Soil Dynamics

Ground Response

Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Dongyoup Kwak
 Chapter 6 Ground response
analysis
1. Introduction
2. Solution of wave equation for 1D system
3. Input motion
4. Equivalent linear ground response model
5. Nonlinear ground response model
6. Limitations
7. Validation
 6.1 Introduction
• Ground motion estimates
– GMPE (Ground Motion Prediction Equation)
– GRA (Ground Response Analysis)
• GMPE: Empirical. Average of ground motion
– Site condition at strong motion sites in DB.
VS
Soil: avg VS30 ~ 300 m/s 30 𝑚
𝑉𝑆30 =
Rock: avg VS30 ~ 600 m/s σ 𝑡𝑡𝑖

• What if your site is 𝑡𝑡𝑖 =

𝑧𝑖
𝑉𝑆𝑖
different from avg?
z
• Causes of difference:
1. Ground response
– Impedance
– Resonance
– 1-D model
2. Basin effects: Big scale

3. Topographic effects
• 1-D Ground Response Analysis
• 1D assumptions
– Horizontal layer boundaries
– Layer length → ∞ Is 1-D reasonable?
– Vertical wave propagation
• Captures
– Impedance contrast
– Resonance
– Nonlinearity
• Short period: good
• Long period: not good
 6.2 Solution of Wave Equation for 1D system

• Applies for
– Layered, linear system
– Sinusoidal input
• Issues
– Broadband
– Input: outcropping / within (6.3)
– Nonlinear (6.4, 6.5)
 6.2 Solution of Wave Equation for 1D system

• Uniform, Undamped Soil on Rigid Rock

• Uniform, Damped Soil on Rigid Rock
• Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock
 Uniform, Undamped Soil on Rigid Rock
6.2.1: Solution of wave equation for 1D elastic system

u(t)

Uniform, Undamped Soil on Rigid Rock

Wave equation Shear stress at any point
The one dimensional propagation of shear stress waves is governed by the following partial
differential equation (known as the wave equation):
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑉𝑠2 ∂22u 2 ∂ 2u 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 = 𝐺 = 𝑖𝑘𝐺 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡+𝑘𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 = VS 2 𝜕𝑥
∂t ∂x (1)
Solution for harmonic excitation At x=0, τ=0, implies A=B
where VS = wave propagation velocity.
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡+𝑘𝑥
+ 𝐵𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥
For harmonic excitation, the solution is 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 𝑒 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
A: Amplitude ofuwave
( x, t ) = Ae traveling
+ Be i (∂ t + kx ) i (∂ t ∂kx ) 2
(2)
negative x direction
B: Amplitude of wave traveling
A and B are the amplitude of waves traveling in the negative and positive x-direction,
respectively.
positive x direction
∂ = circular frequency of ground shaking (radians/sec.)
k: wave numberk =(ω/V s)
wave number = ∂ /VS

The shear stress at any point x is defined by,

 Uniform, Undamped Soil on Rigid Rock

• A standing wave of amp. 2Acos(kx)

• Transfer function (the ratio of wave amp.) between layer top and
bottom:
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 0, 𝑡 2𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 1
𝐹1 𝜔 = = =
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐻, 𝑡 2𝐴 cos 𝑘𝐻 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑘𝐻
F1(ω) maximized at kH=π/2, 2πfH/Vs = π/2, i.e., f=Vs/4H (fundamental freq.)
 Uniform, Damped Soil on Rigid Rock

• Wave equation with damping ratio, D

𝜕2𝑢 2
𝜕 2
𝑢 2𝐷 𝜕 3
𝑢
= 𝑉𝑆 +
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜔 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

• Complex stiffness and wave number:

𝑘 ∗ = 𝑘 1 − 𝑖𝐷 , 𝑉𝑠∗ = 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑖𝐷 , 𝐺 ∗ = 𝐺(1 + 2𝑖𝐷)

• Solution
𝜔𝑡+𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝜔𝑡−𝑘 ∗ 𝑥
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑖

• Transfer function
1
𝐹2 𝜔 = F2(ω) maximized at f ≈Vs/4H, but finite.
cos 𝑘 ∗ 𝐻
 1
F2 (∂ ) =
cos(k * H )

Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock F2 is also maximized at f ∂ VS/4H, but the amplification is now finite.

Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock

Displacement and Shear Stress

𝜔𝑡+𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝜔𝑡−𝑘 ∗ 𝑥
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑖

∗𝑥 ∗𝑥
𝜏 = 𝐺 ∗ 𝛾 = 𝑖𝑘 ∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

Displacement at top and bottom

of layer m
The displacements and shear stresses in each layer m are defined as fo

𝑢𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 u ( x, t ) = Ae i (∂ t + k *x ) + Be i (∂ t ∂k *x )

∂ = G * ∂ = ik * G * (Ae ∂ Be ∂ik *x )e i∂ t
∗ ∗
𝑢𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = ℎ𝑚 , 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚ℎ𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ik * x

Using local coordinate system X for each layer, the displacements at th

layer are

u m ( X m = 0, t ) = ( Am + Bm )e i∂ t
(
u m ( X m = hm , t ) = Am e ik m *hm + Bm e ∂ik m *hm e i∂ t )
 1
F2 (∂ ) =
cos(k * H )

Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock F2 is also maximized at f ∂ VS/4H, but the amplification is now finite.

Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock

Compatibility of displacement at
layer boundary
𝑢𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = ℎ𝑚 , 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑚+1 𝑋𝑚+1 = 0, 𝑡
∗ ∗
𝐴𝑚+1 + 𝐵𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚

Shear Stress at top and bottom of

layer m
∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜏𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑘𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
∗ The displacements
∗ and shear stresses in each layer m are defined as fo
∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 − 𝐵 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜏𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = ℎ𝑚 , 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑘𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
u ( x, t ) = Ae i (∂ t + k *x ) + Be i (∂ t ∂k *x )
Continuity of stress at layer boundary
∂ = G * ∂ = ik * G * (Ae ik *x ∂ Be ∂ik *x )e i∂ t
𝜏𝑚 𝑋𝑚 = ℎ𝑚 , 𝑡 = 𝜏𝑚+1 𝑋𝑚+1 = 0, 𝑡
Using local coordinate system X for each layer, the displacements at th
∗ 𝐺∗
𝑘𝑚 layer are ∗
𝑚 ∗
𝐴𝑚+1 − 𝐵𝑚+1 = ∗ ∗ 𝐴𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 − 𝐵𝑚 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚ℎ𝑚
𝑘𝑚+1 𝐺𝑚+1 u m ( X m = 0, t ) = ( Am + Bm )e i∂ t
( )
u m ( X m = hm , t ) = Am e ik m *hm + Bm e ∂ik m *hm e i∂ t
 Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock
∗ ∗
𝐴𝑚+1 + 𝐵𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚
∗ ∗
𝑘𝑚 𝐺𝑚 ∗ ℎ
𝑖𝑘𝑚 ∗
𝐴𝑚+1 − 𝐵𝑚+1 = ∗ 𝐴 𝑒 𝑚 − 𝐵 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚
∗ 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝑚+1 𝐺𝑚+1

Combine above equations

1 ∗ ℎ
∗ 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚
1 ∗ ℎ
∗ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚
𝐴𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 1 + 𝛼𝑚 𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 1 − 𝛼𝑚 𝑚
2 2
1 ∗ ℎ
∗ 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚
1 ∗ ℎ
∗ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚
𝐵𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 1 − 𝛼𝑚 𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 1 + 𝛼𝑚 𝑚
2 2
where α*m = complex-valued impedance contrast between layer m and m+1

∗
∗ 𝐺∗
𝑘𝑚 𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑆∗ 𝑚
𝛼𝑚 = ∗ ∗ =
𝑘𝑚+1 𝐺𝑚+1 𝜌𝑚+1 𝑉𝑆∗ 𝑚+1
 Layered, Damped Soil on Elastic Rock
1 ∗ ∗ 1 ∗
𝐴𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 1 + 𝛼𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 1 − 𝛼𝑚
∗
𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚
2 2
1 ∗ ∗ 1 ∗
𝐵𝑚+1 = 𝐴𝑚 1 − 𝛼𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚 + 𝐵𝑚 1 + 𝛼𝑚
∗
𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑚
2 2
At ground surface, A1 = B1
Displacement amp at layer m
𝐴𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝜔 𝐴1
𝐵𝑚 = 𝑏𝑚 𝜔 𝐵1

Transfer function between layer i and j

𝑎𝑖 𝜔 + 𝑏𝑖 𝜔
𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝜔 =
𝑎𝑗 𝜔 + 𝑏𝑗 𝜔

Tao and Rathje (2019)

 6.3 Input motion
• “Outcropping” vs. “Within” motion
Outcropping Soil outcropping

within

uN uN *

AN BN AN * BN*
 uN uN *

AN BN AN * BN*

• Incident waves AN=AN*

• Outcropping AN*=BN*

𝑢𝑁 𝐴𝑁 + 𝐵𝑁 𝐴𝑁 + 𝐵𝑁
𝐹𝑁 𝜔 = ∗ = ∗ =
𝑢𝑁 𝐴𝑁 + 𝐵𝑁∗ 2𝐴𝑁
𝐴𝑁 /𝐴1 + 𝐵𝑁 /𝐴1 𝑎𝑁 + 𝑏𝑁
= = <1
2𝐴𝑁 /𝐴1 2𝑎𝑁

within < outcropping

1st 2nd
mode mode

Kwok et al. (2007)

 6.4 Equivalent Linear Ground
Response Model
• Motivation
– Efficient analysis
– Few parameters
– Well understood
• Key concept: Find “effective” shear strain, 𝛾eff,
for which soil properties can be applied for all
duration.
• 𝛾eff for evaluation of G & D

𝛾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑛𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑀−1
𝑛~
10
Typically n=0.65
• Analysis procedure
1. Initial guess of G & D
(layer i)
2. Analysis of soil system →
𝛾(t)i
3. 𝛾(t)i → 𝛾max,i → 𝛾eff,i =
n𝛾max,i
4. New G & D (layer i)
5. Repeat until 𝛾eff used to
evaluate
properties matches
results of analysis.
 6.5 Non-Linear Ground Response
Model
• Outline
– Available codes & input motions
– Constitutive model
• Backbone curve
• Unloading/reloading curves
• Viscous damping
– Effective stress capabilities: Δu, dilation, etc.
 Available codes & input motions
• Two approaches
1. Lump mass
2. FD/FE

- DMOD - OpenSees
- DeepSoil - TESS
- SUMDES
• Input motions
– Outcropping motion: use as-is w/ half space
– Within motion: use as-is w/ rigid base
Kwok et al. (2007)
 Constitutive model
• Backbone curve
– Stress-strain models
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛾
𝜏= 𝛼
Darendeli (2001)
1+𝛽 𝛾
𝛾 Menq (2003)
𝑟
– Unloading-reloading rules
From Masing rule
D
Phillips & Hashash (2009)
Measurement Reduction factor
𝑝3
𝐷𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝐺𝑟𝑚
𝐹 𝛾𝑚 = = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 1−
𝐷𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺0

𝛾
 Viscous damping
• Equation of motion
𝑀 𝑢ሷ + 𝐶 𝑢ሶ + 𝐾 𝑢 = − 𝑀 𝐼 𝑢ሷ 𝑔

• Damping matrix
𝐶 = 𝑎0 𝑀 + 𝑎1 𝐾 ← Full Rayleigh damping

Simplified Rayleigh damping

damping ratio

Full Rayleigh damping

Viscous

Extended Rayleigh damping

Alternative: frequency independent

f1 f2 f3 f4 Rayleigh damping (Phillips & Hashash, 2009)
 Effective stress capabilities
• Pore water pressure generation
– Sand: Dobry and Matasovic, Park and Ahn
– Clay: Matasovic and Vucetic
– Energy-based
• Capture dilatancy
 6.6 Limitations
• Irregular surface topography

• Basin effects
SA
Basin effect

• Surface waves → Long periods

• EL vs. NL
– Errors w/ EL model
D fixed based on mid-freq (~1/Tm)
1) High freq. → should have lower D
overdamped (More N, over-damping)
2) Low freq. → should have lower D
not important
3) Mid freq. → about right

– EL → Good for PGA

– NL: Require more parameters

 6.7 Validation
Rock outcrop motion Surface motion

Soil properties

Within motion
 References
• Darendeli (2001)
– https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/10396
• Kwok et al. (2007)
– https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%291090-
0241%282007%29133%3A11%281385%29
• Menq (2003)
– https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/779
• Phillips & Hashash (2009)
– https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267726109
000323
• Tao & Rathje (2019)
– https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29GT.1943-
5606.0002048
 Chapter 7 Liquefaction
1. Introduction
2. Liquefaction triggering
3. Shear strength of liquefied soil
4. Consequence of liquefaction
5. Mitigation of liquefaction hazard