Structural Mechanics (CE- 312)

STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Dr. Nauman KHURRAM

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
& TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
 PLAINE SRAIN TRANSFORMATIONS
Many problems encountered in engineering design involve
a combination of axial, torsional, and bending loads applied
to elastic bars. In such cases, the stresses may be computed
by using theoretical formulas (simple stress, flexure
equation and torsional stress equation) and the maximum
normal or the maximum shear stress used as a design
criterion.
If the structure is too complex to be analyzed then, the
stresses may have to be determined experimentally. Because
stress is a mathematical abstraction, it cannot be measured
directly. However, the stress-strain relationships defined by
Hooke’s law permit us to calculate stresses from strains,
and strains can be measured.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 2
General (Triaxial) State of Strain
General state of strain in a body is represented by a
combination of three (3) components of normal strain (εx ,
εy , εz), and 3 components of shear strain (γxy , γxz , γyz)
OR three strain components at each face.
Strain components at a point is determined by using strain
gauges, which is measured in specified directions.

Plane (Biaxial )State of Stress

A plane-strained element is subjected to two components of
normal strain (εx , εy ) and one component of shear strain
(γxy).
OR
two stress components at each face.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 3
A plate subjected along its edges to uniformly distributed
loads and restrained from expanding or contracting
laterally by smooth, rigid, and fixed supports.

Plane strain example: laterally restrained plate.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 4

A bar of infinite length subjected on its sides to
uniformly distributed loads since, by reason of
symmetry, the elements located in a given transverse
plane cannot move out of that plane. This idealized
model shows that, in the actual case of a long bar
subjected to uniformly distributed transverse loads, a
state of plane strain exists in any given transverse
section that is not located too close to either end of the
bar.

Plane strain example: bar

of infinite length.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 5

NORMAL AND SHEAR STRAIN
The deformations are shown graphically below.
 The normal strains are produced by changes in length
of the element in the x and y direction
 while shear strain is produced by the relative rotation
of two adjacent sides of the element.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 6

 Note that plane stress (σx, σy) does not always cause
plane strain in the x–y plane since ϵz ≠ 0.
 In general, unless υ = 0, the Poisson effect will
prevent the simultaneous occurrence of plane strain
and plane stress.

 Since shear stress and

shear strain not affected
by Poisson’s ratio,
condition of τxz = τzy = 0
requires γxz = γ zy = 0.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 7

SIGN CONVENTIONS
+ve Normal Strain : normal strains ϵx and ϵy causing cause
elongation along the x - and y - axes.
+ve Shear Strain : γxy is positive if the interior angle
becomes smaller than 90o.

Positive normal strain, ϵx’ Positive shear strain, γx’y’

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 8

Figure (a) shows an infinitesimal element of dimensions dx by
dy undergoing the normal strains x and y.
Since, Normal Strain = Elongation per unit length,
The element elongates in the x - direction by ϵx dx. Similarly,
the elongation of the element in the y - direction is ϵy dy.
The shear strain γxy, shown in Figure (b), measures the change
(in radians) in the original right angle between the edges of the
element.

Figure (a) Element undergoing normal strains; (b) element undergoing shear strain
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 9
Transformation equations for plane strain
The state of plane strain at a point O is defined by the strain components ϵx,
ϵy, and γxy at that point.
To derive the equations that transform the strains from the xy-axes to the
x’y’-axes, the dimensions of the element are chosen so that the diagonal
OA coincides with the x’ - axis. It is also convenient to assume that corner
O is fixed and the edge formed by the x-axis does not rotate. These
assumptions eliminate arbitrary rigid-body motions without impeding the
deformation of the element.

Figure: (c) change in the diagonal of the element due to normal and shear
strains; (d) components of displacement vector of corner A.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 10
Transformation Equations for Normal Strain
The horizontal and vertical components of AA’ are
AC   x .dx   xy dy
CA   y .dy
Resolving AA’ into components
that are parallel and perpendicular
to the diagonal OA. The parallel
component AB represents the
change in length of OA, and the
perpendicular component BA’ is
caused by a rotation of OA through
the small angle β.

BA   .ds
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 11
Transformation equations for plane strain
The increase in length (AB) of the diagonal OA can be found by
adding the projections of AC and CA’ onto the x’-direction. where θ
is angle between OA and x- axis.
AB  AC cos   CA sin  (a)
 x ' .ds  ( x .dx   xy dy ) cos    y dy sin  (b) From Figure (a)

 xy dy cos   y dy sin  dx
 x .dx cos   cos 
 x'    (c ) ds
ds ds ds dy
(c)   x '   x cos2    y sin 2    xy sin  cos   sin 
ds
x y x y  xy  sin 2  2 sin  cos 
 x   cos 2  sin 2 ( A)
2 2 2  1  cos 2 
 cos 2    
Replacing θ in this equation by (θ +90)  2 
 1  cos 2 
x y x y  xy  sin 2    
 y   cos 2  sin 2 ( B)  2 
2 2 2
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 12
Transformation Equation for Shear Strain
Referring Fig. (d), the displacement component BA’ can be found by
projecting AC and CA’ onto the y’- direction
BA  CA cos   AC sin 
 .ds   y .dy cos   ( x .dx   xy dy ) sin  (d )
 y .dy cos   x .dx sin   xy dy sin 
  
ds ds ds
   y . sin  cos    x . sin  cos    xy sin 2  (e)

The rotation angle β’ of the line element at right angles to OA (coincident

with the y’-axis) may be found by substituting (θ + 90) for θ in Eq. (e ).

    y . sin  cos    x . sin  cos    xy cos 2  (f)

Because the positive direction for both β and β’ is counterclockwise, the

shear strain γx’y’ , which is the decrease in the right angle formed by the x’-
and y’- axis, is the difference in the two angles.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 13
  xy     
 xy   y (2 sin  cos  )   x (2 sin  cos  )   xy (sin 2   cos 2  ) (g)

Substituting sin 2  2 sin  cos  and cos 2  cos 2   sin 2 

 xy x y  xy
 sin 2  cos 2 (C )
2 2 2

The Equation for Strain transformation are identical to the stress

transformation, the only difference is the in Strain transformation
equation shear strain is half.
Strain Transformation Equations Stress Transformation Equations
x y x y  xy  x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2  sin 2  x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2 2 2 2
x y x y  xy  x  y  x  y
 y   cos 2  sin 2  y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2 2 2 2
 xy x y  xy  x  y
 sin 2  cos 2  xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2 2 2 2
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 14
Principal Strains
An element can be oriented at a point so that the element’s
deformation is caused only by normal strains, with no shear strain.
When this occurs the normal strains are referred to as principal
strains
If the material is isotropic, the axes along which these strains occur
will coincide with the axes that define the planes of principal stress.

1   x   y   x   y   2 xy
2

    
2 2  2  2

1  xy
 P  tan 1

2 ( x   y )

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 15

Maximum In-Plane Shear Strain
The direction of the axis, and the maximum in-plane shear strain
and associated average normal strain are determined from the
following equations:
  x   y   xy
2
 max ( x   y )
2

    tan 2 s  
2  2  2  xy
( x   y )
x y 1
 s   tan 1
 avg  2  xy
2
In the case of the elastic deformation of a homogeneous, isotropic
material, Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain applies.

 xy  G. xy
Thus, γxy = 0 when τxy = 0, which indicates that the principal axes
of strain coincide with the principal axes of stress.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 16
Problem: 10.1 (Mech. of Materials by R.C Hibbler)
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a
state of plane strain defined by
ϵx = 500(10-6), ϵy = -300(10-6), γxy = 200(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown. Determine the
equivalent strains acting on an element of the material oriented
at the point, clockwise 30° from the original position.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 17

Problem: 10.2 & 10. 3 (Mech. of Materials by R.C Hibbler)
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a
state of plane strain defined by
ϵx = -350(10-6), ϵy = 200(10-6), γxy = 80(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown.
Determine the
a) The principal strains at the
point and associated
orientation of the element.
b) The maximum in-plane
shear strain at the point and
the associated orientation of
the element.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 18

MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
The association between the stresses transformation and
strains transformation can be represented as following
( x ,  y , xy )  ( x ,  x ,  xy 2)

Mohr’s circles for (a) stress and (b) strain.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 19
 The notable difference is that half of the shear strain (γ/2) is
plotted on the ordinate instead of the shear stress.
 Thus, for Mohr’s circle for strain, the end-points of the diameter
have the coordinates X(ϵx , -γxy / 2) and Y(ϵy , γxy / 2).

Sign convention for Mohr’s circle

+ve Normal Stress : Strain tends to elongate the element from
the plane
+ve Shear Stress : The shear deformation causes a given side
to rotate clockwise, the corresponding point
on Mohr’s circle for plane strain is plotted
above the horizontal axis
+ve angle : rotation takes place in counter clockwise
direction

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 20

  x   avg   
2
xy  2
2
R 2

 max
 R  
  x  y 
2

  
  xy 

2

2  2   2 
 max 
   avg  R x   y
 min    avg 
2
 xy
tan 2 P 
( x   y )
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 21
Problem: 8.12 (Mech. of Materials by Andrew Pytel)
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a
state of plane strain defined by
ϵx = 800(10-6), ϵy = 200(10-6), γxy = -600(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown.
Determine the
a) The principal strains at the
point and associated
orientation of the element.
b) he strain components
c) referred to the x’-y’ axes
shown in Figure.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 22

 THE STRAIN ROSSETE
Strain Gage
The electrical-resistance strain gage is a device for measuring
normal strain in a specific direction. Gages of this type operate on
the principle that the change in electrical resistance of wires or foil
strips is directly related to a change in their lengths. The gage is
cemented to the object, so that the gage and the object undergo the
same normal strain. The resulting change in the electrical resistance
of the gage element is measured and converted into strain.
Commercially available gages have
gage lengths that vary from 0.2 mm
to 100 mm. Electrical-resistance
strain gages are useful for measuring
both static and dynamic strains
Figure : A typical foil strain gage.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 23
 Strain Rosette:
It is the set of at least three
strain gauges in three different
directions cemented on the
complete state of stresses and FIGURE: Strain rosette with
strains. arbitrary orientation of gages.

State of plane strain at a point is determined by three strain

components, ϵx , ϵy and γxy, we need three strain readings to
determine a state of strain. E.g., one gage in the x- direction
and one in the y- direction can be used to determine ϵx and ϵy.
Because there is no equipment for direct measurement of
shear strain, we must determine γxy indirectly. This can be
done by using a third gage to measure the normal strain in a
direction different from the x- or y- axis.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 24
 The strain rosette, shown in Figure, contains three strain
gages oriented at angles θa, θb, and θc with respect to a
reference line, such as the x- axis. Substituting their
corresponding strains ϵa , ϵb and ϵc angles into Eq. (A), we
obtain the following set of simultaneous equations:

x y x y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2 ( A)
2 2 2

x y x y  xy
a   cos 2 a  sin 2 a (a)
2 2 2
x y x y  xy
b   cos 2 b  sin 2 b (b)
2 2 2
x y x y  xy
c   cos 2 c  sin 2 c (c ) FIGURE: Strain rosette with
2 2 2
arbitrary orientation of gages.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 25
The 45o Strain Rosette
The 45o strain rosette is shown in Figure.
The orientation of the strain gages are θa =
0, θb = 45o, and θc = 90o. Substituting
these angles into Eqs. (a)–(c) and solving,
we obtain
 x  a  y  c  xy  2 b  ( a   c )
The 60o Strain Rosette
The 45o strain rosette is shown in Figure.
The orientation of the strain gages are θa
= 0, θb = 60o, and θc = 120o. Substituting
these angles into Eqs. (a)–(c) and solving,
we obtain
2 b  2 c   a  xy  b   c
 x  a y  
3 2 3
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 26
120° Strain Rosette (Delta Strain Rosette)
The 45o strain rosette is shown in Figure.
The orientation of the strain gages are θa =
0, θb = 120o, and θc = 240o. Substituting
these angles into Eqs. (a)–(c) and solving,
we obtain
2 a 
 x  a  y   b  c    xy  1.15( c   b )
3 2

4-element Strain Rosette

The Strain Rosette having four strain gauges/elements is called 4-
element stain rosette.
 We can have a counter check of the computed values of
coordinate strains (Precision)
 We can compute average value of coordinate strain.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 27

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.7:
(Mech. of Materials by Beer and Johnston)
Using a 60o rosette, the following strains have been
determined at point Q on the surface of a steel machine base:
ϵ1 = 40 (μ), ϵ2 = 980 (μ), ϵ3 = 330 (μ),
Using the coordinate axes shown, determine at point Q.
a) the strain components ϵx , ϵy
and γxy.
b) the principal strains
c) the maximum shearing
strain
d) Plot the deformed element
on neat sketch

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 28