Materials and Structures/Mat~riaux et Constructions, Vol.
34, May2001, pp235-239
Stress-strain behavior of reinforcing steel and concrete
under seismic strain rates and low temperatures
A. Filiatrault I and M. Holleran 2
(t) Departmentof StructuralEngineering, Universityof Californiaat San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0085, LaJoUa, CA 92093,
USA
(2) Canam Steel Corporation,2002 MorganRoad, Sunnyside, WA 98944, USA
Paperreceived:March 22, 2000; Paperaccepted:December4, 2000
abstract
This study investigates experimentally the uniaxial
stress-strain behavior of reinforcing steel bars and con-
crete cylinders under various combinations of earth-
quake-type strain rate (quasi-static to 0.1/s) and temper-
ature typical of summer and winter conditions in cold
urban regions (* 20~ to - 40~ The main objective of
these tests was to give an indication of the combined
effects of these two parameters on the uniaxial, monoto-
nic, stress-strain curves of these materials. The results of
the tensile tests indicate that the yield strength and the
tensile strength of reinforcing steel increase moderately
as both the strain rate increases and the temperature
drops. The results of the compressive tests indicate that
the compressive strength and Young's modulus of con-
crete increase significantly as the strain rate increases and
the temperature decreases.
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete bridge structures located in seis-
mically active cold regions can experience earthquakes
during winter. If an earthquake occurs in winter, the
reinforcing steel and the concrete could be subjected
simultaneously to high strain rate and low temperature
effects. These combined effects can change the basic
mechanical properties of these materials and possibly
alter the seismic behavior of these structures. Limited
research has been carried out on the combined effects of
high strain rate and low temperature on the mechanical
properties of reinforcing steel and concrete. First, previ-
ous studies on strain rate and temperature effects are
briefly reviewed. The results of a preliminary test pro-
gram aimed at studying the combined effects of earth-
quake-type strain rate and low temperature on the uni-
axial, monotonic, stress-strain behavior of reinforcing
steel and concrete are then presented and discussed.
1359-5997/01 9 RILEM
r SUMg
,I / ,
Cette dtude a pour but d evaluer experlmentalement le
comportement uniaxial d'@rouvettes d'acier d'armature et
de cylindres de bdton. Des essais furent rdalis& pour diffd-
rentes combinaisons de tempdratures (+ 2 0 ~ a - 40~
et de taux de d~formation typiques d'&&ements sismiques
(quasi-statique a O. 1/s). L'objectif principal de ces essais
dtait de donner une indication sur les effets combin& de ces
deux param~tres sur les courbes contrainte-d~formation,
uniaxiales et monotones de ces mat&iaux. Les rdsultats de
ces essais en traction indiquent que la limite dlastique et la
re'sistance a la traction de l'acier d'armatures s'accroissent
lig&ement lorsque que l'on observe a la fois une hausse du
taux de ddformation et une baisse de la temp&ature. Les
r&ultats des essais de compression indiquent que la rdsis-
tame a la compression et le module d'Youn2 du bdton aug-
mentent de mani&e significatiue quand le taux de ddfor-
mation augmente et que la temp&ature baisse.
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES ON STRAIN RATE
AND LOW TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Information on the combined effects of strain rate and
low temperature on the behavior of reinforcing steel and
concrete is rather limited. Mainly, past studies have been
focused on observed strength increases for either strain rate
or temperature, without considering the combine effects
of these two variables. The main conclusions drawn from
these past studies are briefly reviewed in this section.
2.1 Strain rate effects on steel
As reported by Davis [1], Ludwik in 1909 was possi-
bly the first researcher to observe the effects of varying
strain rate on the mechanical properties of metals.
Monjoine [2] conducted a thorough investigation of the
influence of strain rate on the tensile behavior of mild
steel. Test results indicated that the yield stress increases
235
Materials and Structures/Mat4riaux et Constructions, Vot.34, May2001
with increasing strain rate, but to a lesser extent in
higher strength steels.
Within the last few decades, significant research
efforts have been devoted to the behavior of steel mem-
bers under high strain rate [3-20]. Most of these investi-
gations reported that the yield strength and tensile (ulti-
mate) strength of steel increase linearly with
logarithmically increasing strain rate. Empirical expres-
sions to express these strength increases have been pro-
posed by several researchers [3, 4, 8, 11, 13, 17, 21-26].
It was also recognized that the strain rate had negligi-
ble effect on the elastic modulus and the stiffness of steel
in the strain-hardening range [5]. It was also observed
that, as the strain rate increases, the ratio between the
ultimate stress and the yield stress decreases, and higher
strength steel is less susceptible to strain rate effects com-
pared to lower strength steel [27, 28].
2.2 Low temperature effects on steel
Structural steel materials are sensitive to temperature.
As temperature decreases, the material response migrates
progressively from a ductile to a brittle behavior. Loss of
ductility in metal can be observed by examining the low
temperature stress-strain relationship. As the tempera-
ture is lowered, both the yield point and ultimate
strength point may shift to higher values, but fracture
may begin at a lower strain value. The temperature at
which brittle failure is observed is described as the tran-
sition temperature. The majority of the research com-
piled on the effects of low temperature on steel has been
related to the Charpy notch-toughness test. Information
on the stress-strain behavior of steel at low temperate is
rather limited; emphasis of past research has been placed
mainly on the observed notch toughness (energy).
The transition from a ductile to a brittle mode of fail-
ure is believed to occur because of the very rapid rise in
molecular viscosity with decreasing temperature. At low
temperature, the molecular yield slip stress is high so that
deformations start by micro cracking and subsequent
brittle fracture [29, 30].
A discussion on the mechanical properties of steel at
temperatures colder than room temperature has been
presented by Bruneau [31]. Kesults of monotonic ten-
sile tests on ASTM A572 Grade 50 steel plates (approx.
25 m m thick) indicated that, as temperature reduces, the
yield and tensile strengths increase, while the ultimate
strain decreases. On the other hand, the elastic modulus
of steel seems unaffected by a decrease in temperature.
2.3 Combined effects of strain rate and low
temperature on steel
Limited research has been carried out on the com-
bined effects of strain rate and low temperature on steel
[18, 32]. From the information available, it appears that
the change in mechanical properties observed under
high strain rate is accentuated at low temperature [33]. It
236
was also proposed to model the combined effects of
strain rate and low temperature on the fracture behavior
of steel by using the results of standard Charpy tests with
a transition temperature shifted towards higher tempera-
tures as strain rate increases [34-36].
2.4 Strain rate and low temperature effects on
concrete
Despite the widespread use of concrete, there is still a
lack of information concerning the strain-rate effect on the
seismic behavior of concrete. Many past studies have been
carried out for impact conditions, with strain rate several
magnitudes above earthquake-type strain rate. Most of the
research results available indicate increases in elastic modu-
lus, tensile strength, flexural strength and compressive
strength with decreases in temperature. Bischoffand Percy
[37, 38] investigated the strain-rate effects on the behavior
of concrete, and showed significant differences between
the impact and static behavior of plain concrete in uniaxial
compression. It was observed that Young's modulus of
concrete in compression increases with strain rate. The
influence of strain rate on Young's modulus of concrete in
tension is smaller than for compression. It was also found
that the compressive strength of concrete increases with
strain rate, but the influence of strain rate decreases for
higher strength concrete. Furthermore, the ultimate com-
pressive strain of concrete increases with strain rate.
Low temperature behavior of concrete is also related
to the curing process, but more importantly, to the
moisture content when specimens are cooled [39].
Berkovitch [39] also stated several general trends that
were found for in-situ concrete cooled to low tempera-
ture. It was observed that the compressive strength and
Young's Modulus increased significantly, while the ten-
sile strength increased marginally. Finally, very little
information concerning the combined effects of strain
rate and low temperature on the compressive stress-
strain behavior of concrete is currently available.
3. TEST PROGRAM ON REINFORCING STEEL
3.1 Scope
Monotonic tensile tests were conducted on thirty-six
cylindrical (6 m m in diameter) reinforcing steel coupons
for various combinations of strain rate and temperature.
The range of strain rate considered was typical of far-field
seismic excitations: quasi-static (80 x 10-6/s), 0.005/s,
0.02/s, and 0.1/s. The range of temperature considered
was typical of summer and winter conditions in cold
urban regions: + 20~ - 20~ and - 40~
3.2 Test coupons
All thirty-six test coupons were machined from a sin-
gle M15 (15-mm diameter) deformed reinforcing bar,
Filiatrault, Holleran
6OO
~ 550
..--~176176176
.s "~
500
J reinforcing steel with strain rate and temperature are
~ J
45O
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Strain Rate (lO"%)
850
,.~ ...... ! . . . . "
800
750
700
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Strain Rate 0 0 % )
Fig. 1 - Variations o f yield and tensile strength o f reinforcing
steel with strain rate and temperature.
12-m long, made of CSA G30.16 reinforcing steel
(nominal yield strength of 400 MPa). This steel is repre-
sentative of the common commercial grade of reinforc-
ing bars used in North America. This procedure ensured
that all specimens belonged to the same heat.
3.3 Experimental set-up and procedure
The test program was conducted in a 100-kN, self-con-
tained, closed-loop, servo-hydraulic, dynamic testing
machine (Instron, Ltd., U.K., Model 1350). The two ends
of the steel coupons were threaded directly into the
crossheads of the loading frame. The applied load was mea-
sured by a load cell mounted in series with the actuator of
the testing machine. The average tensile strain of the steel
was measured on a gauge length of 20 m m by two self-sup-
ported clip gauges mounted on the central portion of the
specimen. For each test, the tensile stress-strain curve of the
steel was recorded by a high-speed data acquisition system.
To maintain a constant temperature during each test,
a temperature-controlled chamber was installed around
the loading frame. The temperature was controlled by a
flow of liquid nitrogen introduced slowly inside the
chamber by air pressure. Each steel coupon tested was
accompanied in the chamber by a d u m m y coupon
instrumented with a thermocouple in its core. The test
was performed when the temperature inside the dummy
coupon reached the desired temperature.
3.4 Test results
0 +20~
[] .20~
The combined effects of strain rate and low tempera-
ture caused an increase in the yield strength and the ulti-
mate strength of the reinforcing steel. The ultimate ten-
sile strain and Young's modulus, however, were not
& .40~
affected substantially by the strain rate and the tempera-
ture. The variations of the yield and tensile strength of
shown in Fig. 1. The results of all test coupons are pre-
sented along with best-fit linear regression lines in the
1000000
semi-logarithmic plane.
The yield strength increased as the strain rate
increased and the temperature decreased. The mean
yield strength increased by 22% when the strain rate
increased from 80 x 10-6/s to 0.1/s and the temperature
dropped from + 20~ to - 40~
The tensile strength of reinforcing steel increased also
0 +20~ as the strain rate increased and the temperature dropped.
[3 -20~ This increase in tensile strength was less than the
& ..40~ increase in yield strength of reinforcing steel. The mean
tensile strength increased by only 12% when the strain
rate increased from 80 x 10-6/s to 0.1/s and the temper-
ature dropped from + 20~ to - 40~
4. TEST PROGRAM ON CONCRETE
4.1 Scope
Monotonic compressive tests were conducted on thirty-
six concrete cylinders for the same combinations of strain
rate and temperature considered in the previous section.
4.2 Test cylinders
The size of the concrete test cylinders was chosen
based on the capacity of the testing machine (100 kN).
Concrete cylinders having a diameter of 38 m m and a
height of 76 m m were considered in this test program. A
concrete mix, with a nominal compressive strength of 20
MPa and maximum aggregate size of 6 mm, was used to
fabricate the cylinders. All cylinders were cast from a sin-
gle concrete batch to minimize the variations in material
properties. The cylinders were cured in a moisture room
(100% relative humidity) for 30 days. They were then
placed in an environmentally controlled room, at a rela-
tive humidity of 50%, for 15 days before testing.
4.3 Experimental set-up and procedure
The same loading frame used for the tensile test pro-
gram on reinforcing steel coupons was used again for the
compressive test program on concrete cylinders. The
average tensile strain of the steel was measured on a
gauge length of 50 m m by two displacement transducers
(LVDT) inserted between two circular rings that were
mounted at both ends of the cylinder. To maintain a
237
Materials and Structures/Mat6riaux et Constructions, Vol.34, May2001

constant temperature during each test, the temperature-

controlled chamber was installed again around the load-
70

6O
]
ing frame. Each concrete cylinder tested was accompa-
nied in the chamber by a dummy cylinder instrumented
so
with a thermocouple in its core. The test was performed O +20~
i~176 o"" " O -20~
w h e n the temperature inside the d u m m y cylinder
A-,IO~
reached the desired temperature.

30
4.4 Test results
20
The combined effects of strain rate and low tempera- 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
ture caused increases in the compressive strength and of Strain Rat~ (10"%)
Young's modulus of concrete. The strain rate and the
temperature, however, did not affect the ultimate com- 4O 7
pressive strain (strain at maximum stress), significantly.
~!,o
I

The variations of Young's modulus and the compres-

sive strength of concrete with strain rate and temperature
are shown in Fig. 2 for the complete range of test vari-
ables. The results of all test cylinders are presented along
with best-fit linear regression lines in the semi-logarith-
mic plane. For each test cylinder, Young's modulus was
measured on a stress range from 0 to 40% of the com-
pressive strength of concrete. Despite significant scatters
in the data, the trend shows that Young's modulus gen-
erally increases as the strain rate increased and the tem-
perature dropped. At 20~ the increase in Young's
modulus is marginal. At - 20~ and - 40~ the increase
in Young's modulus is significant only for strain rates
higher than 0.02/s.
The compressive strength increased significantly as
the strain rate increased and the temperature dropped.
The mean compressive strength increased by 91% when
the strain rate increased from 80 x 10-6/s to 0.1/s and
the temperature dropped from + 20~ to - 40~ This
increase could be the result of the trapped water creating
ice particles in the concrete voids. A correlation between
compressive strength and concrete moisture content
should be investigated further for different combinations
of temperatures and strain rates.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the preliminary test results obtained, the
following observations can be drawn on the combined
effects of low temperature and earthquake-type strain
rate on the uniaxial mechanical properties of reinforcing
steel and concrete:
9 The ultimate tensile strain and Young's modulus of
reinforcing steel do not appear to be affected by the
strain rate and the temperature.
9 The combined effects of strain rate and low tem-
perature cause moderate increases in the yield strength
(~ 20%) and the ultimate strength (z 10%) of the rein-
forcing steel.
9 The combined effects of strain rate and low tem-
perature can cause significant increases in the compres-
sive strength (~ 90%) and Young's modulus of concrete
for high strain rate.
'.~ +20Oc
[] -20"C
.>_ !
-40~
10 4
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Sb'ain Rate (10"6/s)
Fig. 2 - Variations o f Young's modulus and compressive strength
o f concrete in compression with strain rate and temperature.
Further testing is required to investigate the com-
bined effects of high strain rate and low temperature on
the seismic response of reinforced concrete bridge struc-
tures located in active seismic cold regions. In particular,
information is required on the following:
9 The size effects (aggregate size, cylinder diameter,
concrete strength, bar diameter, etc.) on the results
obtained in this test series.
9 The combined effects of strain rate and low tem-
perature on the cyclic behavior of reinforcing steel and
concrete.
9 The effect of moisture content on the compressive
stress-strain behavior of concrete under high strain rate
and at low temperature.
9 The extrapolation of the basic monotonic and cyclic
stress-strain behaviors of reinforcing steel and concrete to
the complete responses of reinforced concrete members
under earthquake-type excitations at low temperatures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the following
organizations for their technical and financial assistance
in this project: the Quebec Ministry of Transportation,
the National Science and Engineering Research Council
(NSERC) of Canada; and the "Fonds de formation des
chercheurs et d'aide ?~la recherche" (FCAR) of Quebec.
The collaboration of Professor Bruno Massicotte, from

238
Filiatrault, Holleran
l~cole Polytechnique de Montreal in the realization of
this project is also appreciated.
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