
Results of these studies indicate
these studies indicateaa need
need to
to shift
shift the goal
goal of
of increasing
increasing farm
farm income
income to to
overall household
improving overall household food
food security.
security. Household
Household food
food security
security is
is ensured
ensured from
from aa variety
variety
of sources,
sources, of which
which NWHis
NWFPs areare aa single
single component.
component. It is is major
major preoccupation
preoccupation of manymany
households that are located near to protected areas
areas in
in the
the forest
forest region
region of
ofCameroon.
Cameroon. ItIt would
would
food security
be reasonable to adopt food security as
as an
an operational
operational goal
goal for
for conservation
conservation and
and development
development
projects. The basic indicator of success for these projects should not be limited to species species or
or
ecosystem protection
ecosystem protection and
and increasing
increasing the
the forest's
forest's conservation value,
value, but should
should also
also include
include
household food security.
security.
Within this framework, a farming systems approach, in which the farm and the the household
household areare
regarded as interacting social units, is more representative
representative of the reality
reality than
than the
the traditional
traditional
commodity
commodity andand farmer
farmer focus
focus in research and extension intervention. Improvements in NWFP
production and marketing
production and marketing are
are more
more important
important strategies
strategies in improving
improving overall
overall household
household
livelihood,
livelihood, rather
rather than concentrating
concentrating onon food-specific
food-specific technologies.
technologies. Interventions
Interventions must be be
177
broadly based,
broadly based, and
and aimed
aimed at increasing
increasing a range
range of
of technical
technical options
options available
available to
to forest
forest
dwelling/dependent people.
For most
For most households
households inin the
the forest
forest zone
zone of
of Cameroon,
Cameroon, the links
links between
between thethe different
different
components of
components of a rural environment are not only
environment are only biological
biological but
but also
also social
social and
and economic.
economic.
Thus, when designing
Thus, designing interventions
interventions for addressing
addressing rural communities'
communities' technical
technical and social
social
constraints, NWFP's
constraints, NWFP's biological, social, and
biological, social, and economic
economic roles
roles should
should all
all be
beconsidered.
considered.
Adopting a farming system approach to NWFP exploitation enables enables development
development agencies
agencies to
to
recognise that village-based resources represent
represent different types
types of social actions and interests
that are behind NWFP exploitation.
The implications for policy

implications for policy are that uni-sectoral
uni-sectoral approaches
approaches toto household food security for
household food
communities around
communities around protected
protected areas
areas are insufficient.
insufficient. Households
Households within
within protected
protected areas
areas
by generating
ensure food self-sufficiency by generating cash
cash and
and non-cash
non-cash incomes
incomesfrom
from all
all components
components of of
the farming system,
system, including
including the protected areas.
areas. These relationships
relationships need to be
be seriously
seriously
considered when designing intervention strategies for forest dependent/dwelling
dependent/dwelling households.
households.
References
Mutuba, T. &
Mutuba, T. & V.S.
V.S. Balinga.
Balinga. 1996.
1996. A
A decade
decade of the
the Korup
Korup National
National Park.
Park. Korup
Korup National
National
Park, Mundemba.
Thomas, D.W., J.M. Thomas, W.A.
W.A. Bromley T.F. & Mbenkum.
T.F. & Mbenkum. 1989.
1989. Korup
Korup Ethnobotanical
Survey. Final report to WWF -- UK.
Survey.
178
Table 4: Calendar
Calendar of
of Men's Major
Major Income-generating
Income-generating Activities
Activities Peak Period Peak Marketing

Marketing Period Common Market Outlets Price Movements Over the
Past Five Years
Cocoa Production September-November

Septernber-November October-December Home Decreasing
Coffee Production December-February JJanuary-March

anuary-March Home Decreasing
Orange~
Oranges and October-November October-November
October-November Home Stable
Pineapples
Pineal)Pies
Plantains/Bananas
Plantains/Bananas July-September July-September Home Increasing
Production Village Market
-
Palm-Wine Tapping November-December November- Home Increasing
December Village Market
Palm-oil Production September-October September-October Home Increasing

Village Market
Bush-mango February-March, March-May, Home Increasing

Collection June-October July-October Village Market
Fishing November-March November-March Home Increasing
Hunting and July-September July-September Home Forest Increasing

Trapping Village Market
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS MARKETS AND POTENTIAL
AND POTENTIAL
DEGRADATION OF THE FOREST RESOURCE
IN CENTRAL AFRICA:
The role of research in providing a balance between
welfare improvement and forest conservation
Ousseynou Ndoye, Manuel Ruiz-Perez, Antoine Eyebe
Abstract
This paper
paper investigates
investigates the
theimportance
importanceofofincome
incomegenerated
generatedfrom
frommarketing
marketingselected
selected NWFP
NW1-41'
in Central
Central Africa. The focus
Africa. The focus is
is mainly
mainly on
on local
local markets
markets in the
the Humid
Humid Forest
Forest Zone
Zone of
of
Cameroon and markets
Cameroon and markets atat the borders
borders with the Central African Republic (CAR),
(CAR), Equatorial
Gabon.
Guinea and Gabon.
The main NWFP

The NWFP species
species considered are Irvingia
considered are Irvingia spp.
spp. (bush mango nut), Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata
(kola nut),
nut), Garcinia lucida (essock)
(essock) and Garcinia kola
kola (onie).
(onie). Emphasis is on the marketing
marketing
of the kernel and fruit
fruit of Irvingia spp. and Cola acuminata, and the bark for Garcinia
spp. and Garcinia lucida
lucida
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola.
kola.
The study found

found that the value of the NWFP marketed was
NWFP marketed was US$
US$ 753
753 000
000 in the first half of
of
1995 and
1995 and US$
US$ 499
499 000000 in the same period of 1996.
1996. Of these
these amounts,
amounts, the
the value
value ofof barks
barks
marketed (for
marketed (for both
both Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and Garcinia
Garcinia kola)
kola) represented
represented US$
US$ 30 000 and US$
30000 US$
23
23 500 in 1995 and 1996, respectively. The decline in the significance
significance of
ofNWEP
NWFP marketed,
marketed, asas
a result of
of lower
lower supply,
supply, shows
shows the
thethinness
thinnessofofNVVFP
NWFP markets resulting from
from their
their dynamic
dynamic
and unpredictable nature,
nature, which changes
changes the
the role
role of
of markets
markets in
in assembling
assembling and
and distribution
distribution of
NWFP from year year to
to year.
year.
The study also found that traders' weekly

The weekly marketing
marketing margins
margins from barks
barks are
are comparable
comparable to to
may even
and may even be
be higher
higher than
than those
those from
from kernels
kernels (Irvingia
(Irvingia spp.)
spp.) and
and fruits
fruits (Cola acuminata).
The harvesting barks is not always
harvesting of barks always carried
carried out in aa sustainable
sustainable manner
manner. However,
However, their
their
markets provide revenues
markets provide revenues for
for both
both traders
traders and
and rural
rural dwellers.
dwellers. This
This reveals
reveals the
thepotential
potential role
role
NWFP markets
of NWFP markets in
in forest
forest resource
resource degradation
degradation and
and underlines
underlines the
the difficulty
difficulty in
in achieving
achieving aa
balance
balance between improving
improving the livelihoods
livelihoods of forest-dependent
forest-dependent people and and conserving
conserving thethe
forest resource.
Future research should focus

focus on determining
determining the
the rate
rate of bark harvest
harvest that would enable
enable forest
forest
dwellers to sustainably
dwellers to derive part
sustainably derive part of
of their
their livelihoods
livelihoods from
from Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
kola while preserving these trees.
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Many
Many studies
studies have shown
shown the
the importance
importance of ofNon-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products (NVVFP)
(NWFP) in in the
the
livelihood
livelihood of forest
forest dwellers
dwellers (Chambers
(Chambers and and Leach,
Leach, 1987;
1987; de Beer andand McDermott,
McDermott, 1989;
1989;
Falconer, 1990;
Falconer, Scoones et
1990; Scoones et al.,
al., 1992;
1992; Townson,
Townson, 1995; Ndoye et al., 1997).
1995; Ndoye 1997). Furthermore,
NWFP
NWFP are often
often cited
cited as
as alternatives
alternatives for
for sustainably
sustainably managing
managing and preserving
preserving the forests
forests
(Ndoye, 1994;
(Ndoye, 1994; Guedje,
Guedje, 1996).
1996). Despite
Despite their
their importance,
importance, NWFP
NWFP areare not
not always
always gathered
gathered or
or
harvested in a sustainable
harvested in sustainable way that will
will preserve
preserve the
the resource
resource (see
(see Hall
Hall and
and Bawa,
Bawa, 1993;
1993;
183
Sayer, 1993; Peters,
Peters, 1994; Laird, 1995;
1994; Laird, Freese, 1996).
1995; Freese, 1996). Ndoye
Ndoye (1995)
(1995) found
found that
that 58
58 per
per cent
cent
trees (Elaeis
of the palm trees (Elaeis guineensis) tapped by
guineensis) tapped by aa sample
sample of offarmers
farmers inin the
the Mbalmayo
Mbalmayo area,
area, in
in
the
the Humid
Humid Forest
Forest Zone
Zone ofofCameroon,
Cameroon, werewere killed. Furthermore, costs resource
killed. Furthermore, costs of resource
degradation to society, as a result of killing
killing each
each palm
palm tree,
tree, varied
varied between
between 70 70 000
000 to 129 000
to 129 000
CFA Francs (Ndoye, 1995).1995). Champaud
Champaud (1973)
(1973) reported that that the
the technique
technique used
used by
by farmers in
Mom, a village
Mom, village in the Centre province Cameroon, to
province of Cameroon, to tap
tap palm
palm wine
wine was
was to kill the palm
tree (Elaeis guineensis).
guineensis). Oyono
Oyono (1997)
(1997) found
found that
that 11 000
000 palm
palm trees
trees (Raphia
(Raphia hookeri)
hookeri) were
were
killed after tapping in Ekom, southeast Cameroon.
In the
the Southwest
Southwest province
province of
of Cameroon
Cameroon (M'mouck
(M'mouck village),
village), farmers
farmers have
have embarked
embarked on on
planting
planting Prunus
Prunus africana because
because they
they had
had almost
almost disappeared from some
disappeared from some areas
areas of
of the
the
village, and farmers
village, farmers had
had to
to go
go deeper
deeper into
into the
the forest
forest to harvest the bark (BDCPC,
(BDCPC, 1997). The
1997). The
market value of the bark
market value bark of
of Prunus
Prunus africana
africana used
used for
for the
thetreatment
treatment of
ofProstrate
Prostrate Gland
Gland
estimated at
Hypertrophy is estimated at US$150
US$150 million
million per
per year
year (Cunningham
(Cunningham andand Mbenkum,
Mbenkum, 1993,
1993, p.p.
7).
7). Prunus africana bark is collected by 14 per cent of households around Mount Cameroon
ajricana bark is collected by 14 per cent of households around Mount Cameroon
(BDCPC, 1997).
(BDCPC, 1997). Between
Between 1986
1986 and 1991, an average
average of 1 923
923 tons
tons of Prullus
Prunus africana
africana bark
bark
were processed in Cameroon. This Thisrepresented
representedananaverage
averageof of35
35 000
000trees
trees debarked
debarkedper
peryear,
year,
affecting at least
affecting at least 66 300
300hectares
hectares ofofAfromontane
Afromontane forest
forest each
eachyear
year(Cunningham
(Cunningham andand
1993).
Mbenkum, 1993).
Due to the increased need for opportunities

opportunities to to generate
generate cash
cash income
income for
for people
people living
living in
in and
and
around
around the forests,
forests, the potential
potential role of NWFP
NWFP markets in forestforest resource
resource degradation
degradation and
conservation should be studied on a continuous basis. The
continuous basis. The information
information generated
generated could
could help
help
researchers identify NWFP trees
identify NVVFP treesfor
fordomestication,
domestication, to to design
design improved
improved and
and more sustainable
harvesting methods
methods (technologies)
(technologies) and
and to
to train
train forest
forest gatherers
gatherers to
to use
use these
these techniques.
techniques. The
The
data will
data will also
also expand
expand thethe range
range of
ofappropriate
appropriate decisions
decisions available
available to
to policy
policy makers
makers toto
improve the livelihood of of forest-dependent people while preserving forest resources.
This paper
This paper attempts
attempts to to clarify
clarify the potential
potential role
role of
of NWFP
NWFP markets
markets in forest
forest resource
resource
degradation and conservation
degradation conservation by comparing
comparing the the markets
markets of two
two broad
broad categories
categories of
ofNWFP:
NWFP:
kemels/fruits and barks.
kernels/fruits barks. In In general,
general, the
the gathering
gathering and
and marketing
marketing ofof kernels/fruits
kernels/fruits place less
pressure on the resource than the harvesting
harvesting ofof barks.
barks. Kernels
Kernels and/or
and/or fruits
fruits are
are gathered
gathered and
and
sold but the
sold the tree
tree isispreserved,
preserved, whereas
whereas thethe harvesting
harvesting and
and the
the marketing
marketing of of barks
barks may
may
endanger the
endanger the sustainability
sustainability of of forest
forest resources
resources because
because the
the survival
survival of
of the
the tree
tree could
could be atat
risk.
risk. Two
Twoparticularly
particularly important
important NWFP
NWFP in Central
Central Africa
Africa included
included in the first category
category are
the kernels
the kernels of Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. and
and the
the fruit
fruit of
of Cola
Cola aCUlninata.
acuminata. The barks
barks of Garcinia lucida
lucida
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola are part
kola are part of
of the
the second
second category.
The demand of Irvingia gabonensis in southern

southern Nigeria has been estimated at 80 000 tons per
year (Leakey and Maghembe,
Maghembe, undated).
undated). Nigerian traders import the fruit and the kernel from
Cameroon (Scoones
Cameroon (Scoones et
et al.,
al., 1992). InCameroon,
1992). In Cameroon, Nkongmeneck
Nkongmeneck (1985)
(1985) estimated the sizesize of
of
the market for kola nut
nut (Cola
(Cola acuminata)
acuminata) atat 20400
20 400 tons.
tons. In
In 1983,
1983, the
the income
income from kola nut
in
in some
some rural
rural households
households in southwest
southwest Cameroon
Cameroon waswas higher
higher than
than that
that for
for coffee,
coffee,
contributing between 5 and 37 per cent of household
household cash revenues
revenues (Laird
(Laird et al.,
al., 1996). Kola
nut exports from Ghana werewere estimated
estimated at
at 66 million
million tons
tons and
and 7.5
7.5 million
million tons
tons in 1988
1988 and
1989, with a value of US$l.03
US$1.03 million and US$1.48
US$1.48 million respectively (Laird et al., 1996).
1996).
In southern
In southern Cameroon, Ntamag (1997)
Cameroon, Ntamag (1997)reported
reportedthat
that Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida isis found
found in
in little
little
disturbed forests,
forests, normally
normally common
common accessaccessareas.
areas. Diaw (1997)
(1997) also
also found
found Garcinia
Garcinia lucida in
these near virgin
these near virgin forests and that
forests and that it is
is governed
governed by an an open
open access
access regime
regime limited
limited to the
the
members of the
members the community, i.e., the
community, i.e., the village.
village. For
For Garcinia
Garciniakola,
kola, the
themost
mostimportant
importantniches
niches
are cocoa plantations, virgin forests
forests and fallow
fallow land (Ntamag,
(Ntamag, 1997). Van Dijk
1997). Van Dijk (1995)
(1995) found
found
184
Garcinia kola occurred only in forest
occurred only forest lands
lands at distance
distance from human settlements.
from human settlements. She She also
also
species might
noted that the species might be endangered by over-exploitation due due to the use of
of the
the bark
bark in
in
production of palm
palm wine.
wine. In an inventory of 11 11 complete
complete transects
transects in
in southern
southern Cameroon,
Cameroon,
Van Dijk (1995) did not find a single Garcinia lucida lucida tree
tree and
and suggested
suggested that
that this
this could
could bebe
due to high harvesting levels. Guedje
harvesting levels. Guedje (1996)
(1996) also found that Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida grows
grows in in dense
dense
populations
populations with a preference
preference forfor undisturbed
undisturbed forest
forest habitats.
habitats. This species
species cannot
cannot recover
recover
and will eventually die if the bark
bark isis removed
removed over
over a large
large surface
surface around
around the
the stem
stem (Guedje
(Guedje
1996).
1996). She
She identified
identified sites
sites with
with more
more than
than 50
50 per
per cent
cent of
of dead
dead trees.
In January
January 1994,
1994, the devaluation
devaluation of the CFA
CFA Franc
Franc severely
severely affected
affected Cameroon
Cameroon and other
1
countries in Central Africa which are part of the
the CFA
CFA zone.1
zone. TheThe devaluation
devaluation increased
increased the
the
price
price of beer
beer and
and whisky
whisky and
and made
made palm
palm wine
wine more
more attractive
attractive in rural
rural and
and urban
urban areas
areas
(Ndoye, 1994). As
(Ndoye, 1994). As already
already noted, the barks
barks of Garcinia lucida and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola are
are used
used in
the production palm wine.
production of palm wine. Garcinia lucida
lucida is
is also
also considered
considered to be a social
social good because
because
of its medicinal value and anti-poison
anti-poison properties
properties (Diaw
(Diaw 1997).
1997). For these
these reasons
reasons pressure
pressure onon
both species may increase.
species may increase. Furthermore, because Garcinia
Furthermore, because Garcinia lucida
lucida is governed
governed by an openopen
access regime, the
access regime, the trees
trees could
could become
become more
more vulnerable to externalities
vulnerable to created by
externalities created by the
opportunistic behaviour of a few forest
opportunistic behaviour forest dwellers
dwellers resulting
resulting from
from higher
higher market
market demands
demands for
for
the bark.
bark. Opportunistic
Opportunistic behaviour,
behaviour, as defined by Williamson (1985), is
Williamson (1985), is a way of acting in
self-interest with
with guile.
guile. It brings immediate rewards to the individual and imposes
imposes high
high costs
on society (Shaffer et al., 1987).
1987).
authors believe
The authors believe that
that research
research on
on Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and Garcinia kola is
is wanting
wanting many key
areas.
• There is no information
information on the sustainable
sustainable rate of bark harvest that would
would preserve
preserve
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia kola
kola trees.
trees.
It Sustainable harvesting techniques

Sustainable harvesting techniquesthat
that would
would guarantee
guarantee the
the survival
survival of Garcinia
Garcinia
lucida
lucida and Garcinia kola trees have
have yet to be designed
designed by researchers.
researchers. This
This could
could
help mitigate future pressure on these resources.
• Research on domestication
Research on domestication ofof Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola,
kola, and
and their
their
subsequent cultivation
subsequent cultivation by
by forest
forest dwellers,
dwellers, isis not
not currently
currently included
included in
in the
the agenda
agenda for
for
NWFP research
research in
in Central
Central Africa.
Africa.
This
This paper
paper argues
argues that
thatwhile
whileNVVFP
NWFP provide
providevaluable
valuablealternative
alternativeincome-generating
income-generating
opportunitiesfor
opportunities for rural
rural dwellers,
dwellers, which
which increases
increases the
the need
need toto develop
develop these markets,
markets, the
harvesting practices are not
harvesting practices not always
always sustainable. This emphasises
sustainable. This emphasises the difficult
difficult trade-offs
trade-offs
between improving the
between improving the livelihood
livelihood of
of forest
forest dependent
dependentpeople
peopleandandforest
forest conservation.
conservation. For For
the four NWFP studied,
studied, the harvesting practices for
harvesting practices for Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. and Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata are are
more sustainable than
more sustainable than those
those used
usedfor
for Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola bark.
bark. For
For the
the first
first
group, the tree is preserved,
group, the preserved, whereas when harvesting
whereas when harvesting barks,
barks, the
the survival
survival ofof the
the tree
tree is
is not
always guaranteed. It is
always is worth
worth noting,
noting, however,
however, that collection
collection of fruits
fruits and
and kernels
kernels for
for
consumption
consumption andand sales
sales may
may have
have a negative
negative impact on the future population structure of the
the
1994).
trees (Peters, 1994).
The second
The second section
section of the paper
paper is
is aa brief
briefdescription
description of
ofthe
themethodology
methodology of
of the
the study.
study.
Section three describes the distribution and utilisation of
of the four
four NWFP
NWFP species
species analysed
analysed inin
this
this paper:
paper: Irvingia spp., Cola
Irvingia spp., Cola acuminata, Garcinia lucida
acuminata, Garcinia lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia cola.
cola. Next,
Next, the
CFA=Communaute Financiere
I CFA=Communauté Africaine. Cameroon,
Financière Africaine. Cameroon, Gabon,
Gabon, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, Central
CentralAfrican
African Republic,
Republic,
Congo (Brazzaville), Chad are the countries in Central Africa that are part of the CFA zone.
185
of NW1-4P
quantity of NWFP marketed
marketedand
and traders'
traders' marketing margins are discussed. Section five
are discussed. five
analyses the
analyses the welfare effects of marketing
welfare effects Irvingia spp.
marketing Irvingia spp. and Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata compared
compared toto
Garcinia lucida
Garcinia and Garcinia
lucida and Garciniakola, while section
kola, while section six
six discusses
discusses the
the type
type of
ofresearch
research needed
needed to
to
deal with the thinness
deal thinness of NWFP markets and
NWFP markets and (potential)
(potential) forest
forest resource
resource degradation.
degradation. The
final section presents the conclusions and implications of the study.
2. Methodology of the study
Twenty-eight markets
markets in the Humid Forest Zone (HFZ) of Cameroon were surveyed surveyed in
in 1995
1995
and 1996.
1996. The
TheHFZ
HFZcomprises
comprises five
five (Centre,
(Centre, South,
South, Littoral,
Littoral, East, South
South West) ofof the
the 10
10
provinces in Cameroon.
provinces in Cameroon. Data from the 1987 1987 census indicate that
census indicate that 45
45 per
per cent
cent of the total
Cameroon live
population of Cameroon live in
in the
the HFZ.
HEZ. The zone is bordered on the south by the Republic
of Gabon,
Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and
Equatorial Guinea and Congo
Congo Brazzaville,
Brazzaville,on on the
the east
east by the
the Central
Central African
African
Republic,
Republic, and on the northwest by the Republic of Nigeria.
Nigeria. The HEZ
HFZ covers
covers 270 162 square
kilometres representing 58 per cent ofof the
the territory
territory of
of Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Irvingia spp.
InJingia spp. (wild mango nut),
(wild mango nut), Cola
Cola acwninata
acuminata (kola
(kola nut),
nut), Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and Garcinia
Garcinia
kola were the NWFP selected
selected for
for study
study in
in this
this paper.
paper. The
The marketed
marketed quantities of
of the kernels
and the fruits
fruits are
are used for Irvingia
used for spp and
In,ingia spp and Cola acuminata, while the marketed quantities
quantities of
the bark are considered
the for Garcinia
considered for Garcinia lucida and Garcinia
Garcinia kola. The data
kola. The data reported for all
reported for
these NWFP are based on 29 weeks of activity from January to July in both 1995
these 1995 and
and 1996.
1996.
Two hundred
Two hundred andand sixty-seven (267) traders
sixty-seven (267) traders were
were interviewed
interviewedinin 1995
1995 and
and 347
347 in 1996,
1996,
representing 24 per cent and 27 per cent of of the estimated total number of traders operating
operating in
the selected markets studied each year.
3. Distributiou andutilisation
Distribution and utilisationof
ofNVVFP
NWFP in
in Central
Central Africa
Irvingia
lrvingia gabonensis
Harris (1993) identified two species of of Irvingia used for food in Cameroon: Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis
and lrvingia wombolu. This section will only discuss the distribution and utilisation of the first.
Irvingia wombolu. first.
The lrvingia
Irvin& gabonensis treeisisfound
gabonensistree foundthroughout
throughout the
the whole
whole Humid
Humid Forest
Forest Zone
Zone of
of Cameroon
Cameroon
(i.e., evergreen, semi-deciduous and transition forests).
forests). The species is distributed from the south
(Vivien and
of Senegal to Zaire (Vivien and Faure
Faure 1985)
1985) in
in the
the low
low land
land warm humid
humid forest
forest of West
West and
and
Africa. In West Africa,
Central Africa. Africa, Irvingia
lrvingia gabonensis
gabonensis is found
found in
in Senegal,
Senegal, Guinea
Guinea Conakry,
Conakry,
Liberia, Sierra
Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Leone, Cote
Côte d'Ivoire,
divoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin
Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. In
and Nigeria. In Central
Central Africa,
Africa, it
African Republic
grows in Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic and
and Congo
Congo (Brazzaville).
(BrazzaviIle).
gabonensis commonly
Irvingia gabonensis
Irvingia commonly called called "dika
"dika nut",
nut",belongs
belongstoto the
the family
family of
of Irvingiaceae. The
Irvingiaceae. The
fruit is similar to a small "domesticated" mango, and
"domesticated" mango, and is green when raw and yellow when ripe.
The ripe fruit
fruit contains
contains aa lot
lot of
of fibres.
fibres. The pulp of the fresh fruit
fruit is eaten and
and the
the nut
nut is
is cracked
cracked
to obtain the Irvingia gabonensis kernel. This kernel
kernel. This kernel can easily be separated into two parts.
parts.
The kernel is the most valued part of the Irvingia gabonensis tree. It is aa delicious
delicious condiment
condiment
for
for soup and
and an
an important
important source
source of cash income for farmers
income for farmers in the Hutnid
Humid Forest Zone of
Cameroon. The kernel
Cameroon. The kernel can be pounded and used as a substitute or complement for for groundnut in in
the diet
the diet of forest
forest dwellers in the
dwellers in the Humid Forest Zone
Humid Forest Zone of of Cameroon.
Cameroon. The sauce
sauce made
made with
with
gabon ens is kernel can be stored for three to four days without being refrigerated.
Irvingia gabonensis refrigerated. The
paste
paste obtained from the
obtained from the crushed kernel is
crushed kernel is called
called "dika bread" in Gabon
"dika bread" Gabon and "etima
"etima "" in
in the
the
Centre province of Cameroon
Cameroon and can be stored for more than a year after it is dried in in the sun.
the sun.
kernel can
gabonensis kernel
The Irvingia gabonensis can be
be stored
stored for
for up
up to
to aa year
year if
if completely dry.
186
Cola aCliminata
Cola acuminata (kola
(kola nut)
Cola acuminata
Cola aCliminata commonly called "abata
commonly called cola", belongs
"abata cola", belongs toto the
the family
family of Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae and is
found green forests
found in the green forests of Cameroon. It is distributed
of Cameroon. distributed from Nigeria to Congo
Congo (Vivien
(Vivien and
Faure,
Faure, 1985).
1985). The
Thetree
treeproduces
produces fruits
fruits that
that are
are consumed
consumed andand sold
sold because
because of
of the
the stimulant
stimulant
properties of the nut.
nut. Cola
Colaacuminata
acuminataisisthethebasis
basisofofan
animportant
importanttrade
trade within
within Cameroon
Cameroon and and
between Cameroon and neighbouring countries.
Garcinia kola
Garcinia kola
Garcinia kola belongs
belongs to
to the
the family of of Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae (Gutiferae)
(Gutiferae) and
and is
is found
found in in the
the Humid
Humid Forest
Forest
Zone of Cameroon.
Cameroon. The treetree is
is distributed
distributed from
from Sierra
Sierra Leone
Leone to
to Gabon
Gabon and and Zaire
Zaire(Democratic
(Democratic
Republic of of Congo)
Congo) (Vivien
(Vivien andand Faure, 1985). This encompasses
Faure, 1985). part of the lowland
encompasses part lowland warm
warm
humid tropic of West and Central Africa. Africa. InIn West
West Africa,
Africa, Garcinia
Garciniakola grows in
kola grows inSierra
SierraLeone,
Leone,
Côte
Cote divoire,
d'Ivoire, Ghana,
Ghana, Togo,
Togo, Benin
Benin and Nigeria. In Central
and Nigeria. Central Africa,
Africa, it isis found
found ininCameroon,
Cameroon,
Gabon,
Gabon, Central African Republic and
African Republic Equatorial Guinea.
and Equatorial Guinea. Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola is commonly
commonly called
called
"bitter kola"
kola" by local people,
people, which is is the
the name
name of the
the aphrodisiac
aphrodisiac fruit
fruit that
that the
the tree
tree produces. It
produces. It
is an important product in the Humid Forest Zone of West and Central Africa because it is eaten
and also contributes
contributes to
to the
the revenues
revenues of of rural
rural households.
households.
The bark of the Garcinia kola tree is used in palm wine

The wine to give the wine
give the wine a bitter taste and to
make stronger. This
make it stronger. This practice
practice is common
common in the Centre
Centre province
province of Cameroon
Cameroon andand also
also in
Thebark
Gabon. The barkwhen
when soaked
soaked into
into water can be used as a treatment for intestinal worms and to
water can
cure stomach pain. Mixed
Mixed with
with kola
kola nut, the fruit of Garcinia
Garcinia kola aids digestion.
kola aids
Garcinia lucida
lllcida
Garcinia lucida
lucida belongs
belongs to the family
family of Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae (Gutiferae) and in Cameroon
(Gutiferae) and Cameroon isis found
found in
Zone. The bark is an anti-venom.
the Humid Forest Zone. anti-venom. It
It is mostly used by farmers
farmers who
who tap
tap palm
palm
wine after harvesting
wine tree. According
harvesting the tree. According toto farmers,
farmers, the
the bark
bark of
of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida gives
gives a
to the palm
stronger taste to palm wine.
4. NWFP
NWFP markets
markets and
and margins of traders
Volume and
andvalue
valueof
ofNVVFP marketed
NWFP marketed
The
The total
total quantity
quantity of
of sales
sales recorded
recorded in
in the
the sample
sample for
for Irvingia
Irvingia spp.,
spp., Cola
Colaacuminata,
acuminata,
Garcinia kola
kola and
and Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida amounted
amounted to
to 138
138 tons
tons in
in 1995
1995 and 85 tons in 1996,
1996, with a
value
value of 84
84 072
072 000
000 CFA
CFA Francs
Francs and 77 262
262 100
100 CFA
CFA Francs respectively (Table
Francs respectively (Table 1).
1). A
A
projection
projection of
of the
the total
total number ofof traders operating in the 28 markets would yield an aggregate
of 677
quantity of 677 tons
tons in 1995
1995 and 272 tons in 1996
1996 with a total value of 361 558558000 CFA F in
000 CFA
1995 and
1995 and 254
254 402402 000
000 CFA
CFA F F in
in 1996
1996 (Table
(Table 2).
2). (This
(This aggregate figure is
aggregate figure is obtained by
obtained by
assuming that the samesame percentage of traders in the sample
sample handling a particular NWFP in aa
given market can be generalised
generalised for the total
total number
number of of traders
traders operating
operating in that
that market.)
market.)
This is equivalent
equivalent to to US$
US$ 753
753 000
000 inin 1995
1995 (480
(480 CFA
CFA F= F. US$1)
US$I) and US$ 499 000 in 1996 1996
(510 CFA
(510 CFA F= US$1).US$I). The The projected sales of Garcinia
projected sales Garcinia kolakola and
and Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida barks
barks
represented 5757 tons
tons in 1995
1995 and 37 tons in 1996
1996 with a total value of 14 331 000 CFA F (US$
331000
30000)
30 000)inin1995
1995and and1111977
977000
000CFA
CFAFF (US$
(US$2323 5000)
5000) inin1996.
1996.
Irvingia spp.
spp. is
is the
the NWFP
NWFP which
which is
is marketed
marketed by the
the highest
highest percentage of traders, followed
by Cola acuminata,
acwninata, Garcinia lucida bark and Garcinia kola bark. In
kola bark In 1995,
1995, Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata
was
was the most
most important WM' ininterms
important NWFP termsofofamount
amounttraded,
traded, followed
followed by
by Irvingia
Irvingia spp.,
spp.,
Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola barks.
barks. In
In1996,
1996, the
the order
order of
ofthe
theimportance
importance of
of quantity
quantity
187
marketed changed slightly,
marketed changed slightly, with
with lrvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. being the most
most important
important NWFP.
NWFP, then
then Cola
Cola
acuminata and the two Garcinia.
Garcinia. 'Value
Value of
ofthe
theNWFP
NWFP marketed
marketed displayed
displayed aa different
different order
order
of significance than the one related to volume.
volume. InIn both
both 1995
1995 and
and 1996,
1996, the
the value
value of
of sales
sales was
was
greatest for
greatest for Irvingia
Irvingia spp., followed by
spp., followed by Cola
Cola acuminata,
acuminata, Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia kolakola
barks. The
barks. The quantity
quantity and
and value
value of
ofNWFP
NWFP marketed
marketed reflect the typical
typical characteristics thin
characteristics of thin
markets caused
markets caused by aa combination
combination of of environmental
environmental and
and economic factors. This
economic factors. This will
will be
be
discussed further in the next section
section
Table 1:
Table 1: Selected
SelectedNWFP
NWFPmarkets
marketsininthe
theHumid
HumidForest
ForestZone,
Zone, 1995
1995 and
and 1996*
1996*
c7cofofTraders
% Traders by Sample
Sales by Sample Interviewed
NWFP Selling NWFP (kg)
Quantity (kg) Value (CFA Francs)
1995
1995 1996 1995 1996 1995 1996
(n=267) (n=347)
lrringia spp.
lrvingia spp. 45 47
47 36390
36 390 34 400
34400 43 000 000
43000000 47 534 600
47534600
Cola acuminata
CoLa 19 24 80 960
80960 31 650
31650 35 884 000
35884000 23 660 300
23660300
Garcinia lucida
Lucida (bark)
(bark) 21_ 4 14600
14 600 13
13 500 33726000
726 000 44882500
882 500
Garcinia kola
koLa (bark) 11 1.5 5 970
5970 5 560
5560 1 462 000
1462 184 700
1 184700
Total 67 76.5 137920
137 920 85110
85 110 84 072 000
84072 77262100
77 262 100
*
* 29 weeks for all NWFP in 1995
1995 and
and in
in 1996
1996
Table
Table 2:
2: Sales
Salesprojected
projectedover
overall
allNVVFP markets in
NWFP markets in the
the Humid
HumidForest
ForestZone,
Zone, 1995
1995and
and1996*
1996'
salesfor
Projection of sales for all
allNWFP
NWFP Markets
NWFP Quantity (Kg) Value CFA
1995
1995 1996
1996 1995 1996
Irvingia spp. Ill 000
111000 100
107 100 125237
125 237 000 147 769 000
147769
acununata
Cola acuminata 509 000 127400
127 400 221 990 000
221990 94 656 000
94656 000
Garcinia lucida (bark)
Lucida (bark) 40 600
40600 27300
27 300 10
10 360 000 9867000
9 867 000
Garcinia kola
koLa (bark)
(bark) 16200
16 200 99900
900 33971000
971 000 2 110 000
2110
Total 676 800
676800 271 700 361 558 000
361558000 254402000
254 402 000
* 29 weeks for
for all
all NVVFP
NWFP in
in 1995
1995 and in 1996
1996
From 1995
1995 toto 1996, the
the combined quantity of
combined quantity of both
both Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia kola bark
marketed decreased by 7 per cent,
marketed decreased cent, while
while the
the actual
actual value
value of
of sales
sales increased
increased relatively
relatively by
by 17
17
per cent (Table
(Table 1).
1).
Thinness of NWFP markets
The quantity
quantity and
and value
value of
ofthe
theNVVFP
NWFP studied varied significantly
significantly between 1995
1995 and
and 1996,
1996,
especially for Cola
especially for Cola acuminata (Table 1). 1). This
This isis characteristic
characteristic of thin markets.
markets. Markets
Markets are
are
defined
defined as thin if a small change in production has a large effect on the quantity marketed.
thin if a small change in production has a large effect on the quantity marketed.
This changes the role of of markets
markets in
in assembling
assembling and distribution of NWFP from year year to
to year.
year.
There
There are various
various ways
ways to deal
deal with
with thin
thin markets,
markets, which
which will
will be
be discussed
discussed further
further in
in the
the
conclusions.
188
From 1995
1995 to 1996, the actual quantity marketed of Irvingia spp. declined by 5 per per cent while
while
the value
the value of sales increased
increased by 11
11 per
per cent
cent (Table
(Table 1).
1). In 1995,
1995, the
the markets
markets of
of Ebolowa,
Ebolowa,
Abang Minko
Abang Minko (border
(border between
between Cameroon
Cameroon and and Gabon)
Gabon) andand Kye-Ossi
Kye-Ossi (border
(border between
between
Cameroon and
Cameroon and Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea)
Guinea) accounted
accounted for
for 59
59 per cent of the total
total quantity
quantity of
of Irvingia
Irvingia
spp. marketed;
spp. marketed; in
in 1996,
1996, these
these markets
markets traded
traded 41
41 per
per cent
cent of total
total quantity marketed. The
quantity marketed. The
Mfoundi market
Mfoundi market (Yaounde)
(Yaounde) became
became more
more important,
important, accounting
accountingforfor 17
17 per
per cent
cent of quantity
quantity
marketed in 1996 against 7 per cent in 1995.
1995.
The decline in the

the quantity
quantity of Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. marketed can be explained
marketed can by the fact that the
explained by the
production of Irvingia vvombolu
wombolu was wasless
lessimportant
importantinin1996
1996than
thaninin 1995.
1995. As noted by Ndoye
et al., (1997)
(1997) there are
are two
two species
species ofof Irvingia
Irvingia that
that are
are traded
traded inin the
the Humid
Humid Forest
Forest Zone
Zone ofof
Cameroon and
Cameroon and its
its borders:
borders: Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis, which fruits
gabonensis, which fruits from
from June
June toto August;
August; and
and
Irvingia
Irvingia wombolu, which fruits
wombolu, which fruits from
from January
January toto March.
March. This significantly
significantly affected
affected the
the
quantity traded
quantity traded at Ebolowa
Ebolowa (Table
(Table 3). Although the
3). Although the quantity
quantity of Irvingia spp. spp. marketed
marketed
increased in
increased in several
several markets, this was not sufficient
markets, this sufficient to offset
offset the
the decline
decline in
in other
othermarkets,
markets,
especially Ebolowa, one of the key regional markets for this product.
Figure 1 Response
Response of
of price
price to
to quantity
quantity of main
main products
1.2
G3rciria kda (OOrk)
•
Garcinia kola (bark)
1.1
o 1.0
:;::
...
11)
(1)
.ga. 0.9
...s::
(1)
•
l/Virga
Irvingia
~ 0.8
u
<0
$ 0.7
0)
+Gambia lucida (
Cola acumnala
0.6
0.5+-------~--------r-------_r------~~------~------~
0.5
0.0 0.5
0.5 1D
1.0 15
1.5 20
2.0 2.5 3.0
8.0
9596 c,..mtity ratio
$'96cp.iantity
189
Table 3:
3: Changes
Changes in
in the
the trade
trade of Cola
CoLa acuminata,
acuminata, lrvingia
Irvingiaspp..
spp., Garcinia
Garciniakola
kolaand
andGarcitzia
Ga rcinialucida
Lucidabarks
barksininselected
selected markets
markets of the Humid
Humicl
Forest Zone
Forest Zone and
and its borders
Markets Cola acuminata

Cola acuminata Irvingia,vpp.
Irvingut spp. Garcinia kola
GarcinM kola(Bark)
(Bark) Garcinia lucida(Bark)
Difference 96-95 Change
Relative Cha nge Difference 96-95 RelaRelative
tive Change Difference
Difference 96-95 Relative Change
Relative Difference 96-95 Relative Change
96-95 Relative
(bags) % (bags) % (ba gs)
(bags) % (bags) %
Mbalmayo
Mbalmayo +20 +147 +36 +259 - - +76 +40
Edea +1 5
+15 +157 - - - - - -
Mfoundi
Mfo undi (Yde) -8
-811 -58 +55 +117 - - - -
Sangmellima
Sangme ima +6 +182 -42
-42 -62 - - - -
Mokolo
Moko lo (Yde) -43
-43 -60 -24 -72 - - - -
Ebolowa
E bo lowa +32 +124 -137 -59 - - -324
-324 -66
Abang Minko +3 +35 -6 -4
-4 -10 -7
-7 +5 1
+51 +69
Kribi
Kr ibi - - +28
+28 +148 - - - -
Bertoua -2
-2 -95 -8
-8 -8
-811 - - - -
Abong Mbang - - -10 -75
-75 - - - -
Bafia -673 -99 +7
+7 +6 12
+612 - - - -
Monatele - - +0.4 +1 7
+17 - - - -
Zoatele
Zoate le +5
-1-5 +407 +1. 2
+1.2 +46 - - +80 +138
+138
Akonolinga
Ako no linga -40 -92 --17
17 -84 - - - -
Batouri - - -2 -24 - - - -
KenzouLi
Kenzo +27 +170 - -- - - - -
New-Bell +83 +290 +15 +226

+226 - - - --
Kumba -0.8
-0.8 -12 +2.3 +72
+72 - - - -
Limbe - - -12 -76 - - - -
Saa - - -1.1 -68 -- - -- -
Ombessa -209
-209 -90 - - - -- - -
Kye-Ossi
Kye-Ossi - - +10 +98 -- - - -
marketed and
The quantity marketed and the
the value
value of sales
sales of
of Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata decreased
decreased from
from 1995 to 1996
1995 to 1996
by 61
by 61 per cent and
and 34
34 per
per cent
cent respectively.
respectively. InIn 1995,
1995, the markets
markets of of Mfoundi
Mfoundi (Yaounde),
(Yaounde),
Bafia and
Bafia and Ombessa accounted for
Ombessa accounted for 82
82 per
per cent
cent of the
the total
total quantity
quantity of Cola acuminata, but
only 18 per cent in 1996.
only 1996. The
TheNew
NewBell
Bellmarket
market(Douala)
(Douala)became
becamemore
more important,
important, handling
handling
22 per cent of quantity marketed in 1996 compared
compared to to 22 per
per cent
cent in
in 1995.
1995. The
The most
most important
important
markets for
markets for Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata in 19951995 were
were Bafia
Bafia and
and Ombessa,
Ombessa, located
located further
further north
north of
of
Yaounde. The following year, markets further south of Yaounde (Mbalmayo, Ebolowa),
Yaounde. The following year, markets further south of Yaounde (Mbalmayo, Ebolowa),
markets in
markets in the Littoral
Littoral province
province (Edea,
(Edea, New-Bell)
New-Bell) andand the
the frontier
frontier market
market with
with Central
Central
African Republic
African Republic (Kenzou) became more
(Kenzou) became more important
important inin assembling
assembling and and distribution Cola
distribution of Cola
acurninata (Table 3).
acuminata
The decline
The decline in the
the quantity
quantity traded
traded from Bafia and Ombessa
Ombessa can be explained
explained by
by aa drastic
drastic
in production, resulting
reduction in resulting from
from physical,
physical, biological
biological and/or
and/or ecological
ecologicalfactors.
factors. Further
investigationisis necessary,
investigation necessary,because
becauseofof the
the NWFP
NWFP studied,
studied, Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata isis the most
most
frequently planted
frequently planted by
by forest
forest dwellers,
dwellers, especially
especially in their
their cocoa
cocoa plantations.
plantations. Despite
Despite its
its
widespread cultivation, it has had the greatest decline in the quantity marketed.
Between 1995
Between 1995 andand 1996,
1996, thethe quantity
quantity of Garcinia lucida
lucida bark
bark marketed
marketed declined
declined by 8 per
per
cent while
cent while the
the actual
actual value
value of of sales
sales increased
increased by 31 31 per
per cent.
cent. In
In 1995,
1995, the
the markets
markets of
Mbalmayo, Ebolowa, Abang Minko (border between Cameroon Cameroon and and Gabon)
Gabon) accounted for 93
the total quantity
per cent of the quantity of Garcinia lucida bark marketedmarketed andand 74
74 per
per cent
cent in
in 1996.
1996. The
The
market of Zoatele
market Zoatele became
became moremore important
important andand handled
handled 18 18 per
per cent of quantity
quantity marketed in
1996 compared
1996 compared withwith 77 per
per cent
cent in
in 1995
1995.. The trade of Garcinia lucidalucida bark
bark is
is dominated
dominated byby
markets south of Yaounde (Mbalmayo.
markets Zoatele) and
(Mbalmayo, Zoatele) and the
the frontier market with Gabon (Abang
(Abang
Minko) (Table 3). The
Minko) The overall
overall decline
decline in
in the
the quantity
quantity ofof bark
bark marketed was due to the drastic
decrease in amount traded at Ebolowa,
decrease Ebolowa, which
which could not be offset by increases
increases at
at Mbalmayo,
Mbalmayo,
Abang Minko
Abang Minko andand Zoatele.
Zoatele. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the reduction
reduction may be due to excessive
excessive pressure on
the resource in
in the
the areas
areas supplying
supplying the the Ebolowa
Ebolowa market.
market.
For Garcinia kola

kola bark,
bark, the
the quantity
quantity marketed
marketed and the value of sales decreased by 77 per per cent
cent
and 19 per cent respectively
and from 1995
respectively from to 1996.
1995 to 1996. All
All trade
trade in
in both
both years
years was
was undertaken
undertaken at at
Abang Minko.
Abang Minko. ThisThis bark
barkisisvery
veryimportant
important for
for Gabonese
Gabonese consumers
consumers who who use
use itit to
to improve
improve
the taste (bitter) of
of palm wine and to increase the level of alcohol.
The foregoing
The foregoing discussion
discussion demonstrates that NWFP markets
demonstrates that markets are quite complex,
complex, highlighting
highlighting
the difficulties
the difficulties and the
the challenges
challenges associated
associated with
with their
their study.
study. The relationship
between
quantity marketed and prices received for the four products is related to the decline in volume
volume
of trade
trade (see Figure 1).1). There were two different reasons for
different reasons for this
this decline
decline in
in the amount
amount of
product changing hands in in the
the markets.
markets.
1. For In,ingia
1. /flJingia spp.,
spp., Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata and
and Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida bark,
bark, reduced
reduced production
production of the
product led to a decline in the quantity
quantity marketed,
marketed, especially
especiallyfor
forCola
Colaacuminata.
acurninata. This
may have been caused byby one
one of
of the
the following
following conditions
conditions or
or aa combination:
combination:
• a reduction in both production and demand from traders and consumers for the
NWFP;
• a linear
linear relationship
between production
production and
and quantity
quantity marketed
marketed byby forest
forest
dwellers,
dwellers, meaning that a reduction
meaning that reduction in production
production translates
translates to aa reduction
reduction in in
quantity
quantity marketed
marketed duedue to poor long-term storage facilities
long-term storage facilities in
in a year of
of aa good
good
harvest; and/or
• a reduction in in production
production leading
leading to a decline
decline in quantity
quantity marketed
marketed by forest
dwellers due to aa fixed
dwellers due fixed amount
amount (threshold) being held
(threshold) being held by the household
household for
home consumption.
191
191
Table 4: The
Table 4: Thethree
threemost
mostimportant
importantorigins
O1iginsof
ofIn,ingia
Irvingiaspp.
spp.traded
tradedinin1995
1995ancl
and 1996
1996
MARKETS 1995
1995 1996
Origin 11 Origin 2 Origin 3 Origin
Origin 11 Origin 22 Origin
Origin 33
Mbalmayo Mbalmayo - - Mbalmayo - -
Edea Mfoundi (Yde)
(Yde) -- - Edea - --
Mfoundi (Yde)
(Yde) Mfoundi (Yde) Mokolo (Yde) Ebolowa Mfoundi (Yde)
(Y de) Mbalmayo Ngomedzap
Sangmelima Sangmelima Ebolowa Ezezang
Ezezano Sangmelima
Sangmehma Elom Ebolowa
Mokolo (Yde) Mokolo (Yde) Mfoundi Mbalmayo Mokolo (Yde) - -
Ebolowa Ebolowa Route Kribi Nkok-Ekie Ebolowa Kribi Mbalmayo
Abang Minko Ebolowa Essos (Yde) Ngozip Ebolowa Kribi
Kribi Ambam
Kribi Ebolowa Biwong Kribi Ktibi
Kribi Ebolowa
EboIowa Likoube
Li koube
Bertoua Mfoundi (Yde) Bertoua
Bertotta - Bertoua - -
Abong Mbang Abong Mbang -- -- Abong Mbang Medjo --
Bafia Bafia - - Bilig-Bidig
Biliab-Bidia - --
Monatele Monatele - - Monatele - -
Zoatele Mfouncli (Y
Mfoundi (Yde)
de) Ebolowa - Ebolowa Mfoundi (Yde)
(Y de) -
Akonolinga Akonolinga Ebolowa Mfoundi Akonolinga Mfoundi (Yde) -
Batouri
Batouri Batouri Kadey Mfoundi Batouri Kadey Mfoundi
Kenzou - - - - - -
New-Bell (Dla) New-Bell Saa - New-Bell Saa Mfoundi
Kumba Kumba - - Kumba - -
Limbe Limbe Muyuka Mamfe Limbe Mamfe -
Saa Saa - - Saa - -
Ombessa - - - -- - -
Kye-Ossi
Kye-Ossi Ebolowa - - Ebolowa - -
'Table 5:
Table 5: The
The three
three most
most important
important origins
origins of
of Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata traded in
in 1995
1995 and 1996
MARKETS
MARKETS 1995 1996
Origin 11
Origin Origin 2 Origin 3 Origin 11 Origin 2 Origin 33
Mbalmayo
Mba1mayo Mbalmayo -- - Mbalmayo Mvog-Mbi Mengueme
Menat,ueme
Edea Edea -- - Edea - -
Mfoundi (Yde)
(Y de) Mfoundi Bokito Mbangassina Mfoundi Bafia Monatele
Sangmelima Mfoundi - - Sangmelima Mbalmayo Mfoundi
Mokolo (Yde) Mokolo Bokito Ndom Mokolo Ndom -
Ebolowa Ebolowa - - Ebolowa Route Mvangan Biboulman
Abang Minko Mfoundi M nko
Abangt, Minko
iAbanu
- Mfoundi - -
Kribi - - - - - -
Bertoua Obala
ObaJa - - Bertoua - -
Abong Mbang - - - - - -
Bafia Bafia Bokito Yabeng Tiko (Bafia) Banda -
Monatele - - - - - -
Zoatele Ebolowa - - Ebolowa Mfoundi -
Akonolinga Akonolinga - - Akonolinga
Akonolinga - -
Batouri - - - - - -
Kenzou Mbanga Loum - Mbanga Batouri -
New-Bell Loum - - Saa New-Bell Mbangassina
Kumba Kumba - - Kumba - -
Limbe - - - - - -
Saa - - - - - -
Ombessa Bouraka - - Melen - -
Kye-Ossi - - - - - -
Table 6:
6: The
The three
three most
most important origins
origins for
for Garcinia lucida
Lucida bark traded in
in 1995 and 1996
1995 and 1996
MARKETS 1995 1996

Origin 11
Origin Origin 2 Origin 3 (Moil]
Origin
,-, 11 Origin 22 Origin
Origin 33
Mbalmayo Mvog-Mbi
Mvoo-Mbi
t, Ebolowa - Mbalmayo Mvog-Mbi -
Edea -- - - - - -
Mfoundi (Yde)
Mfoundi (Y de) - - - - - -
Sangmelima - - - - - -
Mokolo (Ycle)
(Yde) - - - - - -
Ebolowa Ebolowa Ngoul Essama - Ebolowa Ebolowa-Assi -
Abang Minko Ebolowa - - Ebolowa - -
Kribi - - - -
Bertoua - - - -
AbongMbang
Abong Mbang - - - --
Bafia - - - -
Monatele - - - -
Zoatele Ebolowa - - Ebolowa Mvog-Mbi
Mvoat, -Mbi Lolodorf
Akonolinga
Akonoling,a - - - -- - -
Batouri
Batouli - - - - - -
Kenzou - - - - - -
New-Bell - - - - - -
Kumba - - - --
Limbe - - - -
Saa -- - - -
Ombessa - - - -
Kye-Ossi - - - -
Table 7: The
Thethree
threemost
most important
important origins
origins for Garcinia kola
for Garcinia kola bark
bark traded
traded in 1995
1995 and 1996
1996
MARKETS
MA RKETS 1995 1996
Origin 11 Origin 2 Origin 33 Origin
Origin 11 Origin 2 Origin 3
Mbalmayo - - - - - -
Edea
Edea -- - -- - - --
Mfoundi (Ycle)
(Y de) - - - - - -
Sangmelima - - - - - -
Mokolo (Yde) - - - - - --
Ebolowa - - - - - -
Abang Minko Ebolowa - - Ebolowa Melanga Akom
Kribi - -- - - - -
Bertoua - -- - - - -
AbongMbang
Abong Mbang - - - - -- -
Bafia - - - - - -
Monatele - - - - - -
Zoatele - - -- - - -
Akonolinga - - -- - - -
Batouri - - - - - -
Kenzou - -- - - - -
New-Bell - - - - - -
Kumba - - - - - --
Limbe - - - - -- -
Saa - - - - -- -
Ombessa - - - - - -
Kye-Ossi - - - - - -
Table
Table 8:
8: Net
Netmargins
margins(in
(inCFA)
CFA)for
forthe
themarketing
marketing of
ofNWFP
NWFP in
in 1995
1995 and
and 1996
1996
Total net margin weekly margin

weekly margin as %
%
(x 1000 CFA) per trader of sales value
NWFP 1995 1996 1995 1996 1995 1996
Irvingia spp. 12988
12 988 11292
11 292 3 800
3800 2 400 30% 24%
24%
Cola acuminata
Cola 66362
367 6 205
6205 4400
4 400 2 600
2600 18% 26%
Garcinia lucida
lucida 972 1 627 5600
5 600 44000
000 26% 33
33%%
(bark)
Garcinia kola 544 289 6200
6 200 2000
2 000 37% 24%
(bark)
Table 9:
Table 9: Traders'
Traders'marketing
marketingmargins
marginsinin selected
selected markets
markets (CFA
(CFA Francs)
Market 1995 1996

I I
Cola acuminata
Mfoundi (Yde)
(Y de) 5800
5 800 22200
200
Bafia 13900
13 900 22600
600
Ombessa 8 000
8000 1 500
Bell (D1a)
New Bell (Dla) 33100
100 66800
800
Kenzou 3700
3 700 5800
5 800
lrvingia
Irvingia spp.
Mfoundi (Yde)
(Y de) 2000
2 000 22900
900
Ebolowa 5 500
5500 1 800
Abang Minko 13
13 700 7 800
7800
New Bell (Dla) 1500
1 500 3 700
3700
Limbe 1 800 900
Kye-Ossi 2800
2 800 8600
8 600
Garcinia lucida
Mbalmayo 6000
6 000 44800
800
Ebolowa 10 200 7 800
7800
Abang Minko 1600
1 600 2300
2 300
Zoatele 44000
000 5000
5 000
Garcinia kola
Abang Minko 6200
6 200 2 000
2000
196
2. For
ForGarcinia
Garciniakola
kolabark,
bark,demand
demandwas
wasreduced
reduced because
because thethe distribution
distribution market
market for this
product, Abang Minko.
Minko, was
was performing poorly due
performing poorly due to
to the
the breakdown
breakdown of the the ferry
ferry that
affected
affected the number
number of of Gabonese
Gabonese crossing
crossing the border. This
the border. This led
led to
to an
an overstocked
overstocked
market translating to lower
translating to lower prices.
prices. This
This further
further affected
affected the quality of the bark, which
was not the case for Irvingia
was lrvingia spp. because of
of better storage potential in in the short
short term.
term.
Irvingia spp.,
lrvingia spp., Cola
Cola acuminata
aculninata andand Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida all
all behaved
behaved as as would
would bebeexpected,
expected,
displaying aa similar
displaying similar price
price elasticity
elasticity of
of supply. Prices increased
supply. Prices increased as quantity
quantity marketed
marketed
declined, and
declined, and the
the greater the
the reduction in quantity
reduction in marketed the
quantity marketed the higher
higher the
the increase
increase in
in price
price
(Figure 1). The fourth
1). The fourth NWFP.
NWFP, Garcinia kola kola bark,
bark, responded
responded in in aa contrary
contrary fashion.
fashion. The
reduction in the
the quantity
quantity marketed
marketed was
was not
not the
the result
result of
of aa decreased
decreased supply
supply (as
(as with
with the
the other
other
market glut
three products) but because of a market glut in
in Abang
Abang Minko
Minko dueduetoto the
theferry
ferry problem.
problem. When
traders arrived
traders arrived to sell in the market, they found
found fewer
fewer buyers generating aa lower demand
buyers generating demand andand
a consequent price reduction.
The role in
in assembling
assembling and
and distribution
distribution of
of several
several of
of the
the markets
markets studied
studied changed
changed from
from 1995
1995
to 1996.
to 1996. For
For Irvingia
lrvingia spp.,
spp. , Cola
Cola acuminata
aculninata and
and Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida bark,
bark, the increase
increase inin the
quantity marketed
quantity marketed inin a few markets
markets was notnot enough
enough to offset
offset the
the decline
decline in
in other
other markets.
markets .
This translated
This translated to
to an
an overall
overall decline
decline in
in the
the quantity
quantity marketed.
marketed. Declining production these
production of these
NWFP may
NWFP may have been due to to environmental
environmental factors like
like drought,
drought , excessive pressure on on the
the
resource resulting in
in reduced
reduced availability,
availability, and
and changes
changes in
in weather
weather patterns
patterns altering
altering the
the period
period
of flowering and fructification of of the NWFP.
In 1995, there appeared generally to be stable relationships between selling markets and their
immediate surrounding
immediate surrounding areas
areas (as
(as portrayed
portrayed when the selling market
when the market isis the same as thethe origin
origin
of the NWFP)
NWFP) as as a source supply for
source of supply for the
the four
four NWFP
NWFP studied
studied (Tables
(Tables44 toto 7).
7). For
For most
most of
of
the selling markets, the
the the origins
origins of the NWFPNWFP changed from 1995
changed from 1995 to 1996,
1996, which reinforces
reinforces
the argument
the argument of unstable
unstable or
or erratic
erratic supplies
supplies affecting
affecting (positively
(positively oror negatively-)
negatively) thethe role
individual markets play in assembling and distribution between the two years.
individual markets years . Peters
Peters (1994)
(1994)
points out that "very few
points few tropical
tropical forest
forest species
species produce
produce reliable
reliable fruits
fruits during
during aa well-defined,
well-defined,
predictable season
predictable season each
each year-. This implies
year". This implies the
the need
need for
forlong-term
long-termmonitoring
monitoringofofNVVFP
NWFP
markets to
markets to better characterise
characterise them
them byby linking
linking the
the ecology
ecology of of the
the NWFP
NWFP (i.e., life
life cycle,
cycle, type
type
of output
of output produced.
produced, abundance
abundance in in the
the forest
forest and
and the
the size-class
distribution ofof natural
natural
population) (Peters,
population) (Peters, 1994),
1994), climatic
climatic factors.
factors, and other
other related
related environmental
environmental variables,
variables, as
as
well as socio-economic and cultural factors.
factors.
Marketing margins of traders
In 1995
In 1995 the average
average weekly
weekly net
net margins
margins perper trader
trader were
were higher
higher for Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and
Garcinia kola barks
Garcinia barks than
than for
for Irvingia
lrvingia spp.
spp. and
and Cola
Cola acuminata
aculninata (Table
(Table 8).
8). The following
following
year, the
year, the net margins
margins were
were highest
highest for
for Garcinia lucida barkbark and were
were comparable for Irvingia
lrvingia
spp. and Cola
spp. Cola acuminata.
aculninata. ThisThis isis also
also reflected
reflected inin the
the total
total marketing
marketing margins
margins asas a
percentage of the value
value of
of sales.
sales, which
which isis higher
higher for
for barks.
barks. Clearly,
Clearly, traders will continue to
to
demand these NWFP (barks),
(barks), especially for their
their use
use in palm wine production.
The reasons for the

the differences
differences inin the
the marketing
marketing margins between fruits/kernels
fruits/kernels and barks are
complex, and
complex, and relate
relate to different storage
storage periods, different levels
periods, different levels of perishability and to
perishability and to the
fact that the quantity of
fact of fruits/kernels
fruits/kernels traded
traded is
is significantly
significantly higher
higher than
than the
the quantity
quantity of
ofbarks
barks
As a result,
traded.. As
traded result, the
the larger
larger markets (Cola acuminata
markets (Cola and lrvingia
aculninata and Irvingia spp.)
spp.) are
are subject
subject to
lower weekly net margins.
margins. From
From 1995
1995 to
to 1996,
1996, the
the average
average weekly
weekly net
net marketing
marketing margins
margins for
for
each trader
each trader who
who sold
sold lrvingia
Irvingia spp.,
spp., Cola
Cola aculninata,
acuminata, Garcinia
Garcinia ILlcida
lucida bark
bark and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola
bark declined
bark declined by
by 37 per cent,
cent, 41
41 per cent, 29 per cent and 68 per cent respectively
respectively (Table 8).
197
197
Garcinia kola bark, which
kola bark, which is
is traded
traded exclusively
exclusively at
at Abang
Abang Minko, showed
showed the
the greatest
greatest decline
decline
in margins.
In 1995,
1995, the markets
markets of Abang
Abang Minko (border
(border between Cameroon and Gabon) and Ebolowa
highest weekly
had the highest weekly net
net marketing
marketing margins
margins per per trader
trader for
for II-vingia CFA
Irvingia spp., amounting to CFA
F 13 700 and CFA F 5 500 respectively
respectively (Table
(Table 9).9). The
The next year,
year, Kye-Ossi (border between
between
Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea) and Abang Minko (border between Cameroon and Gabon)
produced
produced thethe highest
highest margins
marginsofof88 600
600 CFACFAFF and and 77 800
800 CFACFA FF respectively.
respectively. The lower
weekly marketing margins
weekly marketing marginsinin 1996
1996 atat Abang
Abang Minko
Mink° waswas caused
caused by the breakdown
breakdown of the
the
ferry, which
ferry, which forced
forced traders
traders to sell
sell atatreduced
reduced margins.
margins. Although
Although the average
average weekly
weekly
marketing marginsdeclined
marketing margins declinedatatAbang
AbangMinkoMinkoinin 1996,
1996,itit remains
remains the
the case
case that sales
sales of
of
spp. are
Irvingia spp. are more lucrative at
at markets at at the
the borders (Table
(Table 9).
9).
Bafia
Bafia and Ombessa
Ombessa had
had the highest
highest weekly net marketing
weekly net margins per
marketing margins per trader
trader for
for Cola
acuminata in 1995 with 13 900 CFA
13 900 CFA FF and
and 8 000
000 CFA
CFA FF respectively.
respectively. In 1996,
1996, the markets
of New Bell (Douala) and Kenzou (border between Cameroon and Central African Republic)
had the highest weekly net marketing margins
margins totalling
totalling 66 800
800 CFA
CFA FF and 5 800 CFA F. F. The
increases over the
increases the two
two years
years were
were 119
119 percent
percent at
at New
New Bell
Bell and
and 57
57 percent at Kenzou
Kenzou (Table
8).
For Garcinia
Garcinia lucida bark, the
lucida bark, the markets
markets ofofEbolowa
Ebolowa andand Mbalmayo
Mbalmayo had thethe highest
highest weekly
weekly net
marketing margins
margins per
per trader
trader in
in 1995,
1995, of 10
10 200
200 CFA
CFA FF and
and 66 000
000 CFA
CFA F.
F. In 1996,
1996, Ebolowa
and Zoatele margins
margins were
were highest
highest weekly
weeklywith
with7800
7 800 CFA
CFAFFandand55 000
000 CFA
CFAF.F. The average
average
weekly marketing margins per
margins per trader decreased by 24 per
decreased by 24 per cent for Ebolowa and increased by
1995 to
25 per cent for Zoatele from 1995 to 1996
1996 (Table
(Table 8).
8).
In both 1995
1995 and
and 1996,
1996, Abang
Abang Minko was the only market market where Garcinia kola kola bark
bark was
was
marketed.
marketed. The
Theweekly
weekly net net marketing
marketing margins
margins perper trader
trader declined
declined fromfrom 66200
200 CFA
CFA FFin in 1995
1995
to 2 000 CFA FinF in 1996.
1996. This
Thisdrastic
drasticdecline
decline was
was duedue to
to the
the drop
drop in
in the
the average
average sale
sale prices
prices
of the
the bark
bark over
over the
the two
two years
years (Table
(Table 1),1), and
andthetheadditional
additionaltransport
transport andand storage
storage costs
costs
created by the non-functioning
created non-functioning of of the
the market.
market. Traders were forced to return home without
selling after incurring some
some costs
costs of bringing
bringing their
their product
productto to the
themarket.
market. The ferry of Abang
Minko broke down in May-June 1995 and was still not repaired during the time of of the survey
survey
1996. Furthermore,
in 1996. there were
Furthermore, there were some
some problems
problems on the the border
border between
between Cameroon
Cameroon and and
Gabon, which
Gabon, which made
made the the market
market non-operational
non-operational in severalseveral instances. Traders were
instances. Traders were not
informed of these prior to theirtheir arrival
arrival at
at the
the market,
market, which
which could
could have
have helped
helped them
them to to avoid
avoid
the costs of needlessly transporting their product. This also
product. This also lowered
lowered thethe quality
quality of
of the
the bark.
bark.
5. Welfare
5. Welfare effects
effects of marketing different NWFP
This section
This section investigates the welfare
investigates the welfare effects
effects of
of selling
selling Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. and
and Cola acuminata
acuminata
compared to
compared to selling
selling the
thebarks
barksof
ofGarcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucidaand
andGarcinia
Garcinia kola.
kola. Basic questions
questions need to
be asked:
• Are forest dwellers better off when
dwellers better when they
they sell
sell Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. and
and Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata than
when they
when they sell
sell Garcinia
Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola barks?
• What is a possible solution to the trade-offs

trade-offs that are likely to
to occur?
Welfare effects for forest dwellers
Forest dwellers receive a certain percentage

percentage ofof the
the wholesale
wholesale and
and retail
retail prices
prices when
when they
they sell
sell
NWFP. Gatherers
their NVVIT.
their received aa higher
Gatherers received higher percentage
percentage of
of the
the retail
retail prices
prices when
wheri they
they sell
sell
Irvingia
In'ingia spp.
spp. than when they
than when they sell
sell Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kolabarks
barks(Table
(Table10).
10). The
The
198
198
difference
difference in the percentage
percentage of the retail prices received by forest dwellers for sales sales within
within
Cameroon
Cameroon is notnot significant. The differences
significant. The when the
differences when the NWFP
NWFP isis sold
sold at the border
border with
with
Gabon may be due to
Gabon may to factors
factors such
such asas transportation
transportation costs and
and generally
generally better
better margins
margins for
traders
traders in frontier
frontier markets,
markets, especially
especially for Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. This implies
implies that
that forest
forest dwellers
dwellers
should be spending more
more time
time in
in the
the collection
collection and
and sales
sales of Irvingia
Irvingia spp.
spp. than
than the harvesting
harvesting
and sales of barks. Since
Sinceforest
forest dwellers
dwellers are
are searching
searching for
for income-generating
income-generating enterprises, the
above knowledge may not be an important factor in changing their behaviour.
effects for
Welfare effects for traders
As previously
previously discussed,
discussed, the
the weekly
weekly net
net marketing
marketing margins
margins achieved
achieved by traders
traders selling
selling
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola barks
barks were
were higher
higher or
or comparable
comparable to those
those of
of Irvingia spp.
spp.
and Cola
and aCUlninata. This
Cola acuminata. This suggests that traders
suggests that will continue
traders will to demand
continue to demand thethe barks
barks of
of
Garcinia lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola because
because of
of their
their importance
importance in palm wine production,
production, of
which consumption has increased significantly since the devaluation
devaluation of
of the
the CFA
CFA Franc.
Franc.
Trade-offs are likely to be necessary

necessary when
when trying
trying to maximise
maximise returns toto forest
forest dwellers
dwellers and
and
traders, as well
traders, well as
as conserve
conserve the
the resource. This situation
resource. This is discussed
situation is discussed below
below as as part
part of the
the
need for research.
6. Future
Futureresearch
research needs
needs
Reducing the thinness of NWFP markets

markets
To reduce
reduce the
the thinness
thinness ofofNVV14) markets, several
NWFP markets, several conditions
conditions must
must be met.
met. The most
most
important
important is to increase
increase aggregate production. This
aggregate production. This could
could be
be done
done through
through conservation
conservation or
or
domestication.
III Conservation can

Conservation can be achieved by determining
determining the
the harvesting rate that will
will preserve
the NWFP
NWFP tree,
tree, using
using sustainable
sustainable harvesting
harvesting techniques for bark extraction
techniques for extraction and
educating forest dwellers to
to use these
these methods efficiently.
• Domestication and cultivation

Domestication and cultivationby
by forest
forest dwellers
dwellers will
will reduce
reduce the
the length
length of
of the
the
production cycle of the NWFP while
while preserving
preserving the
the characteristics
characteristics that
that are
are important
important
to consumers.
Domesticationmay
Domestication may require
require longer-term research and
longer-term research and more
more financial
financial resources
resources than
conservation, which
conservation, which isis of aa shorter-term
shorter-term strategy.
strategy. The current
current economic
economic crisis, structural
structural
adjustment policies and the devaluation of of the CFA F, have all increased
increased poverty
poverty inin rural
rural and
and
urban areas (World Bank, 1995), and resulted in return migration from urban to
urban to rural
rural areas
areas
(Bela, 1994; Pokam,
(Bela, Pokam, 1997).
1997). These
These pressures
pressures seem
seem to
to reduce
reduce the
the possibility
possibility that
that conservation
conservation
is aa viable
is viable option.
option. TheThe domestication
domestication of of NWFP
NWFP and and their
their cultivation
cultivation ininmulti-strata
multi-strata
agroforestry systems (like the current cocoa and coffee-based
coffee-based systems
systems in Cameroon)
Cameroon) could be
aa more
more viable alternative in reducing
viable alternative reducing the the pressure
pressure from
from thethe forests
forests under
under present
present
circumstances.
However, increasing the

However, increasing the aggregate
aggregate supply
supply of
of NW1-P
NWFP isis aa necessary
necessary but
but not
not sufficient
sufficient
condition for reducing the thinness
reducing the thinness of NWFP
NWFP markets.
markets. Other conditions that need to be met
are improved
are improved access
access to
to market
market information
information and
and infrastructure,
infrastructure, reduced
reduced transaction
transaction costs
costs
(information,
(information, contracting
contracting and
and enforcement
enforcement costs),
costs), and
and improved
improved institutional support (credit)
for forest dwellers
dwellers and
and traders.
traders. Without these,
these, efforts to domesticate
domesticate and
and plant
plant particular
particular
NWFP may fail.
NNW?
199
Potential resource degradation
Potential resource degradation from debarking

There are debatable
There figures in
debatable figures in the various
various inventories carried out
inventories carried out in the
the forest
forest zone
zone with
with
regard to
regard to the
the available
available stock
stock of
of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida from the forest.
forest. These
These discrepancies
discrepancies can
can be
be
explained by
explained by the relative abundance
abundance of each each species
species in
in natural
natural conditions. These in turn
conditions. These tum
could explain why the
the variation
variation in
in the
the abundance
abundanceandandthe
thedistribution
distributionofofcertain
certainNWIHP
NWFP can can
be high, even over a relatively small area (van Dijk, 1998).
inventory in
In her inventory in southern Cameron,
Cameron, van
van Dijk
Dijk (1995)
(1995) did
didnot
notfind
find any
any Garcinia
Garcinia lucida trees.
Ntamag's (1997) survey showed Garcinia lucida only only in virgin forests at an
an average
average rate of 4
trees per hectare.
trees hectare. Guedje
Guedje (1997)
(1997) recorded 58 live stems
stems of Garcinia lucida trees per hectare
in an inventory,
inventory, which
which covered
covered 8.45
8.45 hectares.
hectares. She also found those those trees
trees with
with diameters
diameters
equal to or greater
equal greater than
than 10
10 centimetres
centimetres were
were exploited
exploited (debarked)
(debarked) most - 32 live stems per
hectare were noted in that category.
category. All
All the
the above
above studies
studies were
were carried
carried out
out in
in the
the Tropenbos
Tropenbos
site, a relatively small area of 200 000 hectares.
The density of trees per hectare

hectare of Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola also
also appears
appears toto vary
vary widely,
widely, according
according to
to
the literature.
literature. Tchatchou
Tchatchou (1997
(1997 cited
cited by
by Doucet
Doucet and
and Koufani
Koufani 1997)
1997) found
found aa density
density of
of 0.01
0.01
tree per hectare
tree hectare in
in eastern
eastern Cameroon.
Cameroon. DoucetDoucet andand Koufani
Koufani (1997)
(1997) themselves did not
themselves did
discover
discover anyany Garcinia kola
kola trees
trees in
in their
their inventory
inventory carried
carried out
out inineastern
easternCameroon.
Cameroon. In
southern Cameroon,
southern Cameroon,van vanDijk
Dijk(1995)
(1995)found
foundaadensity
densityofof0.40.4 tree
tree per
per hectare
hectare for
for Garcinia
Garcinia
kola.
There are three shortcomings

shortcomings inin the
the current
current research
research of Garcinia lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola.
kola.
There
There is presently
presently no information about the
information about the sustainable rate of bark harvest
sustainable rate harvest per tree
tree that
that
perennially. The literature
would preserve itit perennially. reveals a high variability
literature reveals variability in the
the data
data about
about
available stocks of
available stocks of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola.
kola. This
This may
may indicate
indicate that the
the potential
potential
(stocks) of the resource
(stocks) of resource are not
not known
known precisely,
precisely, and/or that there
and/or that there are
are problems
problems in the
the
methods used
methods used inin the inventories
inventories to assess
assess the
the availability
availability of the
the resource.
resource. Peters (1994)
(1994)
that inventories
cautioned that inventories should
should be
be carried
carried out
out in
in different
differentforest types. In addition to
forest types. to these
these
problems, there is no information on average yield per tree.
The first two issues are important reconcile livelihood

important to reconcile livelihood and
and conservation
conservation objectives.
objectives. Data
on density and average yield
yield per tree would calculation of the potential
would allow calculation potential area of forest
affected by
by debarking
debarking both
both Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia kola.
Cunningham and
Cunningham and Mbenkum
Mbenkum(1993)(1993)assumed
assumedthatthatthe
theaverage
averageyield
yieldofofPrunus
Prunus africana
africana to
to be
be
55 kg per tree.
55 tree. We
We assumed
assumed similar
similar yields
yieldsfor
for Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and Garcinia kola, because of
the lack of information
the information in the
the current
current research
research on
on those
those products.
products. OneOne factor
factor that could
could
justify this
this assumption
assumption isis the
the similar height of the species;
similar height species; 25 and
and 3030 metres
metres for
for Prunus
Prunus
africana (BDCPC,
(BDCPC, 1997), 25 metres
1997), 25 metres for
for Garcinia lucida
lucida (Guedje,
(Guedje, 1996),
1996), and
and 35
35 metres
metres for
(Vivien and
Garcinia kola (Vivien and Faure, 1996).
1996).
200
Table
Table 10:
10: Proportion
Proportionof
ofprices
pricesreceived
received by
by forest
forest dwellers
dwellers in
in 1996
1996
% of % of retail
% % of price to
% % of price to
%
NWFP wholesale price Gabonese Equato-
price (Cameroon) Guineans
(Cameroon)
Irvingia spp.
spp. 68 64 61 54
Cola acuminata 63 60 - --
Garcinia lucida bark - 63 47 --
Garcinia kola bark -- -- 50 --
Table
Table 11:
11: Potential
Potentialnumber
numberof
oftrees
treesdebarked
debarked in
in 1995
1995 and
and 1996*
1996*
Garcinia lucida Garcinia kola

1995 738 trees 295 trees
1996
1996 496 trees
trees 180 trees
on an
*Based on an average yield
yield of 55
55 kg
kg per
per tree
tree and
and the
the projection from Table
Tab e 1.
1.
Table 12:
Table 12: Potential
Potentialnumber
numberof
ofhectares
hectares of
offorest
forest affected
affected (hectares)
(hectares)
Garcinia lucida
llicida Garcinia kola
4 trees/ha 32 trees/ha 58 trees/ha 0.01 trees/ha
0.01 0.4 trees/
(dbh 10 cm)
(dbh:::::
aex. ~
13 8 ha
~13
f
E
1995 185 23 13 29 500

29500 738
1996 124 16 9 18000
18 000 450
ex.
a -- Based
Based on
on Ntamag
Ntamag (1997)
1313- -Based
Basedon
on Guedje
Guedje (1996)
86 - Based on Tchatchou (1997) cited in Doucet and Koufani (1997)
£E -- Based on van Dijk (1995)
201
Based on
Based on the above assumption about the
assumption about the average
average yields
yields of of the
the trees
trees (55
(55 kg per tree),
tree), the
the
potential number of
potential number of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida trees
trees debarked
debarkedwas was738
738inin 1995
1995and
and496
496in in 1996.
1996. For
Garcinia kola
Garcinia kola trees,
trees, the number debarked would
number debarked wouldbebe 295
295 inin 1995
1995 andand 180
180 in
in 1996.
1996. These
These
figures
figures represent a reduction
reduction in the number
number of Garcinia lucida trees debarked of 33 per cent
and
and 39 per cent for Garcinia kolakola between 1995 and 1996
1995 and (Table 11).
1996 (Table 11). The
The possible
possible area
area of
of
forest affected by bark extraction (Table 12) can be calculated by using the different
forest affected by bark extraction (Table 12) can be calculated by using the different
estimates
estimates of the density
density per hectare
hectare for Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola from
from Ntamag
Ntamag
(1997), Guedje
(1997), Guedje (1996),
(1996), Doucet
Doucet and
and Koufani (1997) and
Koufani (1997) and van DijkDijk (1995).
(1995). In In 1995,
1995, the
the
potential number of
potential number of hectares
hectares of
of forest
forest affected
affected by
by the
the extraction
extraction of of Garcinia lucida
ludda bark
bark
marketed
marketed varied between 13
varied between 13 and 185
185 hectares,
hectares, with that ofof Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kolavarying
varyingbetween
between
738 and 2929 500 hectares. In 1996,
500 hectares. 1996, the estimates
estimates of area affected
affected by by Garcinia lucida
lucida bark
bark
extraction ranged
ranged between
between 9 and 124 hectares, while that of Garcinia kola
hectares, while kola was
was from
from 450
450 toto
18000
18 000 hectares (Table 12).
12).
Fewer Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola trees were debarked

Fewer in 1996
debarked in than in
1996 than in 1995.
1995. This
This
could have occurred because
because of a reduction in the number of mature trees resulting from the
scarcity of tree resources.
resources. Demand
Demand for for the
the products
products in markets
markets at the borders, especially for
for
Garcinia kola
kola bark,
bark, may also have been
been lower.
lower. AA combination
combination of these factors may also have
have
contributed to the reduction in
in trees
trees debarked.
debarked.
Role of research
Role research in finding
finding a balance
balance between
between welfare improvement and
and forest
forest conservation
Improving welfare
Improving welfare from
from forests
forests and
and forest
forest conservation
conservation isis always
always a difficult challenge
challenge for
researchers, policy
researchers, policy makers
makers and
and the
the international community. As
international community. As the
the study
study showed,
showed, NWFP
NWFP
contribute to
contribute to the
the livelihoods
livelihoods ofof forest-dependent
forest-dependentpeople.
people. For
For Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia
kola, it is to the advantage of traders to continue
kola, continue to provide
provide market
market outlets
outlets for
for forest dwellers
dwellers
to sell NVVFP,
NWFP, sincesinceweekly
weeklynet
net marketing
marketing margins
margins from
from barks
barks were higher or comparable
comparable to
to
those
those of fruits/kernels (Table 3). Furthermore,
(Table 3). traders will
Furthermore, traders will seek
seek these
these products
products because
because of
international demand from Gabon and other neighbouring countries.
Garcinia lucida and and Garcinia

Garcinia kolakola have
have been
been used
used for
for many
many decades
decades by forest dwellers
dwellers in a
sustainable way.
sustainable way. Beside
Beside their
their medicinal
medicinal properties,
properties, these
these products
products have
have traditionally
traditionally been
used by
used by forest
forest dwellers
dwellers toto improve
improve the the taste
tasteof ofpalm
palmwine.
wine. Garcinia lucida has has other
other social
social
2
attributes because
attributes because itit is
is an antidote for poison that is highly valued in rural areas.2 areas. However,
However,
when other
when other factors
factors contribute
contribute to the the general
general economic
economic situation,
situation, trade-offs
trade-offs are necessary
necessary
between welfare and forest
conservation. The decline in international
international markets for cocoa and
coffee in the
the 1980s,
1980s, the
the economic
economic crisiscrisis that
that has
has affected
affected Cameroon
Cameroon sincesince 1986,
1986, structural
structural
adjustment programs
adjustment programs which
which are are accompanied
accompanied by by the
the lay-off
lay-off of
of people,
people, and
and the
the devaluation
devaluation of of
the CFA
CFA F in in January
January 1994,
1994, are are all
all likely
likely to to increase
increase pressure
pressure on on the
the forests
forests toto provide
provide
alternative income-generating opportunities. In
income-generating opportunities. In particular,
particular, the
the devaluation
devaluation of ofthe
the CFA
CFAFranc
Franc
increased the price of beer and
increased the and whisky,
whisky, and these these were
were substituted
substituted by palm
palm wine
wine andand local
local
whisky (odontol), which
whisky (odontol), which is made made after
after distilling
distilling the
the fermented
fermented palmpalm wine.
wine. The resulting
resulting
boost in palm winewine production
production will will necessarily
necessarily increase the pressure on palm palm trees
trees (Elaeis
(Elaeis
guineensis, Raphia hookeri)
guineensis, Raphia hookeri)and and onon Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida andand Garcinia
Garcinia kola.
kola. In In eastern
eastern
Cameroon, Oyono (1997) reported that young Raphia trees are now exploited, which was was not
not
the case ten years ago. In southern Cameroon, Guedje (1996) found sites
ago. In southem Cameroon, Guedje (1996) found sites where more than 50 where more than 50
per
per cent of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
ludda trees
trees were
were dead.
dead. According
According to information
information from the the market
market
interviews carried out,
interviews carried out, Garcinia
Garcinia kolakola trees that still bear fruit are sold
trees that sold by forest
forest dwellers
dwellers toto
traders
traders who
who extract
extract the bark. This
the bark. This practice
practice was was not common
common in in the
the past. Before the
past. Before the
devaluation of the
devaluation the CFA
CFA F, F, the
the price
price of
of anan adult
adult Garcinia
Garcinia kola tree varied between
between 10 000 000 and
and
15 000 CFA
15000 CFA F; F; after devaluation the price of a tree was between 20 000 and 25 000 CFA F.
22 According
According to
to Diaw (1997), "Garcinia
"Garcinia lucida
lllcida is
is vital to social interaction in societies where the sharing of drinks
and the fear
fear of poisoning are both widespread".
202
There
There could be a danger
could be danger of
of aa conflict
conflict between
between the social
social value
value of
of Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida (and
(and
Garcinia kola)
kola) and
and the
the financial
financial profitability of
of these NWFP as a result of of emerging local and
international markets. In
international markets. In aasituation
situation of
ofeconomic
economic crisis
crisis and
and an
an active
active search
searchfor
foralternative
alternative
income-generating opportunities, private
income-generating opportunities, private gains
gains can
can override
override the hitherto
hitherto sustainable
sustainable social
social
benefits
benefits that
that were
were derived
derived from
from these
these NWFP,
NWFP, especially Garcinia lucida
especially Garcinia lucida because
because it is
governed by an
governed by an open access regime. The
access regime. The displacement
displacement of
of social
social benefits
benefits by
by private
private gains
gains
from individual opportunistic behaviour can deplete forest resources and place
place aa heavy
heavy cost
cost
on the larger community of forest dwellers who depend on these products.
Inventories show that

Inventories show that there
there is
is a wide
wide variation
variation in
in the
the stocks
stocks available
available of
of Garcinia lucida and
and there
Garcinia kola, and there is
is no
no information
information on
on the
the sustainable
sustainable harvest rate
rate that
that would
would preserve
preserve
these species.
species. Furthermore,
Furthermore, these
these NWFP
NWFP are not on the research agenda of priority speciesspecies to
to
Should researchers
domesticate. Should researchers wait
wait until
until the
the resources are depleted
resources are depleted to be be to
to effective
effective
action?
Reconciling improvement in
Reconciling improvement in welfare
welfare and
and forest
forest conservation
conservation requires
requires that
thatresearchers
researchers
undertake both
undertake both leading
leading edge
edge or strategic
strategic as
as well
wellasasproblem-solving
problem-solving research.
research. That is,is,
scientists need to
scientists need to develop solutions to
develop solutions to problems
problems which
which may
may arise
arise in
in the future,
future, rather
rather than
than
merely responding after
after itit is
is widely
widely known that
that aa given
given resource, important
important to
to forest
forest dwellers,
dwellers,
is depleted
depleted or
or under
under threat
threat of of disappearing.
disappearing.
Improved technologies are

Improved technologies are needed
needed to enable
enable forest-dependent
forest-dependent people to continue
continue to
to derive
derive
part of their
their livelihoods
livelihoods from NWFP
NWFP while
while at the
the same
same time
time preserving
preserving the
the forest.
forest. Other
required
required conditions are the access
conditions are access of forest
forest dwellers
dwellers to
to those
those technologies. This could be
technologies. This
very important in reducing any future pressure on forests resulting
resulting from
from growing
growing poverty
poverty and
and
the search
search for
for alternative
alternative income-generating opportunities,asas well
income-generating opportunities, well as
as increased
increased return
return
migration from
from urban
urban toto rural
rural areas.
areas. The
The best
best way
way to to achieve
achieve the
the desired
desired impact
impact of
of meeting
meeting
both livelihood
livelihood and
and forest
forest conservation
conservation goals
goals isis through
through multidisciplinary
multidisciplinary research
research where
where
biological and social scientists
scientists work
work inin partnership.
partnership.
7. Conclusions
Conclusions and
and implications
NWFP are very important to the well-being of forest dwellers and for that
that reason
reason they
they need
need to
to
be produced on a sustained basis. This paper
basis. This paper has
has shown
shown the
the importance
importance of
ofNWFP
NWFP markets
markets by
by
comparing the
the marketing Irvingia spp.
marketing of Irvingia spp. and
and Cola acuminata on the one hand, and and Garcinia
Garcinia
Garcinia kola
lucida bark and Garcinia bark on
kola bark on the
the other.
other.
The estimated value

value of the four NWFP in the markets surveyed during the first half half of
of 1995
1995
and 1996 amounted
amounted toto USD
USD 753
753 000
000 and
and USD
USD 499
499 000
000 respectively.
respectively. Markets appear to be
thin and thus change their role in assembling and distribution of NWFP from one one year
year to
to the
the
Related to
next. Related to this
this changing
changing function,
function, the aggregated quantities marketed
aggregated quantities marketed of
of the
the four
NWFP declined from
from 1995 to 1996.
1995 to 1996. Over
Over the
the two
two years,
years, the
the quantity
quantity marketed
marketed increased in
few markets, but this was not sufficient to offset the decline in other markets.
The decrease
decrease in the
the quantity
quantity of
of NWFP
NWFP marketed
marketed resulted
resulted from
from aa reduction
reduction in
inaggregate
aggregate
several factors, including drought, excessive pressure on
production, caused by several on the
the resource,
resource,
and changes
and changes in weather
weather patterns
patterns affecting the period
affecting the period of flowering
flowering and
and fructification
fructification of
NVVFP.
NWFP. ThisThis highlights
highlights the
the complexity
complexity of NWFP markets
markets and the challenges
challenges facing
facing their
their
study, and the need for long-term monitoring in order to better characterise them.
them.
In general,
general, markets
markets in major urban centres, Yaounde, Douala and border markets
Yaounde, Douala markets are more
profitable than the
the other
other markets.
markets.
203
Although the exploitation of NWFP always have an ecological impact, the the gathering
gathering and
and the
the
marketing of
marketing of InJingia
ItYingia spp.
spp. and
and Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata areare more
more sustainable because the
sustainable because the tree
tree is
preserved
preserved after gathering the fruit or
gathering the or the
the kernels. The collection
kernels. The collection of Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and
Garcinia kola barks
Garcinia kola barks usually
usually kills or weakens
weakens the tree that is exploited.
With the
the devaluation
devaluation of the
the CFA
CFA Franc
Franc and
and the
the continuous
continuous search
search for
for alternative
alternative income-
income-
generating opportunities by forest dwellers, the barks of Garcinia lucida and
generating opportunities by forest dwellers, the barks of Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola
will continue
will continue to be demanded
demanded by traders
traders and
and consumers
consumers of palm palm wine,
wine, thereby
thereby generating
generating
revenues for forest dwellers
dwellers and traders.
traders. In
In particular,
particular, Garcinia
Garcinia lucida,
lucida, which
which isis governed
governed by
by
an open access regime is more vulnerable to individual
individual opportunistic behaviour with a danger
of increased pressure on the resource. This Thisshows
shows thethe difficult
difficulttrade-offs
trade-offs between
betweenimproving
improving
the livelihoods forest-dependentpeople
livelihoods of forest-dependent peopleand
andforest
forestconservation.
conservation. There
There isis aa high
high level
level of
variability among different
variability among different inventories
inventoriesofof Garcinia
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia kola that that could
could be
be
due to their
their relative
relative abundance
abundance inin natural conditions. Research
natural conditions. Research hashas much
much to to contribute
contribute in
in
finding an appropriate
finding appropriate balance forfor achieving
achieving livelihood
livelihood improvement
improvement through
through NWFPNWFP andand
forest conservation
conservation goals.
goals.
Research could make a significant contribution by:
~ providing informationon
providing information on the
the sustainable rate of harvest
sustainable rate harvest that
that would
wouldpreserve
preserve
Garcinia lucida
lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola trees;
trees;
~ designing sustainable harvesting

designing sustainable harvesting techniques
techniquesthatthat could
could guarantee
guarantee the
the survival
survival of
Garcinia lucida and
and Garcinia
Garcinia kola
kola trees,
trees, thereby
thereby reducing future pressure on these
these
resources;
CII domesticating Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola

kola and
and promoting their cultivation by
forest dwellers;
~ access to improved technologies; and

enabling forest dwellers to access and
CII evaluating the impact of these technologies on the livelihoods of

of forest
forest dwellers
dwellers and
and
Single-disciplinary researchalone
Single-disciplinary research aloneisisunlikely
unlikelytotosolve
solvethe
theproblem.
problem. We
We believe
believe that
that only
only
multidisciplinary studies, or at least
least improved
improved communication
communication between biological
biological and
and social
social
scientists, can help
scientists, can help solve
solve the
the livelihood
livelihood and and forest
forest conservation
conservation dilemma.
dilemma. The
The welfare
welfare of
of
hundreds of
hundreds of millions
millions of people
people is at at stake,
stake, as
as well
well asasthe
themaintenance
maintenanceofofenvironmental
environmental
services from the forests
References
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BDCPC (Bioresources Development
Development andand Conservation
Conservation Programme
Programme Cameroon)
Cameroon) (1997)
(1997)
Newsletter, October/November.
OctoberlNovember.
Bela,
Bela, Laurent Manga
Manga (1997).
(1997). "Migrants
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yemesoa." Les Cahiers d'
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Septembre. ORSTOM,
Chambers, R.
Chambers, R. &
& Leach,
Leach, M.
M. (1987).
(1987). Trees to meet contingencies:
contingencies: saving and security
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206
A REGIONAL MARKET SURVEY
SURVEY OF THE NON-WOOD FOREST
FOREST
TRADED IN
PRODUCTS TRADED IN CENTRAL
CENTRAL AFRICA
Laurie Clark and Terry Sunderland
1. Introduction
CARPE is a multi-partner project that seeksseeks to identify and begin to implement strategies to
reduce deforestation and loss
deforestation and loss of biodiversity
biodiversity inin the
the Congo
Congo River
River Basin.
Basin. The
The United
United States
States
Forest Service
Service serves
serves as
as team
team leader
leader for
for the
the sub-component
sub-component dealing
dealing with
with non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
products
products (NWFPs). Under this
(NWFPs). Under this component,
component, we we are seeking
seeking to
to determine
determine the
the possible
possible
contribution ofthe
contribution of theNVVI-4P
NWFP sector
sectortotomitigating
mitigatingdeforestation
deforestationand
andloss
loss of
of biodiversity.
biodiversity.
Forests
Forests across
across Central
Central Africa
Africa are
are being
being converted
converted through
through logging,
logging, agriculture
agriculture and
and other
human-based activities.
human-based activities.Many
Manyof of the
the reasons
reasons for conversion
conversion are
are pragmatic.
pragmatic. Proposed
alternatives to
alternatives to the conversion of forests
conversion of forests must
must also
also be pragmatic,
pragmatic, and
and address
address some
some of the
the
reasons
reasons leading
leading to
to conversion activities. Additionally,
conversion activities. Additionally, inin conservation
conservation and
and sustainable
sustainable
development initiatives
development initiatives alike,
alike, suggested
suggested solutions
solutions to
to forest
forest based
based problems
problems must
must be made
made
with a sound understanding of the social, economic and ecological systems.
about the science and ecology of most NWFP species.

Little is known about species. Often they are species
of little economic interest
interest to governments,
governments, asas they
they do
do not contribute
contribute significantly, nor often
significantly, nor often
conspicuously,
conspicuously, to to the national economy.
economy. In a time
time of
ofscarce
scarcefinancial
financial resources,
resources, available
available
funds
funds are often
often focused
focused onon species
species or parts of
of an
an ecosystem
ecosystem perceived to be be either
either in
in greater
greater
(e.g. megafauna) or, more commonly, of greater and often more immediate
ecological danger (e.g.
economic return (e.g.
(e.g. most valued timber species).
species).
None ofof this obviates

obviates the
the importance
importance of
of NWFPs
NWFPs through all all levels
levels and
and scales
scales of
offorest
forest based,
based,
agricultural
agricultural and urban
urban societies
societies across
across the region. In order
the region. order for policy
policy makers
makers and
and land
land
managers to make intelligent and informed decisions about forest ecosystems (including their
they need to know as
human populations), they as much asas possible.
possible. AA number
number ofofmeans
means of
ofobtaining
obtaining
information
information is available:
available: inventories,
inventories, participatory rural appraisals
participatory rural appraisals and market
market surveys
surveys are
are
end, CARPE
methods often used. To that end, CARPE has developed
developed aa methodology
methodology analyzing
analyzing markets
markets in
in
target Central
Central African
African countries.
countries.
2. Market
Market surveys
surveys and data harmonization
of the
A goal of the NVVFP
NWFP component
componentisistotoidentify
identifywhich
whichmarketed
marketedNWFPs
NWFPs have
have aa high
high value
value and
and
are
are widely
widely traded,
traded, contributing
contributing significantly to household
significantly to household incomes. This will
incomes. This will permit
permit anan
assessment of the economic importance of NWFPs vis-a-vis other forms of forest utilization
economic importance of NWFPs vis-a-vis other forms of forest utilization
such as logging. Market
Market surveys
surveys are
are one
one method
method to
to obtain
obtain this information.
Completing market surveys

Completing market surveys over
over time
time and
and space
space provides
provides data
data that reflect seasonality
seasonality and
changes in product availability and price,
price, and permit
permit inferences about harvest levels
inferences about harvest levels and
and local
local
abundance.
abundance. For
For these
these reasons,
reasons, CARPE
CARPE is is undertaking
undertaking aa year-long
year-long series
series of
of surveys
surveys to
to be
be
completed in markets across the Central African region.
207
Figure
Figure 1.1.The
Theplethora
plethoraofofNVVFPs
NWFPs found in urban markets (Photo: T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
market survey
3. CARPE NWFP market survey objectives
objectives
We hope to address the following objectives in in part

part through
through this study:
study :
1.
1. Assess
Assess the capacity of the NWFP sector to contribute to the conservation of
of biodiversity
biodiversity
and the reduction of
of the rate of
of deforestation in in the
the Congo River Basin;
7. Establish a precedent for the harmonization
2. harmonization of data via a standardized methodology;
3. Contribute to the quantitative, scientifically sound collection of baseline botanical,
botanical , social
and economic data
data on
on NVVFPs
NWFPs for for the
the Central
Central African
African region
region..
4. Methodology
A number of methodologies have been developed developed and implemented

implemented for for the study ofof NWFPs
NWFPs
in
in both
both rural
rural and
and urban
urban markets
markets (Padoch,
(Padoch, 1987;
1987; Falconer,
Falconer, 1994;
1994; Martin,
Martin, 1995;
1995; Alexiades
Alexiades
1996; Ndoye
1996; Ndoye et et al.,
ai. , 1997).
1997). For this
this study,
study, aa synthesis
synthesis of
of these
these existing
existing methodologies
methodologies waswas
made and,
made and, taking
taking into
into account
account the
the known
known variables
variables inin Central
Central Africa
Africa as
as well
well as
as the
the objectives
objectives
of the study, a suitable methodology was finalised and developed (see Appendix).
For the purposes

purposes of of the
the CARPE
CARPE regional
regional study,
study, the market
market surveys
surveys are comprised
comprised of three
phases of
of activity:
activity:
Phase One
• Phase involved the
One involved the development
development of of a concise,
concise, clear
clear methodology
methodology and survey survey
questionnaire; identification
questionnaire; and training
identification and training of survey
survey teams
teams (an
(an intensive
intensive week-long
week-long training
training
course was held
course held in
in Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon,
Gabon, in in February
February 1998)
1998) followed
followed by bypreliminary
preliminary surveys.
surveys.
The preliminary surveys are intended to provideprovide a social
social and
and political
political context for
for the ongoing
ongoing
surveys, and to begin
surveys, and begin toto establish
establish the
the top
top few
few NWFPs,
NWFPs , for
for each
each of ofthe
the countries
countries surveyed.
surveyed .
(See
(See Sunderland
Sunderland andand Obama; Kimpouni; Yembi and
Kimpouni ; Yembi and Liengola,
Liengola, this
this volume.)
volume.) The
The results
results of
these studies will help
help refine the
the methodology
methodology as the next phase is is implemented.
implemented .
• Phase two
two will
will ensure
ensure the
the recording
recording teams
teams reiterate
reiterate the
the surveys
surveys in in markets
markets across
across their
their
particular region.. Given
particular region Given financial
financial and
and logistical constraints, atat this
logistical constraints, stage it will
this stage will not be
be
possible
possible to fully sample all the markets
markets in
in each
each country.
country. Instead, emphasis
emphasis will
will be given
given to
sampling urban,
urban , rural and border markets
markets in an attempt to capture different products,
products, volumes
volumes
208
and origins of products for these somewhat distinct market
market types.
types. The data will be compiled,
compiled,
edited and organized, and the database eventually made available for public access.
access .
• Phase
Phase three
threewill
willconcentrate
concentrateononencouraging
encouragingcontinued
continued collaboration
collaboration and
andcommunication
communication
of data, study
study designs
designs and implementation among actors
implementation among actors in
in the
the NWFP
NWFP sector.
sector. Areas
Areas to
to be
pursued might include
include the following: chains of production
following: chains for key NWFPs;
production for NWFPs; studies
studies of the
the
ecology and
ecology and life
life cycles
cycles of
of certain
certain species;
species; assessment
assessment of potential
potential for
for domestication
domestication of
identified threatened species.
This
This study
study will
will establish
establish aa base
baseofofquantitative,
quantitative, scientifically
scientifically sound
sound data,
data, from
from which
which
informed decisions can be made
made about the NWFP sector.
sector. It will provide:
" A summary of the species traded, the quantities traded, their origin
origin and
and relative
relative value;
value;
" An indication of
of the
the user
user groups
groups for these
these species;
species;
" A resume of the traders and sellers by country of of origin and gender;
" Information on the relative
Information on relative pricing,
pricing, availability,
availability, quantities
quantities sold and
and availability
availability of
of
products;
" A listing of what part of
of the
the plant
plant is
is harvested,
harvested, how
how products are usedused and
and how
how they
they are
are
prepared.
5. Conclusion
With the possible exception of of Cameroon, little is known about the NWFP sector throughout throughout
the Central African region. Administering a standardized methodology across the region over
of a year will
the course of will provide
provide information that is is currently
currently unavailable to
to the
the people
people of
of the
the
region, their
their governments
governments andand the
the international
international community.
community. Though not not exhaustive,
exhaustive, thethe data
data
will provide a base
base of
of data
data that
that isis sound,
sound, comparable
comparable and
and drawn
drawn from
from across
across the
the ecological
ecological
of the
region of the Congo
Congo River
River Basin.
Basin.
As isis demonstrated
demonstrated byby the
the preliminary
preliminary market
market surveys
surveys completed
completed inin Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea,
Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon, and reported reported inin this
this volume,
volume,
the trade of
of NWFPs
NWFPs in markets
markets is rich
rich in
in botanical,
botanical, dietary
dietary and
and social
social importance.
importance. It is is not
not
difficult
difficult to see
see that
that multiplying
multiplying this brief
brief survey
survey several
several times
times over
over and
and throughout
throughout the the
seasons of a year will give a tremendous amount of ofinformation insight into
infotination and insight .into the
the nature
nature of
of
the sector.
management of the
Decisions made about the management the Central
Central African
African region's
region's natural resources must
be made on the basis of factual information as well as national and regional objectives.
information as This
objectives. This
regional market survey
survey will provide
provide valuable
valuable support
support to the development of a sound regional
to the
natural management planning agenda.
agenda.
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APPENDIX
MARKET SURVEY OF NWFPs

1995)
(Questionnaire modified from Martin, 1995)
1. Location of market
market. ....................................................... .
2. Collector/recorder .................... . 3. Date of visit .................. .
The vendor
vendor: permanent
4. Type of vendor: pennanent stall
stall temporary stall ambulatory
Gender: male
5. Gender: male female 6.
6. Approximate age .............. .
7. Origin:
Origin: Nationality
Nationality ..................Village ............Ethnic
Ethnic group ........... .
8. How often do they sell here? .................. 99. Other
Other markets?
markets? .......... .
The collection
10. Botanical name .............................................................. ..
11. Local name (and
(and language) ................................................. .
12. Used as ........................................................................ ..
13,
13, Preparation
Preparation ...................................................................... .
14. Collected in:
in: forest
forest farm
farm fallow
fallow cultivated don't
don' t know
part gathered:
15. Plant part gathered:barkbark roots
roots leaves
leaves seed
seed flowers
flowers other
other (specific)
16. Country of origin for this plant
plant. ............................................... .
17. Gathered byby the
the vendor:
vendor: yesno
plants: fresh dried preserved in/as .......... .
18. Condition of plants:
19. Price/unit (e.g ...... 100CFA for ten seeds) ...................................... ..
to market:
20. Brought to market: daily weekly on on occasion
occasion
21. Transport costs/ other related expenditures ................................... .
Estimated quantity:
22. Estimated quantity: vendor
vendor. .......................whole
whole market .............. .
23. Availability:
Jan Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct
Oct Nov
Nov Dec Dec all year around
compared to
24. How much sold compared to in
in the
the past:
past: more
more same less
25. If changed, why? ................................................................. ..
26. Who buys this product? .......................................................... ..
information: ......................................................... .
Notes/ additional information.
also collect the following data.

In addition to the NWFP information, please also data. This
This will
will enable
enable
of NWFPs across the different countries
us to compare the relative costs of countries of
ofthe
the Congo
Congo River
River
Basin.
B asin.
Get prices for a standard basket of

of goods -- here are examples
II lkg cassava
cassava flour (garri)
(garri)
II lhand plantain
Ihand
.. lkg sugar
.. 1 litre palm oil
" 1 litre kerosene
" 1 egg
II 1 baguette bread
Also get: the present informal exchange rate in the market for US$
" the formal
fonnal exchange rate for US$ in your country.
210
A PRELIMINARY MARKET SURVEY OF THE NON-WOOD FOREST
PRODUCTS OF EQUATORIAL
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
GUINEA
Terry C.H.
C.H. Sunderland and Crisantos Obama
Abstract
Knowledge
Knowledge of of the
the forestry
forestry and natural resource
resource sectors
sectors in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, aside from
from
faunal
faunal studies, is generally
studies, is poor. This
generally poor. This is despite
despite the
the prolific
prolific activity
activity in
in neighbouring
neighbouring and
biologically similar countries such as Cameroon,
Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.
Congo-Brazzaville. This paper
to the
provides an introduction to the marketed
marketed NVVIT
NWFP sector
sector in
in the
the continental region of Rio Muni,
and the island of Bioko, where
and where the sector operates
operates under farfar different conditions experienced
elsewhere
elsewhere inin Central
Central Africa
Africa as
as a result
result of
of aa tumultuous
tumultuous colonial
colonial past and
and damaging
damaging post-
post-
independence era.
era. Although there is some level of commercial exploitation and international
trade of high value commodities such as
commodities such as Prunus
Prunus africana and and Piper
Piper guineensis,
guineensis, the
the reliance
reliance
on 'non-Guineans
non-Guineans for the NWFP trade is extremely strong with many of of the
the commonly-traded
commonly-traded
NYVFPsoriginating
NWFPs originatingfrom
fromoutside
outsidethe
thecountry
countrydespite
despite actually
actually occuring
occuring in
in the
the national forests.
Key words:
words: Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, market surveys, trade.
1. Introduction
independence from Spain in 1968, Equatorial Guinea has been largely

Since independence largely inaccessible
inaccessible to
researchers concerned
researchers concerned with
with biological
biological resources
resources and
and therefore
therefore often
often remains
remains an excluded
excluded
entity, albeit
entity, albeit an
an enigmatic one, when
enigmatic one, when discourse
discourse on
on the
the state
state of the natural resources
resources of the
Central African region takes place (Morat and Lowry, 1997).
1997).
In addition, the rather exceptional colonial circumstances have also contributed to the paucity
of available information on the biological resources
resources of the country.
country. The Spanish colonists did
undertake studies
indeed undertake studies on forestry
forestry and agriculture-related subjects. However,
agriculture-related subjects. However, much
much of the
results
results generated, aside from
generated, aside from the
the work
work of of Lopez
Lopez (1946),
(1946), were
were rarely
rarely published
published and
and
disseminated and,
disseminated and, if they were,
were, are
are available only in Madrid.
Madrid. The majority of the locally-held
documents remaining in
documents remaining in the
the country after the Spanish
country after Spanish exodus
exodus was
was destroyed
destroyed during
during the
the
transition to independence
independence and the the period
period immediately
immediately afterwards.
afterwards. Specifically
Specifically referring
referring to
to
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, Fa (1991) stated that although
although "certain
"certain products
products were
were used
used by
by the
the
forest
forest dwelling peoples in
dwelling peoples in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea, there
there isis little
little or
or no recent data on
on preferred
preferred
species or their uses".
In contrast to neighbouring
countries, at independence Equatorial Guinea
independence Equatorial Guinea did not inherit
inherit aa
vast
vast infrastructure, either physical
infrastructure, either physical or
or intellectual,
intellectual,able
able to
to continue with the study
continue with study and
and
management of
management of its
its own natural resources, a situation compounded
natural resources, compounded byby the tumultuous early
tumultuous early
years of
years of self rule.
rule. The
The latter
latter in
in particular will not
particular will not be discussed in this
discussed in this paper
paper but are
are
summarised best by Liniger-Goumaz (1986).
(1986).
2. The country
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea is
is composed
composed of
of three
three highly
highly diverse
diverse and
and disparate
disparate territories:
territories:
211
2.1. The island of
of Bioko
rectangular-shaped island
The rectangular-shaped island of
of Bioko,
Bioko, formerly
formerlyFernando
FernandoP6,Pó,lies
lies 32
32 km
km from
from the
the coast
coast ofof
Cameroon. It
Cameroon. It isis oriented
oriented north-south and measures
measures roughly
roughly 75
75byby25 km,with
25km, withaatotal
total area
area of
2 020 km2. The island
km2 • The island is part ofof the
the volcanic
volcanic chain
chain which
which includes
includes Mount
Mount Cameroon,
Cameroon, Sdo Sao
Tomé and
Tome and Principé
Principe and AnnobonAnnobon and and is
is dominated byby two
two volcanic peaks:
peaks: Pico
Pico de
de Basilé
Basile
(3 010m)
(3 OlOm) in the north and Pico Biao (2 (2 010m)
OlOm) and Gran
Gran Caldera de Luba (2 (2 261m)
261m) in in the
the
south. The
south. The majority
majority of the lowland forest skirting
lowland forest the highlands,
skirting the highlands, with
with the
the exception
exception of the
south of the island, has been converted to cocoa plantationsplantations but in many areas the majority of
the original forest canopy trees trees have been maintained
maintained toto provide
provide shade.
shade. The montane forest
forest
has experienced little
little disturbance.
disturbance.
2.2. The Rio Muni region
The continental territory of Equatorial Guinea is a rectangular-shaped piece of land of 26 000

km2,
km bordered on
2 , bordered on the
the west
west byby the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean,
Ocean, onon the
the east
east and
and south
south byby Gabon
Gabon andand on the
north by Cameroon.
north Cameroon. It It lies
lies between
between 1°01'
1001' and
and 2°21
2°21'N
'N with its eastem
eastern border
border following
following the
the
meridian of 11°20'E.
meridian 11 °20'E. The territory has 222 km. km. of coastline between the estuaries of the Rio
Muni at the southern
Muni end and
southern end and the Rio Campo
Campo (or(or Ntem)
Ntem) atat the northern end. It is from
northern end. from the
the
former that it derived its name.
former name. TheThe forested
forested zone
zone has
has been
been much
much affected
affected in
in recent
recent times
times by
by
extensive logging. Timber
extensive logging. Timber exploitation
exploitation was
was first
first undertaken
undertaken in in the coastal regions then,
then, as
as
techniques improved, the practice spread even further into
techniques improved, the practice spread even further into the interior. Today, much of the
much of the
territory has been logged
mainland ten·itory logged or is currently under concession (Stenmanns pers. pers. comm.)
despite a proposed network of protected areas (Garcia and Eneme, 1997). 1997).
2.3. The
2.3. The island of Annobon
Annobon, formerly Pagalu,

Pagahl, lies 1025
1°25' south
south of
ofthe
the Equator
Equator some
some 335
335 kmkm from Gabon and 160 160
km south
km south of Sao
Sâo Tome.
Tomé. The
The island
island has
has a land
land area
area of only
only 1 700 ha.
ha. with a small population
popUlation
of 9 000.
000. It is
is essentially
essentially isolated from the
isolated from the other
other territories
territories and
and isis very
very little
little studied. It is
studied. It is
anticipated that
anticipated that CUREF
CUREF willwill undertake
undertake some
some biological
biological surveys
surveys there
there at
at some point in thethe
future.
2.4. People
The country
The has a combined
country has population of around
combined population 400 000
around 400 000 made
made up of aa number
number of
of tribal
tribal
groups, distributed mostly along
groups, along geographical
geographical lines.
lines. The
The Fang
Fang dominate
dominate the
the Rio
Rio Muni
Muni region
region
and
and the Bubi,
Bubi, the island of Bioko. Other Africans are also present in significant
significant numbers in
Equatorial Guinea.
Equatorial Guinea. These
These include
include Cameroonians (mostly Rausa
Cameroonians (mostly Hausa traders),
traders), Nigerians
Nigerians and
and
Ghanaians,
Ghanaians, asas well
well as
as small numbers of
small numbers of people
people from
from Chad
Chad and
and Mali.
Mali. The
The majority
majority of these
these
people are engaged in small-scale trading and business.
3. The
3. The market
market study
3.1. Methodology
3.1. Methodology
The findings
The findings summarised below represent
summarised below represent the
the results
results of a preliminary
preliminary market
market survey
survey inin
markets in both
markets in both the
the Rio Muni
Muni region and Malabo
region and Malabo on on the
the island
island of Bioko,
Bioko, and provide
provide a
general overview
general overview of of which
which NWFPs
NWFPs areare marketed
marketed andand traded.
traded. This
This summary
summary work
work will
will form
form
the basis of
of aa year-long
year-long market
market study
study that
that will
will be
be undertaken
undertaken byby CUREF
CUREF staff
staff using
using the
the
expanded methodology described
expanded methodology described by
by Clark
Clark and
and Sunderland
Sunderland (this
(this volume). This subsequent
volume). This
study will,
study will, dIrough
through a standardised
standardised method
method of data
data collection
collection and
and regular
regular market
market visits,
visits,
212
determine the influence
determine the influence of seasonality and provide
seasonality and provide a far
far clearer
clearer and
and more
more comprehensive
comprehensive
picture of
of the
the formal
formal NWFP
NWFP sector
sector in
in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea.
For the
For the purposes
purposes ofof this
this preliminary
preliminary study
study and
and duedue to
to time
time constraints,
constraints, nono formalised
formalised
approach to
approach to data gathering
gathering was was adopted. Instead, informal
adopted. Instead, informal and
and persistent
persistent (i.e.
(i.e. aa number
number of
visits over a short
visits short space
space ofof time)
time) observations
observations and
and interviews
interviews were
were undertaken
undertaken regarding
regarding thethe
presence NWFYs in the market. Vendors were asked what items were, what
presence of NWFPs in the market. Vendors were asked what items were, what the local
local
names are, what particular
names are, products are
particular products are used
used for
for and
and who
who buys
buys them.
them. The origin
origin of many
many
products
products was also
also recorded.
recorded. Each
Each new
new product
product encountered
encountered was was purchased
purchased and
and collected,
collected,
labelled and cross-referred
cross-referred to to the notes taken using the methodology
methodology outlined
outlined in Clark and and
volume). The
Sunderland (this volume). The collection
collection ofof each
each product
product ensures
ensures that subsequent
subsequent
authoritative identifications can
authoritative identifications can take place, despite many products being being directly
directly identified
identified
by the data collection team during the data collection sessions.
sessions.
An additional output of this

this work was the identification of a number
number of forest
forest products
products more
more
commonly sold
commonly sold than
than others
others and could be considered
considered more important in terms
terms of
of both
both value
value
and
and quantity.
quantity. Normally, these products
Normally, these products would
would be identified
identified through
through counting
counting how
how many
many
vendors
vendors sold each product (and howhow much
much ofof each)
each) as
as recommended
recommended byby Falconer
Falconer (1994).
(1994).
However, because of time constraints this was estimated, provising the list presented in Table
1. Subsequent
1. studies regarding
Subsequent studies regarding the
the quantifying
quantifying of particular products will
will concentrate
concentrate on
on
these most-traded NWFPs in particular.
3.2. Summary
Summary of
of findings
Table 1:
1: List
List of
ofmost
mostcommonly-sold
commonly-sold NW14Ps
NWFPs ininthe
the markets
markets of
of Rio
Rio Muni
Muni and
and Bioko
Bioko (not
order of
ranked in order of importance).
importance).
Scientific name Vernacular name (& Use Rio Bioko

language)** Muni
Aframomum
Aframoinum spp. essun, ndong (Fang)
essun, Medicine / condiment X X
(seed)
Afrostyrax
Afro styrax spp. essun (Fang) Condiment (seed & X X
bark)
Cola acuminata
Cola acuniinata // abe-cola (Fang) Stimulant (seed) X X
nitida
Dactyodes edulis
Dacryodes asia (Fang) Edible fruits X X
Enantia chlorantha nfoo (Fang) Medicine (bark) X X
Garcinia kola akuin (Fang) Stimulant / medicine X X
(seed)
Garcinia lucida essok (Fang) Chewstick X
Gnetum aJ!icanum
africanum okok (Fang) Leaf vegetable X
Irvingia gabonensis andok (Fang) Condiment (kernel) X X
Monodora myristica fep
fe..Q (Fang) Condiment (seed) X X
*Piper guineensis ondodo andjik (Bubi); X X
bush-pepper (Pidgin)
*Prunus africana bihasa (Bubi) X
Ricinodendron essesang (Fang) Condiment (seed) X X
heudelottii
Tetrapleura tetraptera enziese (Fang) Condiment (fruit) X X
Xylopia
Xylopia aethiopica qyang (Fang)
oyang Condiment (seed) X X
** Despite bemg
being subject to export (see Box 2) these products
products are also
also widely
widely found
found in
in the
the markets
markets of
of
Equatorial Guinea, Bioko in particular.
** All
** All vernacular names in this report are of Fang origin, unless where indicated.
213
3.2.1. Traditional
3.2.1. Traditional medicine and medicinal plants
Visits to
to aa number
number of
of medicinal
medicinal plant
plant vendors
vendors inin aa number
number of
of markets
markets in
in the
the Rio
Rio Muni
Muniregion
region
provided the information for the completion
information for completion of the following table. However,
following table. However, the the list is far
from complete as, often when studying
studying traditional medicine use, there was was aa certain
certain reticence
reticence
in the
the provision
provision of
of information
information on
on the
the part
part of
ofthe
thevendors.
vendors. The
Thefollowing
following recorded
recordedspecies
species
and their
their use
use could
could best
bestbe
bedescribed
describedasasgeneral
generalknowledge
knowledge and
anddistinctly
distinctlywell-known
well-known
remedies.
Table 2:
Table 2: Medicinal
Medicinal plants
plants recorded
recorded in
in the
the Bata
Bata and
and Mbini
Mbini markets
markets and
and their
their uses (no
(no data
data as
as
yet from the Bioko markets)
Scientific name Fang name Part

Part used
used Use
Aframomum c.!c.f esson seeds Ground seeds used as a remedy for the
hanburyi treatment of childs whooping cough
Aframomum melegueta ndong seeds Seeds are ground and added to other
remedies to to give
give them
them more
more "power",
"power",
being magnified
their effects beirig
Angokea gore angeuk bark Ground bark used as a treatment for
constipation. For babies, powered bark
constipation.
is rubbed into the nipples prior to
breast feeding
toxiwerma adi ap
adllill seeds Oil from seed used for rheumatic pains
Cissus dinklagei dik ntoo sap The stem produces copious sap when
cut. This is boiled and given to a baby
1-2 months - said to
of 1-2 to stimulate
stimulate
growth
Dioscorea
Dioscorea sp.
sp. mbang fruit Use not disclosed
Enantia chlorantha nfoo bark Fever (malaria, yellow fever)
Entada gigas
gigas ndju
ncJiu fruits, seeds Diuretic
Fagara heitzii
Fagara heitzii olon bark using this
Used in traditional rites; using this
plant it is possible to bring a person
back from the point of death. Bark is
placed in boiling water, which is then then
used to wash the patient
Garcinia kola akuin fruits Stimulant
Garcinia lucida essok bark and fruit Anti-poison (purgative)
Guibourtia tessmannii oveng bark Stimulant. Also anti-witchcraft and
fights bad spirits
fights
Okoumea klaineana
Okoumea okoumé
okoume bark Used not disclosed
Pachypodianthuni
Pachypodianthum ntom bark Extract ofof bark
bark in
in boiling
boiling water
water used to
staudtii kill infestations of head lice. Used as as aa
general tonic to alleviate fatigue
Strombosiopsis tetandra edjip
Strombosiopsis tetandra bark Bark
Bark boiled
boiled in
in water
water and
and mixture
mixture drunk
drunk
by young children to to prevent
prevent bad
bad spirits
spirits
and illness
Urera sp.
sp. ndik stems Use not disclosed
Vernonia conferta
Vernonia abenga bark Bark placed in boiled water drunk drunk as a
treatment for
for asthma.
asthma. Powdered
Powdered bark
also used as antiseptic; placed directly
directly
in cuts
in cuts
214
3.2.2. Condiments
A range
range of
of condiments are widely-sold
condiments are widely-sold inin all
all of the markets
markets surveyed and the
surveyed and the range
range of
products available in both territories is fairly unbiquitous.
unbiquitous. However,
However, many of these products
products
are actually imported
imported from Cameroon, despite occuring
Cameroon, despite occuring in
in both Rio Muni and
and Bioko.
Bioko. Most
Most
condiments
condiments are
are sold
sold in
in surprisingly
surprisingly small
small amounts,
amounts, being
being carefully
carefully wrapped
wrapped in
inpolythene
polythene
prior to sale.
prior sale. Bush
Bush pepper
pepper (Piper
(Piper guineensis),
guineensis), the
the seeds
seeds of
ofMonodora
Monodora myristica
myristica (fep),
(fep),
Ricinodendron heudelottii (essesang),
Ricinodendron helldelottii (essesang), and Afrostyrax kanzerunensis (esun)
Afrostyrax kamerunensis (esun) are
are sold in
in this
this
way. Fruits of Xylopia
way. Fruits aethiopica (oyang)
Xylopia aethiopica (oyang)are are sold
sold whole
whole and
and loose,
loose, as
as are
are those
those ofof
Tetrapleura tetraptera (enziese).
Tetrapleura (enziese). The bark
bark of
of Scorodophleus
Scorodophleus zenkeri,
zenkeri, (also called
called esun
esun inin
Fang), another garlic-like condiment,
Fang), condiment, is is also
also widely available.
available. The seeds of Mucuna sloanei,
sloanei,
with their characteristic hard, patterned seed coat are also widely sold, the endosperm
characteristic hard, endosperm being
used as an additive to soups and stews.
An interesting condiment,
An condiment, not previously encountered, are
previously encountered, are the leaves of of Strychnos
Strychnos spp..
spp .. We
were informed
were informed that
that these
these were
were used
used in
in small quantities as a condiment in soups
quantities as soups and
and stews,
stews,
notwithstanding
notwithstanding the
the presence
presence of
of the
the powerful
powerful poison
poison strychnine
strychnine in
in this
this group
group ofofplants.
plants.
Rather against the general

general trend, aa number
number of of other
other condiments
condiments and
and cooking
cooking additives
additives are
are
cultivated in both Rio Muni and Bioko in small-scale cultivation systems.
systems. These include okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus)
(Abelmoschus esculentus) and
and the
the chilli
chilli pepper (Solanum annuum Longum
(Solanum annuum Longum group).
group). Besides
Besides
being easily cultivated, these plants are often
often spontaneous
spontaneous around
around habitation, with
with their
their seeds
seeds
passing through a human stomach
stomach intact
intact and
and still
still viable.
viable. The
The pumpkin-like
pumpkin-like fruit
fruit of
of Cucllrbita
Cucurbita
pepo (egusi)
(egusi) is
is also
also cultivated
cultivated locally,
locally, with the ground seeds forming
forming the
the base of many local
dishes.
Box 1: Irvingia
InJingia gabonensis
gabon ens is (andok)
(andok)
The kernels of this species are used as a soup

soup thickener and additive and are the
the most
most widely
products in Equatorial Guinea.
sold of all forest products Guinea. The trade of this
this species alone accounts for a
huge proportion of
huge proportion of the
the total
total products
products sold
sold in
in the
the markets both Rio
markets of both Rio Muni and Bioko. An
Bioko. An
interesting pattern in
interesting pattern in the trade of this species
species has emerged.
emerged. On the mainland, nearly all the
seeds of bush mango sold in the Bata market originated in Cameroon from where itit is shipped
shipped
to the border town of Ebebiyin and then sold to market traders from Bata. In Mbini, however,
however,
the produce
produce on sale was harvested locally and
harvested locally and in
in the southern region of Rio Muni aa clear
southern region clear
pattern of
pattern of harvest and sale
harvest and sale (to
(to Gabon) has emerged.
Gabon) has emerged.InInfact
fact this
this isis one
one of the few,
few, and
and
possibly only
only (excepting
(excepting bushmeat), forest product to be exported
exported from Rio
Rio Muni,
Muni, providing
providing
an immediate cash-based income. The
cash-based income. The In!ingia
Irvingia found in the Malabo
Malabo markets
markets also
also originates
originates
from Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Strong seasonality with

Strong seasonality with this
this product
product also
also influences
influencesits
its sale
sale and
and price.
price. During the rainy
During the rainy
season (June to September) when bush mangomango is
is widely
widely available,
available, itit is
is purchased
purchased at CFA 100
for 40 seeds;
seeds; when
when supplies
supplies are
are drying
drying up
up (September
(September -- December)
December) CFA CFA 100100 will
will only
only buy
buy 20
20
seeds.
seeds. During this period, some traders hoard their supply
supply by grounding
grounding up up the
the seeds,
seeds, mixing
mixing
them with oil and preparing a bush mango
mango "cake" that will keep during the dry dry season.
season. This
too is sold in the markets, ensuring a year-round supply.
Interestingly, and aa trend

Interestingly, and trend that
that is
is not
not apparent
apparent in
in either
either ofofthe
theneighbouring
countries,
Cameroon (Ndoye
Cameroon (Ndoye et al., 1997)
1997) and
and Gabon
Gabon (Yembi,
(Yembi, this volume),
volume), some temperate
temperate herbs
herbs are
are
packaged and sold
packaged and sold locally.
locally. These
These are
are imported
imported via Cameroon, where they
Cameroon, where they are,
are, in
in turn,
tum,
imported from Europe.
imported Europe. The products are re-packaged and re-sold at greatly increased
increased prices.
These products include bay leaves
leaves (Lattrus
(Lallrus nobilis),
nobilis), white
white ground
ground pepper
pepper (Piper
(Piper nigrum),
nigrllm),
215
oregano (Origanum
oregano (Origanum vulgare), basil
basil (Ocirnum
(Ocimum basilicum),
basilicum) , rosemary
rosemary (Rosmarinus
(Rosmarinus officinalis)
and cloves (Syzygium
(Syzygium aromaticum).
aromaticurn).
3.2.3. Edible fruits
Most commonly
commonly sold
sold edible fruits
fruits are by
by far those
those of
of Dacryodes
Dacryodes edulis
edulis (bush
(bush plum
plum -- vern.,
vern.,
asia
asia -- Fang)
Fang) and
and the
the true
truemango
mango (Mangifera
(Mangifera indica).
indica). The
The bush
bush plum,
plum, when
when in
in season,
season,
originates both from Cameroon and from local home gardens. However, However, the majority sold in
the markets
markets are grown
grown locally
locally as as the fruits
fruits do not store
store well
well and need
need to to reach
reach market
market 1-2
1-2
days after harvesting.
harvesting. Along
Along with
with the
the exotic
exotic mango,
mango, Dczcryodes edulis isis one
Dacryodes edulis one of
of the
the few
few trees
trees
cultivated and deliberately planted by local people and it is a common tree in compounds and
home gardens. The fruits ripen
ripen in in June
June and
and July,
July , when
when the
the market
market is
is swamped
swamped by by them,
them, with
with
none at all
all being
being available
available the
the remainder
remainder of of the
the year.
year. Similarly,
Similarly, mangoes
mangoes (Mangifera
(Mangifera indica)
indica)
exhibit a highly
highly seasonal
seasonal pattern,
pattern, being available only in
available only in March
March and
and April
April at the end of of the
the
dry season.
season. Although present inin the
Although present the forests
forests of
of Rio
Rio Muni,
Muni, in
in particular,
particular, the
the fruits
fruits of Poga
Poga
oleosa (afo) are imported
imported from
from Cameroon
Cameroon to both territories. The extremely
extremely hard seed case
encloses an edible endosperm that is eaten like groundnuts.
3.2.4. Leafy vegetables
All of the leafy

All leafy vegetables
vegetables found
found inin the
the markets
markets originate
originate locally
locally (i.e.
(i.e. in
in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea).
Guinea).
Some are
Some are cultivated
cultivated by women
women in homehome gardens,
gardens, or intensive
intensive farms
farms close
close to
to the
thevillage,
village,
whilst some are harvested from the forest or on on farm
farm regrowth
regrowth vegetation.
vegetation. All of of these
these plants
plants
are available
are available all year
year round.
round. The
The most
most commonly
commonly sold
sold vegetable
vegetable is is Amaranthus
Amaranthus hispidus
hispidus
(nfeng), followed
(nfeng), followed byby water
water leaf
leaf (Portulaca
(Portulaca grandiflora -- aluasop) and the young leaves leaves of the
edible coco-yam,
coco-yam, Xanthoxylem (lom). Also widely
Xanthoxylem spp. (lorn). widely available are the youngyoung leaves
leaves ofof the
the
climber
climber Basella
Basella alba, which
which isis widely
widely cultivated
cultivated and
and often
often semi-spontaneous
semi-spontaneous in home home
In addition
gardens. In
gardens. addition to
to those
those mentioned
mentioned above,
above, Gnetum
Gnetum africanurn
africanum is is also commonly
commonly
available in
available in the
the Malabo
Malabo market. This is collected
market. This collected soley
soley from
from the forests
forests of
of Bioko
Bioko and,
and,
although commonly found in the forests of Rio Muni, Muni , is not collected or sold there.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. The
The processing
processingof
ofthe
theleaves
leavesof
ofGnetum
Gnetum ,spp.
spp. ((Photo:
Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
216
3.2.5. Stimulants
3.2.5. Stimulants
The rituals sunounding

sun-ounding the passing and use of c(k)ola (from Cola spp. spp. and Garcinia kola)
kola) in
Cameroon and elsewhere in West and Central Africa are elaborate and and deeply
deeply ingrained
ingrained into
into
all aspects
aspects and levels
levels of society. This does
society. This does not seem to to be the case in Equatorial Guinea for for
reasons postulated by Liniger-Goumaz
Liniger-Goumaz (1986).
(1986). Despite
Despite this,
this, some species of cola areare sold
sold in
in
the market and are ingested for the purposes of providing a stimulant and appetite suppresser.
suppresser.
The fruits
The fruits of both Cola
Cola acuminata
acuminata and
and C.
C. nitida
nitida (which,
(which, despite
despite being
being different
different species
species are
called abe-cola
called abe-cola inin Fang)
Fang) are
are harvested locally and
harvested locally and sold
sold widely,
widely, as
as is the seed
seed of
of bitter
bitter kola
kola
(Garcinia kola).
kola).
Beverages
3.2.6. Beverages
As is common
As common throughout this region
throughout this region of
of Africa,
Africa, palm
palm wine
wine is
is widely
widely available
available locally. In
locally. In
Bata and Mbini, both types of palm wine are available:
available: the "down-wine", harvested from the
terminal shoot
terminal shoot of felled
felled Elaeis guineensis,
guineensis, and
and the "up-wine"
"up-wine" from the the inflorescence
inflorescence of aa
standing Raphia vinifera and R.
R. hookeri.
hookeri. A distilled spirit, almost 100%
100% alcohol,
alcohol, is
is distilled
distilled
and sometimes sold in both markets, although most of this spirit is for home consumption.
Another spirit,
Another spirit, produced from
from the crushed stems of sugar
sugar cane
cane (Saccharum
(Saccharum officinarum)
officinarum) isis
also commonly
also commonly foundfound in
in both
both markets.
markets. This
This is
is often produced on a village
village level,
level, with
with most
most
villages in the Rio
villages Rio Muni
Muni region
region in
in particular
particular having
having at
at least
least one
one sugar
sugar cane
cane press.
press. This
This spirit
is augmented
is augmented by by the
the addition
addition of seeds,
seeds, and
and sometimes
sometimes wood
wood of
of Garcinia
Garcinia kola,
kola, which makes
makes
the beverage extremely bitter.
3.2.7. Wrapping
3.2.7. Wrapping leaves
The leaves of
of a number of Marantaceae species are used in the
the wrapping
wrapping of
of baton
baton de
de manioc,
manioc,
which
which is a common
common component
component ofof the
the local
local diet.
diet. The leaves
leaves are harvested
harvested from the forest
locally
locally and
and brought fresh
fresh to
to market each day.
day. The two
two main species used as wrapping leaves
Megaphrynium macrostachyum and Marantochloa purpurea.
are Megaphrynium macrostachyum and Marantochloa purpurea.
Box 2:
2: The export of Piper guineensis
guineensis and Prunus africana from Bioko
Despite the
Despite the fact
fact that
that the
the majority
majority of
ofNWFPs
NWFPs for
for local
localconsumption
consumption are
are imported
imported from
from
Cameroon, the island of Bioko exports two major forest products:
Cameroon,
Piper
Piper guineensis (bush pepper):
guineensis (bush pepper):There
Thereisis considerable
considerablelocal
localuse
useofof this
this species as a
species as
condiment and it is widely found in all of the markets of the country. The dried fruits are also
exported in large
exported in large quantities (150 tonnes
quantities (150 tonnes per
per annum)
annum) toto Nigeria
Nigeria where
where itit is
is reputed
reputed to be
involves both Guineans
scarce. This trade involves Guineans as
as well
well as
as immigrant
immigrant Nigerians.
Prunus africana: The The bark

bark of
of this
this montane
montane forest species provides a compound used used to
to treat
treat
prostate disorders. It is widely exploited in Cameroon, Madagascar and Kenya and the raw or
macerated bark
macerated bark isis then
then shipped
shipped to aa number
number ofof pharcaceutical
pharcaceutical companies
companies in in Europe
Europe forfor
processing (Cunningham
processing (Cunningham et et al., 1997).
1997). As supplies
supplies have begun
begun to
to diminish
diminish elsewhere,
elsewhere, large
large
quantities of Prunus bark have recently
quantities begun to
recently begun to be exploited from the
exploited from the montane forests of
montane forests
Bioko for the lucrative export market now worth some US$150 million/year (ibid). (ibid). The bark
is also an important component of of the Bubi primary health care system
system and
and is
is widely
widely sold
sold and
and
traded in the
the markets
markets on on Bioko.
Bioko.
217
3.2.8. Rattan
3.2.8. Rattan
The rattan trade in the

the Rio Muni region seems
seems to be in some ways ways less complicated than that
of Cameroon,
Cameroon, yet paradoxically more advanced
paradoxically more advanced in in the
the respect
respect that there
there are
are more
more formal
formal
workshops
workshops andand artisan businesses using
artisan businesses using itit than
than roadside
roadside and
and rather ad hochoc businesses,
businesses, asas in
in
Cameroon
Cameroon and and Nigeria
Nigeria in
in particular. Bata is
particular. Bata is supplied
supplied from
from wild
wild cane
cane stocks
stocks in
in Littoral
Littoral
Province QY
Province lu many
many independent harvesters who
independent harvesters who mayor
may or maymay not
not be artisans.
artisans. There
There are no no
middle men
middle men and
and the
the canes are brought
canes are direct from
brought direct from the
the bush
bush to
to the market
market or factory.
factory. In
general, the rattan trade operates
general, operates outside
outside the
the trade
trade in other NWFPs
NWFPs duedue to its high value and
raw cane
cane cannot
cannot be
be purchased
purchased in the
the markets.
markets. For a moremore detailed
detailed discussion
discussion of thethe rattan
rattan
industry in the Rio Muni region, see Sunderland (1998).
4. Discussion
4.1. Why import

4.1. Why import when
when it's
it's there already?
The most
most surprising, and perhaps
surprising, and perhaps disturbing,
disturbing,findings
findingsofofthis
this survey
survey isis that
that forest
forest use
use in
general in Rio Muni has diminished
diminished to to such an extent that many of thethe NWFPs
NWFPs soldsold in
in the
the
markets
markets are in fact imported
imported from Cameroon. With the
Cameroon. With the exception of perhaps the high-value
high-value
products for which
products for there is
which there is an important local as
important local as well as thriving
thriving export market,
market, (Prunus
(Prunus
africana, Piper
Piper guineensis,
guineensis, and
and Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis)
gabonensis) and
and other
other high-value
high-value or or immediately
immediately
perishable products such as rattan, some medicinal plants and Marantaceae wrapping wrapping leaves,
the general
general trend
trend seems
seems to be thatthat the
the majority
majority of of NWFPs
NWFPs products
products are
are imported
imported to both
both
territories. This is
is despite
despite the
the fact
fact that
that many,
many, ifif not
not all,
all, of
of the
the species
species occur
occur locally.
locally.
The fact that

that many
many Guineans have clearly
Guineans have clearly "lost" the knowledge
knowledge of how to useuse the
the forest
forest isis
recorded
recorded by Dounias
Dounias (1997) and other workers
(1997) and workers (Serrano, 1997; Cogels,
(Serrano, 1997; Cogels, 1997). Dounias, in
1997). Dounias, in
particular, who has worked extensively with
worked extensively with the
the Bulu
Bulu of Campo
Campo (closely
(closely related
related to
to the Fang
of Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea)
Guinea) where
where he recorded
recorded widespread forest resource
widespread forest resource use
use and
and complex
complex
indigenous management systems,
indigenous management systems,found
found nono corresponding
correspondinglevellevel of
of forest
forest use,
use, or even basic
knowledge of NWFPs in Equatorial Guinea, especially amongst the younger generation. generation. This
is despite undertaking
is field work
undertaking field work in two
two different
different village
village areas
areas with
with widely
widely representative
representative
populations (Fang and Ndowe) and with one of these villages villages being close to the Campo area.
area.
Dounias's conclusions
conclusions are strongly
strongly supported
supported by these
these market
market surveys;
surveys; even
even basic
basic NWh'Ps
NWFPs
are not collected
are collected from the
the local
local forests,
forests, despite
despite being
being widely
widely available,
available, and
and are
are imported
imported
through the intervention of non-Guineans.
However, the fact that Lopez (1946) records extensive use of NWFPs throughout the Rio
records the extensive
Muni territory during the colonial era and the presence of complex trading patterns patterns during
during the
early
early colonial period indicates
colonial period indicates that
that the
the loss
loss of knowledge
knowledge of of natural
natural resources
resources isis a recent
event.
event. Despite highlighting the phenomenon
highlighting the phenomenon of this this lost knowledge,
knowledge, Dounias
Dounias in particular
particular
does not explain why this might have occurred and merely makes phenomenon. In
makes note of the phenomenon. In
contrast,
contrast, Serrano
Serrano (1997) and
and more
more importantly
importantly (Liniger-Goumaz,
(Liniger-Goumaz, 1988) 1988) postulate
postulate that
that the
highly
highly tumultuous
tumultuous post-independence political arena
post-independence political arena in in Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea has
has seriously
seriously
affected the
affected the country
country on all levels,
levels, affecting
affecting every aspect of life, life, including
including natural
natural resource
resource
knowledge and management.
management. Further
Further discussion
discussion of
of this
this isis beyond
beyond thethe scope
scope of
of this
this report
report but
presented fully
the issue is presented fully by
by Liniger-Goumaz (1988).
4.2. Traditional medicine

4.2. Traditional medicine and NWFPs
NWFPs
Whilst, in general, it may be argued that the use

use of
of forest
forest resources
resources has
has diminished
diminished amongst
amongst
the people of Rio Muni, the reliance on traditional medicine
medicine has
has been maintained
maintained and
and primary
primary
the majority
health care is still depended upon by the majority of
of the
the population,
population, especially
especially in
in the
the absence
absence
218
of a well-developed,
well-developed, western-based health-care system.
system. The reliance on
on traditional
traditional medicine
medicine
was
was especially pronounced
pronounced in the
the isolationist
isolationist period
period immediately
immediately following
following independence,
independence,
when no western medicine was available.
In contrast to markets
markets in Cameroon
Cameroon and and Nigeria,
Nigeria, however,
however, the
the sale
sale of medicinal plants and
medicinal plants and
plant parts is concentrated on unprocessed samples and the the remedies
remedies asas such
such have
have undergone
undergone
preparation prior
no preparation prior to sale.
sale. Hence,
Hence, it is common
common to find whole
whole fruits, seeds, pieces of
of bark
bark
etc.
etc. rather than ground,
ground, distilled
distilled or
or otherwise
otherwise prepared
prepared mixtures
mixtures and
and admixtures
admixtures commonly
commonly
found in markets, both rural and urban, elsewhere in the region.
basic knowledge
Although basic knowledge within the population of the use of of plants
plants for
for primary
primary health
health care
care
is still strong, with most customers purchasing raw materials
materials for
for later
later home-processing,
home-processing, manymany
traditional doctors will advise their patients what to buy, in what quantity and how to prepare
the remedy.
the remedy. It waswas clearly
clearly stated
stated that,
that, unlike
unlike Cameroon,
Cameroon, where
where many
many people
people will
will harvest
harvest
medicinal plants themselves in the forest,
forest, the majority of the harvesting of of such
such plants
plants in
in Rio
Rio
Muni is
Muni is undertaken by "specialists".
undertaken by "specialists". ItIt isis these
these specialists
specialists that
that are
are the
the main
main vendors
vendors of thethe
plant remedies.
4.3. Local
4.3. Local cuisine
cuisine and NWFPs
In general, and in contrast once more to Cameroon, elsewhere in the region,

Cameroon, Nigeria and elsewhere region, the
local cuisine and dietary patterns inin Rio
Rio Muni are
are not
not as
as developed
developed andand there
thereis,
is, surprisingly,
surprisingly,
no strong
strong tradition
tradition of
of wide
wide ranging
ranging African-style
African-style cookery
cookery inin Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea. Most
Most rural
rural
Guineans rely
Guineans rely on
on cassava
cassava with
with fish
fish (for those
those near
near the coast and large rivers) or cassava and
bushmeat (notably
(notably in the interior). There is a strong
strong bushmeat
bushmeat trade
trade that
that supplies
supplies towns
towns and
and
cities such as Bata and Malabo to cater for this preference by urban dwellers (Fa, 1991). 1991). The
influence of
of European-style cookery is particularly strong
strong and
and in
in general
general most
most restaurants
restaurants and
and
chop-houses
chop-houses in Bata provide only these these ldnd
kind of
of dishes
dishes --aalingering
lingeringelement
elementofofcolonialism.
colonialism.
This
This undoubtedly accountsfor
undoubtedly accounts for the
the presence
presence of
of so
so many
many temperate herbs for
temperate herbs for sale in in the
the
market.
In recent times,
times, however,
however, the growing
growing population
population of other
other Africans
Africans inin Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea,
particularly Nigerians, Cameroonians
particularly Nigerians, Cameroonians and and Ghanaians,
Ghanaians,has has led
led to
to an increased
increased use of of forest
forest
condiments
condiments andand local
local ingredients
ingredientsinin cookery
cookeryandandthe
the availability
availabilityofofsome
somefood
foodsuch
suchasasfiifu
Mt
and
and ern,
em, ndole
ndole and
and plantains
plantains and
and pounded yam. ItIt was
pounded yam. was clearly
clearly stated
stated to usus that
that these
these
immigrants
immigrants werewere responsible for bringing
responsible for bringing the
the now
nowcommonly
commonlyavailable
availableforest-based
forest-based
condiments found
condiments found in the markets and were were now
now influencing
influencing Guineans
Guineans to to use
use such
suchproducts
products
themselves.
5. Conclusion
The NWFPs
The sector in
NWFPs sector in Rio Muni
Muni exhibits
exhibits a complicated pattern of use and
complicated pattern and trade
trade heavily
heavily
post-independence political
influenced by post-independence political events
events and
and in contrast to the other countries of the
region. There is
region. There is aa distinct
distinct and
and clear
clear pattem
pattern ofoftrade
trade and
andexchange
exchange ofofNWFPs
NWFPs within
within
Equatorial Guinea itself,
Equatorial Guinea itself, especially
especially inin border
border markets
markets as well
well as
as more
moreimportantly
importantly with
with
neighbouring countries such
neighbouring countries such asas Cameroon.
Cameroon. The The complexities
complexities ofof the
the use
use and trade
trade of
of these
these
become clearer
NWFPs will become clearer as
as the
the surveys
surveys continue
continue through
through 1998/99.
1998/99.
What is remarkable is the fact that the demand for NWFPs is so high, and still still growing,
growing, and
that the well-established
that cross-border trade
well-established cross-border trade isis part
part of aa strong
strong mainstream
mainstream trading
trading pattern.
pattern.
This reiterates the fact that NWFI's
NWFPs in Central
Central Africa do not suffersuffer from lack of markets for
and sale,
their promotion and sale, and
and hence
hence conservation
conservation and and development
development value.
value. Quite
Quite the
the opposite,
opposite,
219
the well-developed nature
nature of such markets and trade routes, coupled
coupled with
with guaranteed
guaranteed prices,
prices,
often contributes in the long-term to scarcity and over-exploitation.
Acknowledgements
This paper
paper is
is aa summary
summary of ofthe
thefollowing
followingreports:
reports:AApreliminary
preliminarysurvey
surveyofoJthe
theIVWFPs
NWFPs of oj Rio
Muni,
Muni, Equatorial Guinea (Sunderland, 1998) and
(Sunderland, 1998) and La
La situación
situacion de loslos productos
productos forestales
Jorestales
leiiosos en la Isla
non leñosos de Bioko
Isla de Bioko (Obama,
(Obama, 1998).
1998). The authors are grateful to Mark Buccowich
of CARPE
CARPE for commisioning
commisioning the the preliminary
preliminary study
study of
of the
the Rio Muni
Muni region
region and
and to
to Frank
Frank
Stenmanns
Stenmanns and and allall of the
the staff
staff atat CUREF
CUREF for
for continuing
continuing the
the reiterative
reiterative survey
survey work
work andand
financing the initial survey
survey ofof the Bioko markets.
Many thanks
Many thanks to Maurice
Maurice Elad for
for his
his diligent
diligent recording
recording and
and assistance
assistance with
with specimen
specimen
identification. We are
identification. We are also
also grateful
grateful to Sarah
Sarah Laird
Laird for
for her
hersuggestions
suggestions and
and constructive
constructive
comments throughout, particularly on methodology.
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areas críticas
critic as para
para lalaconservación.
conservacion.
Proyecto Conservacion y Utilizacion de los Ecosystemas
Ecosystemas Forestales de Guinea Ecuatorial
(CUREF).
Liniger-Goumaz,
Liniger-Goumaz, M. M. 1986. Small is not always
1986. Small always beautisful
beautiful -- the
the story
story of
oj Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea.
Hurst & & Co., London.
Lopez, E.G.
Lopez, E.G. 1946.
1946. Ensayo
Ensayo Geobotanico
Geobotanico de la la Guinea
Guinea Continental
Continental Espanola.
Espanola. Direccion
Direccion dede
Agricultura de los Territorios Espanoles del GolfoGolfo de Guinea.Madrid.
Guinea.Madrid. pp241-247.
pp241-247.
Morat, P.
Morat, P. & P.P.
P.P. Lowry.
Lowry. 1997.
1997. Floristic
Floristic richness in the the Africa-Madagascar
Africa-Madagascar region:region: A brief
ser.3. 19(1).
history and prospective. Adansonia, ser.3. 19(1). pp101-115.
Ndoye, 0.,
Ndoye, O., M. Ruiz-Pérez
Ruiz-Perez & A. Ayebe. 1997. 1997. The markets of of non-timber
non-timber forest products
products in
in
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Network Paper
Paper 22c.
Obama,
Obama, C. C. 1998. Situación de
1998. La Situacion de los
los Productos Forestales non LeñososLeiiosos en la IslaIsla de
de Bioko.
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Projecto CUREF.
Report for Projecto CUREF.
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Sunderland, T.C.H. 1998. A preliminary
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theNVVFPs
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Guinea.
220
A PRELIMINARY MARKET
MARKET SURVEY
SURVEY OF
OF NON-WOOD
NON-WOOD
FOREST PRODUCTS TRADED IN THE POINTE-NOIRE MARKETS
(CONGO-BRAZZA VILLE)
(CONGO-BRAZZAVILLE)
Victor Kimpouni
Abstract
This preliminary study onon NW1-Ts

NWFPs in in Congo
Congo Brazzaville,
Brazzaville, concerns
concerns the
the town
town of Pointe-Noire
only.
only. A number
number of
of ethnobotanical
studies show that thethe Congolese
Congolese flora
flora provides
provides aa wide
wide
range traded NWFPs, many which were encountered during this survey. In terms of
range of traded NWFPs, many of which were encountered during this survey. In terms of
quantity,
quantity, the
the most
most important
important NVV1-Ps
NWFPs are are wrapping
wrapping leaves,
leaves, aphrodisiacs
aphrodisiacs and ritual
ritual plants,
plants,
leafy vegetables
vegetables such as Gnetum
Gnetum africanwn
africanum andand buchholzianum,
buchholzianum, plants for arts arts and
and crafts,
crafts,
and palm wine from Elaeis guineensis and Raphia
guineensis and Raphia vinifera.
vinifera.
words:Congo-Brazzaville,
Key words: Congo-Brazzaville, Point-Noire,
Point-Noire, non-wood
non-wood forest products, markets
1. Introduction
In the Congo Republic, NWFPs

NWFPs as as such have not been widely studied, except by the PAFT- PAFT-
Congo programme
Congo (Profizi et
programme (Profizi et al.,
al., 1993).
1993). However,
However, aa number
number of ofethnobotanical
studies
1988; Kimpouni,
(Adjanohoun et al., 1988; Kimpouni, 1993;
1993; Kimpouni
Kimpouni and
and Koubouana,
Koubouana, 1997)
1997) suggest
suggest that
that the
the
principal NVVFP groupingsare
NWFP groupings areedible
edibleand
andmedicinal
medicinal plants.
plants. The
The importance
importance of these NWFPs
may
may not bebe accurately
accurately reflected
reflected in
in market
market surveys
surveys of
ofeconomically-valued
economically-valued goods,
goods, asas they
they
exclude the huge range ofof products used on aa domestic basis andand never
never enter
enter formal
formal trade.
trade.
This preliminary
This preliminary study,
study, based on market
market surveys,
surveys, investigates
investigates the main
main NWFPs
NWFPs with
with high
high
economic value,
economic value, highlighting
highlighting the
the wide
wide range
range of
of NWFPs
NWFPs that
that originate
originate from
from the
the forest
forest and
emphasising the integral value of these products to local people.
2. The study site
Pointe-Noire, economic centre

Pointe-Noire, the economic centre of Congo,
Congo, is is the nation's
nation's second
second most
most important
important city
city after
after
the capital, Brazzaville. Located between the Atlantic Ocean and the the Mayombe,
Mayombe, Pointe-Noire
(4°53'S and
(4°53'S and 11°49'E)
11 °49'E) hashas open
open access
access to to markets
markets in Gabon
Gabon (to
(to the
the north)
north) and
andCongo-
Congo-
Kinshasa via Cabinda (in (in the
the south).
south). Pointe-Noire
Pointe-Noire has two two main
main markets:
markets: the
the Central
Central market
market
(or "big market)",
(or which is
market)", which is open
open 5 days
days a week;
week; and the
the "Tie-Tie
"Tie-Tie market"
market" open
open 6 days a
week.
week. There are also
also two
two smaller
smaller markets:
markets: thethe "railway
"railway station
station market"
market" andand the
the "boundary
"bbundary
which were not
market" which not included
included in in this
this study.
study.
3. Methodology
For the
the purposes
purposes of
of this
this study,
study, the
the methodology
methodology outlined
outlined by Clark
Clark and
and Sunderland
Sunderland (this
(this
volume) was followed. This included
included extensive
extensive botanical
botanical stock-taking
stock-taking of
of market
market stands
stands and
and
in-depth interviews with a wide range
range of vendors.
vendors. During
During these
these interviews,
interviews, the
the data
data collected
collected
were:
were: the
the specific
specific plant
plant parts
parts collected,
collected, their
their uses,
uses, product
product conservation
conservation techniques,
techniques, the
the
ecological environment the products are collected in, and and any
any associated
associated and
and complimentary
complimentary
information.
221
4. Findings
4.1. The main NWFPs
During the market

During market surveys,
surveys, approximately
approximately 100 main species
species ofof NWFPs
NWFPs were
were encountered
encountered
that
that are
are used
used for
for food,
food, traditional
traditional pharmacopoeia,
pharmacopoeia, arts arts and
and crafts,
crafts, wrapping,
wrapping, etc
etc (see
(see
Appendix 1).
Appendix 1). The ten
ten most
most commonly
commonly traded
traded NW1-iPs (based on
NWFPs (based on both quantities
quantities sold
sold and
and
frequency of recording) can be classified into five major groups:
It Food plants (both
(both forest
forest fruits
fruits and
and vegetables
vegetables plants);
plants);
It Aphrodisiacs, magic
magic ritual plants
plants and
and medicinal
medicinal plants;
plants;
It Drink (both intoxicant
intoxicant and
and non-intoxicant);
non-intoxicant);
It Plants used for arts
arts and
and crafts;
crafts;
It Food wrapping
wrapping products.
products.
4.1.1. Food
4.1.1. Food plants
During the study period of March - April,

April, there
there are few
few fresh
fresh fruits
fruits such as Dacryodes edulis
coming from the
coming from the forest,
forest, recognising
recognising the
the seasonal
seasonal nature
nature of
of fruit
fruit production,
production, hence
hence the
the
absence of forest fruits in local markets during the recording period. However, the the major
major food
plants
plants recorded
recorded were:
were: the
the leafy
leafy vegetables
vegetables Gnetuni
Gnetum africanwn,
ajricanwn, G. G. buchholzianum,
buchholzianum, and
and the
Basella alba, and the condiments
condiments Piper
Piperguineensis
guineensis and
and Xylopia
Xylopia aethiopica.
4.1.2. Aphrodisiacs, magic

4.1.2. Aphrodisiacs, magic ritual
ritual plants and medicinal plants
The plants in this category are those used for magic rituals against bad spirits and those used
as aphrodisiacs to increase libido.
libido. In most
most cases,
cases, the
the vendor
vendor was
was not
not a traditional practitioner
and did not know the plants used in the particular
particular mix
mix for healing
healing concoctions
concoctions or or the
the disease
disease
it was
was meant
meant to treat.
treat. Hence
Hence there
there is
is no
no information
information on thethe mode
mode ofof preparation
preparation for the the
majority of the species listed in Appendix 1. However,
However, the
the market
market stands
stands sell the plant parts
of a number of general traditional medicinal remedies
remedies used
used to
to treat
treat common
common diseases
diseases such
such as
as
anaemia,
anaemia, diarrhoea,
diarrhoea, malaria, stomach pain, post-delivery pains, etc. For aphrodisiac
aphrodisiac species,
species,
the
the main
main customers
customers are teenagers
teenagers and
and men whilst
whilst older
older women
women andand traditional
traditional healers
healers
purchase the majority ofof the other medicinal and ritual plants.
4.1.3. Drinks
4.1.3. Drinks
The species
The that are tapped
species that tapped for palm wine
wine are
are Elaeis
Elaeis guineensis
guineensis and Raphia
Raphia vinifera,
vinifera, to
to
which the bark
which the bark of Garcinia kola is added to augment
augment the taste and ease digestion.
digestion. A herbal
tea made from an infusion of Lippia adoensis is also commonly encountered.
4.1.4. Arts
4.1.4. Arts and
and crafts
crafts
Fibres of Cocos nucifera fruits and the midribs of the leaflets of Elaeis guineensis are
are used
used as
as
brooms, and the
brooms, and the fibres
fibres of some
some Raphia
Raphia spp.
spp. are used
used for traditional
traditional clothing. The sale
clothing. The sale of
rattan
rattan (Eremospatha
(Eremospatha spp.
spp. and Laccosperma
Laccosperma secundiflorum)
secundiflorum) inin the
the markets
markets studied
studied is not
not
widespread. The sale of rattan cane is largely limited to rattan workshops.
widespread.

The
The most
most commonly-used species for
commonly-used species for wrapping food are from
wrapping food from the
the Marantaceae
Marantaceae family
family
(Megaphytyniumspp.,
(MegaphYlynium spp., Sarcophlynium
Sarcophryniumspp.,
spp.,Marantochloa,
Marantochloa, etc.)
etc.) although
although the
the leaves
leaves of the
the
aroid Cyrtosperma
aroid Cyrtosperma senegalense
senegalense and
and Palistota
Palistota spp., a member of the Commelinaceae,
Commelinaceae, are
are also
also
used.
222
4.2. Vendors
4.2. Vendors
The majority of the vendors

vendors encountered
encountered were generally older persons, long- experienced
experienced in
the sale of forest
the forest products.
products. Because the study
Because the study was
was undertaken
undertaken in in a large
large urban
urban area,
area, the
the
origins of both NWFP sellers
sellers and
and their
their products
products varied
varied considerably.
considerably. However,
However, the
the majority
majority
of both
both vendors
vendors and
and their
theirproducts
products originate
originate from
fromthe
thelocalities
localitiessurrounding
surroundingPointe-Noire
Pointe-Noire
(Niari, Lekoumou, Bouenza, Kouilou).
Lekoumou, Bouenza, Kouilou). Therefore
Therefore the
the vendors understand the local demand
vendors understand demand
and preference
preference for certain
certain NVVFPs.
NWFPs. The The only
only NWFP
NWFP supplied
supplied to thethe Pointe-Noire
Pointe-Noire urban
urban
markets from beyond the local region were wrapping leaves.
4.3. Processing
Processing and
and preservation
Many NWFP
NWFP products (especially
(especially for
for bark,
bark, roots
roots and
and other
other lignified
lignified vegetative
vegetative structures)
structures) are
are
preserved through drying,
preserved through drying,either
eithernaturally
naturallyororthrough
throughthe
theuseuseof
of aa heat
heat source such as
source such as a
fire. Some
cooking fire. Some products,
products, such
such as
as the
the bark of Pterocarpus
soyauxii are
are further
further processed
processed
by grinding into aa powder.
The leaves
leaves of
of Gnetunz spp. are sold both whole and finely chopped. The added
Gnetwll spp. added processing
processing ofof
chopping the leaves increases the value
value markedly;
markedly; with aa packet
packet of
of whole
whole leaves
leaves selling
selling for
for
100, but after chopping the
CFA 100, the retailer
retailer can
can easily
easily obtain
obtain CFA
CFA 300-400
300-400 for
for the
the same
same packet.
packet.
5. Discussion
The market surveys

surveys and other
other studies
studies (Kimpouni
(Kimpouni & Koubouana
Koubouana 1998; Profizi etet al.,
al., 1993;
1993;
Kimpouni,1993; Kimpouni,inin prep.;
Kimpouni,1993; Kimpouni, prep.; Adjanohoun
Adjanohounetet al.,
al., 1988) have shown
1988) have shown that there are
are
numerous NWFPs in
numerous NWFPs in Congo-Brazzaville with aa wide
Congo-Brazzaville with wide range
range of uses.
uses. However,
However, the relative
relative
scarcity of some high-value NWFPs
NWFPs in the Pointe-Noire markets
markets does
does not mean that they are
not used in this
not this area,
area, but
but may
may reflect
reflect the
the fact
fact that
that their
their consumption and trade
consumption and trade isis at
at the
household level, or that trade is
is within
within village trade
trade networks.
The predominant forest products in the Pointe-Noire urban markets, in

in terms
terms of
of use-value,
use-value, areare
medicinal plants,
medicinal plants, especially aphrodisiacs
aphrodisiacs and magic ritual products.
products. Their
Their importance
importance and and
presence at
presence at the markets
markets are
are undoubtedly linked to
undoubtedly linked to the
the widespread
widespread use
use ofof traditional
traditional
knowledge and plant-based medicines by the local population.
NWFPs used in craft industries such as rattan (Laccosperma secundiflorttm

secundiflorum andand Eremospatha
spp.)
spp.) are
are not sold
sold at
at the
themain
mainmarkets.
markets. After
After harvesting,
harvesting, they
they are
are directly
directly sent
sent to
to local
local
workshops and
workshops and the
the marketing
marketing of of the
the finished
finished products
products is is undertaken
undertaken from
from there.
there. Some
Some
NWFPs used for craft are are available
available as finished articles
articles in the
the mainstream
mainstream markets;
markets; this
this is the
the
case of certain tools made from Marantaceae leaves and the stems Cyperus papyrus.
The market survey

survey shows that
that the NWFPs
NWFPs involved in this studystudy have potential
potential in
in both
both local
local
international markets.
and international markets. The
The local
local markets
markets dodo not fully
fully exploit the potential of
of many
many high
high
value NWFP's
value NWFP' s such
such as
as Burseraceae
Burseraceae exudates,
exudates, In1ingia
In/ingia and
and Panda oleosa
oleosa kernels,
kernels, Xylopia
Xylopia
aethiopica and
and Ricinodendron
heudelotii seeds,
seeds, despite
despite the
the international
market demand
demand for
these
these products
products being high
high (Tabuna,
(Tabuna, this
this volume).
volume). Any
Any future
future development
development of ofmarketing
marketing
strategies
strategies that are both economically
economically profitable
profitable and sustainable
sustainable on an
an ecological
ecological level
level will
will
valuation and
require careful valuation and management
management strategies
strategies for these
these NWFPs.
223
References
Adjanohoun E.J. et al.,

Adjanohoun E.J. al., 1988.
1988. Médicine
Medicine traditionnelle
traditionnelle et
et pharmacopée:
pharmacopee: Contribution
Contribution aux
aux
études Ethnobotaniques et floristiques
etudes Ethnobotaniques floristiques en République
Republique populaire du Congo. ACCT, Paris,
p.
605 p.
Kimpouni
Kimpouni V. V. 1993.
1993. Le potential
potential alimentaire
alimentaire dede la flore
flore sauvage
sauvage desdes réserves
reserves naturelles
naturelles
d'Afrique
d' Afrique Centrale
Centrale peut étre etre évalué
evalue par
parinterprétation
interpretation desdes données
donneesethnobotaniques
ethnobotaniques
disponibles
disponibles dansdans lesles zones
zones adjascentes.
adjascentes. Thèse
These annexe
annexe (doctorat),
(doctorat), Univ.
Univ. Libre
Libre dede
Bruxelles, 30 p.
Kimpouni
Kimpouni V. V. &
& Koubouna
Koubouna F. 1997. 1997. Etude
Etude Ethnobotaniques
Ethnobotaniques sur les les plantes
plantesnzédicinales
medicinales etet
alimentaires dans et autour de de la
la réserve
reserve de
de Conkouahi
Conkollahi 65 65p.p.PROGECAP/GEF-Congo,
PROGECAP/GEF-Congo,
UICN.
Kimpouni V.
Kimpouni V. (en préparation). Contribution aux
preparation). Contribution aux etudes
études ethnobotaniques
ethnobotaniques et et floristiques
floristiques de
de la
foret de Lossi
for& Lossi (Nord-Congo):
(Nord-Congo): Plantes
Plantesde cueilletteA.it usage alimentaire.
decueillette
Profizi J. P. et al., 1993.
1993. Plan d'action forestier tropical
d'actionJorestier tropical du
dll Congo:
Congo: Les Les ressources
reSSOlirces végétales
vegetales
non ligneuses
ligneuses des Jorets
foréts du
dll Congo.
Congo. Rapport
Rapport d'étude,
d'etude, Fac.
Fac. Sc.
Sc. Univ.
Univ. Manen
MarienNgouabi,
Ngouabi,
Brazzaville, 6767 p.
p. 55 annexes.
annexes.
224
Appendix
Appendix1:1:General
Generallist
listofofNWFPs
NWFPs encountered
encounteredininthe
thernarkets
marketsof
ofPointe-Noire,
Pointe-Noire,Congo-Brazzaville
Congo-Brazzaville
Family / species Habitat part used

Plant part Use
ANACARDIACEAE
Pseudospondias
P seudospondias longifolia Forest Fruit Edible
Antrocaryon
Antroca!]'on micraster Forest Seeds Ritual
ANNONACEAE
Annona sengalense Savannah Bark Medicinal
Cleistopholis patens
pateas Forest Seeds Ritual
Enantia chlorantha Forest Bark Medicinal
Monodora myristica
myristica Forest Seeds Ritual
Xylopia
Xylopia aethiopica Forest Fruit Condiment &
&
medicinal
APOCYNACEAE
Landolphia owariensis Forest Fruit Edible
ARACEAE
Anchomanes difformis Forest Rhizome Medicinal
Cutosperma
Crytosperma sengalensis
sengalensis Aquatic Leaves Wrapping
BALANOPHORACEAE
Thonningia sanguinea Forest Whole plant Medicinal
BASELLACEAE
Basella alba Cultivated Leaves Vegetable
BOMBACACEAE
Adansonia digitata
dif?itata Savannah Fruit, Bark Edible, Ritual
BURSERACEAE
schweinfurthii
Canarium schweinfiirthii Forest Seeds Ritual
CAPPARACEAE
Bucholzia macrophylla Forest Seeds Ritual &
&
B. coriacea
B. Forest Seeds Medicinal
COMMELINACEAE
Palisota sp.
sp. Forest Leaves Wrapping
PoIlia condensata
Pollia Forest Fruit &
& seeds Medicinal
CUCURBITACEAE
Momordica cha rantia
charantia Forest / farm Whole plant Medicinal
CYPERACEAE
Cyperus articulatus
Cyperus Aquatic (cult.) Rhizome .Ritual
C. papyrus
C. Aquatic Stems Artisanal
EBENACEAE
Diospyros sp.
Diospyl'oS Cultivated Leaves, stems, Cosmetic &
roots medicinal
GNETACEAE
Gnetum africanum Forest Leaves Vegetable
G. buchholzianulll
G. buchholzianum Forest Leaves Vegetable
GRAMINAE
Cymbopogon citratus
Cymbopogon Cultivated Leaves Ritual
GUTTIFERAE
GUTTIPERAE
Garcinia kola Forest Bark, seeds Stimulant,
aphrodisiac, palm
wine additive
LEGUMINOSAE
Caesalpinia bonduc Littoral forest Seeds Ritual
Canavalia ensiformis
ensiformis Littoral forest Seeds Ritual
Desmodium velutinum Savannah Leaves Medicinal
Dialium sp. Forest Fruit Edible
Dioclea reflexa
reflexa Forest Seeds Ritual
Erythrophloeum
Elythrophloeum suaveolens Forest Bark Ritual
sp.
Elythrina sp.
Erythrina Forest Bark Medicinal
Pentaclethra
P entaclethra macrophylla
macroJJ!lyJla Forest Bark & seeds Ritual
225
Pterocarpus
soyauxii Forest Wood Cosmetic
Tetrapleura tetraptera Forest Pod Medicinal
LOGANIACEAE
Mostuea hirsuta
Mostuea Forest Roots Aphrodisiac
MARANTACEAE
Marantochloa sp. Forest Leaves Wrapping
Megaphrynium sp.
MegaplllyniulIl Forest Leaves Wrapping
Sarcophtynium sp.
Sarcoplllyniul11 Forest Leaves Wrapping
MELIACEAE
Carapa procera Forest Seed Ritual
MORACEAE
Dorstenia scabra
Dorstenia Forest Roots Aphrodisiac
Trilipisium madagascariensis
TrilipisiulIl madagascariensis Forest Leaves Vegetable
OLACACEAE
Coula edulis Forest Seeds Edible
OXALIDACEAE
Biophytum petersianum
Biophytum petersianu17l Savannah Whole plant Medicinal
PALMAE
nucifera
Cocos llucifera Littoral (& cult.) Nut and
and fibre
fibre Artisanal, edible
& cosmetic
& cosmetic
Elaeis guineensis Forest (& cult.) seeds,
Fruit, seeds, Palm wine,
wine,
sap
rachis & sap cosmetic, edible,
artisanal, ritual
spp.
Eremospatha spp. Forest Stem Artisanal
Laccosperma secundiflorum Forest Stem Artisanal
Raphia spp. Forest
Forest (swamp)
(swamp) Sap, Leaf fibre Palm
Palm wine,
wine, crafts
crafts
PANDACEAE
Panda oleosa
oleosa Forest Seeds Ritual
PENTAD~LANDRACEAE
PENTADIPLANDRACEAE
Pentadiplandra brazzeana Forest Roots Aphrodisiac
MENISPERMACEAE
Penianthus
Pen ian thus longifolia Forest Roots A~hrodisiac
Aphrodisiac
P~ERACEAE
PIPERACEAE
Piper guineensis Forest Fruit Medicinal &
&
condiment
RUBIACEAE
Brenania breyeri Forest Fruit Fish poison, ritual
Crossopterix febrifuga
febrifilga Savannah Roots Medicinal
Gardenia tenuifolia Forest Stem && fruit Ritual
Nauclea latifolia
lat(foUa Forest Roots and fruit Medicinal
SAPOTACEAE
Autranella sp. Forest Seeds Ritual
SIMAROUBACEAE
Quassia africana Forest Roots Medicinal
STERCULIACEAE
Cola acuminata
Cola actuninata Forest Seeds &
& bark Stimulant,
Stimulant,
C.
C. nitida Forest Seeds &
& bark medicinal &&
aphrodisiac
TILIACEAE
Glyphaea brevis Forest Fruit Medicinal
VERBENACEAE
Lippia adoensis Savannah Leaves Tea
ZINGIBERACEAE
Ajramolllllln
Aframointim melegueta
melegueta Forest Fruit Aphrodisiac &
&
medicinal
A. stipulatu17l
A. stipulatum Savannah Fruit Edible
A. sp. 11
A. Forest Fruit Ritual
sg. 2
A. sp. Forest Fruit Ritual
226
A PRELIMINARY MARKET SURVEY OF THE NON-WOOD FOREST
PRODUCTS OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO:
CONGO: THE
THE
AND KISANGANI
BENI AND KISANGANI MARKETS
MARKETS
Innocent Liengola Bauma
Abstract
Despite
Despite the fact that
that aa number
number of
ofethnobotanical
studies have
have been
been carried
carried out
out in
inmany
many
information on
regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo, there is little infoimation on the
the marketing
marketing of
of
NWFPs in Congolese markets, despite their widespread
widespread use and
and trade.
trade. However,
However, preliminary
preliminary
market studies of traded NWFPs
market studies NWFPs havehave been recently carried out in the
recently carried the Kisangani
Kisangani (Eastern
(Eastern
(North-Kivu Province) markets. These studies have begun
Province) and Beni (North-Kivu begun toto provide
provide data
data
about the
about the marketing
marketing andand trade
trade of a wide
wide range
range of
of NWFPs
NWFPs inin the
the Democratic
Democratic Republic
Republic of
of
Congo,
Congo, and may contribute to the the further ,understanding of
further ,understanding of the
the NWFP
NWFP sector in this region
region
and the potential for the
the sustainable
sustainable use ofof the forest.
the ,forest.
Key words: Democratic Republic

words: Democratic Republic of
ofCongo,
Congo, non-wood
non-wood forest products, markets
1. Introduction
The Democratic Republic of

Democratic Republic of Congo
Congo (DRC)
(DRC) is is the
the largest country in Central
Central Africa, with a
km2 and
surface area of 2 345 000 km2 and contains the largest block of undisturbed tropical
tropical forest
forest on
on
the continent.
the continent. However, even in
However, even in the vast
vast expanse
expanse ofof forest,
forest, commercial
commercial exploitation for
exploitation for
timber, bushmeat and NWFPs
timber, bushmeat NWFPs hashas led
led to some areas
areas of forest being significantly denuded.
denuded. A
number of strategies need to be developed to ensure that the conservation of the forest region
takes place.
The sustainable harvest

harvest of
ofNW1-4Ps couldcontribute
NWFPs could contributenot
notonly
onlytotopreserving
preserving an
an important
important part
of the tropical forest biological diversity but also might improve the lot of of local
local communities
communities
through income
through income generation
generation and
and the
the equitable
distribution of of benefits.
benefits. The
The NWFP
NWFP sector
sector in
because of
DRC is attracting increasing interest because of its
its role in
in the
the livelihood
livelihood ofofforest
forest dwellers,
dwellers, as
as
well as the commercial potential for the development of novel medicinal, cosmetic and food
products. However, before
pr.oducts. However, before such
such development
development can can take
take place, essential background
place, essential background
information is needed to determine which NWFPs are of of value and how theythey contribute
contribute to
to the
the
economy.
local economy.
To this end,
end, preliminary
preliminary studies
studies to assess
assess the
the range
range importance
importance of
of NWFPs
NWFPs inin selected
selected areas
areas
have been undertaken.
have undertaken. Further reiterative
reiterative studies will provide
provide more
more information
information about
about the
the
sector and the effects of seasonality. The objectives of these studies are:
• To make an inventory of the NWFPs sold in urban markets;

• To determine the marketing channels of NWFPs;
• To detemdne
determine the
the plant
plant parts
parts used
used and
and modes
modes ofof preparation;
preparation;
• To assess the sustainability of
of the exploitation of
of selected
selected NWFPs;
NWFPs;
• To assess the potential (or need) for domestication of of some
some NWFPs.
227
Additional household
Additional household surveys
surveys were
were conducted
conducted at Epulu
Epulu (a station of Okapi
Okapi Faunal
Faunal Reserve),
Reserve),
with the purpose of comparing the utilisation of NWFPs by urban and rural populations.
with
4. Results
4. Results
From the
From the preliminary market surveys
preliminary market surveys the
the most
most important
important NWFPs
NWFPs (in
(in terms
terms of
of value
value and
and
abundance) were identified.
abundance)
Table 1.
1. The major
major NWFPs
NWFPs sold
sold in the Kisangani and Beni
Beni markets
markets
Scientific name Local name Part

Part used
used Uses Market
Mar.ket
Gnetum
Gizmo?' fumbwa Leaves Vegetable Kisangani
africanum
çft 'ricainitn (Kikongo)
Piper guineensis bokango Fruits Medicinal, Beni and
(Nonde) condiment Kisangani
toketu (Lokele)
Cola acuminata
Cola ngongoka Seeds Aphrodisiac, Beniand
Beni and
(Nonde) medicinal Kisangani
libelu (Topoke)
gbongbolia
(Swahili)
Garcinia cola bobale (Topoke) Seeds Aphrodisiac, Kisangani
olale (Lokele) medicinal
Aframomum spp ndehe (Nonde) Fruits and seeds
seeds Edible fruits, Beni and
tondolo medicinal Kisangani
(Swahili)
soso (Topoke)
Scorodophloeus bumba (Topoke) Bark Condiment Kisangani
zenkeri
Pentadiplandra geene (Topoke) Roots Medicinal Kisangani
t, nKisancia i
brazzeana etekele (Lokele)

Thaumatococcus longodo Leaves Wrapping Beni and
danielii (Ngelema) leaves, roof
leaves, Kisangani
mangongo thatching
(Swahili)
Elaeis guineensis nganzi (Swahili)
nganzi Nuts, sap Palm oil, palm Beni and
and
WIlle
wine Kisangani
Raphia spp mabondo Sap Palm wine Beni and
(Swahili) Kisangani
Fungi buyoka All Food Beni and
Beniand
(Swahili) Kisangani
4.1. Condiments
4.1.
A number condiments are

number of condiments are sold
sold in
in both
both markets.
markets.TheThe fresh
freshfruits
fruits of
of Piper
Piper guineensis
guineensis are
are
often eaten
often eaten raw
raw for their
their spicy
spicy taste.
taste. The fruits
fruits are
are also
also dried
dried and
and are
are then
then pounded
pounded and
and
sieved; this
this powder
powder is added
added toto tea or or coffee
coffee oror used
used forfor seasoning
seasoning vegetables.
vegetables.
Scorodophloeus zenkeri bark
Scorodophloeus zenkeri bark with
with its
its alleaceous
alleaceous smell
smell (which
(which isis often
often very
very strong after rain)
is also commonly used for seasoning
seasoning sauces.
sauces.
229
4.2. Edible
4.2. Edible fruits
fruits
Aframomumspp.
Aframomum spp.fruits
fruits are
are edible
edible when
when fresh,
fresh, their
their taste
taste is
is both
both sweet (endocarp) and sour
(endocarp) and
(seeds). The
(seeds). The seeds
seeds are
are also sometimes used as
sometimes used as a condiment. Cola acuminata
condiment. Cola acumitiata and
and Garcinia
kola seeds are consumed
consumed for their their aphrodisiac
aphrodisiac and
and stimulatory
stimulatory properties.
properties. Raphia seeds
seeds are
are
boiled and the yellow
boiled yellow skin
skin is
is eaten.
eaten. Palm
Palm oil
oil from
from Elaeis
Elaeis guineensis
guineensis is
is much
much appreciated
appreciated by
by
the populations of
of Kisangani
Kisangani and and Beni.
4.3. Vegetable
Vegetable plants
Gnetum
Gnetum africanum
africanum leaves are finely chopped and cooked as a vegetable. This NWFP is is found
found
in markets throughout the year (Bhua, 1991). Young Young white-yellowish
white-yellowish shoots of
Thaumatococcusdanielii
Thaumatococcus danieliiare
arecut
cutoff
offprior
prior toto cooking
cookingoror they
they can
can be
be added
added with
with other
other
vegetables
vegetables toto replace pieces of macaroni.
replace pieces Adult leaves
macaroni. Adult leaves are
are used
used for wrapping
wrapping or for
for the
the
building of roofs. Many species ofof edible mushroom are also widely sold in both markets.
markets.
4.4. Palm wine
The intoxicating palm wine is enjoyed by the the majority

majority of
of the
the local
local population,
population, both
both rural
rural and
and
urban. Palm wine
urban. Palm wine isis tapped from both
tapped from both the
the oil palm,
palm, Elaeis
Elaeis guineensis, as well
guineensis, as well as
as from
from a
number of species of Raphia. For the former, the palm
former, the palm is
is felled
felled and
and the
the sap
sap is
is tapped
tapped directly
directly
from the leaf terminal bud, whilst from the latter, the sap is harvested by incising the stem at
the base of the inflorescence, or at the base of the leaf sheath.
the
4.5. Medicinal
4.5. Medicinal plants
plants
Contrary to
Contrary to what
what happens
happens in Cameroon
Cameroon and
and Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea where
where many
many of the
the forest
forest
population gather and
population gather and use
use aa number
number of
ofmedicinal
medicinal plants
plants (Sunderland
(Sunderland and
and Obama,
Obama, thisthis
volume), in
volume), in DRC
DRC it is primarily
primarily traditional
traditional healers and traders
traders ofof medicinal
medicinal plants
plants who
who are
are
involved in
involved in the collection and sale of of forest-based
forest-based remedies.
remedies. Many traditional healers do not
want to share
share the
the secrets
secrets of
of the
the use
use ofofmany
manymedicinal
medicinal plants.
plants. They
They are
are reluctant
reluctant totoshare
share
their benefits,
benefits, nor do they
they want
want toto lose
lose their
their unique
unique knowledge
knowledge andand monopoly
monopoly of of the
the trade
trade
and sale of
of medicinal plants
plants in
in both
both markets.
markets.
4.6. NVVEPs household survey

NWFPs household
The result of
of aa preliminary
preliminary household
household survey
survey at Epulu has shown
shown that the the local
local population
population
uses
uses a wide
wide range
range ofofNWFPs
NWFPs forforfood,
food,medicinal,
medicinal, artistic,
artistic, ornamental,
ornamental, ritual
ritual and
and magic
magic
purposes.
purposes. At Epulu,
Epulu, more
more than
than one
one hundred
hundred species
species are
are used
used by
by the
thepopulation,
popUlation, especially
especially
pygmies and, whilst some of these
pygmies and, these species
species are
are also
also represented
represented in in the
the markets
markets studied,
studied, the
the
majority are not.
5. Discussion
Discussion
The results
results of
of this
this preliminary
preliminary NVVFP marketsurvey
NWFP market surveyinin Kisangani
Kisangani and
and Beni
Beni show
show that the
populations of these towns
towns know and use a number of NWFPs. However, compared to their
know and use a number of NVVFPs. However, compared their
utilisation by the rural
rural population,
population, NWFPs
NWFPs are conspicuously under-represented
under-represented in the urban
markets. This maymay bebe due
due to:
to:
• The population
population under-estimates
under-estimatesthethemarket
marketvalue
valueofofmost
mostNVVFPs;
NWFPs;
• NVVFPsdo
NWFPs donot
nothave
haveenough
enoughretail
retailoutlets
outlets (transport
(transport is
is a particular problem);
• The sector is not particularly profitable;
• This population has other, more profitable income generating activities;
230
• NWFP gathering requires a lot of of energy and effort for transportation and
and conversion;
conversion;
• The laws concerning NWFP exploitation are are very
very strict;
• There are no appropriate conservation
conservation techniques;
techniques;
• The population
population has lost its
its ancestral
ancestral customs
customs and
and knowledge
knowledge of the
the utilisation
utilisation of
of forest
forest
natural resources.
Some studies
Some studies in
in Kisangani, for example,
Kisangani, for have indicated
example, have that the
indicated that the trade
trade in
in NWFPs
NWFPs is is not
not
particularly profitable, except
particularly profitable, except for
for the
the trade
trade in
in Gnetum
Gnetum africanum.
africanum. Bhua
Bhua (1991)
(1991)found
found a total
of only eleven
eleven food-producing
food-producing species were
were sold
sold in
in the
the markets
markets of ofKisangani,
Kisangani, with
with Gtzetum
Gnetum
africanum being
africanum being the most common.
common. In contrast.
contrast, Beni is the the centre
centre of
ofextensive
extensive non-forest
non-forest
based commercial
commercial activities,
activities, and NWFP marketing
marketing and and trade
trade is
is not of
of sufficient
sufficient interest
interest for
for
most traders.
The further quantitative data gathered

The gathered on NWFPs
NWFPs sold at thethe Kisangani
Kisangani and
and Beni
Beni markets,
markets,
and
and the understanding
understanding of the
the commercial trade channels, will be assessed through further
commercial trade channels, will be assessed through further
study of these
these markets.
markets. In
In addition,
addition,continued
continued comparison
comparison between
betweenhousehold
householduseuseofofNVVFPs
NWFPs
and their formal trade will
will shed
shed some
some light
light on the
the limited
limited development of
of the
the NWFP
NWFP sector
sector in
in
DRC and will
DRC will perhaps
perhaps provide
provide insight
insight into how the sector
sector might
might be
be developed
developed for aa more
more
meaningful contribution to both the rural and urban economies.
meaningful
References
Baelongandi, L. L. 1984. sauvages a

1984. Etude des plantes sauvages à fruits
fruits comestibles utiles àa la
comestibles utiles la population
population
environnante de Kisangani. Monographie
Monographie inédite,
inedite, Fac. Sc., UNIKIS, 33 p.
Bagula, B.Z. 1977.
1977. Plantes
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commercialisees auxaux marches
marches de de Kisangani.
Kisangani. Mémoire
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inedite,
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Bhua,
Bhua, D. N.N. 1991.
1991. Plantes
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spontanees vendues
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marches dede Kisangani
Kisangani et
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l'etude d'entree. Monographie
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Birandano, M.
M . 1981.
1981. Les
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medicinales contre
contre les
les maladies veneriennes aaKisangani.
maladies vénériennes Kisangani.
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inedite, Fac.
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Bokdam, J. & Droogers, A. A. F. 1975. Contribution aal'étude
1975. Contribution ['etude ethnobotanique
ethnobotanique desdes Wagenia
Wagenia de de
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Wageningen, 74 p. p.
Liengola, B. L. 1989.
Liengola, B. Contribution àarl'etude
1989. Contribution etude desdes plantes
plantes alimentaires
alimentaires spontanées
spontanees chezchez les
les
Turumbu
Turumbu et les
les Lokele
Lokele de
de lalaSous-Region
Sous-Region de
delalaTshopo
Tshopo(Haut-Zaire).
(Haut-Zaire). Monographie
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Sc. UNIKIS,
UNIKIS, 43 43 p.
p.
Udar, U. K. 1983. Contribution a
1983. Contribution à rI' etude
etude des
des plantes
plantes utiles
utiles chez
chez les Batiabetuwaaà l'lle
les Batiabetuwa rile Mbie
(Kisangani). Monographie
inedite, UNIKIS,
UNIKIS, Fac.
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Vasolene, K. 1987.
1987. Plantes
Plantes sauvages
sauvages alimentaires
alimentaires chez
chez les
les Kumu
Kumu de de Masako.
Masako. Monographie
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inedite, Fac. Sc.
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1977. Plantes
Plantes médicinales
medicinales des des Kisangani.
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1985. Recherches
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ethnopharmaceutiques sur sur les
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medicinales utilisées
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Yekonda, L. 1984.
1984. Les plantes
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231
PRELIMINARY SURVEY
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF
OF THE NON·
NON-WOOD FOREST
WOOD FOREST
PRODUCTS OF
OF THE
THE LIBRE VILLE MARKETS
LIBREVILLE MARKETS (GABON)
(GABON)
Paulin Yembi
Abstract
and regional
The local and regional trade
trade in
in NVVFPs
NWFPs isis generally
generally not
not quantified,
quantified, despite
despite the high value of of
cunent CARPE
many forest products. The current CARPE research initiative,
initiative, entailing
entailing aa year-long
year-long study
study of
ofaa
wide range of markets, seeks to address this by determining the importance of traded NWFPs NWFPs
throughout the region,
throughout the region, and
and to
to identify those that
identify those that are in
in increasing
increasing demand
demand and under the
threat of
of endangerment
endangerment through over-harvesting. This paper
over-harvesting. This paper presents
presents the
the preliminary results
results
of the Libreville portion of this regional study and is based
based onon the
the methodology
methodology outlined in
the CARPE training course held in February 1998 1998 (see
(see Clark
Clark and
and Sunderland,
Sunderland, this
this volume).
volume).
Key words:
words: Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon,
Gabon, non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, markets
1. Introduction
The preliminary
The surveywas
preliminary survey was canied
carriedout
out in
in the
the centre
centre and
and in
in the
the northern
northern suburbs
suburbs of
of
Libreville.
Libreville. Three main markets
Three main markets were
were sampled.
sampled. In In terms
terms of
of surface
surface area
area and the number of
traders, Mont
traders, Mont Bouet
Bouët isis the most important market in
important market in the
the city.
city. There
There are also many informal
informal
pharmacies (stalls
pharmacies (stalls for
for medicinal plants) in this market. Nkembo,
medicinal plants) Nkembo, strewn chaotically on and and
near the roadside,
roadside, is the
the second
second most
most important market
market with
with about three hundred
about three and fifty
hundred and fifty
traders. Akebe
traders. Akebé is located in the most populated quarter of of Libreville, and the
the market
market there
there is
is
characterised by
characterised by the
the presence
presence of many
many stalls
stalls of nkumu
nkumu (Gnetunt africantun). Other
(Gnetllm africanum). Other forest
forest
product
product based
based industries such as
industries such as rattan
rattan artisan
artisan workshops
workshops are are also
also present close to
to these
these
markets. The sale
sale of
of vast
vast quantities
quantities of
of palm
palm wine
wine is
is ubiquitous
ubiquitous to
to all
all three
three markets.
markets.
2. Methodology
The basic methodology implemented

implemented during
during this
this study was
was based on that described by Clark
Sunderland (this volume). Investigators
and Sunderland Investigators from the Centre
from the Centre d'Actions
d' Actions pour
pour leIe
Développement Durable etet l'Environnement
Developpement l'Environnement(CADDE)(CADDE)utilised
utilisedthe
thequestionnaire
questionnaire and
and
interviewed as representative aa number
number and
and group
group within
within the
the markets
markets asas possible.
possible. In
Ingeneral,
general,
traders provided local names, maldng
making species' identification
identification easier;
easier; however,
however, samples
samples were
were
also collected for authoritative identification.
identification.
For the quantification of

of the
the major
major NWFPs in the markets,
markets, three
three basic
basic criteria
criteria were
were applied:
applied:
• the abundance of the products on stalls (the case of

of Gnetum africanll1n);
africamun);
• the frequency of the product
product (chewing
(chewing stick);
stick);
• the combination of the former
former criteria (lrvingia
(Irvingia gabonensis).
recorded in
3. Products recorded in the
the markets:
markets: A summary
The following
The list of the most
following list most commonly sold products
commonly sold products isis not
not exhaustive and will
exhaustive and will be
be
modified as more
modified as more surveys
surveys take
take place.
place. Because
Because of
of the
the seasonal
seasonal differences
differences in
in product
product
availability to
availability to be found
found in the markets throughout the
markets throughout the year,
year, the
the list will undoubtedly vary
vary in
terms of the species and quantity of products sold.
233
3.1. Wrapping leaves
3.1.
Megaphrynium macrostachyumleaves
Megaphrynium macrostachyum leavesare
areused
used mostly
mostly to
to wrap
wrap cassava
cassava stick
stick (baton
(baton de
de
manioc); a minimum
manioc); minimum of
of two
two leaves
leaves are
are necessary
necessarytoto wrap
wrapone
one cassava
cassava stick.
stick. The increasing
increasing
demand for
demand for this low-cost food
food means
means that there is a high
high consumption
consumption ofof leaves.
leaves. The
The leaves
leaves
this species
of this species and
and other
other Marantaceae are said to give a special taste to some food and is the
reason why
why they
they are preferred
prefened to
to bananas leaves
leaves (Musa
(Musa spp.).
spp.).
Table 1: List
Table 1: List of
of the
the most commonly sold products in the Libreville markets
markets
Scientific name Local name (in Fang, Used part Utilisation

unless stated
otherwise)
IlTillgia
Irvingia gabonensis andok Kernel Condiment
Megapluynitun
Megaphryniull1 ngungu Leaves Wrapping
macrostachyunt
macrostachyuI11
Gnettan aJIicanul1l
GnetulIl africanum nkumu Leaves Vegetables
Garcinia klainiana wali or bitter wood
waH Bark Palm wine additive
Cola spp.
sI!fJ. Fruits Stimulant
Enantia chlorantha nfoo Bark Medicinal
Aframomum
AJIamomulll spp.sfJ1Z. esson, ndong Seed CondimentlMedicinal
Condiment/Medicinal
Scorodophloeus arbre a ail Bark, seed Condiment
zenkeri
Unidentified Chewing stick Oral hygiene
Elaeis guineensis
gllineensis oil palm Fruit, sap, heart Oil, wine, food
Duboscia macroCGlpa
Dllboscia macrocarpa akac Fruit Medicinal, (magic)
Ricinodendron essessang Bark, root, seeds Condiment; protection
heudelotii (B~ounou)
mughele (Bapounou) against evil spirits
3.2. Vegetables
Nkumu (Gnetum ajricanum)

Nkumu (Gnetum africanum)isis aa large
large component
component of
of the
the trade
trade in leafy
leafy vegetables
vegetables in all
all
markets in Libreville (except the Nkembo market) and is widely appreciated in in fish
fish and
and meat
meat
sauces. ItIt is sold
sauces. sold ininpackets,
packets, finely-chopped
finely-chopped and
and ready
ready for
for cooking.
cooking. Wild
Wild yamyam leaves
leaves
(Dioscorea dttmetorttm),
(Dioscorea unidentifiedfern
dumetorum), unidentified fernleaves
leaves and
and cultivated
cultivated vegetables,
vegetables, such
such asas young
young
cassava leaves, are also commonly seen.
3.3. Fruits and seeds

3.3. Fruits
There
There is aa strong
strong seasonal
seasonal influence
influence on
on the
the availability
availability of
of some
some forest
forest fruits.
fruits. Mangoes
Mangoes
(Mangifera indica) are
(Mangifera indica) are very
very abundant from December
abundant from December to to March,
March, whilst
whilst the bush
bush plum
plum
(Daciyodes
(Dacryodes edulis)
edulis) dominates the market
dominates the market in
in June-August. There are
June-August. There are also
also a number ofof wild
wild
forest fruit commonly
forest commonly in the market
market and
and these
these include
include onzabili
onzabili (Antrocatyon
(Antrocaryon klaineanum)
klaineanum)
offos (Pseudospondias longifolia)
longifolia) and
and the
the highly-appreciated
highly-appreciated Aframomum spp....
Ajramomum spp
Irvingia
InJingia gabonensis kernels are
gabon ens is kernels are the most
most common
common NVVFP
NWFP inin all
all three
three markets
markets and
and are
are
available throughout the year. They are are commonly
commonly imported
imported from Cameroon
Cameroon andand Equatorial
Equatorial
Guinea,
Guinea, asas well
well as originating from the
originating from the forests
forests of Gabon.
Gabon. ThisThis wide
wide source
source of
ofmaterial
material'
ensures that
ensures that a year-round
year-round supply
supply is available.
available. Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis fruits are not
gabon ens is fruits not often
often
consumed when
consumed when fresh.
fresh. The
The kernels
kernels are
are dried,
dried, toasted,
toasted, pounded
pounded and and then
then moulded
moulded to form aa
cake called
cake called 'odika
'odika bread'.
bread'. This
This can
can weigh
weigh between
between 100100toto 55 000
000 grams
grams and
and is
is sold for CFA
francs 1 000 to 25
francs 25 000,
000, or
or for
for CFA
CFA francs
francs 500
500 per
per glass
glass ofof 'odika
'odika bread'
bread' powder.
powder. Raphia
Raphia
hookeri fruits
hookeri fruits are
are cooked
cooked and
and eaten
eaten by
by people
people of the
the Fang
Fang tribe
tribe and are commonly found
found inin
234
the markets.
the Coula edulis
markets. Coula edulis fruits
fruits are
are also widely
widely sold
sold when
when in
in season
season and
and are
are generally
generally
consumed as a snack.
3.4. Spices
3.4. Spices and
and condiments
Gabonese use
Gabonese use Ajrostyrax
Afrostyrax lepidophilus
lepidophilus seeds
seeds and
and bark as aa garlic
garlic substitute.
substitute. Ricinodendron
Ricinodendron
heudelotii seeds (essessang)
(essessang) are also used as a condiment.
condiment. African expatriates use Monodora
myristica as
myristica as a condiment,
condiment, while
while Gabonese attribute the
Gabonese attribute the species
species with
with magical
magical attributes in
attributes in
traditional medicine.
traditional medicine.This
This isis also
also the
the case
case with the
the fruits
fruits of
of Afromomum
Ajromo11lum spp.spp. and
and Piper
guineensis.
3.5. Fuelwood
In the
the Libreville
Libreville markets, most of the fuelwood
markets, most fuelwood sold is scrap
scrap from
from nearby
nearby sawmills.
sawmills. The
The
primary species is okoumé
okoume (Aucoumea klaineana). A second often sold
(Aucoll1nea klaineana). sold fuelwood
fuelwood species
species is
is
okala
okala (Xylopia aethiopica),the
(Xylopia aethiopica), thebark
bark of
of which
which isis also
also used
used to
to wrap okoumé resin for
okoume resin for the
manufacture of of torches. Fishermen use mangrove wood (Rhizophora racemosa andAvicennia
racemosa and Avicennia
nitida) to
to smoke
smoke fish.
3.6. Rattan
3.6. Rattan
The small diameter cane, Eremospatha

diameter cane, Eremospatha macrocmpa
macrocarpa is extensively
extensively used for basket work.
work. In
furniture manufactuiing,this
furniture manufacturing, thisspecies
speciesisis used
used to
to tie larger
larger rattan
rattan canes
canes together,
together, and for
for
weaving chair
weaving chair seats.
seats. The large diameter cane,cane, Laccosperma secundiflorum, isis bent
Laccosperma secundiflorum, bent with
with the
the
help of
of welding-torch
welding-torch to form the the framework
framework needed for furniture manufacture.
manufacture. The supplysupply
channels of
channels of rattan
rattan are well
well organised.
organised. MenMen intensively harvest itit in the
intensively harvest the forest
forest around
around
Libreville
Libreville and sell
sell it to
to wholesale
wholesale desks
desks oror totocraftsmen
craftsmen ininrattan
rattanworkshops.
workshops. African
African
expatriates (usually
expatriates (usually natives
natives ofof Niger,
Niger, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea
Guinea or or Cameroon)
Cameroon) have have created
created
workshops
workshops where
where young
young Gabonese
Gabonese are employed.
employed. The The work is undertaken on aa commission-
commission-
only basis
only and, consequently,
basis ,and, consequently, it is is difficult
difficult to
toquantify
quantify monthly
monthly consumption.
consumption. Craftsmen
Craftsmen
make big profits
profits through
through rattan processing activities.
activities. InIn addition
addition to the rattan
rattan stems
stems being
being
harvested the apical
apical bud is also widely collected and and eaten,
eaten, particularly
particularly inin the
the south
south west
west of
Gabon.
Gabon. These hearts of palm are called mikandas or "asparagus".
3.7. Medicinal plants

plants
A considerable
considerable proportion
proportion of Libreville's
Libreville's population
population cannot
cannot buy
buy Western
Western pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical
products because
because they
they are too expensive. Instead, they
expensive. Instead, they use
use the medicinal plants used by the
rural
rural population
population in traditional
traditional medicine.
medicine. To identify
identify the
the most
most commonly
commonly sold
soldmedicinal
medicinal
plants, a number of "pharmacies"
"pharmacies" were
were surveyed
surveyed separately.
separately.
3.8. Palm wine
Palm wine markets

markets are
are places
places ironically
ironically called
called "reunion
"reunion des parentsparents d'd' élèves"
eleves" (student's
(student's
meeting). These markets are commonly found at crossroads or junctions. This
parents meeting). This drink,
drink,
extracted from
extracted from Elaeis
Elaeis guineensis,
guineensis,isisinin high
high demand;
demand;ititisis notnot rare
rare to
to see twenty
twenty toto thirty
thirty
persons around a seller (usually a woman)
woman) with molorolla
molorolla (palm wine).wine). In terms
terms of quantity,
quantity,
the palm wine tapped after felling
felling of the tree is the most common (i.e. (i.e. the wine tapped from
Elaeis guineensis).
Elads guineensis). An adult palm tree can produce
produce up to 4 litres/day for
up to 4litres/day for the
the first
first four
four days
days of
of
tapping and 1 litre/day
tapping and then on.
litre/day then on. The
The average duration for
average duration for the
the viable
viable tapping
tapping of of a palm for
for
wine production isis three
wine production three weeks.
weeks. ItIt should
should be
be noted
noted that
that ifif the
the palm
palm wine
wine isis not sold by the
second day, it is sold on to merchants from Benin or Ghana who distil aa stronger stronger drink.
drink.
235
3.9. Sugar cane wine
The wine of sugar cane (Saccharum

sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum)
o icinarum) is is from
from Mouila,
Mouila, aa town
town in
in the south the
south of the
country. It is
country. It is sold at CFA
CFA 400 per litre.
litre. Palm
Palm wine
wine and sugar cane
cane wine
wine are soaked
soaked with
with
Garcinia lucida bark
barkinincans
canstotomake
makethe
thewine
wine stronger.
stronger. Women
Women from
from West
West Africa
Africa produce
produce
'makita',
'makita', a drink made of water, sugar and ginger roots.
4. Discussion
Except for
for Gnet11171 africanumleaves,
Gnetwn africanul11 leaves,thethemajority
majority of
of NAVFPs available in
NWFPs available in the Libreville
Libreville
markest are
markest are sold
sold by
by African
African expatriates,
expatriates, andand the trade
trade in
in NWFPs
NWFPs isis almost
almostexclusively
exclusively
undertaken by
undertaken by non-Gabonese.
non-Gabonese. However,
However, itit is essential
essential to involve
involve local populations
populations inin the
protection of the environment because
because theythey are
are ultimately
ultimately dependent
dependent onon it.
it. There is adequate
provision for
provision for the
the control
control of the
the exploitation
exploitation of forest products
products in the
the Forestry
Forestry LawLaw 1/82,
1/82,
article 16,
article 16, which
which states
states that:
that: "".....no
..... no person
person can
can exploit or harvest
exploit or forest products
harvest forest products free
free of
of
charge, and without prior permit delivered by the Forestry Administration. The type type of
of permit
permit
and certificate
and certificate of exploitation,
exploitation, and and the
the procedure
procedure of their
their delivery
delivery are
are defined
defined through
through
statute." Unfortunately,
statute." Unfortunately,lacklack of
of trained
trained personnel
personnelandand control
control ensures
ensures that
that these
these laws
laws are
are
often not satisfactorily implemented.
5. Conclusion
Although providing aa source

Although providing source of well-being
well-being and improving the economic
improving the revenues of rural
economic revenues
populations, many of the NWI-Ps
populations, many listed above
NWFPs listed above are threatened by unsustainable
unsustainable methods
methods of
exploitation. Some NWFPs
NWFPs havehave become
become soso lucrative
lucrative that
that urban
urban exploiters
exploiters use technology
technology to
to
more
more efficiently exploit the
efficiently exploit the resource
resource (e.g.
(e.g. the
the use
use of
of refrigerated
refrigerated trucks
trucks for
for bushmeat
bushmeat
hunting).
hunting). With this increasing
increasing demand, the wild populations
demand, the populations of these species
species resources are
drying up, and it is now
drying up, now necessary
necessary for many
many harvesters
harvesters to travel further and further
further into
into the
the
forest
forest to obtain
obtain the
the products.
products. The involvement rural populations
involvement of rural populations inin the management
management of of
NW14Ps,
NWFPs, for forboth
bothmoral
moral and
and cultural
cultural reasons,
reasons, is
is necessary,
necessary, and the
the forthcoming
forthcoming forestry
forestry
legislation will make this
this possible.
possible. (See Profizi, this volume.)
volume.) In addition, further knowledge
knowledge
of the marketing channels for different NWFPs will help encourage the equitable sharing of
revenues,
revenues, ensuring that local communities
ensuring that communities benefit
benefit from
from the
the sustainable
exploitation and
and
management of their forest resources.
References
Bourobou, H.B. & H.P. Mounzeo.

& H.P. Mounzeo. 1997. Plantes
Plantes utilisees
utilisées comme
comrne poison
poison de
de peche
Oche chez les
PUNU du Gabon.
Gabon. Le Flamboyant
Flamboyant No. No. 44,
44, 17
17 -- 18.
18.
Chabot, I.I. 1997.
1997. Etude
Etude de
de lafiliere
la filière des produitsforestiers
produits forestiers non ligneux au Gabon. Rapport de
nonligneux
mémoire
memoire DESS C1RAD-Forêt,
CIRAD-Foret, PPAFT AFT Gabon Libreville.
Clark, L.
Clark, L. & N.
N. Tchamou.
Tchamou. 1998.
1998. La
La recherche
recherche sur
sur les
les produits
produits fore
forestiers non ligneux
stiers non ligneux en
en
Afrique Centrale, la situation
situation du
du secteur.
secteur. Rapport
Rapport pour
pour CARPE.
CARPE.
Ndoye, O.,
0., M.R. Perez & A. Eyebe. 1997.1997. The markets for non-timber forest products
products in
in the
the
humid Forest zone of of Cameroon. ODI aD! Rural
Rural Development
Development Series. No.22. ODI. London.
Sunderland, T.C.H. 1998. Preliminary market survey of the non-wood forest products of of Rio
Muni, Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea. CARPE
CARPE (USA)
(USA) and
and CUREF
CUREF (Equatorial
(Equatorial Guinea).
Guinea).
Raponda-Walker, A. & R. Sillans. 1961. 1961. Les plantes utiles
utiles du Gabon.
Gabon. Lechevalier,
Lechevalier, Paris.
Paris. 614
614
pp.
White, L. & 1997. A Guide to the vegetation of
& K. Abernethy. 1997. of the Lope Reserve
Reserve Gabon.
Gabon.
Wildlife Conservation
Conservation Society,
Society, Libreville.
236
RATTAN
RA TTAN OR PORCUPINE: BENEFITS
BENEFITS AND
AND LIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS OF
OF A
A
HIGH-VALUE NWFP FOR CONSERVATION IN IN THE
THE
YAOUNDE REGION OF CAMEROON
YAOUNDE REGION
Louis Defo
Abstract
Rattans are one of the

Rattans the most
most important
important non-wood forest products
non-wood forest products inin the Yaounde region of
Yaounde region
Cameroon. Within the
Cameroon. Within the framework
framework ofof a study of rattan in the
the area,
area, attention
attention was
was focused
focused on
on
the attitudes of local people towards rattan exploitation, as opposed to commercial hunting or
"NWFP alternative
timber extraction, to test the "NWFP alternative hypothesis".
hypothesis".
The exploitation
The exploitation of rattanrattan (gathering
(gathering and selling
selling of
of raw
raw material;
material; rattan
rattan processing)
processing) has
has
undeniable benefits.
undeniable benefits. However,
However, it also has
has considerable
considerable disadvantages.
disadvantages. Rattan's advantages
advantages
are
are related
related toto its
its relative
relative abundance,
abundance, its
its socio-economic
socio-economic importance,
importance, thethe volume
volume of itsits
potential demand and others parameters of of its
its exploitation.
exploitation. Its weaknesses areare essentially
essentially due
due
to the
to the fact
fact that
that ititisisundoubtedly
undoubtedly linked
linked to to other,
other, more
more unsustainable,
unsustainable, forms
forms of forest
forest
exploitation, such
exploitation, such as as those mentioned above. Often,
mentioned above. Often, most
most rattan
rattan harvesters
harvesters when
when asked the
asked the
question: "rattan or hunting?" usually respond:
question: respond: "rattan and hunting".
Key words: Rattan

Rattan (cane),
(cane), hunting,
hunting, non-wood
non-wood forest products, Yaounde region
1. Introduction
Recently, many donor

Recently, many donor agencies and research organisations
agencies and have turned
organisations have turned to the
the potential
potential of
of
NWFPs to contribute to forest conservation
conservation initiatives whilst at the same same time
time improving
improving thethe
livelihoods of rural people (Godoy
livelihoods (Godoy and Bawa,Bawa, 1993; NC-IUCN, 1997).
1993; NC-IUCN, 1997). This
This is
is also the case
in Cameroon,
in Cameroon, with
with many
many NWFPs
NWFPs being investigated
investigated forfor their
their potential
potential commercial
commercial and and
possible conservation value.
possible conservation value. Rattan
Rattan isis the
the most
most important
important NWFP
NWH) in in the Yaounde
Yaounde area, the
area, the
marketing
marketing of which is the subject
subject of
of on-going
on-going studies
studies by APFT.
APFT. Through
Through the
the study
study of
of the
the
behaviour of farmers in villages
villages where
where rattan
rattan is
is exploited,
exploited, aa comparison
comparison was
was made
made between
between
hunting and trapping and the felling of
of timber
timber trees
trees as
as opposed
opposed to rattan
rattan harvesting.
harvesting.
2. The study site
The area of study corresponds to the supply range

range of rattan
rattan raw
raw material and products for the
markets and concentrates
Yaounde markets concentrates on the Yaounde - Ebolowa axis. axis. Floristically, it is part of
of
the Southern Cameroonian plateau in an Equatorial-Guinean
Equatorial-Guinean climate zone covered by by semi-
semi-
deciduous forest dominated
deciduous forest dominated by the
the plant
plant families
families Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae and
andUlmaceae
Ulmaceae (Letouzey,
(Letouzey,
1985).
Since
Since the 14th
14th century,
century, this
this region
region has
has been
been inhabited
inhabited by
by the
the Ewondos
Ewondos andand Assimi
Assimi tribes,
tribes,
distributed in widespread hamlets of of varying
varying sizes
sizes (Mveng
(Mveng andand Beling-Nkoumba,
Beling-Nkoumba, 1983). It is
1983). It is
a segmented
segmented society withwith anan equally
equally fragmented
fragmented political
political structure.
structure. The
The main
maineconomic
economic
activities of the population
population are
are subsidence
subsidence agriculture
agriculture along
along with
with some
some cash
cashcrop
cropproduction,
production,
notably cocoa.
notably cocoa. Extra-agricultural activities such
Extra-agricultural activities such as
as fishing,
fishing, hunting,
hunting, sand
sand extraction,
extraction,
handicraft production and
handicraft production and the gathering of NWFPs are also also widely
widely practised.
practised. However,
However, the
proximity to Yaounde, a sprawling metropolis
metropolis of around
around 1 million people,
people, has intensified the
the
demand for many forest products, to the point at
at which
which many are now severely
severely threatened.
threatened.
237
2. Methodology
Field work
Field work was
was undertaken between April
undertaken between April 1997
1997 and
and February
February 1998
1998 and
and began
began with
with
preparatory visits to
preparatory visits to 19
19 villages
villages near
near Yaounde
Yaounde where
where field
field observations
observations and
and informal
informal
interviews provided useful
interviews provided useful information
informationforfor the
the choice
choice of
of representative
representative sites
sites for
for the
the more
intensive study to follow.
follow. Seven of these villages and hamlets were selected for the the survey,
survey,
based on their accessibility and numbers of resident rattan harvesters
harvesters and
and artisans.
artisans.
For the intensive

intensive studies,
studies, formal interviews based
formal interviews based on
on aa questionnaire (n = 84), guided
questionnaire (n guided by a
stratification
stratification of the population,
population, were undertaken.
undertaken. InIn addition
addition to these
these interviews,
interviews, informal
informal
discussions, both
discussions, both individually
individually and
and collectively,
collectively, were
were also
also undertaken.
undertaken. These
These informal
informal
discussions included people
discussions included people who
who work
work with
with rattan
rattan and
and those
those who
who do not. Additional
Additional direct
observations
observations andand biological
biological collections
collections (with
(with the
the assistance
assistance of aa botanist)
botanist) augmented
augmented the
the
interviews and provided some "ground-truthing"
"ground-truthing".
3. Rattan: An abundant and important

important resource
resource
Although inventories have not

inventories have not been
been carried
carried out,
out, rattan
rattan is
is considered
considered anan abundant andand widely
widely
available resource
available resource in the study area. In spite
spite of
of extensive
extensive forest
forest clearing
clearing and
and the
theincreasing
increasing
rate of their harvesting in recent years, rattan populations
popUlations can be observed
observed not
not far
far from
from cocoa
cocoa
plantations, aa median
plantations, median distance
distance of
of less
less than
than one hour'
hour'ss walk.
walk. Rattan
Rattan is not
not only
only widely
widely
available but
available but is also easily accessible from
from a traditional perspective. There
traditional perspective. There are
are no
no social
social or
cultural barriers to its exploitation and, in
in many settlements,
settlements, all resident villagers
villagers can
can harvest
harvest
rattan in
in the
the forest
forest without
without any
any preliminary
preliminary formalities.
formalities.
importance of rattan,
The importance rattan, notably
notably the species Laccosperma secundiflorum and
Laccosperma secundiflorum and Eremospatha
Eremospatha
macrocarpa, can
can be
be seen
seen at
at many
many levels
levels in
in villages.
villages. Its exploitation (cutting and
exploitation (cutting and trading
trading of
of
raw cane for transformation into arts and crafts) occupies about 35% of of households and
and make
important component
up an important component ofof farmers' time
time (13
(13 days/month on average for artisans). In teims
artisans). In terms
of income generation,
generation, rattan exploitation is a highly beneficial activity for those
those engaged
engaged in in
1.
it, as illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1:
Table Annual revenues
1: Annual revenues (in
(in CFA)
CFA) for rattan
rattan exploiters.
Activity Mean monthly income % of total income

Agricultural activities 219000
219 000 21,6
Rattan transformation-artisans 216
216000
000 21,3
of raw cane
Sale of 166000
166 000 16,4
Market gardening 136000
136 000 13,4
Cocoa/
Cocoa! coffee production 115000
115 000 11,4
Hunting 94000
94 000 9,4
Other NWIT
NWFP harvesting
harvesting 50000
50 000 5
small animal husbandry 18000
18 000 1,5
Total 11014000
014 000 100
The contribution
The contribution of rattan
rattan to global
global revenues
revenues of those
those involved
involved is
is important,
important, not
not only
only in
in
absolute or relative value but also notably for its
its "immediate"
"immediate" benefits.
benefits. This
This makes
makes rattan
rattan an
an
important means
means of obtaining cash for much-needed purchases such
much-needed purchases such as
as medicines
medicines and school
fees. This is particularly
fees. particularly important as the
the majority
majority of the
the population
popUlation suffer
suffer from
from poor
poor cash
cash
flow. Previous heavy reliance 'On
flow. significantly affected
bn cocoa for cash income has been significantly affected by
by the
the
large reduction in the market price in 1989/90
1989/90 and
and rattan has since
since gained
gained inin importance
importance for
for
the local cash
cash economy.
economy.
238
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Locally
Locallymade
maderattan
rattan products
products for
for sale
sale at
at the
the roadside
roadside (Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
3.1. Who is involved?

3.1.
The harvesting
The rattan and its subsequent
harvesting of rattan subsequent transformation
transformation isis essentially
essentially aa job
job for
for men
men who
are generally young and married.
are married. Preliminary
Preliminary surveys
surveys show
show that
that 94.4%
94.4% of harvesters
harvesters are men
aged between
aged between the
the ages
ages of
of 16
16 and 40; 78.8%
78.8% of these
these are married. This social
married. This social strata
strata also
also
includes men
includes men involved
involved with
with hunting activities (Dounias,
hunting activities (Dounias, 1993;
1993; Dethier,
Dethier, 1995).
1995). The
The fact
fact that
hunting and rattan exploitation is
hunting is undertaken
undertaken byby the
the same
same members
members ofof aa community
community provides
provides
a strong indication that these
these activities
activities are
are undertaken
undertaken simultaneously
simultaneously and suggests
suggests that there
there
is often a degree of competition between them.
3.2. The effects of seasonality

3.2.
In comparison
In comparison withwith the
the exploitation
exploitation of other
other NVVFPs
NWFPs such such as
as bush
bush mango
mango (Indngia
(/rvingia
gabonensis),, nuts
gabonensis) nuts (Coula edulis)
edulis) and
and bush bon-bon (Trichoscypha
bush bon-bon (Trichoscyphaarborea),
arborea), the
the fact
fact that the
harvested portion of the rattan is part of the vegetative
harvested portion structure of the
vegetative structure the plant (stems) enables
(stems) enables
its exploitation all year round. The seasonality effects that hamper direct revenues from other
NWFP exploitation
NWFP exploitation relying
relying onon fertile
fertile plant parts
parts is
is not
not experienced.
experienced. Hunting
Hunting and
and timber
timber
exploitation activities
exploitation activities also
also experience
experience thethe effects
effects of seasonality.
seasonality. For example, it is not
For example, not
possible to set traps for hunting during the dry season as the paths that are frequently used used by
animals are
animals are not visible during
during this
this period
period of
of the
the year.
year. ItIt isis also
also not
not possible
possible to
to extract
extract timber
timber
during periods
during periods of heavy rain due to the the problems
problems ofof accessibility
accessibility and transportation.
transportation. Hence
Hence
rattan
rattan is the
the only
only viable
viable all-year-round
all-year-round activity
activity that isis capable
capable of
of providing
providing aa continuous
continuous
lllcome.
income.
3.3. Labour
3.3. Labour intensity
Another
Another potential
potential advantage
advantage of rattan
rattan exploitation
exploitation in comparison
comparison with
with the
the exploitation
exploitation ofof
other
other NWFPs
NWFPs isis the fact
fact that
that this
this activity
activity isis highly
highly labour
labour intensive.
intensive. Labour
Labour is
is often
often the
the
cheapest, and most
cheapest, and most easily
easily available,
available, commodity
commodity toto most
most rural
rural dwellers
dwellers and
and both
both the
the
harvesting
harvesting and
and transformation
transformation of rattan highly manual.
rattan is highly manual. Although
Although rattan
rattan exploitation
exploitation
consumes a great deal of
of time,
time, and
and this
this appears
appears as
as aa disadvantage
disadvantage in
in terms
terms of
ofproductivity,
productivity, in
in
239
fact it can be considered an asset (in terms
terms of conservation)
conservation) inasmuch
inasmuch asas this
this task
task can
can occupy
occupy
farmers and reduce time and energy that might be used for trap-based hunting. The criteria of of
comparison between would-be
comparison between economic competitively
would-be economic competitively oror time
time remuneration,
remuneration, energy,
energy,
finances, and
finances, and the valuation
valuation of high intensity
intensity labour activity
activity in rural
rural communities
communities is often
often
considered as a strategy for conservation.
3.4. Capital intensity
terms of capital
In terms capital investment
investment needed
needed to
to establish
establish an
an artisanal
artisanal operation,
operation, thethe rural
rural rattan
rattan craft
craft
industry requires a small investment for for the
the provision of technical
technical or financial
financial capital. This is
usually less than
usually less than CFA
CFA 5 000 for small-scale basketwork, and
small-scale basketwork, and less
less than
than CFA
CFA 20 20 000
000 for
for the
craft industry
industry of rattan furniture.
furniture. In comparison
comparison to to the capital
capital intensity
intensity required
required for other
other
activities, the processing of rattan is highly
highly favourable.
favourable. For
For example,
example, forfor timber
timber exploitation
exploitation
the
the cost of hire or purchase
purchase of a chainsaw,
chainsaw, as well
well as the
the running
running costs,
costs, isis extremely
extremely high.
high.
Likewise, the ammunition
ammunition needed to hunt with with (usually
(usually homemade)
homemade) guns guns also
also represents
represents anan
extremely high
extremely high capital
capital investment.
investment. This
This investment
investmentisis often
often not
not possible
possible forfor the
the majority
majority of
the rural population.
4. Limits
4. Limits of
of rattan
rattan for conservation
Despite the intensity of rattan activity and

and the benefits
benefits that it brings to
to the
the rural
rural population,
population,
the majority
the majority of the
the population interviewed
interviewed indicated
indicated that
that they
they would
would not
not give
give up
up hunting
hunting for
for
the exclusive harvesting of rattan.
exclusive harvesting rattan. (See
(See Table
Table 2.)
2.) When
When asked
asked if they would stop commercial
favour of rattan exploitation,
hunting in favour exploitation, the majority of the informants replied in the negative
(68%), with
(68%), with only
only 20%
20% saying
saying they
they would
would and 12% 12% were
were undecided.
undecided. Similar figures
figures were
were
given by
given by timber exploiters.Half
timber exploiters. Half of
of them
them (50%) said they
(50%) said they would
would not
not give
give up
up timber
timber
exploitation in favour of
of rattan, 25% said
said they
they would
would and
and 25%
25% were
were undecided.
undecided. The
The reasons
reasons
given are outlined below in Table 2.
Table 2:2: Arguments/reasons

Arguments/reasons given by villagers for not giving up hunting
hunting in
in favour
favour of
of rattan
rattan
=23)
activities (n =
"Hunting and
"Hunting and rattan
rattan are
are complementary
complementary toto one
one another,
another, all
all are sources of 43%
revenue"
"Hunting is
is more profitable" 23%
"Rattan is a waste of time" 22%
"Transportation to Yaounde is difficult and causes a lot of trouble" 4%
crops and need to be controlled"
"Animals eat crojJs 4%
"When hunting you can eat bush meat" 4%
Total = 100%
4.1. Complementarities
4.1. Complementarities between
between rattan,
rattan, hunting and other
other activities
activities
As can be seen
As seen from
from Table
Table 2,2, there
there isisaastrong
strongcomplimentarity
complimentarity between
between rattanrattan and
and other
other
forms
forms of forest exploitation,
exploitation, such as hunting.
hunting. This complementarity is
complementarity is at an economic
economic level,
i.e. income.
i.e. income. Although
Although rattan
rattan certainly
certainly provides
provides greater
greater revenues,
revenues, this
this isis not
not aa sufficient
sufficient reason
reason
for many
for many rural
rural people
people to abandon
abandon hunting
hunting and and tree felling since all all of ofthese
these activities
activities are
are
moneymaking.This
moneymaking. Thisisis not
not surprising;
surprising; the the key
key to many
many rural subsistence
subsistence strategies
strategies is thethe
diversification of revenue sources.
sources. For farmers
farmers interviewed those who undertake a number of
income generating
income generating activities
activities isis 86%.
86%. This
This isis especially
especially the
the case
case since
since the the fall
fall in
in the
the price of
240
cocoa price in
in 1989/90
1989/90 which
which highlighted
highlighted the importance
importance to farmers
farmers that it is
is not
not necessary,
necessary,
nor desirable,
desirable, "to
"to keep
keep all
all the
the eggs
eggs in
in the
the same
same basket".
basket".
4.1.2. Rattan exploitation and hunting: Activities

4.1.2. Rattan carried out together
Activities carried
Many
Many rattan collectors take advantage
advantage of their journey to thethe forest
forest when
when going
going to
to harvest
harvest
rattan to conduct
conduct hunting
hunting activities.
activities . The secondary
secondary forest much favoured by many species of
rattan are also
also the
the optimum
optimum habitat
habitat for many
many of the animals
animals prized
prized for their meat, which has
both subsistence
subsistence and commercial value. The
commercial value. The setting
setting of
of traps
traps within
within the
the same forest area
same forest area as
one
one is
is harvesting
harvesting does
does not
not require
require aagreat
greatdeal
dealofofsupplementary
supplementary effort.
effort. Furthermore,
trekking
trekking in the bush
bush to
to prospect
prospect for
for rattan
rattan resources
resources enables
enables the
the harvester
harvester to
to identify
identify well-
well-
used animal paths and vice-versa.
4.1.3. Activities
Activities financing one another
another
Much ofof the

the revenue
revenue earned
earned from the sale
sale of raw
raw cane
cane or
or the
the trade
trade in
in finished
finished rattan
rattan articles
articles
enables the farmer
farmer to
to buy
buy necessities
necessities such
such as
as salt,
salt, soap
soap and
and kerosene,
kerosene, andand recreational
recreational goods
goods
such as alcohol.
such alcohol. TheThe cash
cash is also
also used
used toto purchase
purchase steel
steel wire
wire used
used to to make
make snares,
snares, or
cartridges for those
those who
who hunt
hunt with
with firearms.
firearms . Some rattan harvesters also use some of the cash
income from the sale of rattan to finance small-scale timber exploitation.
Conversely, the
Conversely, the sale
sale of cut timber or bushmeat can also
bushmeat can also finance rattan work.
finance rattan Much of the
work. Much
rural
rural population has a weak
popUlation has weak capability
capability for
for saving
saving and
and frequently spends all
frequently spends all of the
the cash-
cash-
income derived
income derived from rattan trading, without saving enough
enough money
money for the next triptrip to
to town
town
for the sale of their
their products
products or
or for
for purchasing
purchasing the basic items needed to support their rattan
craft industries (such as nails, varnish
varnish and gas). To overcome
overcome this,
this , many have recourse
recourse to to the
the
capture and sale
sale of
of bushmeat.
bushmeat. Hence,
Hence, porcupine
porcupine or some
some other
other easily
easily trapped
trapped animal
animal isis sold
sold
along the road or in the nearest town.
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Wire
Wiresnare
snare used
used for
for trapping
trapping (Photo:
(Photo: T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderland).
241
4.1.4. Activitiesthat
4.1.4. Activities that can
can support
support one another during
during seasonal
seasonal changes
changes
During our investigations,

investigations, a forty-year-old man from Ozam village,
forty-year-old man village, a well-known
well-known harvester
harvester
and
and craftsman
craftsman of of rattan,
rattan, when
when asked
asked why
why hehe doesn't
doesn't abandon
abandon timber
timber exploitation
exploitation to
concentrate solely on rattan work,
work, gave the following answer:
""..during holidays, there

.. during holidays, there are
are many
many rattan
rattan traders
tradersinin Yaounde
Yaoundeand
and the
the rattan
rattan isis cheap, so I
cheap, so
prefer to manage at this moment with [the
]the sale
sale of]
of] wood while waiting for rattan market to be
[more favourable] ".
4.1.5. Further
4.1.5. Further constraints
constraints to
to developing rattan as aa sole
rattan as sole NWFP activity
Although rattan provides

provides a high
high level
level of relative
relative income,
income, itit is
is not
not only
only highly
highly labour intensive
intensive
but can
can be dangerous
dangerous and unpleasant
unpleasant work. Firstly, it is often necessary to trek
work. Firstly, trek far
far into
into the
the
find adequate rattan resources
forest to find resources (on average
average 77 km)
km) whilst
whilst traps
traps are
are set on average
average only
only
2km from
2km from the
the village. The harvesting
Village. The harvesting of the rattan itself is oftenoften extremely
extremely unpleasant;
unpleasant; the
stems are
stems are covered
covered with
with long
long thorns
thorns and,
and, in
in the course of pulling a cut lengthlength ofof cane,
cane, dead
dead
forest canopy.
branches often fall from the forest canopy. The harvested
harvested cane
cane isis then
then head-portered
head-portered backbacktoto
the village;
the village; aa bundle
bundle of
of fresh
freshcut
cut cane
canecan
canweigh
weighup uptoto50
50 kg.
kg. IfIf the
the raw
raw cane
cane isis to
to be
transported for sale to
transported to anan urban
urbancentre
centre(usually
(usuallyYaounde),
Yaounde), there are are considerable
considerable
transportation problems.
transportation problems. Apart
Apart from
from the
the difficulties
difficulties of procuring
procuring the
the transportation
transportation money,
money,
finding
finding a suitable
suitable vehicle that will provide
provide transport,
transport, further funds
funds are required for for bribing
bribing
policemen along the
policemen along the road
road (harvesting illegal without
(harvesting is essentially illegal without a valid valid permis
permis
d'exploitation).
d' exploitation).
In this regard,
regard, it is
is not
not surprising
surprising that
that many
many harvesters
harvesters complain
complain that that the
the rattan
rattan business
business isis
difficult
difficult and many complain
complain that income earned is not proportional
income earned proportional to the the time
time spent,
spent, the
energy exerted and
energy exerted and the
the risks
risks taken.
taken. ItIt is
is regarded
regarded as
as a situation
situation of of low
low remuneration
remuneration and and
reduces
reduces the comparative
comparative advantage
advantage of the relatively high final final incomes.
incomes. In In some
some villages,
villages,
timber exploitation isis more
timber exploitation more profitable
profitable than
than rattan
rattan in this regard
regard andand remuneration
remuneration of timetime
spent for
for timber harvesting is ten times
times the remuneration of that spent on rattan exploitation.
exploitation.
In many villages, the numbers of hunters is higher than the number of those involved involved in
in rattan
rattan
exploitation and commercial
exploitation and hunting isis more
commercial hunting more culturally
culturally important than rattan work.
important than work. The
The
Fang-Beti group
Fang-Beti group certainly
certainly has
has aa long
long tradition
tradition of
of rattan
rattan use
use but
but this
this has
has been limited to local
use.
use. The technical
technical know-how
know-how to undertake
undertake large-scale
large-scale harvesting and transformation
transformation is not
not
well known in
well known in some localities. ItIt is
some localities. is often
often the case that
that more
more people
people are
are familiar
familiar with
with the
the
techniques of animal trapping than they are with those of of the
the rattan craft
craft industry.
industry.
4.1.6. The
4.1.6. The substitution
substitution hypothesis
Some forms
Some forms of forest utilisation are more in-line with
with the
the conservation
conservation agenda
agenda than
than others,
others,
and this had led to the development
development of the "alternative NWFP" hypothesis. this
hypothesis. According to this
hypothesis, by
hypothesis, by finding
finding equivalent
equivalent cash
cash income
income to
to that
that provided
provided by
by hunting,
hunting, for example,
example, the
farmers could
farmers could abandon
abandon hunting
hunting in
in favour
favour of more
more "sustainable"
"sustainable" (and legal) fornis
forms of forest
forest
exploitation such as the harvesting of rattan.
Revenue substitution
Revenue substitution inin a context
context of
of livelihood
livelihood impoverishment
impoverishment (according
(according to thethe World
World
Bank, the
Bank, the number
number of rural
rural households living under
households living under the poverty
poverty threshold
threshold in Cameroon
Cameroon
from 49%
increased from 49% toto 71
71% between 1983
% between 1983 andand 1993)
1993) seems
seems not
not to
to be
be realistic,
realistic, however.
however. The
The
need for
need for aa regular
regular cash
cash income
income precludes
precludes anyany need
need for
for immediate
immediate conservation
conservation forfor many
many
communities and
communities and the
the altruism needed to deny any any form
form of
of forest-based
forest-based revenue
revenue only
only comes
comes
through relative comfort, often wealth from other sources.
242
5. Conclusion
Rattan exploitation has undoubted

exploitation has undoubted benefits
benefits in
in terms exploitation. It is aa relatively
terms of forest exploitation. relatively
abundant resource and
abundant resource and provides
provides highhigh revenues
revenues for
for both
both the
the raw
raw material
material andand finished
finished
products. Rattan
products. Rattan harvesting
harvesting isis not
not affected
affected by
by the effects
effects of
of seasonality
seasonality that
that plagues
plagues thethe
commercial potential of
commercial potential of other
other NWFPs,
NWFPs, andand the
the markets for rattan products
markets for products are
are strong
strong and
and
rapidly increasing.
However, as seen from the results of this study, the exploitation of rattan, often considered as
a sustainable form of forest use,
use, is
is undertaken
undertaken alongside
alongside more
more unsustainable
unsustainable and
and damaging
damaging
forms of forest
forms forest exploitation. This diversity
exploitation. This diversity of
of exploitation
exploitationpatterns
patternsisis due
due to
to the
the need
need for
immediate cash income.
It is
is also
also clear
clear that
that there
there needs
needs to
to be
be greater
greater revenues
revenues generated
generated from
from the
the existing
existing trade
trade and
and
there is aa clear
there clear challenge
challenge to
to the
the proponents
proponents ofof sustainable
sustainable development:
development: How How can
can these
these
resources
resources be more
more profitable,
profitable, increasing the revenue
increasing the revenue of the
the main
main actors
actors involved
involved without
without
damaging production
damaging production potential
potential in
in the
the long
long term?
WHOThe The answer
answer toto this
this question
question requires
requires further
further
multi-disciplinary study into the
the ecology
ecology and socio-economic aspects of
of the
the industry.
industry.
From the studies outlined in

studies outlined in this
thispaper,
paper,ititisisclear
clearthat
thatthe
thesituation
situationisisnot
notone
oneof
of "..rattan or
" .. rattan or
porcupine?" but one of "..rattan
" .. rattan and
and porcupine".
porcupine".
Acknowledgements
The author wishes

wishes toto thank
thank Drs.
Drs. E.
E. Dounias,
Dounias,T.
T.Trefon,
Trefon,E.E.de
deGarine
Garineof APFT, o.
ofAPFT, O. Ndoye
Ndoye of of
CIFOR, Prof. J.L. Dongmo of Ngaoundere University and Ngwan
ClFOR, Prof. J.L. Dongmo of Ngaoundere University and E. Ngwan Achu of the University
of the University
of Yaounde I, for their
their influential
influential studies
studies which have influenced
influenced the work
work presented in
in this
this
paper.
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244
THE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF OF QUALITY
QUALITY CONTROL
CONTROL STANDARDS
STANDARDS FOR
OGBONO
OGBONO (IRVINGIA
(IRVINGIA GABONENSIS
GABONENSIS AND
AND IRVINGIA WOMBOLU)
WOMBOLU)
KERNELS: EFFORTS
EFFORTS TOWARDS
TOWARDS ENCOURAGING ORGANIZED
AND FURTHER INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN A NWFP
AND FURTHER
OF WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA
D. O. Ladipo
Abstract
Most non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products are still collected
collected and
and marketed
marketed informally.
informally. This does
does not
not
allow for
allow for adequate attention to
adequate attention to be
be paid
paid to
to quality. Quality can
quality. Quality can mean
mean different
different things
things toto both
producers and users
producers and users and
and is usually
usually tied to
to remuneration (i.e. attaining
remuneration (i.e. attaining a good
good price)
price) soso
farmers try to achieve as high aa quality
farmers quality as
as possible
possible to
to benefit
benefit from
from higher
higher financial
financial retums.
returns.
Strict rules on quality
quality determination are not new to West and Central African farmers
determination are farmers who
have grown cash crops
have crops such as coffee and cocoa for many many decades for overseas
overseas processors
processors
and consumers.
Although many
Although many non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
productsof of the
the native
native forests
forests inin this sub-region
sub-region are still
still
restricted to small local trade,
restricted trade, some
some products
products have reached 'far 'far national'
national' and international
international
markets. frvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu
markets. Irvingia wombolu are are the
the two
two Irvingia
Irvingia species
species that produce
kernels eaten in West and Central Africa (Harris, 1996). The
(Harris, 1996). The fruit
fruit of Irvingia gabonensis has
a sweet mesocarp
mesocarp andand itit is eaten
eaten fresh,
fresh, while that of Irvingia
Irvingia womboltt
wombolu is is sour
sour and
and is not
consumed locally. The edible kernels from both are used for culinary purposes and are traded
widely; enough to
widely; enough to be quoted on the the weekly
weekly commodity
commodity listslists in Nigeria.
Nigeria. Ogbono is used as as
soup thickener
soup in West
thickener in West and and Central Africa and
Central Africa and also
also to
to make
make dika
dika cake in Central
Central Africa,
Africa,
particularly in Gabon.
Gabon. Other
Other uses of of the
the kernels,
kernels, such
such as
as their
their pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical grade grade fat
fat (oil),
(oil),
are also being
are being developed.
developed. A grading
grading of quality
quality classes
classes is suggested
suggested for for ogbono
ogbono (kernels)
(kernels)
ranging from
ranging from grades
grades AA to
to D D (with
(with A
A being
being the
the best quality).
quality). The
The development
development of of this
this quality
quality
classificationhas
classification has been
been dictated
dictated byby thethe response
response of of various
various farmers,
farmers, wholesalers
wholesalers and and
consumers in the South of Nigeria where ogbono is consumed traditionally and extensively.
consumers extensively.
The present
The effort is to
present effort to provide
provide at at least
least aa starting
starting point
point in in the
the process
process of ofquality
quality
standardisation in this commodity to increase revenues for both traders and and producers.
producers.
Key words: Irvingia

gabonensis, I.I. wombolu,
w0111bolu, kernels,
kernels, quality, trade
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Most non-timber forest products in West and Central

Central Africa areare still
still marketed
marketed and
and sold
sold on
on an
an
informal basis often in forest fringe markets,
markets, and in local
local village
village market
market places
places from
from where
where
users purchase
users purchase them
them for
for direct
direct use.
use. In
In the
the case
caseofofmore
more'advanced'
'advanced'products
productshowever,
however,
wholesalers purchase these NWFPs in in village
village markets
markets from
from where
where they
they are
are cleaned,
cleaned, packaged
packaged
and transported to urban
urban markets.
markets. Some products are are also
also traded
traded further
further and
and supply
supply growing
growing
international markets.
Ndoye et al.,
Ndoye al., (1997)
(1997) reported
reported substantial
substantial markets for a wide
markets for wide variety
variety of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest
products. This
products. This study provided sale
study provided sale prices
prices and
and evidence
evidence of price variation
variation as influenced
influenced by
season or
season or product
product seasonality
seasonality within
within the Cameroon
Cameroon area.
area. However,
However, fewfew product
product quality
quality
standards for the enhancement of market opportunities have been implemented to to date
date though
though
245
the development
development of practical guidelines has
practical guidelines has considerable
considerable potential
potential for
for the
the enhancement of
enhancement of
product values
product values and
and hence
hence the
the income
income of
of the
the gatherer
gatherer or
or producer.
producer.
A few examples do exist though. the case of kola (Cola nitida and C.
though. In the C. acuminata) informal
informal
rules and
and regulations have been
regulations have been applied
applied inin the marketing
marketing of kola nuts for for many
many years.
years. For
For
trans-savannah trade within West Africa
Africa in
in particular,
particular, nuts
nuts are sorted according to colour and
size and each of these classes command
size their own
command their own prices
prices according
according to to quality.
quality. For a few of
crops, quality
the indigenous and more recent wild fruit crops, quality control
control is
is being
being exerted
exerted by
byinformal
informal
associations or co-operative unions.
unions. A good example is is the informal Dacryodes
Dactyodes edulis export
edulis export
market
market in Douala,
Douala, Cameroon. Export of the bush
Cameroon. Export bush plum
plum from
from Cameroon
Cameroon to to Gabon
Gabon follows
follows
strict gradings and the price varies according to quality.
However, for the Marketer and consumer,

marketer and consumer, thethe term
term quality
quality isis subjective.
subjective. To
To the
the producer
producer and
and
wholesaler
wholesaler itit could
could mean
mean those
those kernels
kernels that
that secure
secure aa maximum
maximum price price in
in the
the market at aa
market at
particular time
particular time of the season.
season. To
To the
the consumer
consumer quality
quality could mean presentability and end
presentability and end
product quality, i.e. -soup
-soup draw ability. Quality
drawability. Quality to
to this
this person
person could
could then be defined in terms of
end-use.
,
For Irvingia general aspects
In1ingia kernels there are some general aspects of quality
quality that can be considered and that
are shared by both the
the marketer
marketer and consumer.
consumer. These include size
These include size of kernel, thickness
thickness of
kernel, colour, maturity
maturity and extent of blemishes
blemishes or damage.
damage. Ladipo
Ladipo (1994)
(1994) after
after a preference
survey, reported
survey, reported that
that important
important factors
factorsin
in quality
quality for
for the
the consumer
consumer in in the
the case
case of the
the eating
eating
and cooking
c'ooking of Irvingia are:
• Appearance, including kernel size, colour and shape;

• Condition (pests) and absence of defects (mechanical damage, etc);
• Oil content;
• Flavour (sliminess of kernel after processing or cooking); and
• Level of adulteration of kernels (the mixing of 1.
I. gabonensis and
and I.1. wombolu
wombolu
kernels).
2. Local and international trade
The market for ogbono

ogbono products
products is said to to be
be worth
worth some
some US$US$ 5050million
million(ICRAF,
(ICRAF, 1975).
1975).
Ladipo and Boland
Ladipo Boland (1994)
(1994) reported extensive local
reported extensive local and
and regional
regional trade
trade within
within Nigeria and
Nigeria and
between countries in West and Central Africa such as Nigeria, Gabon and Cameroon.
between countries in West and Central Africa such as Nigeria, Gabon and Cameroon.
Processed kernels
Processed kernels ofof Irvingia
Irvingia are
are also
also transported
transportedfrom fromAfrica
Africa toto the
the UK
UK and the the USA,
USA,
particularly to areas where African immigrants abound in
immigrants abound in large
large numbers.
numbers. They are also sold
in Paris and
and Brussels
Brussels (Tabuna,
(Tabuna, this
this volume).
volume). Produce
Produce marketing
marketing in in the
the 'raw'
'raw'ungraded
ungraded state
state
attracts
attracts less financial returns. This is
financial returns. This is why a process of grading needs to be introduced for
process of grading needs to be introduced for
these NWFPs
NWFPs so so as to enhance
enhance their valuevalue and thethe income
income of of their
their producers.
producers. TheThe various
various
factors for consideration
factors consideration areare presented below. Further
presented below. Further uses
uses of
of ogbono
ogbono may may increase
increase this
this
market yet further. For example
further. For example itit isis suggested
suggested thatthat the
the kernel
kernel oil
oil could
could be be of value
value in
in the
the
binding of pharmaceuticals (Okafor, pers. comm ) and have considerable industrial
binding of pharmaceuticals (Okafor, pers. comm.) and have considerable industrial
applications.
3. Pre-harvest operations that determine kernel quality
This
This is the
the cultural
cultural or
or field
field aspect
aspect of
of quality
quality control.
control. In the
the case
case of
of planted
planted trees,
trees, this
this
essentially involves the
essentially involves the use
use of good
good planting
planting materials and the application
materials and application of good
good tree
tree
management techniques which
management techniques which will
will allow
allow the
the full
full potential
potential of the genotypes planted. It also
genotypes planted.
involves good disease
disease and pest control management.
management. In In the
the case
case of wild
wild trees,
trees, the source of
246
which constitutes 99%
which constitutes 99% of produce presently marketed
produce presently marketed in
in West
West and
and Central
Central Africa,
Africa, it is the
the
selective collection of
of fruits that
that matters so
so the
the kernels extracted
extracted can
can be
be of
of good
good quality.
quality.
4. Post-harvest operations that determine kernel quality

4.
This comes
This comes into play
play post-harvest
post-harvest after the fruits
fruits have
have been
been collected.
collected. Post-harvest
Post-harvest quality
quality
depends substantially
depends substantially on
on farmer
farmer practice
practice and
and will include the handling ofof the
the produce
produce even
even
from kernel extraction. Factors include:
• Harvest ofof fruits
• Extraction
Extraction ofof kernels
kernels
• Drying ofof kernels
• Sorting of kernels
• Storage and packaging
Fruit harvesting has to to be

be undertaken
undertaken atat the
the optimum
optimum time
time to
to prevent
prevent the
the harvest ofimmature
harvest of immature
fruits.
fruits. The extraction
extraction of of the
the kernels
kernels entails
entails the
the fruits
fruits being
being split
split open
open using
using machetes
machetes (when
(when
the fruits
the fruits are fresh)
fresh) or with truncheons
truncheons or hard stones when they are dry or fermented fruits. fruits.
The seed
seed shell
shell splits
splits open
open through
through the
the longitudinal
longitudinal line ofof weakness,
weakness, exposing
exposing the kernels
kernels
wrapped in
wrapped in aa dark
dark brown
brown testa.
testa. Extracted
Extracted kernels further dried
kernels are further dried for
for storage
storage oror for
for direct
direct
sale in units of 5,
sale 5, 10
10 or
or25 25 kg
kgsacks
sacks ononthethewholesale
wholesalemarket.
market. Methods
Methods of ofextraction
extraction have
have
been reported to differ between countries.
countries. TheThe kernels
kernels of Irvingia
Irvingia in South West Nigeria are
usually extracted in the fresh
usually extracted fresh state,
state, then
then dried
dried before
before storage
storage and
and sale,
sale, whereas
whereas drydry stage
stage
extraction,
extraction, which requires very little additional drying, drying, is the preferred
preferred means
means ofof extraction
extraction
practised in Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Drying
Drying of kernels isis very
very important.
important. Without
Without this,
this, stored
stored kernels
kernels become
become discoloured
discoloured and
and
prone to fungal attack and this is a major determinant of quality. Post-harvest attack by insect
pests
pests can seriously
seriously affect
affect products'
products' market
market acceptability.
acceptability. Ashiru
Ashiru (1997)
(1997) has
has isolated
isolated and
and
described the insect pest responsible
described the for the damage
responsible for damage to Irvingia
Irvingia kernels
kernels in
in storage.
storage. Aside
Aside
from pest and
and disease
disease susceptibility
susceptibility there
there are
are also
also many
many environmental
environmental factors
factors which
which can
can
affect
affect the
the rate
rate of
of quality
quality decline
decline in
in ogbono.
ogbono. High
High humidity
humidity and
and also
also high
hightemperature
temperature
decreases colour quality as
as whitish
whitish cream
cream kernels tum
turn brownish
brownish or
or dark
dark tan.
tan.
The sliminess of the dikadika cake

cake (a (a preparation
preparation ofof hard-pressed
hard-pressed kernels that resembles
resembles a cake)
cake)
and ogbono soup is aa vital
vital traditional
traditional attribute. of Irvingia
attribute. Kernels of Irvingia wombolu
wombolu are are well
well known
known
for their
their high
high slimy
slimy consistency,
consistency, while the kernels
kernels of
of Ii-vingia
Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis are lessless slimy.
slimy.
Because of the abundance
Because abundance of I. l. gabonensis,
gabonensis, it is common
common to encounter
encounter mixing of the the two
two
types and it is
types and is vital
vital that
that the
the two
two species
species are
are separated.
separated. In general,
general, aa higher
higher grade
grade can
can be
be
l. wombolu since it is slimier and preferred.
attributed to I.
5. Quality variables for consideration

5.
With the
the above
above parameters
parameters to consider
consider for
for quality
quality determination
determination in Irvingia
Irvingia the
the quality
quality
variables can be numerous. They include the following:
Visual quality: IfIf Irvingia
• Visual Irvingia isis harvested
harvested inin the
theimmature
immature state,
state, extracted
extracted kernels
kernels are
are
greenish, thin and shrunken.
greenish, shrunken. Kernel colour after after drying
drying should
should bebe whitish-cream
whitish-cream onon
the inside
inside and
and dark
dark brown
brown on on the
the outside.
outside. Colour
Colour must be uniform
uniform onon the
the kernel
kernel
without being patchy.
Kernel size:
• Kernel size: Generally
Generallylarger,
larger,uniform
uniformkernels
kernels are
are preferred.
preferred.
Kernel thickness:
• Kernel thickness: This
This refers
refers to
to the
thewholeness
wholeness of ofkernels.
kernels. Those
Those damaged
damaged during
during
extraction will break
break easily,
easily, especially
especially at the
the drying
drying stage,
stage, while
while immature
immature kernels
kernels
are prone to shrinkage and are often irregular in shape.
247
• Level of sliminess:
sliminess: This
This trait
traitisisvital
vitalfor
forlocal
localacceptance,
acceptance, since
since the
the product
product (kernels)
(kernels) is
use-oriented with
use-oriented with consumers
consumers preferring
preferring aa slimy
slimy consistency
consistency toto the
the end product.
product. To
test for sliminess kernels should be ground into a paste, wetted with a little water water and
and
then rubbed
then rubbed between
between thethe fingers.
fingers. The
The level
level of sliminess
sliminess of the sample can then be
determined. can be
determined. It can be classified as as (i) high,
high, (ii) average or (iii) low, depending on the
observations obtained.
• Pest damage
damage to to kernel:
kernel:Storage
Storageinsects
insectsareareknown
knowntotocause
causesignificant
significantdamage
damage to to kernels
kernels
(Ashiru 1996).
(Ashiru 1996). These
These insects
insects bore through
through kernels
kernels thus
thus damaging
damaging them. them. Kernel
Kernel
infestation can
infestation can be classified as having
having suffered
suffered (i) severe
severe damage,
damage, (ii)
(ii) average,
average, (iii)
(iii)
low or (iv) no insect damage at at all.
all.
Table 1.
1. In)ingia kernelparameters
Irvingiakernel parameters and
and quality
quality classes.
classes.
Grade
Grade of
of sample
samJ!le Parameters
•e No debris in kernel mass
• Kernels dry (8% moisture content)
• Cream in colour
A • Kernel is whole, unbroken
• Kernel powder is very slimy
• No pest damage
• No fungal damage
• Kernel is large and thick
• Little debris in kernel mass
• Kernels dry (8-10% moisture content)
• Cream / yellow in colour
B
• Average kernel size
• Kernel powder averagely slimy
• No pest damage
• No fungal damage
• Kernel is averagely large and thin
• High debris content in kernel
kernel mass
mass
• Kernels dry (+10%
(+ 10% moisture content)
• Darkish brown in colour
C
• Kernel size variable
• Kernel powder not particularly slimy
• Slight pest infestation
• Slight fungal infestation
• Kernel small and thin
• Very high debris content in kernel mass
• Kernels inadequately dried
• Blackish (mottled) or green (immature) in
colour
D
D
• Kernel powder not at at all
all slimy
slimy
• Kernel broken into pieces
• Heavy pest infestation
• Heavy fungal infestation
• Kernel is small and thin
248
• Fungal
Fungal damage
damagetotokernel:
kernel:Fungal
Fungalinfection
infectioncauses
causesdiscoloration
discolorationininIrvingia
Irvingiakernels.
kernels. This
This
often results
often results from improper
improper handling
handling during
during extraction due to high
extraction due high humidity
humidity and
and
inadequate drying
inadequate drying which
which will
will encourage fungal growth.
encourage fungal growth. Colour
Colour changes
changes can
can vary
vary
from brown
from brown to to black depending
depending onon the
the stage
stage of infection and this could also
infection and also vary
vary
from (i)
from (i) extensive
extensive (more than half of kernel
(more than kernel discoloured) to (ii) average
discoloured) to average (less than
half of kernel discoloured) to (iii) low and (iv) no discoloration at all.
• Level of kernel moisture
moisturecontent:
content:More
Moreeffective
effectivedrying
dryinghelps
helpsprevent
prevent pest
pest and
and disease
disease
attack.
Mechanical damage
• Mechanical damage (breakage)
(breakage) to kernels: Damage to
kernels: Damage to kernels
kernels often occurs
occurs during
during
extraction and damaged kernels reduce kernel quality significantly.
With the above considerations, it is clearclear that

that appropriate
appropriate variations
variations in
in price
price must
must bebe applied
applied
to justify
justify the
the efforts
efforts ofof aafarmer
farmer ororwholesaler
wholesaler required
required toto maintain
maintain the
the high
high quality
quality
prescribed.
prescribed. For example,
example, a 50% 50% price
price difference
difference should
should be
be specified
specified between
between the
the specific
specific
grades A and B, while a 10% 10% difference should be specified for grades C and D compared to
B.
B. With this,
this, D class
class is
is discouraged
discouraged asas only
only 30%
30% of
of the
the price
price of A will
will be
be obtained.
obtained. For
further elaboration, see
see Table
Table 1.1.
6. Potential for future marketing

marketing development
development
The impact of the

the international
international cocoa and coffee boards on the quality maintenance
maintenance of these
export products is well
well recorded.
recorded. However,
However, for NWFPs
NWFPs and other "minor"
"minor" products,
products, the
the need
need
for
for local
local farmer
farmer co-operatives is critical,
co-operatives is and II would
critical, and would suggest
suggest that
that Irvingia
Irvingia Farmers
Farmers
Associations (IFA) and
Associations (IFA) and Minor Crops
Crops Marketing Boards should
Marketing Boards should be
be established in West and
established in and
Central
Central African countries along
African countries along the
the same
same lines
lines as
as the
the cocoa
cocoa and
and coffee
coffee boards
boards and
and the
the
Dacryodes edulis
edulis trading
trading system.
system. This
This will
will conform
conform with
with the
the European
European Union
Union (EU)
(EU) initiative
initiative
on the enhancement of the tropical fruit trade to Europe which
which has resulted
resulted in
in the
the promotion
promotion
of a number of
of forest
forest fruits
fruits (otherwise
(otherwise considered
considered "minor
"minor forest
forest products")
products") with
with substantial
substantial
economic
economic returns
returns toto many
many developing
developing countries
countries and
and the
the producers
producers concerned,
concerned, small-scale
small-scale
farmers.
7. Conclusion
The present
present market
market spread
spread of
of Irvingia
Irvingia kernels
kernels has
has been
been reported
reported byby Ladipo
Ladipo and
and Boland
Boland
(1994) and
(1994) and is growing
growing steadily.
steadily. As
As more
more uses
uses are promoted
promoted for Irvingia
Irvingia and
and its
its products,
products,
sales of ogbono
sales ogbono will
will increase
increase substantially in the near
substantially in near future.
future. If
If the
the development
development of of the
the
resource take place under the guidelines
resource take outlined above,
guidelines outlined above, the
the case
case of Irvingia kernels
kernels could
could
perhaps provide
provide aa model
model for
for the
thedevelopment
developmentof
ofother
otherNWF-Ps
NWFPs of West and Central Africa.
Africa.
8. References
Ashiru, M.A. 1996. Pest damage of Irvingia kernels

kernels in storage.
storage. In D. O. Ladipo
Ladipo && D.
D. Boland
Boland
(Eds) Proceedings
Proceedings of the Workshop on
the International Workshop on Irvingia
Irvingia in WestWest Africa.
Africa.
International
Centrefor
forResearch
ResearchininAgroforestry
Agroforestry(ICRAF)
(ICRAF) ,Nairobi,
,Nairobi, Kenya.
Kenya.
Harris, D.J. 1996.
1996. A revision of
of the Irvingiaceae in Africa. Bull.
Bull. Jard. Bot.
Bot. Belg.
Belg. 65:143-196.
Ladipo, D.O. 1994.
1994. Farmer
Farmer preference
preference survey on Irvingia
Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis inin Southem
Southern Nigeria.
Nigeria.
Unpubl.
Unpub!. report.
D.O. 1997.
Ladipo, D.O. 1997. Marketing and post harvest
Marketing and constraints of traditional
harvest constraints traditional vegetables in sub-
vegetables in sub-
Saharan Africa.
Saharan Africa. Paper presented
presented atat NRI-IPGRI
NRI-IPGRI International
International Workshop
Workshop on on African
African
Indigenous Vegetables,
Vegetables , Limbe, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
249
Ladipo, D.O.
Ladipo, D.O. && D.J.
DJ. Boland. 1994.
1994. Trade in Irvingia kernels.
kernels. In D. O.O. Ladipo
Ladipo & & D.
D. Boland
Boland
Proceedings of
(eds.): Proceedings of the international workshop
the international workshop on on lrvingia
Irvingia in WestWest Africa.
Africa.
International Centrefor
forReselirch
Research in
in Agroforestry
(ICRAF) Nairobi, Kenya.
DO., J.M.
Ladipo, D.O., 1.M.Fondoun
Fondoun & & N.
N.Ganga.
Ganga. 1996.
1996. Domestication
Domestication of of the
the bush
bush mango
mango (Irvingia
(lrvingia
spp): Some
spp): exploitable intraspecific variations in
Some exploitable in West
West and and Central
Central Africa. In
Proceedings of the
Proceedings the FAO/ICRAF International Conference
FAOIICRAF International Conference on on the
the Domestication
Domestication and
Commercialization of ofnon-timber
non-timber forest
forest products
products in
inAgroforestry
Agroforestrysystems ,pp 193-206.
systems ,pp 193-206.
Ndoye, O.
Ndoye, O. M. Ruiz-Perez & A.A. Eyebe
Eyebe (1997).
(1997). The
The markets
markets of Non-timber
Non-timber Forest
Forest products
products in
in
the humid
humid Forest Zone of Cameroon.
Cameroon. Rural Development Forestry Network.
Development Forestry Network. Paper
Paper No
No
22c ODI, London, UK.
250
THE MARKETS FOR CENTRAL
CENTRAL AFRICAN NON-WOOD
NON-WOOD FOREST
FOREST
PRODUCTS IN EUROPE
Honore
Honoré Tabuna
Abstract
The
The trade inin France
France and
and Belgium
Belgium of
ofnon-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products (NWFPs)
(NWFPs) from
from forests
forests in
in
Central
Central Africa
Africa (Cameroon, CAR, Congo,
(Cameroon, CAR, Congo, DRC,
DRC, Gabon)
Gabon) was
was as
as recently
recently as
as 20 years
years ago
ago
aimed at immigrants
aimed at originatingfrom
immigrants originating fromthe
theregion.
region.The
Themarket
marketisis now
now opening
openingupup to
to a
European clientele and expanding to other countries such as Germany,
European Germany, the United Kingdom
Kingdom
and Switzerland.
and This trade
Switzerland. This trade involves
involves wild-harvested products,asas well
wild-harvested products, well as
as those
those from
from
cultivation. The studies carried out on this
this poorly
poorly understood
understood market have identified around
40 food and medicinal products that
that are
are commonly
commonly sold in Europe.
An analysis of the
the market
market (current
(current outlets,
outlets, vendors,
vendors, distributors and distribution chains, and
prices) shows that these
these NWFPs,
NWFPs , principally
principally imported
imported from three countries (Cameroon, DRC
and Congo), are still primarily aimed
aimed at African and Caribbean clientele (the(the "ethnic
"ethnic market")
market")
but are now starting
starting to
to penetrate
penetrate rapidly
rapidly into
into the
the market
market for organic
organic products.
products. In the
the "ethnic
"ethnic
market"
market" in both Belgium
Belgium and France, NWFPs
NWFPs are are sold in "local
"local tropical
tropical groceries"
groceries" and
and in
in
"neighbourhood tropical
"neighbourhood tropical markets".
markets". NWFPs
NVVFPslabelled
labelledasas organic
organic products
products are
are imported
imported
in natural and
exclusively from Cameroon and distributed through shops specialising in and dietetic
dietetic
items,, the
items the numbers
numbers of which
which are
are increasing
increasing inin France
France and
and throughout
throughout Europe.
Europe. For
For the
the
moment, these
moment, these two
two sectors
sectors involve
involve rather
rather small
small amounts
amounts ofof NWFPs
NWFPs and
and remain
remain poorly
poorly
understood,, due
understood due to
to a lack of both reliable official statistics and assistance from the importers
importers
who were contacted.
contacted. However,
However, retail
retail prices
prices are
are high.
high.
The development of
of this
this market
market offers
offers interesting
interesting possibilities
possibilities for
for improving
improving income
income among
among
rural
rural Africans,
Africans, provided
provided their production
production is adapted
adapted toto market
market requirements
requirements forfor quality,
quality,
quantity and regular availability.
availability. The impact
impact of anticipated
anticipated growth in in European
European demand
demand for
for
organic, ethnic and
and dietetic
dietetic products
products on
on biodiversity
biodiversity conservation
conservation in
in Central
Central Africa
Africa should
should
also
also be analysed
analysed carefully. It would
carefully. It would be useful
useful to
to conduct
conduct aa quantitative
quantitative analysis
analysis of the
the
volumes of products being
being traded
traded at each stage
stage of
of the distribution chain and
and prices
prices received
received at
at
each level from the producer
producer to
to the
the consumer.
consumer.
Key words: market,

market, Central
Central Africa,
Africa, non-wood
non-wood forest products, Europe, rural
rural populations
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Like other tropical regions, Central Africa is rich in resources referred to as non-wood forest
products
products (NVVFPs). Knownand
(NWFPs). Known andused
usedfor
for many
many years
years by
by local
local populations,
populations, they
they have been
studied by many
studied many African
African and
and western
western researchers
researchers (Ake-Assi,
(Ake-Assi, 1985;
1985; Makita-Madzou,
Makita-Madzou, 1985;
1985;
Hladick
Hladick and Hladick,
Hladick, 1989;
1989; Stevels,
Stevels, 1990;
1990; Tabuna,
Tabuna, 1993
1993 Bourobou, 1994;
1994; Schneemann,
Schneemann,
1994; Ndoye, 1995;
1995; Mialoundama,
Mialoundama, 1996;
1996; Silou.
Silou, 1996),
1996).
In Central
Central African
African countries,
countries, aa proportion
proportion of
of these
these NWFP
NWFP resources
resources satisfy
satisfy household
household
consumption, whilst thethe remainder
remainder is
is sold
sold in
in local
local and
and regional
regional markets.
markets. Other
Other products
products such
such
africanum are exported to some
as Gnetum africanum some European countries such such as
as France
France and
and Belgium,
Belgium,
where food and
and medicinal
medicinal NVVFPs have been
NWFPs have been increasingly
increasingly commercialised
commercialised over the past twotwo
decades. Initially,
decades. Initially, this
this trade was exclusively targeted
targeted at people from Central Africa resident
251
in Europe.
in Europe. However,
However, this
this market
market is
is expanding
expanding towards
towards European
European consumers
consumers and
and spreading
spreading to to
countries such as the
countries the United
United Kingdom,
Kingdom, Germany
Germany and and Switzerland.
Switzerland. Considering
Considering the present
present
growth of this
growth this market
market and
and the
thesocio-economic
socio-economic benefits
benefits which
which derive
derive from
from itit for
for local
local
suppliers (e.g.
suppliers (e.g. increased
increased income,
income, job-creation),
job-creation), itit is
is an
an important aspect of NWFP
NWFP research.
research.
This report presents the preliminary
This results of a study of the markets for NWFPs
preliminary results NWFPs in in Europe.
Europe.
Future work
Future work will
will involve
involve a consumption survey which
consumption survey which will
will be
be carried
carried out
out on
on African
African andand
European consumers
European consumers inin Paris
Paris and
and Brussels.
Brussels. This
This willwill be
be followed
followed by
by a second study stage
devoted to assessing the optimum means for the African-based suppliers to access markets.
2. Methodology
2.
This study aims to

This to contribute
contribute to
to the
the development
development of NWFPs
NWFPs in in Central
Central Africa
Africa and
and Europe.
Europe.
Thus. this work has four main objectives:
Thus,
• To assess how the existing markets work and are organised;
• To study the evolution of
of this trade and its development prospects;
• To identify impediments on the markets and needs of wholesalers;
• To define the conditions for gaining
gaining access
access to this market.
To achieve these goals,

goals, we
we have
have used
used the
the general
general ethnobiology
ethnobiology methodology
methodology developed
developed by
and Barrau (1971).
Porteres (1961) and (1971). This approach was
was used
used by
by Woldesselassie
W oldesselassie (1989)
(1989) for his
work on African food and food plants in Paris, andand by
by Baruto
Baruto Walujo
Walujo (1985) his work
(1985) for his work on
on
the plant products sold in the Asian stores of
of the Paris region.
For this study, the following activities were undertaken:

• Contacting
Contacting Africans living in
Africans living in Paris
Paris in order to evaluate the selling points of of African
African
products;
• The identification
identification of
ofCentral
CentralAfricans
Africansinvolved
involvedininthe
thesale
saleand
anduse
useofofNVVFPs;
NWFPs;
• The identification
identification of
ofthethe commercial
commercial name
nameof ofthe
theNVVFPs
NWFPs sold and the the photographic
photographic
recording of
of the products on display;
• The collection of
of samples
samples of of the NWFP for scientific identification;
• The identification of
of the
the retailers in
in order
order to
to assess
assess the
the structure
structure of
of the
the trade
trade network;
network;
• The interviewing ofof the
the various
various players
players in
in the
the network.
network.
3. Imported products and their

their destination
destination
The imported
imported NWFPs
NWFPs come fromfrom wild-harvest
wild-harvest sources as well as
sources as as from
from cultivated
cultivated sources.
sources.
Our work has identified over 44 NWFPs
NWFPs commonly sold in Europe (See appendix).
appendix). Fourteen
Fourteen
come
come from
from the
the wild,
wild, 24
24 from
from agroforestry
agroforestry and
and six
six come
come from
from both
both wild
wild and
andcultivated
cultivated
sources. These products fall into two groups: raw and transformed products. They are mainly
mainly
imported from
imported from Cameroon
Cameroon and
and DRC.
DRC. Perishable
Perishable products
products are
are transported
transported by
by air,
air, while most
while most
transformed
transformed NVV1-Ps (e.g.palm
NWFPs (e.g. palm oil)
oil) are
are shipped by sea.
sea.
Among
Among the mostmost frequently
frequently imported
imported NWFPs
NWFPs are the fumbua
fumbua or or koko
koko (Gnetum
(Gnetum africanum
africanum
and
and G.G. buchholzianum),
buchholzianum), cola cola nut
nut (Cola
(Cola nitida),
nitida), safou
safou (Dacryodes
(Dacryodes edulis),
edulis), djansang
(Ricinodendron heudelotii), bush
(Ricinodendron heudelotii), bush mango
mango (Irvingia
(In,ingia gabonensis),
gabonensis), pepepepe or
or peve
peve (Monodora
(Monodora
myristica or Monodora tenuifolia),
tenuifolia), bitter
bitter kola
kola (Garcinia
(Garcinia kola),
kola), ndolé
ndole (Vernonia
(Vernonia amygdalina),
amygdalina),
saka-saka (Manihot
saka-saka (Manihot esculenta),
esculenta), mushrooms
mushrooms and and caterpillars.
caterpillars. Some
Some of thethe more
more traditional
traditional
tropical fruits such
such as
as avocados,
avocados, mangoes
mangoes and many varieties of banana, cultivated in village
orchards and other agro-forests,
orchards agro-forests, are also widely traded. Because
widely traded. Because of a lack of statistics
statistics on
on the
the
value and volumes traded, it is
value is difficult
difficult to
to quantify
quantify this
this trade.
trade. However,
However, thethe trade
trade in
in African
African
NWFPs is known to to employ
employ several
several hundred persons in France and Belgium.
252
ethnic market
4. The ethnic market
Belgium, the
In France and Belgium, the history
history of trade
trade of African products
products is linked to the immigration
immigration
of people
of people from
from sub-Saharan Africa. According
sub-Saharan Africa. Accordingtoto Poiret
Poiret (1996),
(1996), before
before the
the wave
wave of
independence
independence in the the 1960s,
1960s, this
this immigration
immigration mainly
mainly concerned
concerned West-Africans.
West-Africans. Therefore,
Therefore,
only sub-Sahelian
only products were
sub-Sahelian products were available. The Central
available. The Central African
African NWFP
NWFP market
market started
started
developinginin the
developing the 1960s in France
1960s in France and
and Belgium.
Belgium. The The pioneers
pioneers ofof this
this activity,
activity, often
often
Europeans, ran grocery stores and were also street street vendors
vendors in African
African meeting
meeting places
places such
such asas
the 'African House',
the House', or the DRC 'Student Hall' in Brussels. Gradually, this market developeddeveloped
and reached
and reached its
its peak level in the
the mid
mid 80s
80s when
when thethe law
lawon
onfamily
familyreunion
reunionwas
waspassed,
passecj. in
in
France,
France, allowing family members
allowing family memberstoto joinjoin people
people of Central
Central African
African origin
origin studying
studying or or
country.
working in the country.
5. Demand and its evolution
of two
Demand is comprised of two consumer
consumer categories:
categories:
• The nationals of Central African countries resident
resident in
in Europe;
• Persons who recently discovered the products on a trip to Africa.
Central African natives

Central African natives number
number 13 13 000
000 in Brussels,
Brussels, according
according to to the latest census
census by
by the
the
National Statistics Institute
National Statistics Institute (SNI).
(SNI).InIn France,
France, according
accordingtoto the
the results
results of the census by thethe
INSEE, the population of Central Africans is 60 604 people; a total of 73 000 both
INSEE, the population of Central Africans is 60 604 people; a total of 73 000 in both
countries. However,
countries. However, this
this isis only
only the
the registered
registered population
population and,
and, if
if those
those not yet registered or
those who now
now have
have French or Belgian
Belgian nationality
nationality are
are taken
taken into
into account,
account, there
there are
are close
close on
on
100000 potential customers
100 000 potential customersfor
forAfrican
AfricanNVVFPs.
NWFPs.
6. The selling points
NVVI-Tsareareavailable
NWFPs availableinintwo
twokinds
kindsofofstores;
stores;the
the "local
"local tropical
tropical groceries"
groceries" and
and in the
the
"neighbourhood tropical
tropical markets".
markets".
6.1. local tropical groceries

6.1. The local
In Paris,
In Paris, there
there are
are around
around 50
50 local
local tropical
tropical grocery
grocery stores,
stores, many
many of
of which
which have
have been
been
established since
established since 1982.
1982. These
These shops
shops are
are always
always well-stocked
well-stockedand andoffer
offer aa wide
wide range
range of
products from
products from Africa,
Africa, notably
notably smoked
smoked and salted
salted fish,
fish, cosmetics,
cosmetics, newspapers,
newspapers, and,
and, most
most
importantly, fresh
importantly, fresh produce.
produce.Products
Productsareare generally
generallydisplayed
displayedon ontwo
two kinds
kinds ofof stalls:
stalls: fresh
fresh
produce on
produce on mobile stalls outside
mobile stalls the shop,
outside the shop, and the
the less
less perishable
perishable products
products are
are displayed
displayed
inside on fixed shelves.
6.2. Neighbourhood
6.2. Neighbourhood tropical
tropical markets
markets
Before the development

development of the local
local tropical
tropical groceries,
groceries, the
the neighbourhood
neighbourhood tropical
tropical Markets
markets
were the only
were only Central
Central African
African NWFP
NWFP outlets.
outlets. They
They were
were simple
simple grocery
grocery shops
shops scattered
scattered
throughout Paris.
throughout Paris. Neighbourhood
Neighbourhoodtropical
tropicalmarkets
marketsareare less
less well
well stocked
stocked than
than local
local tropical
tropical
grocery stores and
grocery stores and are located in cities with large African suburban populations such as Paris
such as Paris
and Brussels.
and Brussels. The choice of products
products is is limited,
limited, especially
especially forfor fresh
fresh NWFPs.
NWFPs. According
According to to
importers and wholesalers, the number of of neighbourhood tropical markets is increasing.
increasing. First
First
clustered in
clustered in central
central Paris,
Paris, neighbourhood
neighbourhood tropicaltropical markets
markets spread
spread first
first to
to the Paris suburbs
suburbs
and then on to other large French cities. The numbers have grown from six in the the late
late 1970s
1970s
to around
to around 100
100 in Paris and
and its
its suburbs.
suburbs. TheyThey are
are run,
run, in
in most
most cases,
cases, byby Asians,
Asians, although
although
sometimes by Africans.
253
7. The products sold on the ethnic
ethnic market
market
7.1. Imported
7.1. Imported products
The majority of imported NWFPs arrive at ethnic markets, the first destination of of most
most of
of the
the
imported products from Cameroon and DRC. DRC. These fall into twotwo groups:
groups: regularly
regularly imported
imported
products that
products that are
are available
available all year
year round
round (e.g.
(e.g. cassava
cassava leaves,
leaves, bush mango
mango kernels)
kernels) and
seasonal products
seasonal products (e.g.
(e.g. the
the fruits
fruits of Daciyodes
Dacryodes edulis;
edulis; the
the larvae,
larvae, Ryncophorus phoenicis, a
Ryncophorus phoenicis,
grub found in the apex of the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, also belongs
guineensis, also belongs to
to this
this category).
category).
7.2. Quantities
7.2. Quantities imported
of the absence of
Because of of official statistics
statistics on African NWFPs, it is veryvery difficult
difficult to
to quantify
quantify
the trade volumes.
the volumes. However,
However, it has been
been possible
possible to
to estimate
estimate the
the most
most commonly
commonly imported
imported
products to
to France, and
and these
these are:
are:
• Fresh and dried leaves of Gnetum spp. (fumbua)
Gnetlllll spp.
• Leaves of ndolé (Vemonia
ofndole (Vernonia amygdalina)
• Fruits of Daciyodes
Dacryodes edulis
edulis (safou)
(safou)
• Cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta)
• Kernels ofof bush mango (Irvingia spp.)spp.)
• Leaves of Corchorus olitorius
olitorius (dongo-dongo
(dongo-dongo ya makasa)
• nuts (Cola
Cola nuts (Cola acuminata)
• Bitter kola (Garcinia kola)
kola)
• Djansang (Ricinodenron heudelottii).
8. The actors and distribution network
Four main
Four main actors
actors are involved
involved in the
the distribution
distribution of
of NWFPs
NWFPs in in France
France and
and Belgium;
Belgium; the
the
importers, the
importers, the wholesalers, the retailers
wholesalers, the retailers and
and the consumers.
consumers. Some importers and and retailers
retailers
combine these different functions (import,
(import, wholesale and
and retail).
8.1. The importers

8.1. The importers
The NWFP
The NWFP importers can be divided
importers can divided into
into three
three groups:
groups: fixed,
fixed, itinerant
itinerant and
and occasional
occasional
importers. The
importers. The fixed
fixed importers handle large
importers handle large volumes
volumes of food NWFPs NWFPs and and other
other products
products
(smoked fish,
(smoked fish, drinks,
drinks, cosmetics, etc.) targeted
cosmetics, etc.) targeted at people from tropical
tropical regions.
regions. They
They obtain
obtain
their stock from West and Central Africa or other tropical regions, regions, and are either
either of
of African
African
or European
European origin.
origin. They import both fresh fresh and
and transformed
transformed NWITs.
NWFPs. Recently,
Recently, however,
however,
some European
some European importers
importers have
have given
given upup trading
trading in
in fresh
fresh products
products andand left that
that to
to African
African
importers. The primary reason for leaving the trade being the difficulty of of obtaining
obtaining adequate
adequate
suppli~
supplies of stock and its uneven quality. This was the case for two French French companies,
companies, Anarex
Anarex
and Racine,
and which specialise
Racine, which specialise in
in the
the importation
importation of of African
African food
food crops.
crops. The
The majority
majority ofof
NWEP
NWFP importers
importers buy their products in Central
Central Africa through
through aa local
local partner
partner or
orpurchasing
purchasing
agent who
agent who is contact with
is in contact with the the in-country
in-country markets
markets andand suppliers (farmers and
suppliers (farmers and
manufacturers).
manufacturers). The The commercial
commercial links
links with
with the
the latter
latter are
are usually
usually exclusive,
exclusive, asas stated
stated in
in the
of their contracts.
terms of contracts.
Itinerant importers regularly import fresh

fresh and
and transformed
transformed products.
products. The
The volumes
volumes imported
imported
are often small and are delivered to the clients on thethe same
same day
day the
the goods
goods areare unloaded
unloaded at
at
Roissy airport in Paris.
Roissy Paris. They
They have
have no storage facilities and
storage facilities and try
try to avoid having
having to handle
handle
large amounts
amounts of stock.
stock. Occasional importers are
Occasional importers are often
often retailers
retailers or
or people
people on holiday who
take
take advantage of trips
advantage of trips to Central
Central Africa
Africa to import
import goods
goods onon their
their retum.
return. The
The quantities
quantities
254
very small,
involved are very small, with
with some
some of
of the
the products
products going
going for domestic
domestic consumption and the
often sold
remainder often sold to
to neighbourhood
neighbourhood tropical
tropical markets
markets and
and local
local tropical
tropical groceries.
groceries.
8.2. The wholesalers

8.2.
In
ill the
the N'WFP
NWFP trade in Paris
Paris and
and Brussels,
Brussels, there
there are
areno
noindependent
independentwholesalers.
wholesalers. Instead,
illstead,
wholesaling isis done
wholesaling done by
by the
the fixed and itinerant
itinerant importers. There are
importers. There are as many
many importers
importers as
there are wholesalers (about three in Brussels and around ten in Paris).
8.3. The
8.3. The retailers
retailers
ill France and Belgium, retail sale of

In of NFWPs is almost
almost exclusively
exclusively in the
the hands
hands of
ofAfricans
Africans
and Asians,
and Asians, and
and very
very rarely,
rarely, of Europeans
Europeans (as
(as is the case in Brussels). There are
are three
three kinds
kinds
of retailers; independent fixed retailers, integrated fixed retailers and itinerant retailers.
retailers.
Independent and integrated

illdependent and integrated fixed retailers are
fixed retailers are mainly
mainly Asians.
Asians. Their
Their outlets
outlets are
are the
the
neighbourhood tropical markets and local tropical grocery
grocery shops. They sell
sell products
products targeted
targeted
at people from Central African and other other tropical regions
regions (West Africa,
Africa, West Indies,
illdies, Latin
America, etc.).
etc.). Their success may lie in the fact that they
they come
come from the merchant
merchant classes
classes in
in
that they
their country of origin and that they are
are often
often provided
provided with
with capital
capital by
by their
their community
community (Ma(Ma
Mung, 1996).
Mung, 1996). The
The entrepreneurial Bamilekéethnic
entrepreneurial Bamileke ethnicgroup
groupof of Cameroon
Cameroon alsoalso play
play an
an
important role in the retail business.
Independent fixed
illdependent fixed retailers
retailers from Central
Central Africa
Africa have
have specialised
specialised in
in the
the retail
retail sale of products
products
from their country
country of origin
origin such
such as
as Dacryodes
Dacryodes edulis,
edulis, or
or Gnetum.
Gnetum. Thus,
Thus, aa typical
typical NWFP
NWFP
from Congo
from Congo cancan only
only bebe found
found at aa retailer
retailer originating from this
originating from this country
country and this "local
"local
factor" is therefore
factor" therefore important
important in the behaviour
behaviour of the the consumer.
consumer. This
This attitude can alsoalso be
be
justified by
justified by the
the absence
absence ofof any
any kind
kind of
of label
label indicating
indicating quality
quality of
of the
the products.
products. Consumers
Consumers gogo
to the grocery shops owned by fellow nationals, in whom they have more confidence.
8.4. The consumers

8.4. The consumers and
and the products
products
Although all consumers

Although all come from
consumers come from Central
Central Africa,
Africa, they
they do
do not all buy
buy the
the same
same products.
products.
Except for the fruits of
of Dacryodes
Dacryodes edulis,
edulis, NWFP
NWFP consumption
consumption is national and not regional.
regional.
For example,
example, saka saka (cassava
(cassava leaves),
leaves), koko (sugar cane)
cane) and
and fumbua
fumbua (Gnetum
(Gnetum spp.)
spp.) are
are
targeted at nationals
targeted from CAR,
nationals from CAR, Gabon
Gabon andand DRC.
DRC. Inill contrast,
contrast, products
products such asas djansang
djansang
(Ricinodendron heudelotii), miondo
(Ricinodendron heudelotii), miondo (processed
(processed cassava)
cassava) and
and ndolé
ndole (Vernonia
(Vernonia amygdalina)
amygdalin a)
people from
are bought only by people from Cameroon.
Cameroon.
8.5. Distribution
8.5. Distribution networks
NWFPs are distributed in France and Belgium through three types of chains: the
the direct,
direct, short
short
and long tracks.
8.5.1. The
8.5.1. The direct
direct track
The ultra short track has two actors:

actors: the
the importer
importer andand the
the consumer
consumer with
with the
the products
products going
going
sale. This type of
straight from one to the other. It is a system of direct sale. of distribution
distributionwas
was found
found
twice
twice in Brussels and once
Brussels and once in Paris.
Paris. One
One portion
portion ofof the
the imported
imported product
product goes
goes to
to the
the
wholesale business
business and the other to
to direct retail
retail in the
the importer's own grocery.
Importer .................................................................Consumer
255
8.5.2. The short
8.5.2. The short track
This has three

three actors:
actors: the
the importers,
importers, the
the retailers
retailers or
or restaurant
restaurant manager,
manager, and
and the
the consumer.
consumer.
The products
products go through
through thethe hands
hands of
of an
an intermediary
intermediary before
before reaching
reaching the
the consumer.
consumer. This
This
distribution strategy can
can be found in in Brussels,
Brussels, Paris,
Paris, Lyon and
and Montpellier.
Montpellier.
Case 1:
Case 1: Importer
Importer. ................. Retailer.
Retailer ................................... Consumer
Case 2 : : Importer .............. Restaurant Manager.

Importer. Manager ....................... Consumer
8.5.3. The long

8.5.3. The long track
track
This has
This has at least
least four
four actors,
actors, and
and can
can only
only be
be found
found in
in French
French cities
cities such
such as
as Montpellier,
Montpellier,
Toulouse, Bordeaux
Toulouse, Bordeaux and Marseille,
Marseille, where there are no importers.
importers. Retailers
Retailers usually
usually have
have to
to
obtain
obtain their stock from thethe Paris-based
Paris-based retailers. Thus, the product goes
retailers. Thus, goes through
through the
the Paris
Paris
retailer (retailer
(retailer 1) and a second
second retailer (retailer 2) or restaurant manager,
manager, before it reaches
reaches
the consumer.
Case 1:
1: Importer. ........ Retailer
Importer Retailer 11.. ....... Retailer 2 .................Consumer
Consumer
Case 2: Importer...Retailer.
Importer ... Retailer 11....Retailer
.... Retailer 22..
... Restaurant Manager
Manager....Consumer
.... Consumer
9. Prices
Pricing
Pricing of Central
Central African
African NWFPs
NWFPs is notnot subject
subject to
to any
anyparticular
particular regulation.
regulation. Enquiries
Enquiries
undertaken between
undertaken between January
January and
and July
July 1997
1997 revealed
revealed the
the existence
existence of certain products
products with
with
stable prices
stable prices (e.g.
(e.g. Gnetunz, cassavaleaves,
GnetullZ, cassava leaves,ndole)
ndole)which
whichdo do not
not seem
seem toto be
be affected
affected by
by
changes
changes inin supply and demand.
supply and demand. On On the
the other
other hand,
hand, the
the price
price of certain
certain fruits,
fruits, such
such as
Damocles
Daclyodesedulis, fluctuatedepending
edulis,fluctuate dependingon
onthe
thequantities
quantities circulating
circulatingwithin
withinthe
themarket.
market.
According to many retailers, the majority of consumers

consumers find
find the prices too high and this often
limits
limits purchasing (Boudimbou, 1991).
purchasing (Boudimbou, 1991). However,
However,these
thesehigh
high prices
prices can
can be
be explained
explained byby the
the
numerous losses sustained
numerous losses sustained during
during transportation
transportation and
and the
the costs
costs of air freight and customs.
customs. A
lowering of e prices would necessitate an
an increase
increase in
in volume
volume and
and the
the establishment
establishment of ofbetter
better
Africa and
conservation techniques for fresh vegetables and fruit, both in Africa and during
during transport
transport by
by
air.
Advertising and
10. Advertising and promotion
The commercialisation of NWFPs

NWFPs is undertaken without
without any
any advertising
advertising policy.
policy. The majority
majority
of importers
importers and
and retailers
retailers communicate
communicate with
with consumers
consumers through
through word-of-mouth
word-of-mouth andand the
display of their products being sold.
display sold. Many shops, notably those run by by Africans,
Africans, have
have signs
signs
indicating the country of
of origin of the manager and the origin of
of the products.
The utilisation
The utilisation of these methods
methods of communication
communication is is explained
explained by
by two main reasons:
reasons: the
the
absence
absence of large budgets for communication
communication and and restriction
restriction of the commerce
commerce to to natives
natives of
of
Central Africa
Central Africa who
who already
already know
know thethe products
products well
well in
in terms
terms of quality,
quality, seasonality, dates of
seasonality, dates
arrival, utilisation
arrival, utilisation and
and the
the retailers
retailers who
who sell
sell the
the desired
desired products.
products. However,
However, itit is
is fair
fair to say
that
that some
some companies
companies are developing
developing advertising for the products,
advertising for products, in
in particular
particular European
European
importers in
importers in Brussels
Brussels such
such as
as "Exotic
"Exotic Foods"
Foods" andand "Tropical
"Tropical Taste".
Taste". The
The products
products areare
imported from
imported from Central
Central Africa
Africa in
in bulk andand packaged
packaged in Brussels
Brussels according
according to to European
European
legislation, indicating
legislation, indicating the
the country
country of of origin
origin and
and the
the sell-by date. This innovation is used
sell-by date. used by
companies from Cameroon for several products such as ndole ndolé and frozen cassava leaves.
256
11. Limitations
11. Limitations to the growth of the network
The expansion of the NWFPNWFP trade in France

France and
and Belgium
Belgium is encountering
encountering several
several obstacles.
obstacles.
In addition to the lack of any
any regulation in Europe on the importation of these resources,
resources, the
majority
majority of the
the impediments
impediments are to to be
be found
found ininthe
theexporting
exportingcountries
countries(Guichard,
(Guichard, 1991;
1991;
Dalle, 1991).
1991). For the importers, the main bottlenecks are:
• The absence of of any
any institutional
institutional framework for the management of of the NWFP markets
markets in
Africa;
• The poor organisation of of the network
network in Central
Central Africa;
• The
The absence
absence ofof transportation
transportation infrastructure (roads)for
infrastructure (roads) for the
the rapid
rapid shipment
shipment of the
the
products between production zones and and the nearest major town;
town;
• The lack of of cold storage facilities atat airports;
airports;
• The irregularity of of supply
supply and non-compliance of products to European
European regulations;
regulations;
• The absence of of quality control ofof the products by the exporters;
• Administrative inefficiency in the export departments.
12. Future prospects for the development of the NWFP

12. Future NWFP trade
trade
All importers interviewed

interviewed are
are convinced
convinced of
ofthe
thecontinuing
continuinggrowth
growthofofthe
thetrade
tradeinin
NW1-4Ps
NWFPs
from Central Africa. This growth should follow two paths:
• The improvement and development of existing outlets
• Prospecting new outlets.
12.1. Improvement
12.1. Improvement and development of the NWFP market
market
The improvement of thethe existing market will

will have
have to
to address
address certain
certain constraints:
constraints: harmonising
harmonising
of the
the regulations
regulations on
on the
the imports
imports of
ofNWEPs
NWFPs intointo Europe,
Europe, regularity
regularity of
of fresh
fresh products,
products,
increasing the
increasing the size ofof NWFY
NWFP outlets,
outlets, improvement
improvement of packaging
packaging andand conditioning
conditioning ofof
products,
products, and of the
the reception
reception and
and informing
informing ofof the
the customer,
customer, development
development of of transformed
transformed
NWFPs and
NWFPs and frozen products,
products, growth ofof mini-markets
mini-markets and price
price reduction
reduction or
ordiscounting.
discounting.
These tasks,
These tasks, to be
be undertaken
undertaken in
in Europe,
Europe, must
must bebe complemented
complemented by an an organisation
organisation of
of
production and the implication of other participants
participants in the network from the Central African
countries as well as from Europe (customs, forwarding agents, air transporters, etc.).
etc.).
12.2. Extension
12.2. Extensionof
ofthe
themarket
market to
to other
other European
European countries
Our study reveals that NWFP trade is moving

moving towards other European countries such as the the
United Kingdom, Germany and
Kingdom, Germany Switzerland. In
and Switzerland. In addition
addition to
to these
these three
three countries,
countries, the market
should include
should include Portugal,
Portugal, where
where there
there is an important
important community
community of people from DRC and and
Angola. The latter,
Angola. The latter, having
having spent
spent a long time living in DRC DRC during
during the
the Angolan
Angolan war,
war, are
are
consumers
consumers of many NWFP NWFP products
products from
from Central
Central Africa.
Africa. ItIt would
would thus
thus be advantageous for
advantageous for
importers to target this population settled
settled for
for the
the most
most part
part in
in Lisbon.
12.3. Opening
12.3. Openingup
up trade
trade to
to the
the European
European consumer
For some years demand has been growing in Europe,Europe, especially in France, for food
food products
products
from overseas (Volatier, 1997; Gillet,
overseas (Volatier, Gillet, 1997; Normand, 1995; CDT,
Normand, 1995; CDI, 1997).
1997). This
This change in the
pattern of consumer demand can be explained by globalisation, the frequency
frequency of
of visits
visits made
made
by Europeans to distant countries and the acquisition of new tastes, etc. Studies carried out in
France and
France and published
published in the Ethnic Food News
News (1997)
(1997) show that
that 37%
37% ofofconsumers
consumers today
today
buy ethnic
buy ethnic foodstuffs. The typical
foodstuffs. The typical consumer
consumer isis identified as being
identified as being young,
young, urban
urban and
and
successful. Professionals thus
successful. Professionals thus believe
believe that
that the
the market
market will
will develop
develop through
through aageneration
generation
effect. Consumers who are now 25
effect. 25 years old will doubtless
doubtless continue to buy for the next 40 or
257
50 years.
years. Unfortunately, present statistics
Unfortunately, present statisticsshow
showan
an absence
absence of
of African
African products
products in
in this
this
segment
segment of the
the market.
market. Considering
Considering its
its size
size and purchasing power,
power, the European consumer is
an important potential outlet for the NWFPs of of Central Africa.
123.
12.5. The
The development
development of
of the
the organic
organic NVVFP market of
NWFP market of Central
Central Africa
Through the initiative of an importer from Cameron, EXODOM, in 1979, 1979, the
the organic
organic market
market
represents the
represents the second largest market
market in in France
France for
for NWFPs
NWFPs fromfrom Central
Central Africa.
Africa. Imports,
Imports, forfor
the moment
moment limited
limited totothis
thisimporter,
importer,totaltotal160
160tons
tonsper
peryear, representing
year, a value
representing a valueof 141-4
of FF
2000000.
2 000 000. According to the manager of this company, the volume of of products imported
imported isis far
far
below the present
present demand,
demand, whichwhich is is increasing
increasing constantly
constantly in France.
France. Therefore,
Therefore, important
important
market opportunities
market opportunities exist
exist for
for new
new suppliers
suppliers both
both in
in France
France and
and in other consumer countries
countries
(especially the
(especially the United
United Kingdom,
Kingdom, Germany,
Germany, Netherlands
Netherlands and Denmark).
Denmark). The The products
products
imported by EXODOM are destined destined forfor French consumers
consumers andand sold through
through retail outlets
outlets for
for
organic and
organic and natural products
products (specialised
(specialised shops, organic
organic supermarkets,
supermarkets, mini-markets
mini-markets and and
dietetic or healthfood
dietetic healthfood shops,
shops, etc.).
etc.). For
For thethe time
time being
being the
the activities
activities of EXODOM are are mainly
mainly
concentrated in France.
The market for organic products has existed in Europe since the beginning of the 1980s. 1980s. It is
now in constant
now constant growth
growth though
though its size
size remains
remains modest
modest (Reynaud,
(Reynaud, 1996;1996; Buley,
Buley, 1997).
1997). Its
Its
share
share ofof the
the market
market is is 1%
1% atat present
present and
and should
should reach
reach 2.5%
2.5% in in the
the year
year 2000
2000 (Bio
(Bio
Convergence, 1997). Moreover,
Convergence, 1997). Moreover,prices
prices are
are higher
higher than
than those
those observed
observed in the the conventional
conventional
market and,
market and, depending
depending on on the
the product,
product, they
they can
can be
be three to to four
four times
times greater.
greater. Organic
Organic
from the
dessert bananas from the forest gardensofofCameroon
forestgardens Cameroonare
aresold
soldatata retail
a retailprice
price
of of FF 24 per
1414 per kgkg
while at the same time dessert bananas of non-organic origin from the same country are sold sold
in retail
retail chains
chains atat 1414
FF 8.8.This
This gap
gap in
in the market
market would
would therefore
therefore seem seem toto represent
represent anan
opportunity
opportunity forfor the
the producers,
producers, on on the condition
condition that they
they comply
comply with with the
the regulations
regulations for
for
organic agriCUlture
organic agriculture established
established byby the
the European
European Union
Union (Reynaud,
(Reynaud, 1997).
1997). These
These require
require that
that
all products sold under the organic label be produced by agricultural practices that do do not use
use
chemical fertilisers and protect the environment.
12.6. Development
12.6. Developmentof
ofAfrican
Africanrestaurants
restaurants
The number
The number of African restaurants in
African restaurants in France,
France, as
as well
well as inin other
other European
European countries,
countries, is
is
rapidly increasing (Leroux, 1996;
increasing (Leroux, Defrance, 1996).
1996; Defrance, 1996). Despite
Despite this,
this, Asian restaurants
restaurants are still
the most popular ethnic restaurants followed
followed by Mexican, Middle Eastern, Caribbean,
Caribbean, North
North
African and Indian restaurants and
Indian restaurants and dominate
dominate the
the market
market for
for ethnic
ethnic food.
food. A marketing effort
therefore is
therefore is necessary
necessary in
in order to
to make
make known
known the
the richness
richness and
and variety
variety of
of the
the African
African cuisine
cuisine
to the discerning European consumer (Andriamirado, 1997). 1997).
12.7. Other
12.7. Other possible outlets for NWFPs
Apart from the

Apart from the two
two existing
existing types
types of
of outlets,
outlets, NWFP
NWFP foodstuffs
foodstuffs could
could also
also be
be directed
directed
towards:
• the market for dietetic and health foods;
• the association for fair trade
trade based in Northern Europe.
12.7.1. Themarket
12.7.1. The market for dietetic and health foods
Like the market for organic products, the demand

dernand for
for dietetic
dietetic foodstuffs
foodstuffs is rapidly expanding
expanding
in France
France and
and elsewhere
elsewhere inin Europe.
Europe. The
The emergence
emergence ofof this
this market
market isis explained
explained byby the
the fact
fact
that consumers
that consumers areare increasingly concerned with
increasingly concerned with health
health and
and quality.
quality. Food
Food scandals
scandals and
and the
utilisation
utilisation of transgenics
transgenics are the main causes for the
the development
development of this this outlet
outlet (Gunning,
(Gunning,
258
1998). Dietetic
1998). Dietetic food
food products
products include among
among other
other things:
things: artificial
artificial sweeteners,
sweeteners, substitute
substitute
foods,
foods, appetite
appetite suppressing
suppressing products,
products, isotonic
isotonic products,
products, isotonic
isotonic drinks
drinks and
and energising
energising
This represents
foodstuffs. This represents aaturnover
turnoverof1414
of FF 11719
719billion
billionand
andits
itsgrowth
growth rate
rate varies between 2
and 5 %
and % per
per year
year (ibid.).
(ibid.). Products
Products such as the
the fruits
fruits of
of Pentadiplandra
Pentadiplandra brazzeana,
brazzeana, much
much
appreciated by the pygmy children (Hladick, 1989), can be targeted for this market.
The market for energising foodstuffs

foodstuffs now
now represents
represents FF1+ 237 million in 1997
1997 in sales
sales and
and its
its
growth rate
growth rate isis 5%
5% per year
year (ibid.).
(ibid.). It is in
in full
full expansion,
expansion, notably
notably in so
so far
far as
as energising
energising
drinks for the young are concerned. Products such as pepe or mpeve (Monodora myristica or
Monodora tenuifolia),
tenuifolia), the kola
kola nut
nut (Garcinia
(Garciniakola)
kola)and
andmudongo
mudongo(Aframomutn
(Aframomum melegueta),
melegueta),
used as ingredients
ingredients in the manufacture
manufacture of ginger juice much used in in Central
Central Africa,
Africa, could
could
thus be destined for this market.
market.
12.7.2. Fair trade

12.7.2. Fair
Created in 1964
1964 in England (EFTA, 1995;
1995; Bowen, 1997),
1997), fair trade practices
practices are
are promoted
promoted by by
associations whose aim
associations whose aim is to
to promote
promote the
the development
development of ofautonomy
autonomy and andemancipation
emancipation
through the establishment of commercial relations
through relations based on fair trade.
trade. These
These organisations
organisations
buy directly
buy directly from the producer
producer of foodstuffs
foodstuffs and craft
craft products
products at at reasonable
reasonable prices.
prices. The
The
profits are transferred back to the producers to be invested in the further development of their
activities. This
activities. This concept
concept constitutes an alternative
constitutes an market for
alternative market for several countries
countries in Central
Central
Africa. In Europe, there are now some 70 000 merchants
Africa. merchants involved
involved inin this
this type
type of trade,
trade, which
is growing
growing at a rate of
of 5%
5% per
per year
year (Bowen,
(Bowen, 1997).
1997). A number of co-operatives
co-operatives in in Asia and
and
South America market their products by means of this channel.
13. Conclusion
13.
At the present time three types of outlets for NWFP food products and and medical
medical supplies
supplies from
from
Central Africa
Central Africa exist
exist in France
France and
and Belgium;
Belgium; the ethnic
ethnic market,
market, thethe organic
organic market
market and
and
African
African restaurants.
restaurants. Constantly developing since
Constantly developing since their
their creation,
creation, these
these markets
markets should
should
continue to
continue to expand,
expand, given
given the
the growth
growth ofof the
the demand
demand for for ethnic
ethnic and organic
organic products
products in in
France
France and elsewhere
elsewhere in Europe.
Europe. The growth
growth of catering
catering outside
outside the home
home should
should play
play anan
important role in the spread of African cuisine. Other emerging markets could also contribute
to this trend.
trend. These
These include the healthfood
include the market and
healthfood market and the
the fair
fair trade
trade market.
market. In
In order
order toto
penetrate these profitable markets, the
profitable markets, the organisation
organisation and
and adaptation
adaptation of of the
the channels
channels from
from the
the
producers to the importers
importers is indispensable.
indispensable. An
An efficient
efficient marketing-mix
marketing-mix (policy
(policy on
on products,
products,
distribution, price and
distribution, price and promotion)
promotion) mustmust be
be established
established in in Europe
Europe by by those
those participants
participants
interested in these products.
This work
This work must
must be be complimented
complimented in in Africa
Africa by the the organisation
organisation of the the channels
channels from
from
production through
production through to to exportation,
exportation, andand the establishment
establishment of an an institutional
institutional framework
framework
promotingNWFPs
promoting NWfirs in in Europe.
Europe. The
The aim
aim is
is to ensure
ensure that supply
supply and
and demand
demand develop
develop inin
parallel and
parallel and that the productsproducts satisfy
satisfy the expectations
expectations of of the
the European clients on the one
European clients one
hand,
hand, and improve
improve the the income
income of the
the producers
producers on
on the
the other.
other. This
This is a big challenge and may
be difficult, but
but itit is
is not
not insurmountable.
insurmountable. Working
Workingprogressively,
progressively,ititisisclear
clearthat
thatthe
theNW1-4Ps
NWFPs of of
Central Africa will able to follow the commercial path taken by numerous tropical
Central Africa will be able to follow the commercial path taken by numerous tropical
products that
products that are now now sold
sold ininlarge
largequantities
quantities ononthe
theinternational
internationalmarket
market(avocados,
(avocados,
mangoes, bananas, etc).
259
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261
Appendix: . List of NWFPs imported
imported from
from Central
Central Africa
Africa and
and sold
sold in
in Europe
Europe (C:
(C: Cameroon;
Cameroon; CA:Central
CA:Central African
African Republic;
Republic; CK:
CK: Congo
Congo Kinshasa;
Kinshasa; CB:
CB:
Gabon).
Congo Brazzaville; G: Gabon).
Species Family Vernacular name Trade name Status Part sold

Part
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Malvaceae dongo dongo (CK,CB) gombo cultivated fruit
lepidophyllus Mildbraed
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Styracaceae omi(C)
omi (C) omi spontaneous bark
Aframomum spp. Zingiberaceae m'bongo (C), Nzo za nungu (CB) maniguette spontaneous fruit dried/fresh
Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae bitekuteku (CK), badi (CB) bitekuteku cultivated leaves
Ananas comosus
Ananas comosus (L.)
(L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae pineapple (CK,CB,G,C,CA) ananas mixt fruit
A rachis hypogea L.
Arachis Fabaceae nguba (CK,CB), groundnut (C) arachide cultivated seed
communis Forst
Artocatpus communis
Artocarpus Moraceae jack fruit Jack fruit mixt fruit
Basella alba L. Basellaceae epinard
épinard spinach cultivated leaves
Cajanus cajan (L.)
(L.) Millsp Fabaceae petit haricot (C) beans cultivated seed
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae
Solanaceae pilipili (CK), pidi pidi (CB), piment pilipili cultivated fruit
Carica papaya L. Caricaceae
Caricaceae papaye (C,CK,CB,G,CA) papaye cultivated fruit
Cola nitida A. Chev.
Chev. Sterculiaceae makazu(CK,CB), noix de cola kola mixt seed
(C,CA)
Colocasia esculenta (L.)
(L.) Schott.
Schott. Araceae taro (CK,CB,CA,C,G) taro cultivated tubercule
Cucurbita maxima Duch Curcubitaceae m'bika (CK,CB),
m'bika (CK,CB), graine de courge, C graine de courge cultivated seed
Corchorus olitorius Per
Per ex
ex DC Tiliaceae dongo dongo ya makasa (CK,CB)
(CK,CB) gombo cultivated leaves
Cymbopogon citratus (DC) STAPF
Cymbopogon citratus Poaceae lemon grass citronnelle cultivated dried leaves
Dacryodes edulis(G.
Dacryodes edulis (G.Don)
Don) L.
Lam. Burseraceae safou (C,CK,CB,CA,G) safou mixt fruit
Elaeis guinensis Jacq
J acq Arecaceae m'bila
m'bila (CK,CB),
(CK,CB), noix de palme (C,G) noix de palme mixt fruit, oil, beverage
Garcinia kola Haeckel
Haeckel Clusiaceae petit cola (C), démarreur
demarreur (C) petit cola' spontaneous seed
Gnetum spp. Gnetaceae fumbua (CK,CB), okok (C), (C), fumbua spontaneous leaves
koko (CB,CA), eru
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
sabdariffa L. Malvaceae ngai ngai (CK,CB) ngai ngai cultivated leaves
Hua gabonii Pierre Styracaceae omi (C) omi spontaneous fruit dried
Ipomoea batatas
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam Convolvulaceae m'bala
m'bala (CK,CB),
(CK,CB), patate
patate douce
douce patate douce cultivated tubercule
(C,CA)
Ipomoea sp.
sp. Convolvulaceae matembele banki (CK) matembele cultivated leaves
banki
lrvingia
Irvingia gabonensis
gabonensis Baillon
Baillon Irvingiaceae sioko (C) sioko, mango spontaneous seed
Landolphia sp.
sp. Apocynaceae malombo (C) malombo spontaneous fruit
Lippia adoensis Hochst Verbenaceae bulukutu (C) bulukutu spontaneous leaves dried
Luffa cylindrica M. Roem Cucurbitaceae liniuka (CK), nsania (C), éponge
eponge végétale
vegetale cultivated fruit dried
Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae mangolo (CK) (CK) mangue cultivated fruit
Manihot esculenta Grantz Euphorbiaceae saka saka (CB), pondu (CK) saka-saka mixt leaves
Mondia whitei Skeels Periplocaceae mundjodjo (CB) mundjondjo spontaneous root
root
Monodora miristica L. Annonaceae pepe(C)
pep& (C) pepe spontaneous seed
Monodora tenuifolia Benth Annonaceae pepe (C)
p&p& (C) pepe spontaneous seed
Musa sp. Musaceae banana
banana banane cultivated fruit
Ocimum
Ocimum gratissimum (L.) Forsk Labiaceae mantsusu (CB),(CB), lumbalumba (CK) lumbalumba cultivated leaves
Persea americana L. Lauraceae avocado (C,CA,CK,CB,G)
(C,CA,CK,CB ,G) avocat cultivated fruit
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill) Pax Euphorbiaceae djansang, dansan (C) (C) djansan spontaneous seed
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae bilolo
bilol0 (CK)
(CK) bilolo cultivated leaves
Saccharum officinarum
officina rum L. Poaceae koko (CK,CB), sugar sugar cane
cane fumbua cultivated stem
Spondias cythe
cytherea
rea Sonn. Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae pomme cythère
cythere pomme cythère
cythere cultivated fruit
Tetrapleura tetraptera
tetraptera Tauba
Tauba Mimosaceae caroube (C)(C) caroube spontaneous leaves
Vernonia amygdalina
Vernonia Composaceae ndolé
ndole (C)
(C) ndolé
ndole cultivated tubercule
Xanthosoma sagittifolia Schott
Xanthosoma Araceae macabo (C),(C), taro
taro (CK,CB)
(CK,CB) macabo cultivated seed
Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich
Xylopia Annonaceae ekolababa (C) (C) ekolababa spontaneous fruit
MEDICINAL PLANTS AND FOREST EXPLOITATION
AND FOREST EXPLOITATION
Robert Nkuinkeu
Abstract
"Forest exploitation" in the minds of many people is often associated with the tropical timber
timber
trade. However,
trade. However, other non-wood forest products
non-wood forest products (NWFPs)
(NWFPs) such as as medicinal
medicinal plants,
plants, now
now
provide the
provide the opportunity for a more seemingly
opportunity for benign form
seemingly benign form of forest exploitation that is also
also
extremely profitable.
extremely profitable. Many
Many laboratories
laboratories throughout
throughoutthe
the world
world are
are currently
cUlTently studying
studying the
action and
action and biochemical composition of
biochemical composition of African
African plants
plants and
and recent scientific studies
studies on
on the
the
activity
activity and toxicity of traditional medicines have shown a number of of local
local medicinal
medicinal plants
plants
are as
are as efficient
efficient as
as the
the"Western"
"Western"prescription
prescription medicine
medicine imported
imported by by many
many developing
developing
countries.
Undoubtedly, African
Undoubtedly, African medicinal
medicinal plants
plants can
can contribute
contribute to to conservation
conservation and and development
development
ex-situ situations,
through sustainable use in both in-situ and ex-sitie situations, and
and ifif the
the appropriate
appropriate legislation
legislation
regarding the exploitation and management of medicinal plants is adhered adhered to.
to. Plantecam
Plantecam has
has
for several
for several years
years aimed
aimed at
at the
theconservation
conservation ofofCameroonian
Cameroonian medicinal
medicinal plants
plants through
through
cultivation, as
cultivation, as well as educating local communities
communities in in the
the management
management of the resource
resource in the
wild.
Key words: Medicinal

Medicinal plants,
plants, exploitation,
exploitation, Cameroon
Cameroon
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
This paper will focused on three main areas of activity:
• The framework of research and identification;

• Harvesting and marketing;
• A discussion of the actions
discussion of actions that
that have
have been
been taken
taken by
by Plantecam
Plantecam toto ensure
ensure the
the
management of
sustainable management of Prunus
Prunus africana and other medicinal plants
2. Research and Identification
The framework
The framework of research
Information on plants is
Information on is obtained
obtained through
through extensive
extensive ethnobotanical
surveys undertaken
undertaken by
Plantecam, supplemented through
Plantecam, supplemented through the
the perusal
perusal of existing
existing literature,
literature, especially
especially traditional
traditional
pharmacopoeia. A wide variety of use categories are studied, for example:
• Plants with known veterinary uses

uses (Tephrosia vogelii,
vogelii, Swartzia
Swartzia 111adagascariensis);
madagascariensis);
#I Cosmetology (Carapa
(Carapa procera,
procera,Allie
AlOe spp.,
spp., Calophyllum
Calophyllwn inophyllum,
inophyllu111, Myrianthus
Myrianthus spp.,
spp.,
Pentadesma macrophylla, Allanblackia spp.);
Pentades111a spp.);
#I Dietetic (Adansonia digitata, Carica papaya);
(Adansonia digitata,
• Herbal (Chtysanthellum
(Chrysanthelluln americanwn,
a11lericanum, Euphorbia
Euphorbia hirta,
hirta, Desmodium
DeS1110diuln adscendens);
adscendens);
• Pharmacological (Prunus africana,
Pharmacological (Prunus africana, Pausinystalia
Pausinystalia johinibe, Strophantus grants,
johimbe, Strophantus gratus,
Tabernanthe iboga, Fagara
Fagaramacrophylla,
macrophylla, Phyostigma
Phyostigma venenosum).
venenoswn).
265
Identification
Once
Once the uses
uses of
ofspecies
species are
areestablished
establishedduring
duringthe
theethnobotanical
ethnobotanicalsurveys,
surveys,authoritative
authoritative
identification is necessary. specimens are
necessary. Voucher specimens are collected
collected and
and through
through the
the use of keys and
previously identified
previously identified species,
species, are
are then
then named. The determination
named. The of plant names
determination of names allows
allows
further collection and development
development of thethe resource
resource with the confidence that the same species
previously shown to be useful can be recognised and re-collected.
Index cards
For each plant,

plant, an index
index card
card is
is completed
completed and
and is
is composed
composed of
of the
the following
following information:
information:
phenology, taxonomy,
phenology, taxonomy,natural
natural distribution,
distribution,morphology,
morphology,life
lifeform,
form, the
the possibility
possibility of
domestication and the estimated accessible potential wild resource.
3. Harvesting
3. Harvesting
Plantecam harvests and

Plantecam harvests and trades
trades in large quantities
quantities of aa number
number of
ofmedicinal
medicinal plants.
plants. These
These
the following species:
include the species:
" Prunus africana
Prunlls (forthe
africana (for the treatment
treatment of
ofbenign
benign prostate
prostate hyperplasia);
hyperplasia);
" Pattsinystalia johimbe (as
Pausinystaliajohimbe (as a remedy for male organic impotence);
" Voacanga africana
Voacanga africana (a(a hyper-tensive);
hyper-tensive);
" Strophantus gratus
gratlls (heart
(heart tonic);
tonic);
" Physostigma venenosum (for use in ophthalmology).
Medicinal plant harvesting

Medicinal plant harvesting isis controlled by the preliminary
controlled by preliminary obtention
obtention of an
an exploitation
exploitation
license
license of forest
forest species;
species; the
the prerequisites
prerequisites or qualifications are described
qualifications are described in the
the Forest,
Forest,
Faunal
Faunal and
and Fisheries
Fisheries Regime
Regime (Law
(Law No 94/01 of January 20th, 1994) and in the directions
1994) and directions of
use of this regime (Decree No 94/436 of August, 23rd 1994).
use 1994). The delivery of of this
this license
license is
is
accompanied with
accompanied with aa report book describing clearly the harvesting
describing clearly harvesting practices
practices according
according toto the
vegetative structure toto be
vegetative structure be extracted. Plantecamuses
extracted. Plantecam usesits
its report
report book
book for
for Prunus
Prunus africana
debarking. Raw material
debarking. Raw material received
received atat Plantecam
Plantecamisis supplied
supplied only
only by
by the
the holders
holders of a valid
valid
exploitation licence and the company
company will not accept material without
without this
this license.
license.
Before any harvesting activity takes place the following procedures areare undertaken:
undertaken:
• A preliminary inventory to determine the potential harvestable resource;
II Training (theoretical or practical)
practical) of collectors
collectors in sustainable practices of debarking or
gathering.
In the
In the case
case of
of the
the exploitation
exploitation ofof Prunus
Prunus africana
africana for
forexample,
example, an an operational
operational team
team isis
composed of a team leader, prospectors, de-barkers
leader, prospectors, de-barkers and
and porters.
porters. This
This team
team isis supervised
supervised by
by aa
camp leader
camp leader who
who regularly
regularly provides
provides aa report
report of
of the
the quantities harvested, the
quantities harvested, the number
number of de-
de-
barked trees,
trees, and the quality of of de-barking
de-barking according
according toto the report book.
book. The assessment
assessment of
this
this exploitation activity to
exploitation activity to determine
determine the
the sustainability
sustainabilityof of the
the harvesting
harvesting isis based
based on
on the
the
following information:
• A regular estimate of field work following

following the
the norms
norms ofof the
the report
report notes
notes book;
book; this
this allows
allows
an appreciation of the
appreciation of the long-term health of
long-term health of trees,
trees, and the
the time
time necessary
necessary before
before re-
re-
exploitation can take place;
• A general forest
forest inventory:
inventory: for example there has
example there has been
been an intensive inventory
inventory of Prunus
africana
africana on
on Mount
Mount Cameroon.
Cameroon. This
This inventory
inventory was undertaken in 1996-1997
1996-1997 by ONADEF
(National Board for
(National Board for Forest Development)
Development) at at the
the request
request of
of Plantecam
Plantecam and
and the
the Mount
Mount
266
Cameroon Project. The
Cameroon Project. The results
results obtained
obtained have
have provided
provided an
an overview
overview of of the
the density
density of
Prunus
Pnmus africana
africana and
and potential
potential bark
bark yield,
yield, thus
thus permitting
permitting the
the potential
potential for
for sustainable
sustainable
management of the remaining resource.
o• AAstudy
studyofofthe
thenatural
naturalstands
standsof
ofPrunus
Prunusafricana
africanainincertain
certainkey
keyareas
areasofofMount
MountCameroon
Cameroon
with the aim of determining the rate of
of natural regeneration and
and hence
hence future
future production.
production.
Medicinal plant trade
Raw material (seeds,

(seeds, bark, etc.) often undergoes processing such
undergoes processing such as
as grinding
grinding (as
(as in the case
of Pausinystalia johimbe bark)
Pausinystalia johimbe bark) or
or full extraction
extraction (e.g.
(e.g. Prunus
PrUllUS africana)
africana) prior
prior tototrading.
trading.
Processing in-country maximises revenues
in-country maximises revenues and
and attempts
attempts are
are made
made to
to add as much
much value
value to
to
each product
product prior
prior to
to export.
export. Without
Without exception,
exception, all
all material
material processed
processed at
at the
the Plantecam
Plantecam
factory is exported.
exported. Trade of the medicinal
medicinal plant
plant products
products isis controlled
controlled by
by Plantecam's
Plantecam's parent
parent
company in Paris, Groupe Fournier, and their commercial
commercial department deals with with all
all contracts
contracts
and negotiations regarding the sale of both raw and processed products.
4. Plantecam and the sustainable management

management of
of medicinal plants
To ensure
ensure the
the sustainable
management of the medicinal
medicinal plants exploited
exploited by the
the company,
company,
Plantecam has
Plantecam has undertaken extensive cultivation
undertaken extensive cultivation trials
trials with
with the
the objective
objective of
of domesticating
domesticating
some
some key
key species as well as
species as as looking
looking at the
the management
management of a numbernumber of these
these species
species in
in
natural forest. This programme is comprised of of aa number ofof components:
(i) Inventory and sensitisation

Inventory and sensitisation of the local
local populations
popUlations (chiefs
(chiefs of
of villages,
villages, medicinal
medicinal
plants
plants exploiters,
exploiters, common
common interest
interestassociations,
associations, non-govemmental
non-governmental organisations,
organisations,
local communities) through workshops, training courses for demonstration
demonstration (nursery,
(nursery,
forest) in the wise
forest) wise management
management of natural forest and potential for domestication
domestication of
some key species;
(ii) The integration

integration of local communities
communities in in the protection and rational management
protection and management of
the
the forest
forest through
through exploitation agreements such
exploitation agreements such asas the
the one
one signed
signed with
with selected
selected
villages around Mount Cameroon. The immediate effects of this agreement are: are:
• The control of illegal over-exploitation;
• The improvement
improvement of farmers
farmers revenue
revenue andand the development
development of social
infrastructure in some villages (e.g. community hall in Mapanja);
• provision of
The provision of planting
planting stock
stock of
of Prunus
Prunus africana
africana and a guaranteed
market for future bark harvests from cultivated sources;
• Controlledexploitation
Controlled exploitationofof wild
wild trees
trees under
under the
the supervision
supervision of
of
Plantecam.
(iii) stock of
Production of planting stock of high-value species through bulk seed
seed propagation;
propagation;
(iv) Distribution
Distribution of plants for plantations
plantations and
and agroforestry
agroforestry schemes with thethe ecological
ecological
requirements of the species being taken into consideration
consideration prior
prior to
to planting;
planting;
(v) Monitoring of planted material in both

both plantations
plantations and
and agroforestry
agroforestry systems;
systems;
(vi) Partnership with

Partnership with NGOs
NGOs (Non
(Non Governmental
Governmental Organisations), MINEF (Ministry
Organisations), MINEF (Ministry of
Environment and Forest) and research institutions such as the Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden
Garden
to further the aims of
of forest conservation and
and sustainable
sustainable exploitation;
exploitation;
267
(vii) The
The promotion
promotion of Prunus
Prunus africana,
africana, Voacanga
Voacanga africana,
africana, Strophantus
Strophantus grams
gratus and
and
Physostignia
Physostigma venenosum cultivation through
through an
an active
active extension programme;
programme;
(viii) The creation of

of an
an arboretum
arboretum in
in the
the factory
factory location
location site,
site, with
with the
the aim
aim of
ofacclimating
acclimating
medicinal plants.
medicinal plants. This
This arboretum
arboretum has
has aa wide
wide collection
collection of
of local
local and
and exotic
exotic plants
plants
species.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Plantecam
Plantecamnursery
nurseryproducing
producingstock
stockfor
forreplanting
replanting (Photo:
(Photo: Plantecam).
Plantecam).
5. Summary
5. Summary
The sustainable
sustainable development
development of
of medicinal
medicinal plant
plant exploitation
exploitation depends
depends on
on aa combination
combination of
ofaa
number of factors:
• Research inin agronomy,

agronomy, biochemistry,
biochemistry, pharmacology;
pharmacology;
legislation for the registration of traditional
Appropriate legislation
• Appropriate traditional medicines
medicines ensuring
ensuring the
production of low cost medicine (herb tea, capsule, extract, syrup) for local local people;
people;
• A well-implemented forest policy ensuring that taxes due from exploitation
well-implemented forest exploitation are
are collected
collected
and equitably disbursed
and disbursed to the advantage of rural communities
communities andand those concerned
concerned with
natural forest management;
management;
The provision
• The provision of longlong concessions
concessions to medicinal
medicinal plant exploiters
exploiters thereby
thereby ensuring
ensuring the
the
interest of the company in the long-term
long-term health of the resource;
The initiation
• The initiation of training
training programmes
programmes for for trainers
trainers and
and extension
extension workers
workers forfor the
the
popularisation
popularisation of of medicinal
medicinal plant
plant cultivation
cultivation and
and appropriate
appropriate associated
associated agricultural
agricultural
practices (agroforestry; multi-strata culture);
• To make available information opportunities for medicinal plant development;
• The creation of aa data
data bank
bank for
for phytochemical,
phytochemical, pharmaceutical,
pharmaceutical, marketing
marketing and
and utilisation
utilisation
aspects of medicinal plant exploitation.
268
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Confiscated
Confiscatedbark
barkofofPrunus
Prunusafricana
africanaon
onMount
MountCameroon
Cameroon(Photo:
(Photo:T.
T. Sunderland).
Sunderl and).
269
ATION EXCHANGE
NETWORKS AND INFORMATION
INFO
AN OVERVIEW OF FAO's
FAO's PROGRAMME
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
ON THE
NON-WOOD FOREST
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Paul Vantomme
Abstract
This paper presents

presents FAO's programme
programme on
on the
the Promotion
Promotion and
and Development
Development of
of Non-Wood
Non-Wood
Forest
Forest Products
Products (NWFPs). This global
(NWFPs). This global programme aims at enhancing
programme aims enhancing the
the sustainable
sustainable
utilisation ofof Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products in in order
order to
to contribute
contribute to
to the
the wise
wise management
management of ofthe
the
world's forests
forests and
and the
the conservation
conservation ofof their
their biodiversity,
biodiversity, and
and to
to improve
improve food
food security
security and
and
income generation for
income generation for rural
rural people.
people. The programme consists of
programme consists of three
three key
key elements:
elements: (i)
(i)
gathering,
gathering, analysis
analysis and dissemination
dissemination of key technical information on NWFPs (including (including aa
presentation
presentation of of those
those FFAO
AO technical publications of
technical publications of relevance
relevance to to the
the products
products and topics
topics
this seminar);
discussed at this (ii) full
seminar); (ii) full appraisal of the socio-economic contribution of
socio-economic contribution of NWFPs;
NWITs;
and (iii)
(iii) improved
improved networking
networking among
among individuals,
individuals, companies
companies and organisations
organisations concemed
concerned
with the promotion
promotion and
and the
the development
development of ofNWPPs.
NWFPs.
1. What
1. What is FFAO
AO and how does it work?
work ?
Established in 1945,
Established FAO, the Food and Agriculture
1945, FAO, Organisation of the
Agriculture Organisation the United Nations,
Nations, isis
the UN's largest
largest technical
technical agency
agency and and isis among
among the world'
world'ss leading international agriculture,
agriculture,
forestry and fishery
forestry fishery technical
technical development
development organisations. Today FAO
organisations. Today FAO hashas 174
174 member
member
governments, aa comprehensive
governments, comprehensive regional
regional representation
representation structure
structure (e.g.
(e.g. aa Regional
Regional Office for
Africa, Europe,
Africa, Europe, Asia,
Asia, Latin
Latin America,
America, Near Near East
East and
and North America;
America; andand with sub-regional
sub-regional
offices for Southern
offices Southern and
and Eastern
Eastern Africa,
Africa, Eastern
Eastern Europe,
Europe, Pacific,
Pacific, Caribbean
Caribbean and and Mahreb
Mahreb
countries), a physical presence in more than 100 countries and ,at its headquarters in Rome, a
cadre of specialists
cadre specialists in agriculture,
agriculture, fisheries, forestry and
fisheries, forestry and related
related disciplines. The fact
disciplines. The fact that
FAO houses under the same roof, to speak, all the major disciplines
FAO houses under the same roof, so to speak, all the major disciplines related to overall
overall
agriculture development
agriculture developmentputs putsititinin aa unique
unique position
position with
with respect
respect to
to the
the pursuit
pursuit of holistic
holistic
agricultural and
agricultural and agro-industrial developmentprogrammes,
agro-industrial development programmes,including
includingthose
thoserelated
related toto the
NWITs.
sustainable production of NWFPs.
The primary roles of FAO

F AO are
are to
to serve
serve as:
as:
•o a neutral
neutral forum
forumtotoenhance
enhancedialogue
dialogue on
ontechnical
technical and
andpolicy
policy issues
issues (including
(including
international governmental meetings
meetings on agriculture, forestry,
forestry, NWFPs, trade, natural
resource management and conservation issues, etc.);
•o a source
source of information and and knowledge
knowledge (technical
(technical information
information onon products,
products,
methodologies and
methodologies and statistical
statistical data
data on production and trade
trade in
in agriculture,
agriculture, forestry
forestry
and fishery products);
• a provider
provider ofoftechnical
technicalassistance
assistance(field
(fieldprojects
projectstotodevelop/introduce
develop/introduce new
new
products technologies, assist governments institutional
products or technologies, to assist governments in institutional capacity building,
building,
etc.).
273
include non-wood
include forest products
non-wood forest products (including
(including such
such preparatory
preparatory work
work like
like developing
developing
appropriate and globally applicable NWFP definitions and classification
classification schemes).
schemes).
FAO is also a major source of information on forest science, technology and practice, and its its
exchange of
Forestry Department develops and facilitates the exchange of technical
technical information,
information, often
often in
in
multiple languages,
multiple languages, on
on the environmental, economic and
environmental, econorllic and social
social dimensions
dimensions of forestry.
forestry. This
This
includes,
includes, for example,
example, information
information on the protection and
and management
management of forests
forests and
and other
other
natural resources, rehabilitation of degraded or marginal lands, tree planting, especially
especially in aa
land-use context, enhancing the value, efficiency and environmental soundness of of harvesting,
utilisation and marketing
utilisation marketing of wood
wood and
and non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products, policy
policy analysis,
analysis, planning
planning
and institution strengthening.
For a number of years, F AO has been pioneering work on the social dimension of
FAO of sustainable
forest management,
management, with a focus
focus on self-reliance
self-reliance and
and participatory
participatory approaches
approaches involving
involving local
local
communities. Through this community
communities. Through community forestry
forestry initiative,
initiative, FAO
FAO stresses
stresses decentralised
decentralised
planning, communal
planning, communal management
management of of forests
forests and
and tree resources,
resources, conflict resolution
resolution among
among
user groups,
user equity issues,
groups, equity issues, the
the role
role of gender,
gender, and
and the
the contribution
contribution of
of forests,
forests, trees,
trees, and
and
NWFPs to food security and nutritional well-being.
FAO's
F AO' s Forestry
Forestry Department has published
Department has many publications
published many publications on
on the
the issues
issues dealing
dealing with
sustainable forestry
sustainable forestry development.
development.However
Howeveritsitsflagship
flagshippUblication
publicationisisthe
the "State
"State of
of the
the
World's Forests"
World's Forests" (SOFO),
(SOF0), aa report
report published
published every two years,
every two years, which
which provides
provides aa
comprehensiveoverview
comprehensive overviewof ofthe
the status
status of
of the
the world's forests
forests and their
their products
products (including
(including
NWFPs). More detailed
NWFPs). More detailed information regarding FAO's
information regarding FAO's activities
activities and
and publications can be
publications can
obtained at its web site:
http://www.fao.orgIWAICENTIFAOINFOIFORESTRY/forestry.htm
hap ://www. fao. orgfWAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/forestry. htm
FAO's NWFP
NWFP Programme
Programmeconsists
consists of
ofthe
thefollowing
following three
three main
main activities:
activities: a)
a) information
information
gathering, b) partnership building, and c) technical assistance.
Information gathering
Successful implementation
Successful implementation of of programmes
programmes on on NWFPs
NWFPs require
require comprehensive,
comprehensive, quality
quality
information on
information on the
the resources
resources themselves,
themselves, the
the forest
forest ecosystems
ecosystems in
in which
which they
they grow,
grow, on
on their
their
harvesting and processing
harvesting and processing practices,
practices,and
and onon the
the marketing and trade
marketing and trade aspects
aspects of
of these
these
products. The collection,
products. The collection, analysis,
analysis, interpretation
interpretation and
and dissemination
dissemination of such
such information
information
world-wide has
has been a priority of
ofFAO
FAO from the very beginning.
Essentially, three types of

of information are provided:
provided:
• descriptive information on given NWFPs;

• information on technologies, methodologies and
technologies, methodologies and best
best practices
practices for
for their
production, harvesting, processing and marketing;
• trade statistics
production and trade statistics (including the required preliminary work on
NWFP definitions andand classifications).
275
The NWFP programme has two types of publications:
• The Non-Wood Forest Products

Non-Wood Forest Products Series:
Series: which
which areare in-depth
in-depth technical
technical documents
documents on
NWH's or issues. Examples
specific NWFPs Examples of issues
issues already
already published (11 so far) are:
are:
Flavours and Fragrances of of Plant Origin;
Origin;
Gum Naval
Gum Naval Stores:
Stores:Turpentine
Turpentine and
and Rosin from Pine Resin;
Rosin/rom
Edible Nuts;
Domestication and
and Commercialisation
Commercialisationof 0/NWFPs
NWFPs in in Agroforestry
AgroforestrySystems,
Systems,
NWFPs
NWFPsfor for Rural Income Forestty;
Income and Sustainable Forestry;
Medicinal Plants for Forest Conservation and Health Care; Care,'
Trade Restrictions affecting International Trade
Trade in
in NWFPs.
NWFPs.
The fuUlist
full list of the NWFP-related publications
publications can
can be
be obtained upon request to FOPW,
FOPW, Forest
Products Division, FAO Forestry Department.
• The Non
Non Wood News bulletin
Wood News which is
bulletin which is aa newsletter,
newsletter, published yearly by
published yearly by FAO
FAO of
approximately 60 pages, compiling all relevant information on on ongoing
ongoing activities
activities dealing
dealing
with NWFPs
with NWFPs world-wide,
world-wide, and and for
for which
which texttext contributions are made
contributions are made byby readers
readers
themselves. The
themselves. The bulletin
bulletin links
links some
some 1,500 people, institutions
1,500 people, institutions and
and agencies
agencies which
which are
involved in one
involved one way
way or
or another
anotherwith
withthe
thepromotion
promotionand anddevelopment
developmentofofNVVFPs.
NWFPs. FiveFive
issues
issues have
have been
been published
published so so far.
far. The
The newsletter
newsletter isis also
also available
available on
on Internet
Internet at:
at:
http://www.fao.org/waicentlfaoinfo/forestry/nwnews/default.htm
http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/nwnews/default.htm
Partnership building
Partnership building
As F
As FAO
AO is an
an intergovernmental organisation, our
intergovernmental organisation, our main
main line
line of
of communication
communication isis with
with our
our
member governments
member governments butbut itit is
is not
not our only one.
one. We
We need to receive and welcome input from
a broad range ofof interest
interest groups,
groups, including the private sector, universities,
universities, forest
forest industries
industries
and non-governmental organisations representing environmental and developmental
developmental interests.
interests.
There is need,
need, therefore,
therefore, to
to ensure
ensure collaboration
collaboration and to avoid
avoid duplication
duplication of
of efforts
efforts so
so that
that
skills and resources are utilised most efficiently.
awareness on
To increase awareness on NWFPs
NWFPs andand strengthen
strengthen collaboration,
collaboration, networking
networking and
and partnerships
partnerships
at the
at the national,
national, regional
regional and
and global
global level,
level,FAO'
FAO'ss Non-wood
Non-wood Products
Products Programme
Programme hashas
organised:
• Two global expert consultations:

Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of NWFPs, Bangkok, Thailand, 1994;
NWFPs, Yogyakarta,
Interregional Expert Consultation on NWH's, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,
Indonesia,1995.
1995.
• The following regional expert consultations (organised by FOPW and/or in

in collaboration
collaboration
with other agencies):
Asia and Pacific Region, Bangkok, Thailand,
Thailand f 1991;
Anglophone African
Anglophone African Countries,
Countries, Arusha,
Arusha, Tanzania,
Tanzania, 1993;
1993;
Latin America
America and
and Caribbean,
Caribbean, Santiago,
Santiago, Chili
Chili,, 1994;
Cairo, Egypt,
Near East, Cairo, Egypt, 1997;
1997;
and Cold Temperate Forests, Joensuu 1998 (EFIlECE).
Boreal and (EFFECE).
global Directory on
To facilitate networking activities on NWFPs, a global on Who's
Who's Who
Who on NWFPs
NWFPs
is under development. Through a questionnaire, all interested partners involved in one way or
another with
another with the
the development
development andand promotion
promotion of of NWFPs
NWFPs are are being
being identified.
identified. This
This
questionnaire form isis available
questionnaire form upon request
available upon request to
to FOPW.
FOPW. The results
results of
of processing
processing this
this
questionnaire will lead
questionnaire will lead to
to the development of aa global
development of global Directory
Directory on
on "Who
"Who isis Who"
Who" in the
276
field of NVVFPs
NWFPs (including
(includinggovernments,
governments,private
privatesector,
sector,universities,
universities, funding
funding agencies,
agencies, etc.).
etc.).
This Directory will serve
Directory will as a base
serve as base toto identify
identify relevant partners to further
further develop
develop globally
globally
applicable
applicable (and acceptable)
acceptable) definitions
definitions andand classification
classification schemes
schemes forfor NWI-Ts,
NWFPs, statistical
statistical
knowledge on production
production and trade
trade figures
figures on
on NWFPs,
NWFPs, andand support
support to
to a better assessment of
NWFP
N'WFP resources
resources in the forests.
Technical assistance
Developing and implementing sustainable production and conservation of NWFPs, with rigid rIgid
product quality
quality control,
control, efficient marketing and
efficient marketing and an
an equitable
distribution of benefits
benefits to all
all
concerned along
concerned along the
the full
full chain
chain from the producer
producer to the consumer,
consumer, is a key
key component
component of aa
successful programme toto achieve more sustainable
management of all forest resources (wood
and non-wood), including better conservation of their biodiversity.
To help
help put
put into
into practice
practice policies
policies and
and technologies
technologies on
on NWEP
NWFP management,
management, production
production and
commerce,
commerce, FAOFAO offers
offers technical assistance
assistance to all member
member countries. The objective
objective of
of such
such
assistance is to strengthen national capacities
assistance effectively plan and carry out the full
capacities to effectively full cycle
cycle
of improving
improving or or introducing new products
introducing new products and
and or
or techniques for NWFP development
techniques for development in in a
sustainable manner.
manner. Technical project-level assistance covers
covers most dimensions of sustainable
NWFP development, but with emphasis on resource protection and management, information
gathering
gathering and processing,
processing, improved
improved people's participation
participation through
through community
community forestry,
forestry,
institutional strengthening.
enhancing food security and institutional strengthening.
At the
the project
project level,
level, FAO is is currently
currently active
active in close
close to
to 200
200 forestry
forestry technical
technical assistance
assistance
projects in over 90 countries. For many of of them NWFP activities are an an essential
essential component.
component.
Financial
Financial support for such projects
support for projects comes from a variety
comes from variety of sources,
sources, including
including FAO,
FAO, but
especially from donor governments,
governments, the United
United Nations
Nations Development
Development Programme
Programme (UNDP),
(UNDP) ,
the World Bank
Bank and
and others.
others.
More detailed
detailed information
information on
on this
this Programme
Programme can
can be
be downloaded
downloaded from:
from:
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/NWHINONWOOD.HTM
http://www.fao.org/WAICENTIFAOINFOIFORESTRYINWFPINONWOOD.HTM
277
AN INTEREST
NETWORKS WITH AN INTEREST IN NWFPs
Laurie E. Clark
7-13
, -ASAZIele-',.'- _. ' '4,41,;),,. '33? 3 -33 Te,,,,,,13, r - 1 "I^ ...,.aW ,A4LAWaXe4PAtiAlstAmtAl^,-',4,-. ,,..4.4, 440* ' `.
ELCI 1x year (BP
lx year (BP 90
90 Lakouanga,
Lakouanga, Bangui,
Bangui, RCA
RCA tel:
tel:
236 61 68 67 fax: 236
236616867 61 31
23661 31 70
PRGIEIREIMP (Le Projet Regional de
PRGIE/REIMP Association pour leIe Développement
Developpement de
Gestion et danformation
Gestion et 'fuformation 'Information Environnementale
l'Information Environnementale (ADIE)
(ADIE)
EnvironnmentalelRegional
Environnmentale/Regional Environmental Regional Coordinator: Jean-Roger Mamiah
Mamiah--
Information Management Project) Tel: +241 762250/51
76 22 50/51 - Fax: +241
76 48 53 - adie@internetgabon.com
764853 adie@intemetgabon.com
:llwww-esd. worldbank.
http://www-esd.worldbank.orgkeimpl_.
People and Plants 2x ear
AETFAT (Association for the Taxonomic 2x year
Study of the Flora of Tropical Africa)
FAO NonWood News lx year

1x year (NonWood
(NonWood News - FOPW FAO, Viale
delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, ITALY
email: non-wood-news
non-wood-news@fao.org
@fao.org
http://www .fao. org/waicentlfaoinfo/forestry/nw
http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/nw
fp/nonwood.htm
wood.htm
CEFDHAC (Conférence
(Conference sur
sur les
les Ecosystèmes
Ecosystemes
Fôrets Denses Humides d'Afrique
des Forets
Centrale)
IUCN Collaborative management network

(International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources/
Resourcesl World
Conservation Union)
AFAN (African Forestry Action Network)
AFAN 4x year (Zachee
(Zachee Nzoh
Nzoh Ngandembou,
Ngandembou, BP.
BP. 2503
2503
Yaounde Cameroon Tel: +237.23.97.02 Fax:
+237.23.97.02)
+237.23.97
Forest, trees and people network lx
1x year
year (( Department
Department of
of Rural Development
Studies, Swedish University of of Agricultural
Sciences (SLU) Box 7005, 750 07 Uppsala,
7005,75007
Sweden Tel. +46-18-672001 Fax: Fax: +46-18-
+46-18-
673420 email:
email: FTPP.Network@lbutv.slu:se
htt .//www-trees. slu. se/index. html#desig
ASANET 2x year
ASCODAP 4x year
NAPRECA (African Network of Natural lx year
Product Chemists for Eastern and Central
Africa)
RIAT 4x year
279
------------------------------ --------,-------------
CORAF-FORET (Conférence
(Conference de responsables 2x year
de recherche agronomique africains)
- ----------------
ECOFAC (ECOsystemes Forestiers d'Afrique 5x year - Canopee
Centrale)
-------------------- ------------------------1
APFT (Avenir
(Avenir des Peuples des Forets
Forêts 12x year
12x year (Centre
(Centre d' d'Anthropologie
Anthropologie Culturelle
Tropicales) CP 124 Universite Libre de Bruxelles 44
avenue Jeanne 1050 Bruxelles, BELGIQUE
Tel: 32.2.650.43.38 Fax:
Tel: Fax: 32.2.650.43.37
32.2.650.43.37 email:
email:
c1eger@ulb.ac.be
cleger@ulb.ac.be
--------,---- http://lucy.ukc.ac.uldRainforest/
htte :lI1ucy. ukc:. ac. uklRainforest! ))
TROPENBOS 3x year (Jelle Maas - Network Officer)
Tropenbos Foundation, P.O. Box 232, 6700 AB
232,6700 AE
Wageningen, Netherlands Tel:
Wageningen, The Netherlands Tel: 317
317 426
262
317423024
Fax: 317 Email: tropenbos@iac.agro.n1
423 024 Email: tropenbos@iac.agro.nl
",,----,----------- -,--- WWW: http://www.bib.wau.nlltropbos/)
WWJr: htt.e://www.bib.wau.nlltropbos/)
°FOR
CIFOR(Center
(Centerfor
forInternational
mternational Forestry
Forestry 4x year (Director of of Communications,
Research) Sharmini Blok,
Sharmini Blok, Center for mternational
International
Forestry Research (CIFOR) P.O. Box. 6596,
JKPWB
Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Tel: +62(251) 622 622
Fax: +62(251) 622 622100100
E-mail: cifor@cgnet.com
E-mail:
1 http://www.cgiar.org/cifor )
_ _ _ _ _ _ ,_ _ _ _ _ _..1.. _h_tte://www.cgiar.org/cifor)
280
APPENDICES
LIST OF
OF ACRONYMS
ACRONYMS
asl
as1 Above sea level
dbh Diameter at breast height
CARPE Central African Regional Programme for the Environment
CDC Cameroon Development Corporation
CFA Currency: Communaute

Currency: Communauté financiere
financière africaine
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

of Wild Fauna
Fauna and
and
Flora
CTC Conservation Through Cultivation programme (Cameroon)
DFID UK
Department for International Development (formerly ODA) UK
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the

the United
United Nations
Nations
GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation
HULWA Humid Lowlands of West Africa (ICRAF geographic delimitation)
ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry
IPGRI Plant Genetic

International Plant Genetic Resources
Resources Institute
Institute
IRAD Institut de Recherche Agricole

Agricole pour
pour le
Ie Developpement
Developpement (Cameroon)
(Cameroon)
LBG Limbe Botanic Garden
MAP Months after planning
MCP Mount Cameroon

Cameroon Project
Project
MINEF Ministry of
of Environment and
and Forestry (Cameroon)
(Cameroon)
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NWFP Non-wood Forest Product
TCP Tropenbos Cameroon Programme
USDA United States Department of

of Agriculture
USAID United States Agency for International Development
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
283
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
CONTRIBUTORS
Amougou
Amougou Akoa,
Akoa, University
Universityof
ofYaounde
Yaounde I,I, Faculty
Faculty of
ofScience,
Science, BP.
BP. 812,
812, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Ndinga Assitou,
Assitou, IUCN,
mCN, B.P.
B.P. 5506,
5506, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Paul C.
Paul C. Blackmore,
Blackmore,Limbe
LimbeBotanic
BotanicGarden,
Garden, PO.
PO. Box
Box 437,
437, Limbe, S.W. Province,
Cameroon. e-mail:
e-mail: 113450.3531@compuserve.com
Guido Broekhoven,
Broekhoven,IUCN,
mCN,BP.
BP.5506,
5506, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon. e-mail:
e-mail: rocn@hq.iucn.org
rocn@hq.iucn.org
Michael Brown,
Brown,Innovative
InnovativeResource
Resource Management,
Management, 2421
2421 Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Avenue,
Washington, DC 20037, USA.
USA. e-mail:
e-mail. brownlirm@aol.com
brownlirm@aol.com
Mark
MarkBuccowich,
Buccowich,USDA
USDAForest
ForestService,
Service,Office
Officeof
ofInternational
InternationalPrograms,
Programs,PO.
PO. Box
Box96538,
96538,
Washington, DC 20090-6538,
20090-6538, USA. e-mail: m.buccowich@if.arctic.com
m.buccowich@if.arctic.com
Gwendoline Burnley,
Gwendoline Burnley,Director/Coordinator,
Director/Coordinator, Business
Business Enterprise Development (BEDO)
(BEDO)
BP. 400, Limbe, Fako Division, SW
SW Province,
Province, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Laurie
LaurieE.
E.Clark,
Clark,USDA
USDAForest
ForestService,
Service,Rocky
RockyMountain
MountainResearch
Research Station,
Station, 1221
1221 South
South
Main Street, Moscow, ID
ID 83843,
83843, USA. e-mail.
e-mail: lclark@turbonet.com
lclark@turbonet.com
A.B. Cunningham,
Cunningham,People
Peopleand
andPlants
Plants Initiative,
Initiative, 84
84 Watkins
Watkins Street, White Gum Valley,
Valley,
peopleplants@bigpond.com
Fremantle, 6162, Australia. e-mail: peopleplants@bigpond.com
Nico Dauphin,
Dauphin, US
US Peace
Peace Corps,
Corps, BP.
BP. 2098,
2098, Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon.
Gabon.
Louis Defo, Avenir

Avenir des
des Peuples des Foréts
Forets Tropicales (APFT), BP. 755, Yaounde,
Cameroon, e-mail:
Cameroon, e-mail. apft@sdncmr.undp.org
J.F.W. van
J.F.W. vanDijk,
Dijk,Tropenbos
TropenbosCameroon
CameroonProgramme,
Programme,Department
Departmentof
ofForestry,
Forestry, Wageningen
Wageningen
Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
e-mail: Han.vanDijk@ALG.BOSB.WAU.NL
Marc van
Marc vanDorp,
Dorp,AlDEnvironment,
AIDEnvironment, Donker
DonkerCurtiustraat
Curtiustraat 7-523, 1051 JL Amsterdam, the
7-523,1051
aidenvir@antenna.nl
Netherlands. e-mail: aidenvir@antenna.n1
Edmond Dounias,
Edmond Dounias,Avenir
Avenirdes
des Peuples
Peuples des
des Forêts
Forets Tropicales
Tropicales (APFT), BP. 755, Yaounde,
Yaounde,
Cameroon, e-mail:
e-mail. apft@sdncmr.undp.org
Wim van
van Driel,
Driel,Tropenbos
TropenbosCameroon
Cameroon Programme,
Programme, Department
Department of
of Forestry, Wageningen
Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands. e-mail:
105405.1222@compuserve.com
Bahiru Duguma
Bahiru Duguma"IRAD/ICRAF-Cameroon,
IRAD/ICRAF-Cameroon,BP.
BP.2123,
2123,Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon. e-mail:
e-mail:
b.duguma@camnet.cm
Ewane, CERUT,
Divine Ewane, CERUT, BP.
BP. 170,
170, Limbe, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Antoine
Antoine Eyebe,
Eyebe, CIFOR,
CIFOR, HFS-IITA,
HFS-IITA, BP.
BP. 2008
2008 (MESSA),
(MESSA), Yaounde, Cameroon.
285
Jean-Noel Gassita,
Jean-Noel Gassita,Plant
PlantAfrica
AfricaCosmetics,
Cosmetics,BP.
BP. 100,
100,Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon.
Gabon.
Steve Gartlan,
Gartlan,WWF-Cameroon,
WWF-Cameroon,BP.
BP.6776,
6776,Yaounde,
Yaounde,Cameroon.
Cameroon. e-mail:
e-mail:
sgartlan@wwfnet.org
Brendan
BrendanJaff,
Jaff,Mount
MountCameroon
CameroonProject,
Project,BP.
BP.437,
437,Limbe,
Limbe, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Christine
ChristineKabuye,
Kabuye,PO.
PO.Box,
Box,42271,
42271, Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Kenya.
David
David Kenfack,
Kenfack,Korup
KorupProject,
Project,BP.
BP.2417,
2417, PMB
PMB Bonanjo,
Bonanjo, Douala,
Douala, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Joseph
Joseph Kengue,
Kengue,WAD,
IRAD,B.P.
B.P.2067,
2067,Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Victor
Victor Kimpouni,
Kimpouni,do
c/oProjet
ProjetConkouati,
Conkouati,BP.
BP.5700,
5700,Pointe-Noire,
Pointe-Noire,Congo-Brazzaville.
Congo-Brazzaville.
Jacques
JacquesKrenozou,
Krenozou,Pavillion
PavillionVert,
Vert,BP.
BP.440,
440,Bangui,
Bangui,Central
CentralAfrican
AfricanRepublic.
Republic.
Daniel
Daniel O.
O. Ladipo,
Ladipo,Centre
Centrefor
forEnvironment,
Environment, Renewable
Renewable Natural
Natural Resources, Management,
Research and Development (CENRAD), PMB 5052, lbadan, Nigeria. e-mail:
e-mail:
cenrad@ibadan.skannet.com
Sarah
SarahA.
A. Laird,
Laird,University
UniversityCollege,
College,London,
London,c/o
c/oPO.
PO. Box
Box222,
222, Waterbury
Waterbury Centre,
Centre, VT
VT
USA. e-mail:
05677, USA. e-mail. sarahlaird@aol.com
Innocent
InnocentLiengola,
Liengola,Centre
Centrede
deFormation
Formationetetde
deRecherche
Recherche en
en Conservation
Conservation Forestière
Forestiere
(CEFRECOF), WCS, Epuli, Democratic Republic of of Congo. c/o PO. Box
Box 12185,
12185,
Nairobi, Kenya. e-mail: cefrecof@imul.com
Ruth
Ruth Malleson,
Malleson,Department
DepartmentofofAnthropology,
Anthropology,University
UniversityCollege
CollegeLondon,
London, Gower
GowerStreet,
Street,
London, UK e-mail.
e-mail: imalleson@aol.com
rmalleson@aol.com
Fonki Tobias
Fonki Tobias Mbenkum,
Mbenkum,MINEF,
MINEF,BP.
BP.6776,
6776, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon. e-mail.
Cameroon. e-mail:
tmbenkum@sdncmr.undp.org
tmbenkum@sdnemr.undp.org
Domingo Mbomio,
Domingo Mbomio, ECOFAC,
ECOFAC, BP.
BP. 317,
317, Bata,
Bata, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea.
Guinea.
Clair
Clair Mbourou,
Mbourou,CARPE,
CARPE,BP.
BP.9144,
9144,Libreville,
Libreville,Gabon.
Gabon. e-mail.
e-mail: carpe@tiggabon.com
carpe@tiggabon.com
Nouhou Ndam,
Nouhou Ndam,Limbe
LimbeBotanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, PO.Box
PO.Box 437,
437, Limbe,
Limbe, S.W.
S.W. Province,
Province, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Bernard Ndonazi,
Bernard Ndonazi,Asociation
AsociationDONAVAL,
DONAVAL,BP.
BP. 90,
90, Bangui,
Bangui, Central
Central African
African Republic.
Republic.
Ousseynou
Ousseynou Ndoye,
Ndoye, °FOR,
ClFOR,HFS-IITA,
HFS-IITA,BP.
BP.2008
2008(MESSA),
(MESSA),Yaounde,
Yaounde,Cameroon.
Cameroon.e-mail:
e-mail:
o.ndoye@cgnet.com
Marie-Laure Ngo-Mpeck,
Marie-Laure Ngo-Mpeck,University
UniversityofofYaounde
YaoundeI,I,Faculty
Facultyof
ofScience,
Science, BP.
BP. 812,
812, Yaounde,
Yaounde,
Cameroon.
Joseph
Joseph P.
P.Nkefor,
Nkefor,Limbe
LimbeBotanic
BotanicGarden,
Garden,PO.Box
PO.Box 437,
437, Limbe,
Limbe, S.W.
S.W. Province, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Robert Nkuinkeu,
Robert Nkuinkeu,Plantecam,
Plantecam,BP.
BP.1941,
1941,Douala,
Douala, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
286
Crisantos
CrisantosObama,
Obama,Projecto
ProjectoCUREF,
CUREF,Aptd.
Aptd.207,
207,Bata,
Bata, Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea,
Guinea. e-mail:
e-mail:
curef@intnet.gq
Jonathon
JonathonOkafor,
Okafor,Agroforestry
AgroforestryConsultant,
Consultant,33Kingsway
KingswayRoad,
Road,PO.
PO.Box
Box3856,
3856,Enugu,
Enugu,
Enugu State, Nigeria
Charles
Charles M.
M. Peters,
Peters,Kate
KateE.E.Tode,
Tode,Curator
Curatorof
ofBotany,
Botany, Institute
Institute of
ofEconomic
Economic Botany,
Botany, The
New York Botanical Gardens, Bronx, New York 10458, U.S.A.
e-mail: cpeters@nybg.org
Sir
Sir Ghillean
GhilleanPrance,
Prance,Royal
RoyalBotanic
BotanicGardens,
Gardens,Kew,
Kew,Richmond,
Richmond, Surrey,
Surrey, TW9
TW9 3AB,
3AB, UK
UK
e-mail. g prance@rbgkew.org.uk
e-mail: g.prance@rbgkew.org.uk
Jean-Pierre
Jean-PierreProfizi,
Profizi,PAFT,
PAFT,BP.
BP.199,
199,Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon.
Gabon. e-mail:
e-mail:
paftgabon@compuserve.com
Jeannette
JeannettevanvanRijsoort,
Rijsoort,IKCN,
IKCN,PO.
PO.Box
Box30,
30,6700
6700AA
AAWageningen,
Wageningen,the
theNetherlands.
Netherlands. e-mail:
e-mail:
j.g.vansijsoort@ikcn.agro.n1
j .g. van.rijsoort@ikcn.agro.nl
Mirjam
MirjamRos-Tonen,
Ros-Tonen,Tropenbos,
Tropenbos,PO.
PO.Box
Box232,
232,6700
6700 AA
AA Wageningen,
Wageningen, the
the Netherlands.
Netherlands. e-
mail: tropenbos@iuc.agro.n1
tropenbos@iuc.agro.nl
Manuel Ruiz-Perez,
Manuel Ruiz-Perez,CIFOR,
ClFOR, Bogor,
Bogor, Indonesia
Indonesia,, email: cifor@cgnet.com
Patricia
PatriciaShanley,
Shanley,Duffel'
DurrellInstitute
InstituteofofConservation
Conservationand
andEcology,
Ecology, University
University of
ofKent,
Kent,
Canterbury, UK e-mail:
Canterbury, e-mail: trishanley@aol.com
trishanley@aol.com
Patrick
PatrickNde
NdeShiembo,
Shiembo,Forestry
ForestryResearch,
Research,IRAD,
lRAD, PMB
PMB 29,
29, Kumba,
Kumba, SWP,
SWP, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Rob Solem,
Solem, CARPE,
CARPE, BP. 9144, Libreville, Gabon. e-mail:
e-mail: carpe@internetgabon.com
Jean-Marie
Jean-MarieSouffo,
Souffo,CIEFE/AFAN,
ClEFE/AFAN,BP.
BP. 2503,
2503, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Terry
Terry C.H.
C.H.Sunderland,
Sunderland,African
AfricanRattan
RattanResearch
ResearchProgramme,
Programme, BP
BP 25284,
25284, Yaounde,
Yaounde,
or: Palm Herbarium Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9
Cameroon or:
3AB, UK
3AB, UK e-mail.
e-mail: afrirattan@aol.com
afrirattan@aol.com
Ben Swartley,
Swartley,US
US Peace
PeaceCorps,
Corps, BP.
BP. 817,
817, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Honoré Tabuna,
Honore Tabuna,Laboratoire
Laboratoired'Ethnobiologie-Biogéographie,
d'Ethnobiologie-Biogeographie, Musée
Musee National d'Histoire
Naturelle, 75 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
France. e-mail:
e-mail: htabuna@iname.com
htabuna@iname.com
Christine
ChristineTataw,
Tataw,WCS
WCSBanyang-Mbo
Banyang-MboSanctuary
SanctuaryProject,
Project,PO.
PO.Box
Box20,
20,Nguti,
Nguti,Cameroon.
Cameroon.
Nicodéme Tchamou,
Nicodeme Tchamou,CARPE
CARPEfocal
focalpoint
pointfor
for Cameroon, c/o WWF-Cameroon,
Cameroon, c/o WWF-Cameroon, BP.
BP. 6776,
6776,
Yaounde, Cameroon. e-mail: ntchamou@wwfnet.com
Mathurin
MathurinTchtat,
Tchtat,Projet
ProjetFORAFRI,
FORAFRI,BP.
BP.643,
643,Libreville,
Libreville, Gabon.
Gabon.
Zacharie Tchoundjeu,
Zacharie Tchoundjeu,IRAD/ICRAF-Cameroon,
lRAD/ICRAF-Cameroon,BP.
BP. 2123,
2123, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon. e-mail:
e-mail:
z. tchoudj
tchoudj eu@camnet.cm
eu @camnet. cm
Charles
Charles Tekwe,
Tekwe,Mount
MountCameroon
CameroonProject,
Project,BP.
BP. 437,
437, Limbe,
Limbe, Cameroon.
Cameroon.
287
Marie-Laure
Marie-LaureTiencheu,
Tiencheu,University YaoundeI,J,Faculty
UniversityofofYaounde Facultyof
ofScience,
Science,BP.
BP. 812,
812,Yaounde,
Yaounde,
Cameroon.
Michael
Michael Vabi,
Vabi, WWF-Cameroon,
WWF-Cameroon, BP.
BP. 6776,
6776, Yaounde,
Yaounde, Cameroon.
Cameroon. e-mail:
mvabi @wwfnet.org
mvabi@wwfnet.org
Paul Vantomme, FAO ,, Forest Products Division, Forestry Dept., Viale delle
delle Terme
Terme di
di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. e-mail: paul.vantomme@fao.org
David Wilkie,
Wilkie, 18
18 Clark
Clark Lane,
Lane, Waltham,
Waltham, MA 02154-1823, USA. e-mail.
e-mail: dwilkie@msn.com
Paulin Yembi,
Paulin Yembi, Centre
Centred'd'Actions
Actions pour le
Ie Développement Durable et
Developpement Durable et l'Environment
l'Environment
(CADDE), Libreville, Gabon. e-mail: carpe@tiggabon.com
Informal contributions are

are acknowledged
acknowledged from:
from:
Mr. Bonzua Jonas rattan harvester

Mr. Otto Ekema representative of "Green Fields" (a local NGO)
Mad. Chantal
Mad. Chantal trader in NWFP at local market and at Douala market
288
This volume contains the outcome of the International Expert
Meeting on
Meeting on Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products in Central
Central Africa, held at
The Limbe Botanic
Botanic Garden,
Garden, Cameroon,
Cameroon, from
from 10
10 to
to 15
15 May
May 1998.
1998.
The report includes a summary of discussions,
The discussions, recommendations
recommendations
and background papers and
and and is organized
organized according
according to the four
thematic areas considered by the the consultation: ecological
ecological issues,
issues,
socio-political issues,
socio-political issues, market-economic
market-economic issues,
issues, and
and networks
networks and
and
information exchange.
information exchange. The
The 28
28 background
background papers
papers give
give aa
comprehensive overview of the situation and prospects for the
development of
development of non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products in
in the
the countries
countries ofof
central Africa.
OIX2161 El1n.99/1
01X2161 E/1/7.99/1000
000

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NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF CENTRAL AFRICA

CURRENT RESEARCH ISSUES

CURRENT RESEARCH ISSUES

Based on the outcome of the International Expert

CARPE, the Central

All rights reserved.

With the accelerating

Although this workshop

Sir Ghillean Prance FRS

The USAlD-funded Central African

These proceedings include the papers presented

The workshop and these proceedings

Finally, the workshop

A key to the acronyms

It should be noted that at the

INTRODUCTION and WORKSHOP SUMMARY

The management of forests

The ecology and sustainability of

The Conservation through Cultivation Programme

Socio-economic research and

Community management of non-wood

The use of farmer knowledge

The management of forest resources by local people

The role of women in the promotion of forest products

The management of non-wood

A farming systems perspective to NWFPs exploitation in the support

Non-wood forest product

prelhninary market survey

A preliminary market survey of non-wood

A preliminary survey of the non-wood

quality control standards

The markets for Central

Medicinal plants and forest exploitation

Networks with an interest

List of acronyms 283

The forests ofof the

Contrary to popular belief,

• can no longer contribute to the diet

Given the number ofof products used

3. A call for action on wildlife use in the region

Excluding bushmeat hunting,

• Share their experiences;

5. The challenge of discussing a complex issue

Core Challenge for Sustainable Use of Non-Wood Forest Products

Papers presented during the workshop were selected:

• To reflect the range of

The list of the names of all authors

When the value of

• Depending on the life history of the species involved and how

11. Working groups

Working group Key Message

Species In-situ conservation Livelihood Markets

Results of this preliminary prioritisation process

By combining the short-list of key NWFPs

The socio-political working group

The use of Garcinia

13.1. Recommended short-

working group recommended the following actions:

14.1. Recommended short-

15. Networking and information

This worldng group, as

The working group

The working group voiced

" ',, ________ -'