Welding

“Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics
by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as
brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal”

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a filler
rod, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound radiation.

Principle of welding:
An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made by heating work pieces to a suitable
temperature. In other words, on heating, the material soften sufficiently so that the surfaces fuse
together
This bonding force holds the atom, ions or molecules together in a solid. This bonding on contact is
achieved only when:
---the contaminated surface layer on the work piece is removed
---recontamination is avoided and
---the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other exactly
In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved by rapidly forcing the two surfaces of
work piece to come closer together so that plastic deformation makes their shape confirm to each
another
This was the principle of first way known to welds metals, by hammering the pieces together while they
are not in hot condition.
Conditions for welding:
 By applying heat and pressure:
Hot-pressure-welding is a solid state process that produces joints between the faying surfaces of two
bodies.
It is done by application of heat and pressure.
Fusion temperature is not reached, filler metal is not needed, and substantial plastic deformation is
generated.
Heat is generally applied by flames of oxy fuel torches directed on the end surfaces of solid bars or
hollow sections to be joined. Alternatively, heat can be generated by eddy currents caused by electrical
induction from a suitable inductor coil.
 With or without filler rod:
With or without a filler rod: A filler rod is a metal added in the making of a joint through welding. It is a
metal supplied in the form of a welding rod, sometimes flux coated, melted by an arc or a flame into a
joint between components to be joined. Filler metal adds to the strength and mass of the welded joint.

Types:
1. Electric arc welding
2. Resistance welding

Electric Arc welding

It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode
and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed
between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along
the joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the
tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current but
also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses
the second type of electrode.

There are two types of electric arc welding:

 Consumable electrode arc welding

 Non-consumable electrode arc welding

1) Consumable electrode:
One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux
shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld.

An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power
supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. The workpiece
and the electrode melts forming the weld pool that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux
coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a
layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
 SMAW WELDING PROCESS

2) Non-consumable electrode methods

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding
process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected
from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is
normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current
welding power supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a column of
highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.

 It is especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and
high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at
relatively low speeds.
 It can be used on nearly all weld able metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel
and light metals.
 It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval
applications.

GTAW WELDING PROCESS

Resistance welding:
It is a welding technique in which the parts to be joined are held together under pressure and heat is
produced by passing a current through the contact resistance formed between the two surfaces.
Diagram:

Types of Resistance welding:

1. Resistance Seam Welding
2. Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance Seam Welding:

Resistance Seam Welding is a process in which heat generated by resistance to the flow of electric
current in the work metal is combined with pressure to produce a welded seam.
Importance:
Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two similar metals.
The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated process. Seam welding
relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes are
disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them. This allows the electrodes to stay in
constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds. The electrodes may also move or
assist the movement of the material.

Diagram:
Resistance Spot Welding:
Spot welding is a process in which the contacting metal surfaces are joined by the heat obtained from
resistance to electric current flow.
Procedure:

Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the electrodes being brought to the
surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure. The current from the electrodes is then
applied briefly after which the current is removed but the electrodes remain in place for the material to
cool. Weld times range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec depending on the thickness of the metal, the electrode
force and the diameter of the electrodes themselves.

Diagram

Gas welding:
Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding) is the processes
that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld metals, respectively.

In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are
heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally
supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded. It is
commonly used to permanently join mild steel.A mixture of oxygen and acetylene, burns as an intense /
focussed flame, at approximately 3,500 degrees centigrade. When the flame comes in contact with
steel, it melts the surface forming a molten pool, allowing welding to take place.

Apparatus used:

The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas source (usually
cylinders), two pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one of each for each cylinder), and a torch.
Difference between Electric Arc, Gas and Resistance welding
The main difference between the three types of welding is that,

A filler rod is not used in Gas and Resistance welding whereas it has an important use in an Electric arc
welding. In arc welding only heat is used to weld metal but in resistance welding pressure will also be
used along with heat. In electric arc welding, Electric arc is the source of heat whereas in gas welding,
gas is the source of heat.

Electric workshop
Electric workshop tools:
Fish tape:
A fish tape (also known as a draw wire or draw tape) is a tool used by electricians to route new wiring
through walls and electrical conduit.

Made of a narrow band of spring steel, by careful manipulation, the tape can be guided through
confined spaces such as wall cavities. The goal is to push toward an area where guide string has been
dropped inside the confined space and to pull it through, so the guide string can then be used to pull
through various types of wiring, such as phone wire, network cables or speaker wire

Tape measure:
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass, or
metal strip with linear-measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool. Its design allows for a
measure of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and permits one to measure around
curves or corners.

Hammer:
A hammer is a tool that strikes an object. The most common uses for hammers are to drive nails, fit
parts, forge metal, and break apart objects. Hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on
their uses.

Hammers are basic tools in many trades. A hammer is composed of a head (most often made of steel)
and a handle (also called a helve or haft).

Wire strippers:
A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from electric wires.

Non-contact voltage detector:

A test light is a simple piece of electronic test equipment used to determine the presence or absence of
an electric voltage in a piece of equipment under test.
Side cutter diagonal pliers:
Diagonal pliers (or wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers or diagonal cutters) are pliers intended for the
cutting of wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything). The plane defined by the cutting
edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle or "on a diagonal", hence the name.

Wires
Electrical wire is the medium through which electricity is carried to and through each individual home
that uses electrical power. It is made of a metal that easily conducts electricity, usually copper, in a
plastic sheath called an insulator. There are various different typesof this wire, each suited to certain
loads and conditions.

Types of wires
There are two types of wires

• According to insulation
• According to current carrying capacity

According to insulation:
Asbestos

Asbestos was used as an early wire insulator. Health and safety issues have made this type of insulation
obsolete and very rare. No modern wiring uses asbestos. It is found only in existing wiring.

PVC

It is a common type of electrical insulation. It can tolerate both moderately low and moderately high
temperatures and is doesn't cost very much. Higher-temperature installations, however, require
different types of insulation.

Glass:
There are many different forms of glass fiber and glass braid insulations that range from plain glass braid
insulation that will tolerate up to 900 degrees to a high-temperature glass braid that will tolerate up to
1,300 degrees.

Ceramic:

Wiring that runs through very high-temperature areas often must use ceramic fiber insulation. Ceramic
fiber insulation can tolerate up to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit.

According to current carrying capacity:

Wiring
“The process of connecting electrical components together with electrical wires between components
Raw power and data signal”
Types of wiring:
• Cleat wiring
• Conduit wiring
• Caping and casing wiring

Cleat wiring:
Electric wiring that is exposed or supported on standoff insulators”

Cleat are made by porcelain and fixed on wall or ceiling at interval of 0.6m. This cable is taken through
holes of each cleat.
Conduit wiring:
Conduit wiring consists of PVC wires taken through either steel conduit pipes.

Conduit is over the surface of wall and ceiling, when conduits are run over the surface of wall and
ceiling, the wiring is called as surface conduit wiring. When conduit run inside the wall, the wiring is
called as concealed conduit wiring. Conduit wiring is water proof and replacement of detective wire is
very easy.

Casing and Capping:

It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or PVC boxes having grooves inside
it. A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same width as that of casing is fixed over it. Both
the casing and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cm. Casing is attached to the wall. Two or
more wires of same polarity are drawn through different grooves. The system is suitable for indoor and
domestic installations.