DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SINGLE SLOPE

SOLAR STILL
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

PAVITHRA V (113218114079)

SILSIYA ROY A (113218114117)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
APRIL 2021

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

SINGLE SLOPE SOLAR STILL” is the bonafide work of “PAVITHRA V
and SILSIYA ROY A” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.E.GANAPATHY SUNDARAM Mr. M.DEEPAK KUMAR

PROFESSOR & HEAD ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering Supervisor

Velammal Engineering College Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering

Chennai –600 066 Velammal Engineering College

Chennai – 600 066

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 CERTIFICATE OF EVALUATION

COLLEGE NAME : VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

BRANCH : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SEMESTER : VI

Name of the student who Name of supervisor

Sl. No Title of the Project
has done the project with designation

1 PAVITHRA V
Mr.M.DEEPAK
DESIGN AND KUMAR
FABRICATION OF
2 SILSIYA ROY A SINGLE SLOPE SOLAR (ASSISTANT
STILL PROFESSOR)

This report of Design and Fabrication project submitted by the above students in
partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering Degree
in Anna University was evaluated and confirmed to be reports of the work done
by the above student and then assessed.

Submitted for UNIVERSITY VIVA VOCE EXAMINATION held

on........................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our sincere thanks to the people who extended their help
during the course of our project. We are greatly and proudly thankful to our
honorable chairman, Mr. M. V. Muthuramalingam B.E., for facilitating this
opportunity. We also record our sincere thanks to our chief executive officer, Mr.
M. V. M. Velmurugan B.L., for his kind support to take up this project.

We are thankful to our principal, Dr. S.SATHISH KUMAR M.E., Ph.D., for
rendering moral support to us during the course of our project. We are also
thankful to our Head of the Department, Dr. E. GANAPATHY SUNDARAM
M.E., Ph.D., for his encouraging support and useful suggestions during this
work.

We also express our sincere gratitude to our project coordinator, Dr. R. Geetha
M.E., Ph.D., for her moral support and encouragement which enabled us to
complete our project successfully.

We would like to extend our sincere thanks to our guide, Mr. M.DEEPAK
KUMAR M.E., for his constant technical support and encouragement which
enabled us to complete our project successfully. Last but not the least, we thank
our parents, who have been the source of inspiration and support for us throughout
this project. We also thank all those who have helped directly or indirectly during
this project work

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 ABSTRACT

Shortage of good drinking water supply is one of the major

challenges facing the global community especially developing and under
developed countries, like Nigeria. However, these challenges can be overcome
through the use of solar stills for water distillation which is considered as a
viable option for converting dirty water to distillate.

This paper presents design and fabrication of single slope solar still .
Solar distillation represents a most attractive and simple technique among other
distillation processes, and it is especially suited to small-scale units at locations
where solar energy is considerable. in this we have improved the evaporation
rate by using capillary effect .we have used jute fibre to absorb the water and
there by the the evaporation rate increases.so the final thing we have reached the
increase in efficiency of a simple single slope solar still and we we have done
this in low cost

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER .NO TITLE PAGE. NO

1 INTRODUCTION 6

2 LITRATURE REVIEW 22

3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 24

4 FABRICATION METHODOLOGY 29

5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 32

6 THEORATICAL ANALYSIS OF EFFECTIVE 35

SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 43

8 PHOTOGRAPHS 44

9 CONCLUSION 45

10 COST ESTIMATION 46

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

It is an established fact that, water is the most abundant re-

sources on earth. Water is essential for human use, covering approximately three-
quarters of the planet's surface. Despite the abundance of water, availability of
potable water is one of the regions is increasing at an alarming rate parallel to
increasing populations throughout the world. Various technologies have been
invented from time to time for water purification and it has been accepted by
people without knowing the future environmental consequences. Many
purification techniques such as vapour compression system, reverse osmosis,
electrolysis uses electricity as input energy.as we all know, energy crisis is our
major problem today, these processes will not sustain in future. Hence, rather than
using non-renewable energy, solar energy can be harnessed for efficient
purification of water by the method of solar distillation using solar still. There
had been many research works done on solar distillation technique since ancient
times. Yet, the word “solar still” looks strange even for the urban community.
Even the research scholars major challenges in developing countries. On a global
scale, man-made pollution of natural sources of water contributes largely to the
shortage of fresh-water. Easy access to clean, uncontaminated water is an integral
part of daily life. Its impact on agriculture, industry, overall health, and well-
being is impossible to ignore. The majority of water on Earth is contaminated
with impurities and/or chemical substances. Therefore it cannot be used for
agriculture, industry, and daily human consumption. The unavailability of healthy
drinking water in impoverished who work on solar distillation projects aren’t
found using it even for their domestic purposes. Hence, our project not only
focuses on increasing the efficiency and output volume but also to create
awareness among people about solar still technique.

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1.1 NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are the sources which are useful to man and can be
transformed into a useful product. Natural resources are freely available in nature
which can be considered as a god’s gift.

1.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources can be classified into two types as follows:

1. Renewable Resources.

2. Non-Renewable Resources.

1.2.1 RENEWABLE RESOURCES

These resources are capable of being regenerated by ecological processes

within a reasonable time period. They have the potential to renew themselves.

Examples: solar energy, wind energy, natural vegetation, tidal energy…etc.

1.2.2 NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

These resources are not capable of being regenerated or take millions of

years to do so by ecological process.

Examples: minerals, coal, oil, natural gas, ground water…etc.

1.3 GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

Energy is essential to all human societies. All industrial process like,

mining, transport, lighting, heating and cooling in buildings, all require energy.
With the demands of growing population, the world is facing further energy
deficit. Our life style is also changing from a simple way life to a luxurious life
style. At present 95% of the commercial energy available only from the fuels like

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coal, oil and natural gas, and are not going to last for many more years. It would
be really ironic if fuel becomes more expensive than food.

1.4 ROLE OF ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE) ENERGY SOURCES IN

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

1. The importance of solar energy can be emphasized particularly in view of

the fact that fossil fuels and other conventional sources are not free from
environmental applications.
2. Energy sources which have least pollution, safety and security snags and
are universally available have the best enhance of large scale utilization in
future.
3. Hydro-electric power generation is expected to upset the ecological
balance existing on earth.
4. Beside space heating, hydro power plants critically pollute the aquatic and
terrestrial biota.
5. Radioactive pollutants released from nuclear power plants are chronically
hazardous. The commissioning of boiling water power reactors (BWRS)
has resulted in the critical accumulation of large number of long lived
radionuclides in water.
6. The burning of coal, oil, wood, dung cakes and petroleum products has
well debated environmental problems. The smoke so produced causes
respiratory and digestive problems lungs, stomach and eye diseases.
7. The disposal of fly ashes requires large ash ponds may pose a severe
problem considering the limited availability of land. Thus, the non-
conventional sources of energy are needed.

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Thus, to provide more energy to meet the requirements of increasing population
and also to reduce the impact of non-renewable energy resources on environment,
we have switch towards the renewable energy resources.

1.5 TECHNIQUES POWERED BY SOLAR ENERGY

The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy. Solar
energy can be harnessed for various uses and in various techniques. Some of them
are as follows

1. Solar air conditioning and refrigeration.

2. Solar heat collectors.
3. Solar water heaters.
4. Solar panels producing electricity.
5. Solar distillation process…. etc.

1.6 PURIFICATION OF WATER USING SOLAR ENERGY

The basic principle behind the water purification using solar energy is
distillation.

1.6.1 DISTILLATION PROCESS

Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences

in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit
operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction. It is a
process in which a liquid or vapour mixture of two or more substances is
separated into its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and
removal of heat. Fig.1.1 shows a typical distillation process in laboratory.

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 Fig. 1.1 Distillation Process

1.6.2 BASIC CONCEPTS

The basic concept of using solar energy to obtain potable fresh water from
salty, brackish or contaminated water is quite simple. Water left in an open
container in the backyard will evaporate into the air. The purpose of the solar still
is to capture this evaporated water (or distilled) by condensing it onto a cool
surface, using solar energy to accelerate the evaporation.

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 The rate of evaporation can be accelerated by increasing the water temperature
and the area of water in contact with air. A wide shallow pan, painted black makes
an ideal vessel for the water. It should probably be baked in the sun for a while
before it is used in order to free the paint of any volatile toxicants which might
otherwise evaporate and condense with the drinking water. The pan is painted
black or some other dark color to maximize the amount of solar energy absorbed.
It is also be shallow and wide to increase the water area exposed to air.

To capture and condense the evaporated fresh water, we need some kind of
surface close to the heated impure water which is several degrees cooler than
water. A means is then needed to carry the fresh water to a storage tank or vessel.

The evaporating pan is usually covered by a sheet of clear glass or translucent

plastic (to allow sunlight to reach the water) which is tilted at a slight angle to let
the fresh water that condenses on its underside trickle down to a collecting
trough.The glass also holds the heat inside. Figure 1.2 shows all these components

in a singledesign.

Fig. 1.2. Components of Solar Still

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1.6.3 THEORY OF SOLAR DISTILLATION

1. Distillation operates by the escape of moving molecules from the water

surface into the gases above it. Sensible heat - the kind you can measure
with a thermometer--is caused by the movement of molecules, zigzagging
about constantly, except that they are not all moving at the same
speed. Add energy and they move faster, and the fastest-moving ones may
escape the surface to become vapor.
2. It takes a lot of energy for water to vaporize. While a certain amount of
energy is needed to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water from 0
[degrees] to 100 [degrees] Celsius (C), it takes five and one-half times that
much to change it from water at 100 [degrees] C to water vapor at 100
[degrees] C. Practically all this energy, however, is given back when the
water vapor condenses.
3. The salts and minerals do not evaporate along with the water. Ordinary
table salt, for example, does not turn into vapor until it gets over 1400
[degrees] C, so it remains in the brine when the water evaporates. This is
the way we get fresh water in the clouds from the oceans, by solar
distillation. All the fresh water on earth has been solar distilled.
4. It is not necessary for the water to actually boil to bring about distillation.
Steaming it away gently does the same job as boiling, except that in the
solar still, it will usually turn out even more pure, because during boiling
the breaking bubbles may contaminate the product water with tiny droplets
of liquid water swept along with the vapor.
5. A solar powered distillation device will contain three basic components: a
basin in which the contaminated water is contained, a surface above said
feed water for the water vapor to condense onto (i.e. a glass pane), and a
catch basin for the distilled water to drain into.

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 6. During operation of the distiller, solar energy is collected by the feed water.
When enough energy is absorbed by the water, the water undergoes a phase
change. The water vapours then rises and comes into contact with the
cooler transparent, inclined surface. Here the vapour once again goes
through a phase change from vapour back to liquid.
7. The water then condenses and runs off the transparent inclined surface into
a collection bin. The distillation process rids the contaminated water of any
impurities and most commonly found chemical contaminants within the
environment. These contaminants are left behind in the basin.

1.6.4 NEED SERVED BY SOLAR DISTILLATION PROCESS

Solar distillation could benefit developing countries in several

ways:

1. Solar distillation can be a cost-effective means of providing clean water for

drinking, cooking, washing, and bathing--four basic human needs.
It can improve health standards by removing impurities from questionable
water supplies.
2. It can help extend the usage of existing fresh water in locations where the
quality or quantity of supply is deteriorating. Where sea water is available,
it can reduce a developing country's dependence on rainfall. Solar stills,
operating on sea or brackish water, can ensure supplies of water during a
time of drought. Solar distillation generally uses less energy to purify water
than other methods.
3. It can foster cottage industries, animal husbandry, or hydroponics for food
production in areas where such activities are now limited by inadequate
supplies of pure water.
4. Fishing could become important on desert seacoasts where no drinking
water is available for fishermen. Solar distillation will permit settlement

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 sparsely-populated locations, thus relieving population pressure in urban
areas.

1.7 SOLAR STILL

A solar still is a simple way of distilling water, using the heat of the Sun to
drive evaporation from humid soil, and ambient air to cool a condenser film. Two
basic types of solar stills are box and pit stills. In a solar still, impure water is
contained outside the collector, where it is evaporated by sunlight shining through
clear plastic. The pure water vapor condenses on the cool inside plastic surface
and drips down from the weighted low point, where it is collected and removed.
The box type is more sophisticated. The basic principles of solar water distillation
are simple, yet effective, as distillation replicates the way nature makes rain. The
sun's energy heats water to the point of evaporation. As the water evaporates,
water vapor rises, condensing on the glass surface for collection. This process
removes impurities, such as salts and heavy metals, and eliminates
microbiological organisms. The end result is water cleaner than the purest
rainwater.

1.7.1 WATER QUALITY OF PURIFIED WATER

In principle, the water from the solar still should be quite pure. The slow
distillation process allows only pure to evaporate from the pan and collect on the
cover, leaving all particulate contaminants behind. Since a clean glass cover plate
and storage vessel produce no contaminants, the catch basin or trough remains as
the potential source for direct contamination. If the design allows for catchment
of rain, air pollution in the rain could also be a form of contamination.

1.7.2 INTERESTING POINTS TO BE NOTED ABOUT DISTILLATION

USING SOLAR STILL

1. Distillation has long been considered a way of making salt water drinkable
and purifying water in remote locations. As early as the fourth century

15
 B.C., Aristotle described a method to evaporate impure water and then

condense it for potable use.

2. P.I. Cooper, in his efforts to document the development and use of solar
stills, reports that Arabian alchemists were the earliest known people to use
solar distillation to produce potable water in the sixteenth century. But the
first documented reference for a device was made in 1742 by Nicolo
Ghezzi of Italy, although it is not known whether he went beyond the
conceptual stage and actually built it.
3. The first modern solar still was built in Las Salinas, Chile, in 1872, by
Charles Wilson. It consisted of 64 water basins (a total of 4,459 square
meters) made of blackened wood with sloping glass covers. This
installation was used to supply water (20,000 liters per day) to animals
working mining operations.
4. After this area was opened to the outside by railroad, the installation was
allowed to deteriorate but was still in operation as late as 1912--40 years
after its initial construction. This design has formed the basis for the
majority of stills built since that time.

1.7.3 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOLAR STILL

1. The sun's energy in the form of short electromagnetic waves passes through
a clear glazing surface such as glass. Upon striking a darkened surface,
this light changes wavelength, becoming long waves of heat which is added
to the water in a shallow basin below the glazing. As the water heats up, it
begins to evaporate.
2. The warmed vapor rises to a cooler area. Almost all impurities are left
behind in the basin. The vapor condenses onto the underside of the cooler
glazing and accumulates into water droplets or sheet of water.

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 3. The combination of gravity and the tilted glazing surface allows the water
to run down the cover and into a collection trough, where it is channeled
into storage.
4. In most units, less than half the calories of radiant energy falling on the still
are used for the heat of vaporization necessary to produce distilled water.

A commercial still sold to date have had an efficiency of 35 to 45 percent.

(The maximum efficiency is just over 60 percent). efficiency is calculated in

the following manner.

Energy required for the vaporization

of the distillate that is recovered
Efficiency =
Energy in the sun' s radiation
that falls on the still

Providing the costs don't rise significantly, an efficiency increase of a few

percent is worth working for. Improvements are principally to be sought in
materials and methods of construction.

1.8 VARIOUS SOLAR STILL DESIGNS

1.8.1 TRANSPIRATION BAG

An alternative method of the solar still is called the transpiration bag. The
bag is a simple plastic bag and it folds over a stemmed plant with a corner pointing
down to allow the condensate to pool. From there a person can remove the water
by taking the bag off and pouring the water out or one can make a tiny incision
into the corner to drip water into a cup. Its advantage over the basin type solar
still mentioned before is that it only requires a bag like one can get at the grocery
store. It doesn’t need to be completely transparent. A disadvantage of the

transpiration bag is the requirement for a plant in direct sunlight or heat to take
the condensate.

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 In a study performed in 2009, variations to the angle of plastic and
increasing the internal temperature of the hole versus the outside temperature
made for better water production. Other methods used included using a brine to
absorb water from and adding dyes to the brine to change the amount of solar
radiation absorbed into the system. During the adjusted tilt angle experiment, the
different angles used by the different researchers created different results and

It was difficult for any of them to get a definite answer. In the graph, a bell
curve is observed with the maximum water output being at 30 degrees’ angle
adjustment. Each brine depth created a different amount of water and it is noted
on the graph that about an inch is optimal with a decreasing trend if more is used.

1.8.2 WICK STILL

The “wick” type solar still is a glass-topped box constructed and held at
angle to allow sunlight in Salt water poured in from the top is heated by sunlight,
evaporating the water. It condenses on the underside of the glass and drips to the
bottom. A pool of brine in the still attached to the wicks separates the water into
banks to increase surface area for heating. The distilled water comes out of the
bottom and depending on the quality of construction most of the salt has been
purged from the water. The more wicks, the more heat can be transferred to the
salt water and more product can be made. A plastic net can also catch salt water
before it falls into the container and give it more time to heat up and separate into
brine and water. The wick type solar still is made vapor tight, as in the vapor does
not escape to the atmosphere. To aid in absorbing more heat, some wicks are
blackened to take in more heat. Glass’s absorption of heat is negligible compared
to plastic at higher temperatures. A problem, depending on application, with glass
is that it is not flexible if the solar still is not a standard shape.

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1.8.3 SEAWATER STILL

In 1952, the United States military developed a portable solar still for pilots
stranded on the ocean, which comprises a large inflatable 24-inch plastic ball that
floats on the ocean, with a flexible tube coming out the side. A separate plastic
bag hangs from attachment points on the outer bag. Seawater is poured into the
inner bag from an opening in the ball's neck. Fresh water is taken out by the pilot
using the side tube that leads to bottom of the inflatable ball. It was stated in
magazine articles that on a good day 2.5 US quarts (2.4 l) of fresh water could be
produced. On an overcast day, 1.5 US quarts (1.4 l) was produced.

Similar sea water stills are included in some life raft survival kits, though
manual reverse osmosis desalinators have mostly replaced them.

1.9 TYPES OF SOLAR STILL

Solar energy can be used either for seawater desalination by producing the
thermal energy required to drive the phase change processes or by generating the
electricity required to drive the membrane processes. Solar desalination systems
are classified into direct and indirect collection systems. As their name imply,
direct-collection systems use solar-energy to produce distillate directly in the
solar collector, whereas in indirect collection systems, two sub-systems are
employed. Conventional desalination systems are similar to solar systems
because the same type of equipment is applied. The prime difference is that in the
former, either a conventional boiler is used to provide the required heat or mains
electricity is used to provide the required electric power, whereas in the latter,
solar energy is applied.

1.9.1 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SOLAR STILL

The use of solar radiation for energy is an ancient concept, but recent
concerns about the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels have made solar
energy a hot topic. Modern solar energy technologies harness the heat generated

19
 from the sun to power residential and industrial heating and cooling
systems through the use of photovoltaic, or PV, panels. Also known as solar cells,
these devices capture and convert solar power into electrical energy. How this
energy is collected and distributed defines the difference between active and
passive solar collectors.

1.9.2 PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN

A passive solar system does not involve mechanical devices or the use of
conventional energy sources beyond that needed to regulate dampers and other
controls, if any.

Classic examples of basic passive solar structures are greenhouses,

sunrooms and solariums -- as the sun's rays pass through the glass windows, the
interior absorbs and retains the heat. Modeling this concept in your home can cut
heating costs by half compared to heating the same home by traditional means
without the use of passive solar. In terms of design, success of the passive solar
system depends on orientation and the thermal mass of the structure's exterior
walls, which means their ability to store and redistribute heat.

1.9.3 PASSIVE SOLAR COLLECTORS

A passive solar system typically relies on south-facing windows as
collectors to capture solar energy, although some systems may also use
supplemental PV panels. In any case, the goal is to redistribute the energy
collected according to a fundamental law of thermodynamics, which states that
heat moves from warm to cool areas and surfaces .The simplest method of
transferring the heat from passive solar collectors is through convection. To
illustrate, think of a sunroom with windows on a southern wall. As the sun's rays
travel through the glass, the heat is directed into the room. It then rises to areas
where the air is cooler, including other rooms beyond and above.

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1.9.4 ACTIVE SOLAR DESIGN
Active solar systems use external sources of energy to power blowers,
pumps and other types of equipment to collect, store and convert solar energy.
Once energy from the sun is absorbed, it is stored for later use. Small systems are
used to furnish electricity for heating and cooling systems in homes and other
buildings, while large systems can furnish power for entire communities.

1.9.5 ACTIVE SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar Collectors are more complex than passive collectors in both design
and mechanism. They consist of flat-plate PV panels that are usually mounted
and remain stationary, although some are designed to track the sun throughout

the course of the day. In some designs, multiple panels are connected
together to form modules. Active solar collectors contain either air or a liquid as
a conductor. Those that use air is referred to as “air collectors,” while liquid-based
types are called “hydronic collectors”. The advanced design of these collectors
makes an active solar heating system cost-effective in terms of reducing reliance
on traditional energy sources.

1.9.6 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE SOLAR STILL OVER PASSIVE

 The solar distillation systems are mainly classified as passive solar still and
active solar still. The numerous parameters are affecting the performance
of the still such as water depth in the basin, material of the basin, wind
velocity, solar radiation, ambient temperature and inclination angle.

 The productivity of any type of solar still will be determined by the

temperature difference between the water in the basin and inner surface
glass cover.

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 In a passive solar still, the solar radiation is received directly by the basin
water and is the only source of energy for raising the water temperature
and consequently, the evaporation leading to a lower productivity. This is
the main drawback of a passive solar still.

 Later, in order to overcome the above problem, many active solar stills
have been developed. Here, an extra thermal energy is supplied to the basin
through an external mode to increase the evaporation rate and in turn
improve its productivity.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

 Rubio et al (1998) [1] evaluated the distillate yield for solar still under
controlled conditions for basin water and collector temperatures within
typical operating ranges and proposed a new empirical model for
estimating mass flow rates in single slope solar stills.

 Sanjeev Kumar and Tiwari (1993) [2] observed that temperature of water
and thermal efficiency decreased with increase in basin area due to the
large storage capacity of the water mass in the basin and depth of the water
respectively.

 Murugavel et al (2002) [3] studied about increasing the effectiveness of

solar still by using passive methods.

 Velmurugan et al (2004) [4] developed a setup to distil the affluent water

and introduced additional surfaces in the basin in the form of fins, saw
dust, black rubber, sand, pebble and sponges. They found that with the
additional surfaces the evaporation rate increased by 53% as compared
with the conventional single slope solar still.

 Shruti et al (2001) [5] developed the convective mass transfer relation for
double condensing chamber solar still. In relation Nu = C (GrPr) n, the
values of C and n were determined using regression analysis for different
temperature ranges and found that the values of C and n are valid only for
lower temperature ranges, however for higher temperature ranges the
values of C and n change.

 Bassam A/KAbu-Hijlehetal (2002) [6] proposed a modified technique to

enhance the desalination production by placing sponge cubes over the
water surface. The sponge cubes increased the surface area over which the
evaporation of water took place and increased the still yieldby18%.

 Badran and Al-Tahaineh(2001) [7] modified a conventional passive solar

still by including a flat plate collector and reported a 36% increase in
productivity.

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 Hazim Mohammed Qibdawey.et.al (2006) [8] has presented paper entitled
“solar thermal desalination technologies”. He has shown the direct and
indirect desalination technologies of solar still like vapour compression,
multistage flash evaporation, membrane distillation etc.

 E. M. Carey,J. Castillo-Rogez, J. E. C. Scully [9]- Rate of Evaporation Of

Water Under Low-Pressure Conditions, they found that it took 2.5 hours
for 25 ml of water at 200C with the pressure of 2.86 Torr (0.0036 bar)
during their experiment.

 G.Burrows [10] discussed about the evaporation process at low pressure

condition and also gave a brief explanation of various parameters which
influence the evaporation rate. He proposed the change of kinetic,
potential and inter molecular energy during the process of evaporation.

 P.Rahimi, C.A.Ward [11] discussed about the effect of pressure on the rate
of evaporation under statistical rate theory approach and its effect on
surface of the water and the condensing glazing surface.

 A.V. Brytan, G.M. Verbinska, V.M. Sysoev, V.L. Karbovskiy, T.V.

Cleshchonok (2011) [12] gave the results of experimental researches
concerning the influence of optical radiation with various frequencies
(wavelengths of 390, 565, and 625 nm) on the droplet evaporation rate in
the atmosphere of dry nitrogen at pressures of 30, 50, and 100 mm Hg and
the temperature of a vapor-gas mixture of 20 ◦C.

24
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3.1.1 SIZE

The goal of the distiller is to minimize size while maximizing the output of
clean drinking water. In addition, the device must be portable and moveable by a
maximum of two people. The amount of solar energy available in a region, along
with the desired output, will theoretically dictate the overall size of the device.
However, the size of the device could be minimized by experimentally testing
and optimizing specific design factors incorporated into the distiller

3.1.2 PRACTICALITY
All of the contaminants contained in the feed water will remain in the
distiller after the water has evaporated. Therefore, the device must be easy to
clean, since frequent cleaning will be a requirement for efficient operation. Also,
the device should be easy to level when being installed to ensure uniform water
depth. This will allow for a more efficient operation. The origins of the solar
distiller can be traced back to 1551 when Arab alchemists used simple solar stills
to keep mine workers hydrated during the work day. Designs similar to these
ancient distillers still exist today. However, adaptations to that simple design now
incorporate changing factors, such as sun position, geographical location, and
weather conditions. A simple, single-basin design which incorporates the
previously mentioned design features proves to be reliable, cost effective, and
efficient.

3.1.3 THE EFFECT OF WATER DEPTH

In this periodical different water depths were used in the basin of a simple
asymmetrical distiller. The amount of water output for each water level was

25
 measured daily over a time period of one year in New Delhi, India. The
effect of increasing basin absorptivity was also tested during this span of time.
The results show that the daily water output is consistently greater for a shallower
water depth. The shallowest water depth used was 2 cm, while the largest water
depth used was 18 cm. Above a depth of 8 cm, it was discovered that output
remains constant. The output for the 2 cm water depth was over 30% more than
the water depth of 18 cm. However, the deeper water levels did yield a high water
temperature. This is mostly due to the higher heat capacity of a larger body of
water. Higher basin absorptivity was also found to lead to a greater water output.
In conclusion, the majority of solar radiation is absorbed in the first 2 cm of water
depth. Also, the basin absorptivity is a major factor in the design of a solar still.
These two pieces of information are highly valuable for increasing water output.

3.2 THE EFFECT OF DESIGNS

In this periodical two different solar still designs are compared. The first
design is an asymmetrical still with mirrors on the walls. The second design is a
symmetrical still. The water output of the asymmetrical still was measured to be
30% higher than the symmetrical version. The asymmetrical Design is operated
at a higher temperature. This is mostly due to the mirrors on the side and back
walls. The mirrors reduced heat energy loss and reflected all incoming solar
radiation towards the basin. Since the asymmetrical design has three insulated
walls where the mirrors reside, there is less area for heat energy to escape. The
symmetrical design has more area where heat loss occurs. In conclusion, the
asymmetrical solar still with mirrors is a superior design with greater efficiency
and higher overall water output.

3.2.1 ENHANCING SINGLE SOLAR STILL PRODUCTIVITY

In this article, various enhancements are discussed that can increase overall
clean water output, as well as other information that is useful for the design of a
26
 solar still. Once again the idea of using the smallest water depth possible
is explored. As the water depth increases, the output of the still steadily declines.
A small decrease from 3.5 cm to 2 cm increased output 26%. For areas with large
amounts of solar radiation near the equator, it was found that an angle around 23°
for the glass is optimal. This angle works well with the angle of the incoming
solar radiation.
In the experiments conducted, it was also discovered that about 16% of the
water output occurred at night, without solar radiation. This is due to the increased
temperature difference between the water and glass cover, as well as the overall
decrease of heat capacity. It was also found that a sprinkler (cooling film) applied
to the outer layer of glass will lead to a substantial increase in clean water
production. The sprinkler lowers the temperature of the glass and increases the
temperature difference between the water and glass, thus increasing production.

3.3 SOLAR COLLECTION SYSTEM

With radiation concentrated on heat absorber vanes, this topic contained a
few key ideas such as the use of Fresnel lenses to increase the efficiency and
overall production of the distiller by focusing the incoming radiation onto a
trough of water. The second idea that this patent introduced was the use of
individual water troughs instead of a large water basin in the distiller. At the base
of the troughs were tightly spaced vanes that utilize the capillary action of water
to increase the surface area of the water being exposed to the incoming solar
radiation, further increase in overall efficiency. By using troughs, the distiller is
able to maximize available surface area and minimize water volume in the
distiller. As shown in Figure 3.1 below, each trough has a Fresnel lens focusing
energy onto the water. When applying the ideas outlined in this topic to the design
goals, it becomes apparent that incorporating the Fresnel lenses and the vanes in
each trough would defeat our requirements of a low cost and practical device.

27
3.3.1 HIGH OUTPUT SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM
This system describes a useful multiple effect system. The term “multiple
effect” refers to a system designed in such a way that evaporated water from one
surface condenses on the bottom of another surface and subsequently transfers
thermal energy to the second surface which also contains evaporating water. The
design uses an inclined wicking system in an enclosed area, similar to a basic
distiller, to supply a constant feed of water through the still. The saturated wick
allows for some of the feed water to be vaporized for condensate and the rest of
the feed water run out of the distiller as hot water. Figure 3.2 shows the multiple
wicks absorbing solar radiation. The design is simple, cost effective, but less
efficient as it does not convert all of the feed water to distilled water.

3.3.2 DESIGN OF SINGLE BASIN SOLAR STILL

This device uses a more traditional single basin design, but again uses a
water wicking system. The wick system maintains a constant feed rate that can
be predetermined based on the wick size. It also introduces the idea of preheating
the feed water to increase efficiency, and creating a vapour circulation system
inside the distiller to further increase efficiency. However, as with all wicking
systems, the ability to clean the still effectively is compromised because each of
the wicks would have to be cleaned with water at the end of each day of use.

3.4 NEED FOR MODIFICATION IN PASSIVE SOLAR STILL

The main objective of modifying the passive solar still is to eliminate the
disadvantage of low yield output and less efficiency. Since, the output is not
practically sufficient for the people to use it for domestic or any other purposes,
solar still has been underutilized both by urban and rural community. Thus, in
order to increase the yield output and the efficiency, we aim to modify the passive

28
solar still by rolling up jute fiber in an aluminum rod inside the chamber so as to
accelerate the process of evaporation thereby to increase the output.

3.5 CONCEPTS INVOLVED IN EVAPORATION

The temperature of water rise by absorbing solar radiation from the Sun. Of the
heat energy absorbed a part of heat energy is used to overcome inter molecular
force of attraction and the rest is used to do external work in pushing back the
surrounding atmosphere. The total amount of energy needed to change liquid to
vapor is known as latent heat of vaporization. Molecules within the liquid collide
randomly with each other, exchanging momentum with each other. molecular
speed and kinetic energy change on every impact. The result is a wide distribution
of kinetic energies from the very small to the very large at any instant. At the
surface of the liquid, fast moving molecules can easily escape from the liquid-
vapor boundary. Slower molecules remain in the liquid, as they could not
overcome the forces of attraction between the liquid molecules.

3.5.1 VARIOUS FACTORS INFLUENCING EVAPORATION RATE

Evaporation rate is increased by an increase in

 Surface area
 Temperature
 Airspeed

3.5.3 MODES OF MASS TRANSFER

The water evaporated from the surface gets to the glazing surface by the following
three mass transfer modes. The first is by diffusion which contributes relatively
small amount when compared to other two. The second one is purging whose
contribution is given by fraction (condenser volume)/ (condenser volume + still
volume). About 75% of the still condensation is by natural circulation mode of
mass transfer which is due to density difference.

29
 CHAPTER 4

FABRICATION METHODOLOGY

4.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS

There are a number of parameters which affect the performance of a solar
still. These are broadly classified as
(1) Climatic parameters (2) Design parameters (3) Operating parameters,
1. Climatic Parameters
 Solar Radiation
 Ambient Temperature
 Wind Speed
 Outside Humidity
 Sky Conditions

2. Design Parameters
 Single slope or double slope
 Glazing material
 Water depth in Basin
 Bottom insulation
 Orientation of still
 Inclination of glazing
 Spacing between water and glazing
 Type of solar still

3. Operational Parameters
 Water Depth
 Preheating of Water
 Colouring of Water
 Impure content in Water

30
 4.2 DESIGN OF SINGLE SLOPE SOLAR STIL

The solar still is simple equipment without any moving parts. Solar
still basin is made up of Aluminum plates to stand-up to the harsh conditions
produced by water and sunlight. The advantages of Aluminum over other
materials such as glass fiber, carbon fiber etc. are their specific strength
properties, easy availability, high toughness, low density, good thermal properties
and renewability. The basin area of the solar still is kept as 0.2756 m2. The
heights of the solar still at lower and higher sides are 0.15 m and 0.25 m
respectively. The thickness of Aluminum body is kept as 2.5 mm. The outer and
inner surface of the solar still is painted black to have high absorptivity of solar
radiation. The basin is covered with glasses of thickness 5mm inclined at 13 
respectively to receive the maximum possible solar radiation. In the middle of the
basin, Jute fiber is rolled up in hollow Aluminum rod. The advantage of Jute fiber
is it can absorb water faster and easily by the Capillary effect. A hole is provided
at the bottom surface of the basin to drain water and impurities for cleaning of
solar still. A separate hole is also provided for replenishing raw water in the basin.

The whole system is made vapor tight using silicone rubber sealant, as
it remains elastic for long time.

31
 4.3 CATIA MODELLING OF SINGLE SLOPE SOLAR STILL

Fig. 4.2. Isometric View of Single Slope Solar Still

Fig. 4.3.Top View of Single Slope Solar Still

32
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The solar still is simple equipment without any moving parts. Solar still
basin is made up of mild Aluminum plates to stand-up to the harsh conditions
produced by water and sunlight. The advantages of Aluminum over other
materials such as glass fiber, carbon fiber etc. are their specific strength
properties, easy availability, high toughness, low density, good thermal
properties, renewability and biodegradability. The basin area of the solar still is
kept as 0.2756 m2. The heights of the solar still at lower and higher sides are
0.15m and 0.25 m respectively. The thickness of mild steel body is kept as 2.5
mm. The outer and inner surface of the solar still is painted black to have high
absorptivity of solar radiation. The basin is covered with glasses of thickness
5mm inclined at 13  respectively to receive the maximum possible solar
radiation. In the middle of the basin, Jute fiber is rolled up in a hollow Aluminum
rod to increase the evaporation rate of water. The advantage of jute fiber is it can
absorb water much faster, easily by the Capillary effect.

A hole is provided at the bottom surface of the basin to drain water and
impurities for cleaning of solar still. A separate hole is also provided for
replenishing raw water in the basin. The output of the distilled water collector
from the basin is connected to another small pipe from where we can collect the
fresh water. The cover glazing and the basin are made vapor tight using epoxy
adhesive, as it remains air tight for long time.

33
5.2 EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROCEDURE
Outdoor tests of the solar distillation system under study were carried out
with number of variables. Various data were collected before, during and after
experiment.

5.2.1 BEFORE EXPERIMENT

i. A suitable adhesive was applied on all side, at all joints of water carrying
channels to ensure leak proof.
ii. The lower edges of the still were set horizontally using the spirit level.
iii. The inclination angle was set with the aid of the inclinometer.
iv. Jute fiber is rolled in a hollow Aluminum rod.

5.2.2 DURING EXPERIMENT

The following were the parameters measured every hour for a period of 24
hours during each experiments conducted.
i. Outer glass cover temperature,
ii. Inner glass cover temperature,
iii. Water vapor temperature,
iv. Water temperature in the basin,
v. Ambient air temperature,
vi. Solar intensity on glass cover,
vii. Solar intensity on collector plate,
viii. Weight of distillate yield.

5.2.3 AFTER EXPERIMENT

Analysis has been carried out as discussed in the subsequent section.

34
5.3 PROCEDURE
Experiments were conducted at the roof top of our home in the month of
June 2021 and carried out from 9 a.m. and lasted for 24 hrs. During the
experiment,The condensing covers are cleaned properly before the start of
experiment. Experiments were conducted at the water depth of 0.03 m. The
distillate output was measured for each hour using a measuring jar and the total
distillate output for one day was calculated.

35
 CHAPTER 6
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF EFFECTIVE SOLAR
DISTILLATION SYSTEM

5.1 HEAT TRANSFER IN ACTIVE SOLAR STILL

The heat transfer in solar still is mainly classified into internal and
external heat transfer.

5.1.1 INTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER

The internal heat transfer occurs within the solar still from water surface
to inner surface of the glass cover, which mainly consists of evaporation,
convection and radiation. The convective and evaporative heat transfers takes
place simultaneously and are independent of radiative heat transfer.

5.1.2 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

The rate of radiative heat transfer between water to glass is given by,

Q  h T  T
R R w g


The radiative heat transfer coefficient between water to glass is given as,

   2732 
T T 
 273 
2

hR   eff   
w g


Tw Tg  546 
 

The effective emittance between water to glass cover is presented

1
 eff

   
 1    1   1
    w
 g 

36
5.1.3 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Natural convection takes place across the humid air inside the basin due to
the temperature difference between the water surface to inner surface of the glass
cover.

The rate of convective heat transfer between water to glass is given by,

Q  h T  T
C C w g


The convective heat transfer coefficient is expressed as

 P268.9P 10T  273 

 
1


3

  T w T g 
w g w
hC 0.884

3

P w

Where,
  5144 
    
Pw exp

25.317
  
T w 273 

  5144 
    
Pg exp

25.317
  273 
T g 

5.1.4 EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER.

The performance of solar still depends on the evaporative and convective
heat transfer coefficients. Various scientists developed mathematical relations to
evaluate the evaporative and convective heat transfer coefficients.
The equation for the rate of evaporative heat transfer between water to
glass is given by,

Q E

 h E T w  T gi 

37
 The evaporation takes place inside the solar still by addition of heat in
the water by means of solar radiation. Dunkle’s developed a model to evaluate
the evaporative heat transfer coefficient as follows,

3
 Pw  P gi 
hE  16.273  10  hC   
 T w T gi 

The total heat transfer coefficient of water to glass is defined as,

h h h h
T R C E

The rate of total heat transfer of water to glass is defined as,

Q =Q +Q +Q
T R C E

1.2 EXTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER

The external heat transfer in solar still is mainly governed by conduction,
convection and radiation processes, which are independent each other.

1.3 CALCULATIONS

Atmospheric temperature T∞ =370C

Water temperature in still TW= 560C
Bottom glass surface temperature Tg=400C
Atmosphere is assumed as BLACK BODY
Atmospheric pressure Pa=101.325Kpa

From HMT Data book

Transmissivity of Glass = 0.8
Emissivity of water, ɛw = 0.96
Emissivity of glass, ɛg= 0.94

38
 Properties of Water
Absorbivity of water αw = 0.33
Reflectivity of water ρw = 0.33
Transmissivity of water τw = 0.33

Total Incident Radiation:

Gs = σ*T4
= 5.67*10-8*3104
Gs = 523.63 W/m2
Where Stefan Boltzman’s law, σ = 5.67*10-8 W/m2K4

Radiation below the glass covers

Q = τg(upper)* τg(lower)* Gs
= 0.8*0.8*523.63
= 340W/m2

Reflectivity of Radiation from water surface

Qreflectivity = 0.333*Q
= 0.333*340
= 111.5 W/m2

Transmissivity of Radiation through water

Qtrans = 0.333*Q
= 0.333*340
= 111.5 W/m2

Absorbivity of water from Q

Qabsorb = 0.333*Q
= 0.333*340
= 111.5 W/m2
39
Radiation emitted by water & bottom glass cover
Qrad = Fs*σ*A*(Tw4 – Tg4)

1
FS 
   
 1    1   1
  
 g   w

1
FS 
 
 1    1   1
 0.8
  


Assume Aw = Ag
Fs = 1.105
Qrad = 1.105*5.67*10-8*1*(3294 – 3134)
Qrad = 132.71 W/m2

Total outgoing radiation = 133+66 = 199 W/m2

From steam tables

Saturation pressure of water at 560C = 15758 N/m2
Saturation pressure of water at 400C = 7383.7 N/m2

Heat transfer coefficient

 P268.9P 10T  273 

 
1


3

hCw  0.884 T w  T g 
w g w
3
 P w 

15758  7383.7329  273

1
 3

hCw  0.884329  313  268.9  10 3  15758 

 

=1.25 W/m2K

40
Evaporative heat transfer coefficient

3
 Pw  P g 
hew  16.273  10  hCw   
T w T g 

= 10.3 W/m2K

Evaporative heat transfer

Q ew

 hew T w  T g 

= 10.3*(329- 313)

= 165.8 W/m2

Evaporation rate


h T  T
ew w g
  3600
m w
L

165.8
  3600
2382.9

= 0.25 Kg/hr

Ordinary efficiency of the still

  I  m  3600 w
L
o
A
0.15 * 2382.9 * 1000

525.3  1  3600

= 18.66%

41
 Our effective solar still,

  I  m  3600
L w
e
A

0.25 * 2382.9 * 1000


525.3  1  3600

= 31.5%

Increased efficiency = 31.5 – 18.66

= 12.84%

42
 CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiments were conducted in the month of June 2021, to

determine the distillate output of the modified single slope solar still. Hourly
measurements were made for ambient temperature, basin water temperature,
glass cover temperature, distillate output and solar intensity from 9 am for 24
hours. From the experimental observations made, it is clear that distillate
output is maximum 0.180 liters between 6 pm to 7 pm for water depth 0.03
m and minimum 0.045 liters between 8 am to 9 am. The total distillate output
for the modified basin is 2.3 Liters/m2 day under ordinary condition. With the
use of Jute fiber, the total distillate value obtained is 2.6 liters/m2 day which
gives 12.84% more output when compared to ordinary solar still. Therefore,
from the experimental results we can infer that the usage of jute fiber has its
influence on evaporation rate so that we get more output of distilled water.

43
 CHAPTER 8
PHOTOGRAPHY

Photo: Working model of single slope Solar still

44
 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION

The availability of potable water on this mother Earth is dwindling day

by day. Clean water remains one of the most challenging international issues
of today, and solar distillation offers important and effective solutions in
meeting potable water needs. Low cost solar stills offer immediate and
effective solutions in reliably providing safe distilled water year after year.
Ordinary solar stills are easy to build but it has the disadvantage of low
distillate output and hence low efficiency. Thus in order to increase the
efficiency and the distillate output of the solar still, low pressure has been
created and the performance was investigated experimentally. The
implications of the results from the design are for the development of a robust
and dynamic single slope solar still with Jute fiber system. This has the
potential and capacity to produce distilled water for domestic and commercial
purposes irrespective of the geographical location.

SCOPE
Further to increase the efficiency insulation materials such as wood,
asbestos, glass wool, etc., can be provided to our solar still. To have better output
incorporation of active method such as Flat Plate Collector to our solar still will
also have a great scope. Our ultimate aim through this project is to provide an
affordable access of the solar distillation process especially to the rural
community in order that the potable water is available to them for free. Today, in
directly harnessing the power of the Sun, we're taking the energy that God gave
us, the most renewable energy that we will ever see, and using it to replace our
dwindling supplies of fossil fuels.

45
 CHAPTER 10
COST ESTIMATION
10.1 MATERIALS PURCHASED

S.NO MATERIAL DIMENSION QUANTITY COST(Rs)

1. ALUMINUM 700X700X2 1 1000/-

PLATE
700X200X1.5 1

700X40X1.5 3

2. JUTE FIBER - ½ kg 100/-

3. GLASS 695X695X3 1 nos 400/-

4. PVC PIPES 1¼ inch 240/-

5. PVC END CAP 1¼ inch 2 50/-

6. PVS ELBOW 1¼ inch 2 50/-

7. BLACK PAINT - 500ml 150/-

8. PRIMER - 500ml 50/-

9. HOLLOW STEEL - 1 350/-

ROD

10. Other miscellaneous - - 500/-

expenses

Total cost Rs 3000/-

10.2 TOTAL COST

A total cost of Rs 3000/- has been spent for our project.

46
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48