DESIGN A SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL, WORKING WITH PERIODIC

WATER IMMERSION TECHNIQUE

submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Mechanical Engineering
By
Y. KARTHIK REDDY (171131101034)
MANSUR HUSSAIN (1711311013043)
RAJESWARI SARVANAN (171131101070)
PAWAN KUMAR (171131101056)
Under the Guidance of
Mrs. P. BHAGYASAI LAKSHMI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. M.G.R. Educational and Research Institute
(Deemed to be University)
Maduravoyal, Chennai – 600 095. Tamil Nadu. India.
(An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

DECMEBER 2019 - JUNE 2021

i
 Dr. M.G.R.
Educational and Research Institute
(Deemed to be University)
(An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of

Y. KARTHIK REDDY who carried out the project entitled “DESIGN A SOLAR
SYSTEM MODEL, WORKING WITH PERIODIC WATER IMMERSION
TECHNIQUE” under our supervision of Assistant Professor Mrs. P. Bhagya Lakshmi
from January 2020 to June 2021.

Internal Guide Head of the Department

Submitted for Viva Voce Examination held on_________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
 DECLARATION

We, Y. KARTHIK REDDY (1034), MANSUR HUSSSAIN (1043)

RAJESWARI SARVANAN (1070), PAWAN KUMAR (1056), hereby declare
that the Project Report entitled “DESIGN A SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL,
WORKING WITH PERIODIC WATER IMMERSION TECHNIQUE” is done
by us under the guidance of Assist. Prof. Mrs. P. Bhagya Lakshmi is submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree in BACHELOR
OF TECHNOLOGY.

DATE: __/06/2021

PLACE: Chennai

SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATES

1) Y. KARTHIK REDDY

2) MANSUR HUSSAIN

3) RAJESWARI SARVANAN

4) PAWAN KUMAR

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my beloved founder chancellor Dr.A.C. Shanmugam, B.A,

B.L and beloved president Er. A.C.S Arun Kumar, B. Tech for all the encouragement and
support extended to us during the tenure of this training and also our year of studies in this
university. Also, we thank our secretary Thiru A. Ravikumar and Vice Chancellor
Dr.M.K.Padhmanaban for their espousal and for having instilled in us the confidence to
complete our studies in this university successfully.

We express our thanks to our Head of the Department Dr.M.Ganesan, who has been
checking and guiding on our way to the completion of project.

We express our gratitude to our, Assistant Professor Mrs. P. Bhagya Lakshmi

who has been actively involved and very influential from the start to the completion of our
project.

iv
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The needs of energy are growing every year across the world as it’s moving
towards development, the solution to this problem is not completely obtained by
energy conservation processes but by various energy harnessing processes. One of
the energy harnessing process is capturing solar irradiance by solar panels.

The solar panels have to be maintained in a particular temperature for high

efficiency. Therefore, there is a need of a cooling technique which supports the solar
system to work at its maximum efficiency.

v
 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

• To enhance the efficiency of solar system by employing the periodic water

immersion technique.
• Periodic water immersion technique ensures to capture the most energy.
• Immersing a solar panel in water for the required amount of time results in
cooling of system and reducing the loss of solar irradiance.

vi
 ABSTARCT

A solar panel is a device that converts sun’s light energy into electrical energy, which
is then stored in batteries for different applications. Upon the rise and fall in temperature of
the solar cell surface, the magnitude of the power output is decided. So, it is very crucial to
maintain the temperature of solar cells in the range of 250C-350C as much as possible.

As the need arises to maintain the cell surface temperature, we need to look down for
ways to cool them, when they reach high temperatures. And the method of cooling should
not intervene with the performance of the solar system in the bad way.

In this project a cooling method called “Periodic water immersion technique” is used
which is improvised version of the water immersion technique. Water immersion technique
involves, immersing a solar panel under water surface. The water immersion technique has
a disadvantage i.e., when the solar panel sits under water it affects the absorption rate of
solar radiation.

The new conceptualized method may eliminate its disadvantage by minimizing the
amount of time the panel sits under water surface.

We must understand that, it is very important to absorb the solar energy as much as
possible by solar panel to deliver a good power output.

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. FIGURE-1…………………………………………………...3
2. FIGURE-2…………………………………………………...4
3. FIGURE-3…………………………………………...............5
4. FIGURE-4…………………………………………………...9
5. FIGURE-5………………………………………………….13
6. FIGURE-6………………………………………………….14
7. FIGURE-7………………………………………………….17
8. FIGURE-8………………………………………………….18
9. FIGURE-9………………………………………………….18
10.FIGURE-10.………………………….…………………….19

viii
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………….1-8
1.1. SOLAR ENERGY………………………………...…...1-2
1.2. CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY………………….2
1.3. THE PN JUNCTION……………………………...…...3-4
1.4. PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT……………………...…...4-5
1.5. SOLAR PANEL LAYERS…………………………….5-6
1.6. IMPORTANT TIMELINES OF SOLAR POWER
REVOLUTION……………………………………......6-8
1.7. BASE OF THE PROJECT………………………...…...8-9
2. LITERATURE SURVEY………………………...…...…...10-12
3. EXPERIMENTATION SETUP AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. COMPONENTS…………………………………...…...13
3.2. PROCEDURE 1…………………………………….......13
3.3. PROCEDURE 2:
PERIODIC WATER IMMERSION
TECHNIQUE…………………………………………...14
4. FORMULAE USED………………………………………......15
5. OBSERVATIONS AND RESULT………………………...16-17
6. GRAPHS…………………………………………………...17-19
7. CONCLUSION…………………………………………….….19
8. FUTURE SCOPE…………………………………………...…19
9. REFERENCES………………………………………………...20

ix
 INTRODUCTION

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its technologies are broadly

characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and
distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to harness the
energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials
with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
naturally circulate air.

The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of
electricity.

“In Indian tradition, sun is the source of all forms of energy”. The
world must turn to sun to power our future.

~ Narendra Modi

“For decades we have been told that it doesn’t make economic sense to
switch to renewable energy”. Today, that’s no longer true.

~ Barack Obama

1
Solar Energy:

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy
from the Sun is referred to as solar energy. It is considered a green technology because it
does not emit greenhouse gases. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this
abundant resource. Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long
both as electricity and as a source of heat.

Solar technology can be broadly classified as −

• Active Solar − Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Active solar
is directly consumed in activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.

• Passive Solar − Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favourable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Conversion of Solar Energy:

The solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun.
The method of obtaining electricity from sunlight is referred to as the Photovoltaic method.
This is achieved using a semiconductor material.

The other form of obtaining solar energy is through thermal technologies, which
give two forms of energy tapping methods.

• The first is solar concentration, which focuses solar energy to drive thermal turbines.

• The second method is heating and cooling systems used in solar water heating and
air conditioning respectively.

The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-
day activities is given below −

• Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called photons.

• Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.

• Combination of current from several cells. This step is necessary since a single cell
has a voltage of less than 0.5 V.

• Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.

2
The PN Junction:

The PN Junction was invented by Russell of Bell laboratories in the USA. It refers to a
junction between two semiconductors, that is, P-Type and N-type. Russell discovered that
the two semiconductors have an interesting behaviour at the junction that causes conduction
in one direction only.

A P-type semiconductor has holes (absence of electron) as majority charge carriers. An N-

type semiconductor has electrons as majority charge carriers.

Figure-1: PN Junction.

In the above figure-1 the following actions takes place:

• Extra charges diffuse across to the opposite junctions such that the positive on the
p-side gain negative charges and neutralize them.

• Similarly, the negatives at the N-side gain positive charges and neutralize them.

• This forms a margin (m) at either side where extra charge are depleted to make this
region neutral and at a state of equilibrium. This region is referred to as a depletion
layer and no charge from either side crosses.

• The depletion layer offers a potential barrier and thus requires external voltage to
overcome it. This process is called biasing.

• To conduct, in forward biasing, the applied voltage should pump electrons

(negative) from n-junction towards the p-side of the junction. Continuous flow of
current guarantees a constant movement of electrons to fill holes, hence conduction
across the depletion layer.

• Reversing the applied voltage, in a process called reverse biasing, causes holes and
electrons to drift apart, increasing the depletion layer.

3
 • An external load is connected to a solar cell with positive terminal connected to the
N- side wafers and the negative terminal to the P- side wafers. A potential difference
is created by photovoltaic effect.

The current obtained by electrons displaced by photons is not sufficient to give significant
potential difference. The current is therefore contained to cause further collisions and
release more electrons.

Photovoltaic Effect:
A solar cell utilizes the concept of a p-n junction in capturing the solar energy. The
following figure shows the fermi level of a semiconductor.

Figure-2: Fermi level of a semiconductor.

For a semiconductor to conduct, electrons must cross the energy gap from the valence band
to the conduction band. These electrons require some energy to dislodge and move across
the valence gap. In solar cells, photons emitted from the Sun provide the required energy
to overcome the gap.

A photon incident on the surface could be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. If it is

reflected or transmitted, it does not help dislodge an electron and is thus wasted. Therefore,
a photon must be absorbed to provide the energy required to dislodge and move electrons
across the valence gap.

4
 If Eph is the energy of a photon and EG is the threshold energy to cross the energy
gap, then the possible outcomes, when photon hits the surface of a semiconductor are –

• Eph < EG − In this case, the photon does not attain the threshold and will just pass
through.

• Eph = EG − The photon has the exact threshold to dislodge an electron and create a
hole electron pair.

• Eph > EG − The photon energy surpasses the threshold. This creates an electron-hole
pair, though it is a waste, since the electron moves back down the energy gap.

Making of Solar Cell:

Photovoltaic solar cells are thin silicon disks that convert sunlight into electricity.
These disks act as energy sources for a wide variety of uses, including: calculators and other
small devices; telecommunications; rooftop panels on individual houses; and for lighting,
pumping, and medical refrigeration for villages in developing countries. Solar cells in the
form of large arrays are used to power satellites and, in rare cases, to provide electricity for
power plants.

When research into electricity began and simple batteries were being made and
studied, research into solar electricity followed amazingly quickly. As early as 1839,
Antoine-Cesar Becquerel exposed a chemical battery to the sun to see it produce voltage.
This first conversion of sunlight to electricity was one percent efficient. That is, one percent
of the incoming sunlight was converted into electricity. Willoughby Smith in 1873
discovered that selenium was sensitive to light; in 1877 Adams and Day noted that selenium,
when exposed to light, produced an electrical current. Charles Fritts, in the 1880s, also used
gold-coated selenium to make the first solar cell, again only one percent efficient.
Nevertheless, Fritts considered his cells to be revolutionary. He envisioned free solar energy
to be a means of decentralization, predicting that solar cells would replace power plants with
individually powered residences.

With Albert Einstein's explanation in 1905 of the photoelectric effect—metal

absorbs energy from light and will retain that energy until too much light hits it—hope
soared anew that solar electricity at higher efficiencies would become feasible. Little
progress was made, however, until research into diodes and transistors yielded the
knowledge necessary for Bell scientists Gordon Pearson, Darryl Chapin, and Cal Fuller to
produce a silicon solar cell of four percent efficiency in 1954.

5
 Further work brought the cell's efficiency up to 15 percent. Solar cells were first used
in the rural and isolated city of Americus, Georgia as a power source for a telephone relay
system, where it was used successfully for many years.

A type of solar cell to fully meet domestic energy needs has not as yet been
developed, but solar cells have become successful in providing energy for artificial
satellites. Fuel systems and regular batteries were too heavy in a program where every ounce
mattered. Solar cells provide more energy per ounce of weight than all other conventional
energy sources, and they are cost-effective.

Only a few large scale photovoltaic power systems have been set up. Most efforts
lean toward providing solar cell technology to remote places that have no other means of
sophisticated power. About 50 megawatts are installed each year, yet solar cells provide
only about 1% of all electricity now being produced. Supporters of solar energy claim that
the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface each year could easily provide all
our energy needs several times over, yet solar cells have a long way to go before they fulfil
Charles Fritts's dream of free, fully accessible solar electricity.

Raw Materials:

The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural
state. Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest silica)
or crushed quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous
and boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of electrons respectively to
make a semiconductor capable of conducting electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and
require an anti-reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide.

The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor surrounded by protective

material in a metal frame. The protective material consists of an encapsulant of transparent
silicon rubber or butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile windshields) bonded around
the cells, which are then embedded in ethylene vinyl acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar
or tedlar) makes up the backing. A glass cover is found on terrestrial arrays, a lightweight
plastic cover on satellite arrays. The electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of
copper. The frame is either steel or aluminium. Silicon is used as the cement to put it all
together.

6
The Manufacturing Process:
Purifying the silicon:

• The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an
electric arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products
are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one
percent impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell industry.

• The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique.
A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same
direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At
a specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed.

To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or
crushed quartz—are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon arc is applied
to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. At this point,
the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for solar cells and requires further
purification.

Making single crystal silicon:

• Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the
atomic structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating
the boule is called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon
is dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is withdrawn and
rotated, a cylindrical ingot or "boule" of silicon is formed. The ingot withdrawn is
unusually pure, because impurities tend to remain in the liquid.

7
Making silicon wafers

• From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw whose
inner diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A diamond
saw produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer -5 millimetres thick.) Only about
one-half of the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular wafer—more if
the wafer is then cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular or hexagonal
wafers are sometimes used in solar cells because they can be fitted together
perfectly, thereby utilizing all available space on the front surface of the solar cell.
• The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has recently been found that
rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore some manufacturers have
chosen not to polish the wafer.)

Doping:

• The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with boron and
phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the Czochralski process
in step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back-to-back and placed in a furnace
to be heated to slightly below the melting point of silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit
or 1,410 degrees Celsius) in the presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous
atoms "burrow" into the silicon, which is more porous because it is close to
becoming a liquid. The temperature and time given to the process is carefully
controlled to ensure a uniform junction of proper depth.
• A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small particle
accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By controlling the speed of the
ions, it is possible to control their penetrating depth. This new process, however, has
generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.

After the initial purification, the silicon

is further refined in a floating zone
process. In this process, a silicon rod is
passed through a heated zone several
times, which serves to 'drag" the
impurities toward one end of the rod.

Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a

Czochralski growth apparatus, where it
is dipped into melted polycrystalline
silicon.
Placing electrical contacts:
8
• Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of produced
current. The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not to block
sunlight to the cell. Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuum-
evaporated

This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell. The cells are
encapsulated in ethylene vinyl acetate and placed in a metal frame that has a mylar
back sheet and glass cover.

through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely deposited on the exposed portion of

cells that have been partially covered with wax. All three methods involve a system
in which the part of the cell on which a contact is not desired is protected, while the
rest of the cell is exposed to the metal.

• After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells. The
most commonly used strips are tin-coated copper.

9
The anti-reflective coating:

• Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To reduce
the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon wafer. The
most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide, though others
are used. The material used for coating is either heated until its molecules boil off and
travel to the silicon and condense, or the material undergoes sputtering. In this
process, a high voltage knocks molecules off the material and deposits them onto the
silicon at the opposite electrode. Yet another method is to allow the silicon itself to
react with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon
nitride. Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

Encapsulating the cell:

• The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber or
ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an aluminium
frame that has a mylar or tedlar back sheet and a glass or plastic cover.

Solar panel layers:

A solar panel consists of several layers that sandwich the photovoltaic cells. These
layers are used to protect the fragile cells.

An illustration of the layers is given below −

Figure-3: Solar panel layers.

The layers consist of the following parts −

• Cover Glass − This is the top cover and is transparent to allows light to enter. It
prevents the cells from mechanical damage. It is made of hard glass to prevent
against scratch.

10
 • Non-reflective layer − Silicon can reflect most of the sunlight. Therefore, this layer
is used to counter this and ensure maximum absorption of photons. In other words,
it helps to maximize absorption.

• Contact grid − At this layer, all the contacts joining top to bottom of cells are
connected together. The contact extends to the external parts of the panel like charge
controller, combiner box and battery storage or grid system.

• P and N Silicon plates − This layer is actually a combination of two layers − the N-
doped silicon layer and P-doped silicon layer. This layer gives the solar panel its
colour.

• Back plate − This is a hard layer for supporting the crystalline photovoltaic panels.
At times, flexible synthetic fibres may be used for thin-film type panels.

Aluminium frame is used to frame the panel and to make it weatherproof.

The benefits are-

• The frame provides a means of mounting the panel on surfaces such as rooftops.

• The frame is tight enough to protect the panel against extreme weather conditions
such as storms.

The factors that affect output of a photovoltaic cell include −

• The wavelength of the incident light

• Recombination of electrons and holes

• Electrical resistance

• Fill Factor

• Temperature

• Reflection factor of the material

11
Important timelines of Solar power revolution:

1767, Introduction of First Solar Collector

In 1767, Horace-Benedict de Saussure, a Swiss scientist introduced the first ever

solar collector, i.e., an insulated box which is covered by three glass layers for absorption of
heat energy. The box was later dubbed as the first solar over which reached around 230
degrees Fahrenheit temperatures.

1839, Photovoltaic Effect Discovery

Solar energy evolved to introduce the photovoltaic effect. Edmond Becquerel, a

French scientist, found the same with the help of two electrodes in an electrolyte. He exposed
it to light, and as a result, electricity increased.

1873, Discovery of Photoconductivity of Selenium

In 1873, photoconductivity of material named selenium was discovered by

Willoughby Smith. In 1876, he further discovered that selenium had the power to produce
solar energy. Thus, solar cells were tried to be formed from selenium. Though, the cells did
not come out to be effective, it was learned that light was possible to be converted into
electricity with the help of solid even without heat or moving parts. This discovery acted as
a base for more developments in solar power world in the years that followed.

1883-1891, Evolution of Solar Energy, Introduction of Solar Heater

Solar energy evolved due to various inventions during this phase. In 1893, the first
solar cell came into the picture, which needed to be covered with selenium wafers. In 1887,
the ultraviolet ray capacity was discovered by Heinrich Hertz which caused a spark occur
between two electrodes. Thereafter, the first solar heater came in 1891.

1908, Invention of Copper Collector

William J. Baileys created a copper collector with the help of copper coils and boxes.
Copper insulation was the thing that differentiated it from an earlier collector. The
invention’s improvements help make equipment even today.

1916, Photoelectric Effect

In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper on photoelectric effect though it has no

evidence for it. Robert Millikan, in 1916, provided the evidence for the photoelectric effect
experimentally.

12
1947, Solar Power Equipment Became Popular in the US

After the Second World War, most people in the USA came to know about solar
power equipment. Thus, the demand for it increased.

1958, Solar Energy Powered Space Exploration Equipment

Solar energy reached space to power space exploration equipment like space stations
and satellites. Thus, solar energy was put to commercial use for the first time.

1977 Governments Welcome Solar Energy

The US government welcomed solar energy use and introduced the Solar Energy
Research Institute. Governments in other parts of the world also followed later.

1981, Solar Powered Aircraft

The first solar powered aircraft was introduced by Paul Macready which used over
1600 cells on its wings. It made a journey from France to England.

1982, Solar Powered Cars in Australia

The first solar powered cars were developed in 1982 in Australia.

1986-1999, Solar Energy Plants

Large scale solar energy plants evolved due to improvement in each phase. In 1999,
the biggest plant was created which produced over 20 kilowatts.

1999, Major Developments in Solar Cell Efficiency

In 1999, the most powerful solar cell was created which had a photovoltaic efficiency
of 36%.

Base of the project:

• There is a diagram in the next page which talks about, how the solar irradiance
absorption rate is affected when the solar panel is immersed under water at
different depths.
• Each color represents the depth of the solar panel under water.
• The x-axis represents Radiation Wavelength and y-axis represents Solar irradiance.

13
 Figure-4: Solar Radiation vs Solar Irradiance

• By studying this graph, we can come to the conclusion that, as the solar
panel goes deep down into the water the rate of solar absorption will be
decreased, and we can also say that we lose the potential solar power by
immersing the panel at higher depths.

14
 LITERATURE SURVEY

The efficiency of solar systems, in particular photovoltaic panels, is generally low.

The output of the P.V. module is adversely affected by their surface rise in temperature. This
increase is associated with the absorbed sunlight that is converted into heat, resulting in
reduced power output, energy efficiency, performance and life of the panel. The use of
cooling techniques can offer a potential solution to avoid excessive heating of P.V. panels
and to reduce cell temperature. This paper presents details of various feasible cooling
methods, including novel and advanced solutions for P.V. panels and indicates future trends
of research. Different features and capability about each cooling techniques are presented,
to provide better insight and valuable guidelines for researchers who intend to study,
improve or optimise any type of cooling techniques of P⋅V. modules. [1]

There are a number of different types of solar collector designs that use the energy
of the sun to heat working fluid. Each design whether a basic blackened flat panel collector
or a more advanced evacuated tube collector all have their own advantages and
disadvantages. Parabolic trough reflector provides a better alternative way in order to
generate higher temperatures with better efficiency. The parabolic trough reflector is a solar
energy collector designed to capture the sun’s direct solar radiation over a large surface area
and focus or “concentrate it” onto a small focal point area, increasing the solar energy
received by more than a factor of two. Connecting together parabolic troughs to form
collector fields requires large areas of land for the installation. Also, parabolic troughs have
a small absorber area and have efficiencies of around 12% with smaller angle of view.
Convective heat transfer can be enhanced passively by enhancing thermal conductivity of
the fluid. Modern nanotechnology provides new possibilities to enhance heat transfer
performance compared to pure liquids. [2]

The objective of the research is to minimize the amount of water and electrical energy
needed for cooling of the solar panels, especially in hot arid regions, e.g., desert areas in
Egypt. A cooling system has been developed based on water spraying of PV panels. A
mathematical model has been used to determine when to start cooling of the PV panels as
the temperature of the panels reaches the maximum allowable temperature (MAT). A
cooling model has been developed to determine how long it takes to cool down the PV panels
to its normal operating temperature, i.e., 350C, based on the proposed cooling system. Both
models, the heating rate model and the cooling rate model, are validated experimentally.
15
 Based on the heating and cooling rate models, it is found that the PV panels yield the
highest output energy if cooling of the panels starts when the temperature of the PV panels
reaches a maximum allowable temperature (MAT) of 45 _C. The MAT is a compromise
temperature between the output energy from the PV panels and the energy needed for
cooling. [3]

This paper highlights different cooling techniques to reduce the operating

temperature of the PV cells. This review paper focuses on the improvement of the
performance of the small domestic use PV systems by keeping the temperature of the cells
as low as possible and uniform. Different cooling techniques have been investigated
experimentally and numerically the impact of the operating temperature of the cells on the
electrical and thermal performance of the PV systems. The advantages and disadvantages of
ribbed wall heat sink cooling, array air duct cooling installed beneath the PV panel, water
spray cooling technique and back surface water cooling are examined in this paper to identify
their effective impact on the PV panel performance. It was identified that the water spray
cooling system has a proper impact on the PV panel performance. So, the water cooling is
one way to enhance the electrical efficiency of the PV panel. [4]

In this paper, current advances in cooling techniques and temperature control of

photovoltaic (PV) panels in general, are analysed and discussed. Namely, it is well known
that a decrease in the panel temperature will lead to an increase in electrical efficiency, so in
recent years different cooling techniques have been proposed and tested experimentally. The
efficiency drops with the rise in temperature, with a magnitude of approximately 0.5 %/°C.
Several cooling techniques have been tried, mostly based on active water and air cooling, as
these are the simplest techniques. Other cooling techniques include conductive cooling,
phase-change material cooling, etc. Increase in electrical efficiency depends on cooling
techniques, type and size of the module, geographical position and the season of the year,
and usually corresponds with a rise of 3-5 % in overall efficiency. Finally, a perspective on
the other cooling techniques for PV panels will be also elaborated on and discussed in this
paper. [5]

16
 Cooling the operating surface is a key operational factor to take into consideration to
achieve higher efficiency when operating solar photovoltaic systems. Proper cooling can
improve the electrical efficiency, and decrease the rate of cell degradation with time,
resulting in maximisation of the life span of photovoltaic modules. The excessive heat
removed by the cooling system can be used in domestic, commercial or industrial
applications. This paper presents a review of various methods that can be used to minimize
the negative impacts of the increased temperature while making an attempt to enhance the
efficiency of photovoltaic solar panels operating beyond the recommended temperature of
the Standard Test Conditions (STC). Different cooling technologies are reviewed, namely
Floating tracking concentrating cooling system (FTCC); Hybrid solar Photovoltaic/ Thermal
system cooled by water spraying; Hybrid solar Photovoltaic/ Thermoelectric PV/TE system
cooled by heat sink; Hybrid solar Photovoltaic/Thermal (PV/T) cooled by forced water
circulation; Improving the performance of solar panels through the use of phase-change
materials; Solar panel with water immersion cooling technique; Solar PV panel cooled by
transparent coating (photonic crystal cooling); Hybrid solar Photovoltaic/Thermal system
cooled by forced air circulation, and Solar panel with Thermoelectric cooling. Several
research papers are reviewed and classified based on their focus, contribution and the type
of technology used to achieve the cooling of photovoltaic panels. The discussion of the
results has been done based on the advantages, disadvantages, area of application as well as
techno-economic character of each technology reviewed. The purpose of this review is to
provide an understanding for each of the above-mentioned technologies to reduce the surface
temperature of the PV module. The study will focus on the surface temperature reduction
array bound by each of the cooling technologies. The performance of each cooling
technology will also be highlighted. In addition to this study, this review will include a
discussion comparing the performance of each cooling technology. The outcomes of this
study are detailed in the conclusion section. This paper has revealed that any adequate
technology selected to cool photovoltaic panels should be used to keep the operating surface
temperature low and stable, be simple and reliable and, if possible, enable the use of
extracted thermal heat to enhance the overall conversion efficiency. The presented detailed
review can be used by engineers working on theory, design and/or application of
photovoltaic systems. [6]

17
Experimentation Setup:
Components:
1. Solar Panel (10 Watt-12 volt)
2. Digital Thermometer Sensor
3. Digital Multimeter
4. Connecting wires
5. Container
6. Water
Methodology:
Procedure 1:

1. Place the solar panel in the direct sunlight.

2. Connect the solar panel output to the digital multimeter to take the voltage and
ampere readings.
3. Mount the surface temperature sensor to the solar panel surface.
4. Take the readings of ‘v’, ‘A’ and ‘T’ once in every 5 minutes for eight times
(Total time the system subjected to observation is 40 minutes).
5. Now calculate the average power output in watts.

Figure-5: Solar panel without cooling.

In the above Figure-5, A Solar Panel is kept inside a container, its output terminals are
connected to a Digital Multimeter to take the Voltage and Ampere readings. A Digital
Temperature Sensor is placed on the surface of Solar Cell to read the temperature of its
surface.

18
Procedure 2:
Periodic Water Immersion Technique:
This method is used to cool the solar panel surface. The method is as follows:
1. The panel is kept under sunlight to work normally
2. Upon working for some time, naturally the panel’s surface temperature
increases i.e., the panel is heating up.
3. Then the panel is immersed into the water to the depth of 1cm for
experimental time of 5 minutes.
4. After 5 minutes, V, A and T readings are taken and then the panel will be
lifted above the water level i.e., depth is 0 and kept at that position for 5
minutes.
5. The steps 3 & 4 will be cycled for experimental time of 40 minutes. (Taking
4 readings at depth 0cm and also at depth 1cm)
6. Finally, the readings are used to determine the power output and efficiency
of the solar panel.

Figure-6: Solar panel with cooling.

In the above Figure-6, Water is added into the container to cool the solar panel, the
water level is maintained at 1cm depth from the top surface of the solar panel. The
Measuring devices are connected to read the values.

19
Formulae used:

Power:
The power of a solar cell is calculated by applying the following relation:

𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼

Where, P = Power (W)

V = Volts (V)
I = Current in Amps (A)

Efficiency:
The Efficiency of a solar cell is calculated by applying the following relation:

𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐
ɳ= × 100
𝐼×𝑆

Where, ɳ = Efficiency of Solar Panel (%)

Vm = Maximum Voltage (V)
Im = Maximum Current (A)
I = Intensity of radiation (1000 W/m2)
S = area of the cell (m2)

20
Observations:
Table 1:
S.No. Time Temperature of solar cell Volts Current Power Efficiency
0
t (m) T ( C) V (V) I (A) P(W) ɳ(%)

5 43.80 23.10 0.37 8.547 13.15

1
5 47.80 22.20 0.42 9.324 14.34
2
5 48.10 21.80 0.39 8.502 13.08
3
5 49.20 21.40 0.39 8.346 12.84
4
5 48.10 21.40 0.38 8.132 12.51
5
5 47.00 21.40 0.40 8.560 13.17
6
5 49.00 21.30 0.39 8.307 12.78
7
5 48.30 21.30 0.37 7.881 12.12
8
- 47.66 21.74 0.39 8.450 13.00
Avg.

Table 2:
S.No. Time Temperature of solar cell Volts Current Power Efficiency
t (m) T1(0C) V (V) I (A) P(W) ɳ(%)

5 46.30 22.50 0.44 9.900 15.00

1
5 36.40 23.80 0.43 10.234 15.74
2*
5 46.80 23.20 0.44 10.208 15.70
3
5 36.80 23.60 0.41 9.676 14.88
4*
5 47.90 22.30 0.40 8.920 13.72
5
5 37.20 23.60 0.40 9.440 14.52
6*
5 49.40 22.90 0.41 9.389 14.44
7
5 35.90 23.50 0.42 9.870 15.18
8*

Avg. - 42.09 23.18 0.42 9.705 14.90

21
 • The readings in Table-1 are taken in normal conditions, where
the cooling support is not provided to the solar panel.

• The readings in Table-2 are taken by in normal Conditions,

without cooling and with cooling support. The ‘*’ in S.No. of
Table-2 denotes that the reading is taken when subjected to
cooling and rest are taken without subjecting to cooling.

Graphs:

25
23.1
22.2
21.8
Volts, V

21.4 21.4 21.4 21.3 21.3

20

Volts, V

15
Power, P(W)

Power, P(W)

Amperes,A

10 9.324
8.547 8.502 8.346 8.56 8.307
8.132 7.881

5
Amperes,A

0.37 0.42 0.39 0.39 0.38 0.4 0.39 0.37

0
43.8 47.8 48.1 49.2 48.1 47 49 48.3

Temperature of solar cell T (0C)

Figure-7: Temperature vs Ampere, Power, Voltage.

22
 25 23.8 23.6 23.6 23.5
23.2 22.9
22.5 22.3

Volts, V 20

Volts, (V)

Power, P(W)
15
Amperes (A)
Power, P(W)

10.234 10.208
9.9 9.676 9.87
10 9.44 9.389
8.92

5
Amperes,A

0.44 0.43 0.44 0.41 0.4 0.4 0.41 0.42

0
46.3 36.4 46.8 36.8 47.9 37.2 49.4 35.9
Temperature of solar cell,T (0C)

Figure-7: Temperature vs Ampere, Power, Voltage.

23
Figure-8: Temperature vs Ampere, Power, Voltage. [Table-1]

Figure-9: Temperature vs Ampere. [Table-2]

24
 Figure-10: Temperature vs Ampere, Power, Voltage. [Table-2]
Results:
The experiment is successfully completed and the results are:
• The average Power and Efficiency without cooling are: 8.45W and 13%
• The average Power and Efficiency with cooling are: 9.705.W and 14.9%
•

Conclusion:
• From the Figure-8, we can observe that voltage is gradually decreasing when
the solar panel is not supported by cooling.
• From the Figure-10, we can observe that there is a positive variation in the
voltage when the solar panel is supported by cooling. Which is a positive
outcome.
• Thus, the solar panel efficiency is increased by +1.9%, after supporting
cooling with periodic water immersion technique at 1cm depth.

Future Scope:
• Solar Tracking Mechanism.
• Automation in cooling process.
• Efficient cooling technique for cooling water.
25
References:

1. Pushpendu Dwivedi, K. Sudhakar, Archana Soni, E Solomin, I

Kirpichnikova, Advanced Cooling Techniques of P.V. Modules: A State of
Art.
2. Nikhil Singh Pundir, Pavan Kumar A. Pavan Payani, Pavan Prasad H.G.,
Dr. A.T. Venkatesh, Design and Fabrication of Parabolic Solar Collector and
To Study the Heat Transfer Characteristics of Zno Nanofluid.
3. K.A. Moharram, M.S. Abd-Elhady, H.A. Kandil, H. El-Sherif, Enhancing the
Performance of Photovoltaic Panels by Water Cooling.
4. Swar A. Zubeer, H.A. Mohammed and Mustafa Ilkan, A review of
photovoltaic cells cooling techniques.
5. Filip Grubišić-Čabo, Sandro Nižetić and Tina Giuseppe Marco, Photovoltaic
Panels: A Review of The Cooling Techniques.
6. J. Sieckera, K. Kusakanaa and B.P. Numbib, A Review of Solar Photovoltaic
Systems Cooling Technologies.

26
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