FABRICATION OF AUTOMATED ENEMA (BASTI)

MAKING MACHINE
ME6612-DESIGN AND FABRICATION PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

ABHISHEK JOSEPH (312317114004)

A. ARUN (312317114020)

In partial fulfillment for the requirement of award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CHENNAI- 600 119

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2020

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The contentment and elation that accompany the successful completion of

any work would be incomplete without mentioning the people who made it
possible.

We are extremely happy to express our gratitude in thanking our beloved

Chairman Dr. B. Babu Manoharan M.A.,M.B.A.,Ph.D., who has been a pillar of
strength to this college.

Words are inadequate in offering my sincere thanks and gratitude to our

respected Managing Director Mrs. S. Jessie Priya M.Com., and Director Mr. B.
Sashi Sekar M.Sc., and our beloved Principal Dr.Vaddi Seshagiri Rao
M.E.,M.B.A.,Ph.D., for having encouraged us to do our under graduation in
Mechanical Engineering in this esteemed college.

We also express my sincere thanks and most heartfelt sense of gratitude to

our eminent Head of the Department Dr. N. Arun Kumar , and Dr. S.
Arivazhagan –HOD Lab affairs for having extended his helping hand at all times.

It is with deep sense of gratitude that we acknowledge our indebtedness to

our beloved supervisor Mr. K. Muninathan a perfectionist for his expert guidance
and connoisseur suggestion.

Last but not the least we thank our family members and
friends who have been the greatest source of support to me.

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 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “FABRICATION OF AUTOMATED
ENEMA(BASTI) MAKING MACHINE” is the bonafide work of
“ABHISHEK JOSEPH (312317114004) A. ARUN (312317114020)" who
carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. VADDI SESHAGIRI RAO M.E.,M.B.A.,

Ph.D., F.I.E Mr. K MUNINATHAN M.E.,
Principal &Head Of Department Associate Professor

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

St. Joseph’s College Of Engineering St. Joseph’s College Of Engineering
Chennai-600119 Chennai-600119

3
 CERTIFICATE OF EVALUATION
COLLEGE : St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BRANCH : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SEMESTER : VI
S.
NAME OF THE TITLE OF
No NAME OF THE GUIDE
STUDENTS PROJECT
.
1. ABHISHEK FABRICATION Mr K MUNINATHAN M.E.,
JOSEPH
OF ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
(312317114004)
AUTOMATED DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
2. A. ARUN
(312317114020) ENEMA(BASTI) ENGINEERING
MAKING
MACHINE

The report of the third year project work submitted by the above students in
the partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical
Engineering in Anna University was evaluated and confirmed to be the work done
by the above students.

Submitted for UNIVERSITY VIVA EXAMINATION held on _______________

(INTERNAL EXAMINER) (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)

4
FABRICATION OF AUTOMATED ENEMA(BASTI) MAKING MACHINE

ABSTRACT

Basti is an ayurvedic medicine consisting of honey, sesame oil, salt, herbal paste
and herbal decoction. The above mixture is then churned to obtain a homogeneous
mixture. In this paper we target the planning of crank and slotted enema (basti)
maker that will be helpful and cheap to ayurvedic practioners and home users.
This will also assist to extend the productivity of worker in rural area . Current
process of developing enema is long, taking several hours to complete and needs
most physical efforts. The demand of ayurvedic enema (basti) increases day by
day. In order to meet this demand a more robust mechanism is required. This
process is to be automated so as to reduce production time and provide consistent
products without differences. This project seeks to develop consistent enema
mixtures by means of combination using a rack and pinion mixer and a rotating
bucket. The rack is reciprocated using The bucket is rotated with the help of DC
motor connected through a chained sprocket drive.

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6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT 5

1 INTRODUCTION 7

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 9

3 PROPOSED WORK AND MANUFACTURING 12

PROCESS

4 DESRIPTION OF COMPONENTS 28

5 CONSTRUCTION & WORKING PRINCIPLE 59

6 COST ESTIMATION 61

7 2D LAYOUTS OF MODEL 63

8 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS 64

9 CONCLUSION 65

10 REFERENCES 66

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In Production process challenge of improving productivity means to improve

efficiency at all stages i.e. efforts taken, machinery, process, money etc. Effort
taken means manpower which is major factor for contributing the success of any
manual process. crank and slotted is cheapest as well as easiest mechanical device
that's why it is also known as lifeline of rural area. The use of crank and slotted is
comfortable for human being and gives appropriate power for running our
mechanism. So we decide to use crank and slotted power source for our
mechanism. So the next task is to develop a mechanism which will run crank and
slotted.

In industrial process engineering, mixing is a process that involves manipulation of

a heterogeneous physical system with the intent to make it more homogeneous.
Familiar examples include pumping of the water in a swimming pool to
homogenize the watunit operationer temperature, and the stirring of pancake batter
to eliminate lumps (deagglomeration). Mixing is performed to allow heat and/or
mass transfer to occur between one or more streams, components or phases.
Modern industrial processing almost always involves some form of mixing.
[1]
 Some classes of chemical reactors are also mixers. With the right equipment, it
is possible to mix a solid, liquid or gas into another solid, liquid or gas.
A biofuel fermenter may require the mixing of microbes, gases and liquid medium
for optimal yield; organic nitration requires concentrated (liquid) nitric and sulfuric
acids to be mixed with a hydrophobic organic phase; production of pharmaceutical
tablets requires blending of solid powders. The opposite of mixing is segregation.
A classical example of segregation is the brazil nut effect.

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Mixing of liquids occurs frequently in process engineering. The nature of liquids to
blend determines the equipment used. Single-phase blending tends to involve low-
shear, high-flow mixers to cause liquid engulfment, while multi-phase mixing
generally requires the use of high-shear, low-flow mixers to create droplets of one
liquid in laminar, turbulent or transitional flow regimes, depending on
the Reynolds number of the flow. Turbulent or transitional mixing is frequently
conducted with turbines or impellers; laminar mixing is conducted with helical
ribbon or anchor mixers.

In powder two different dimensions in the mixing process can be determined:

convective mixing and intensive mixing.[4] In the case of convective mixing
material in the mixer is transported from one location to another. This type of
mixing leads to a less ordered state inside the mixer, the components that must be
mixed are distributed over the other components. With progressing time the
mixture becomes more randomly ordered. After a certain mixing time the ultimate
random state is reached. Usually this type of mixing is applied for free-flowing and
coarse materials.

Possible threats during macro mixing is the de-mixing of the components, since
differences in size, shape or density of the different particles can lead to
segregation.

When materials are cohesive, which is the case with e.g. fine particles and also
with wet material, convective mixing is no longer sufficient to obtain a randomly
ordered mixture. The relative strong inter-particle forces form lumps, which are not
broken up by the mild transportation forces in the convective mixer. To decrease
the lump size additional forces are necessary; i.e. more energy intensive mixing is
required. These additional forces can either be impact forces or shear forces.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

“DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A PEDAL-POWERED SOAP MIXER”

Kajogbola R. Ajao, Kadiri Mustapha, Modupe R. Mahamood and Muritala

O. Iyanda
A bicycle pedal-powered soap mixer has been design and developed. The
machine consists of a chain drive and gear amplification mechanisms that turns
impeller blades in a large stainless steel container, where soap ingredients are
stirred and blended. The machine is economically viable, can be used by unskilled
workers, save time otherwise spent in traditional mixing and can be adopted for
human-powered process units which could have intermittent operation without
affecting the end-product. [New York Science Journal. 2010;3(1):6-9]. (ISSN:
1554-0200).

“DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PEDAL OPERATED FLOUR MILL.”

Prasad A.Hatwalne, Sushil T.Ambadkar, R.V.Paropate,Vivek R.Gandhewar,
A.M.Wankhade

The socio-economic conditions of peoples living in villages of developing

countries including India, human muscle power can be good alternative to fulfill
the energy requirements for performing many activities like flour milling. Pedaling
is the most efficient way of utilizing power from human muscles. Keeping these
things in mind a pedal operated flour mill is developed. The machine consists of a
chain drive and belt drive that turns rotates conventional stone wheels ,where the
poured wheat gets crushed to produce flour. The machine is economically viable,
can be used by common people, save time otherwise spent in traditional hand
cranking of stone wheels and can be adopted for human-powered process units
which could have intermittent operation without affecting the end-product.

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[Prasad A. Hatwalne, Sushil T. Ambadkar, R.V. Paropate, Vivek R. Gandhewar,
A.M. Wankhade. Design and development of Pedal operated flour mill. New
York Science Journal 2011;4(5):74-77]. (ISSN: 1554-0200).

“PEDALOPERATED BUTTERCHURNER :DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

FOR RURAL AREA”
R.V.Paropate, Mahesh S. Gorde

Now a days we tend to see pedal operated tools are helpful in day to day
life. In this paper we target the planning of pedal operated butter churner that will
be helpful and cheap to normal milkman. Which will assist to extend the
productivity of worker in rural area. Current process of developing butter is the
long, taking several hours to complete and needs most physical efforts. The
demand of butter is increases day by day. In order to meet this demand a more
robust mechanism is required. This project seeks to develop a butter by means
that of combination using bicycle & mechanism.

“DESIGN OF A MANUALLY OPERATED MIXING MACHINE FOR

SHEA BUTTER APPLICATIONS”

Nick Dalbec ,James Zoss

The women in Mali, North Africa lack the efficient tools and education to
develop a better means of processing Shea butter products. The current processes
are physically exhausting and time demanding, taking several hours to complete.

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Women consume their products as well as sell them at the local markets. Shea
butter is becoming internationally known as a skin care product used for
moisturizing. In order to help African women establish fair-trade Shea Yeleen
International, a non-profit organization, was founded. This project seeks to
develop a better means of mixing using a manually operated machine. After
thoroughly researching, designing and experimenting, a final machine was
developed optimizing the mixing process. The mixing time was successfully
reduced form several hours to thirty minutes. All other engineering and customer
design requirements were met. Through the success of our design, Shea Yeleen
International will be able to disseminate the machine and hopefully help fight
poverty in Africa.

“DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A HAND OPERATED MIXER

MACHINE FOR FOOD FORTIFICATION”

Richard Okwabi
Lack of knowledge on balance diet and poverty have contributed to the rise
in malnourishment in children and pregnant women in developing countries. Many
people in Africa, especially Ghana take in maize flour as their main food. This
food can be fortify with highly concentrated vitamins and minerals food (premix)
to increase its micronutrient. A low cost technology of a mixer machine was
constructed to homogenously mix the premix (Super cereal Plus) together with
maize flour of ratio 0.00525:15 kg respectively. The design steps were
systematically analyzed to generate the correct data for the final construction of the
Hand operated mixer machine. Fortification processes was completed with the
mixer machine to ascertain it efficiency. The reading recorded by the Chroma
Meter shows that the machine was efficient at 300 to 360 revolution of the crank
lever.

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 CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED WORK AND MANUFACTURING PROCESS

PROPOSED WORK

To prepare any machine part, the type of material should be properly

selected, considering design, safety and following points. The selection of material
for engineering application is given by the following factors: -

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while

selecting the material are as follows: -

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

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 In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while
selecting the material are as follows: -

Physical properties:-

These properties are color, shape, density, thermal conductivity, electrical

conductivity, melting point etc.

Mechanical properties:-

The properties are associated with the ability of the material to resist the
mechanical forces and load.

The various properties are:-

i) Strength: It is the property of material due to which it can resist the external
forces without breaking or yielding.

ii) Stiffness: It is the ability of material to withstand the deformation under stress.

iii) Ductility: It is the property of material due to which it can be drawn into wires
under tensile load.

iv) Malleability: It is the property of material which enables it to be rolled into

sheets.

vi) Brittleness: It is the property of material due to which it breaks into pieces with
little deformation.

vii) Hardness: It is the property of material to resist wear, deformation and the
ability to cut another material.

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viii) Resilience: It is the ability of the material to store energy and resist the shock
and impact loads.

ix) Creep: It is the slow and permanent deformation induced in a part subjected to a
constant stress at high temperature. We have selected the material considering the
above factors and also as per the availability of the material. The materials which
cover most of the above properties are

MILD STEEL:

Why steel, in particular simply because, in my humble opinion, it is the

greatest material mankind has for construction. It is cheap, strong, readily
available, easily cut, joined, and formed. Wood can be light and stiff, but not very
strong.

The best aluminum is strong and light, but very difficult to join. Titanium is superb
in terms of strength to weight ratio and stiffness but it’s incredibly expensive,
difficult to obtain, and even more difficult and expensive to machine properly.
There’s no way you’re ever going to perform a battery-welded-fix on a part made
from 7075-T6 aluminum or titanium.

In the end we come back to steel from mild carbon to some of the more
exotic alloy steels pound for pound it is the most righteous material available for
our needs. Where does steel come from? Steel is not a naturally occurring
substance - it is entirely manmade. Steel is chiefly a combination of two naturally
occurring elements: iron and carbon (along with small amounts of other elements -
depending on the steel in question).

The process by which man makes steel, would, again, fill several volumes.
Here is my amateur synopsis Iron is mined from the ground in the form if a

15
reddish-brown rock called iron-ore. This ore is then smashed up, strained, filtered,
chemically treated etc., until ultimately it is melted in huge blast furnaces into
something called pig iron. The process uses coke (a type of coal), which in turn
imparts large amounts of carbon to the pig iron.

As a result, pig iron itself is full of impurities, brittle, and unmaking-able -

practically useless. Except - it is the raw material from which all other irons and
steels are made. Pig iron is so produced in either huge vats of molten material, or it
is cast into ingots (in fact, pig iron got its name because the ingots or “chunks”

produced were thought to have resembled piglets). Pig iron is then refined into
either metallic iron or steel using specialized furnaces and processes. The
distinction between the two is that metallic iron has between 2-6A final words
about carbon. Carbon is critically important to our whole discussion because it is
the presence of carbon that turns the element of iron that is naturally soft and weak,
into the strong, rigid materials we know as iron and steel. Precisely how this is so
being beyond the scope of this article, sufficient to say.

The strength, hardness and toughness that make the ferrous based metals
useful to us are profoundly influenced by the remarkable sensitivity of the physical
and chemical properties of iron crystals to relatively small percentages of carbon
dissolved within their matrixes (actually, the sensitivity is to the movement of
dislocations within the crystal space lattice). This sensitivity to dissolved carbon is
in fact, the very basis of ferrous metallurgy.

MACHINE CONSTRUCTION:

The machine is basically made up of mild steel. Reasons:

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1. Mild steel is readily available in market

2. It is economical to use

3. It is available in standard sizes

4. It has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily Machin able

5. It has moderate factor of safety, because factor of safety results in unnecessary

wastage of material and heavy selection. Low factor of safety results in
unnecessary risk of failure

6. It has high tensile strength

7. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion Properties of Mild Steel: M.S. has a

carbon content from 0.15BRIGHT MATERIAL.

It is a machine drowned. The main basic difference between mild steel and bright
metal is that mild steel plates and bars are forged in the forging machine by means
is not forged. But the materials are drawn from the dies in the plastic state.
Therefore, the material has good surface finish than mild steel and has no carbon-
deposits on its surface for extrusion and formation of engineering materials thus
giving them a good surface finish and though retaining their metallic properties
poor, but perhaps useful metaphor may be the use of fibre-mat and resin in fibre
glass work. The bulk raw material of fiberglass is the fibre matting (as iron is to
steel) - but by itself the matting is of no practical use. Not until we add the resin to
it to make fibre glass (as we add carbon to iron to make steel) do we get a useful
product.

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 In both cases, neither raw material is much use alone, but combines them nor
do we really have something. Similarly, though carbon may only be present in
small quantities, Just as the amount of hardener added to fibre glass resin has a
profound effect on the material, so does the small amount of carbon present in
useful metallic iron and steel

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
creation of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then
modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.
Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes
tests and checks for quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and
planning the production process prior to manufacturing.

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METAL CUTTING:
Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted material
from a block of metal in the form of chips.

19
 Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed.
Usually, the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips.
Common cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching,
drilling, grinding, turning and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and
processes for cutting look very different from each other, the basic mechanism for
causing the fracture can be understood by just a simple model called for orthogonal
cutting.

In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover
the final part shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain the
final part. This cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps – in each
step, the part is held in a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by the
tool to machine in that portion. Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw or 4-
jaw chucks, etc. Each position of holding the part is called a setup. One or more

20
cutting operation may be performed, using one or more cutting tools, in each setup.
To switch from one setup to the next, we must release the part from the previous
fixture, change the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new position on
the new fixture, set the coordinates of the machine tool with respect to the new
location of the part, and finally start the machining operations for this setup.
Therefore, setup changes are time-consuming and expensive, and so we
should try to do the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the task
of determining the sequence of the individual operations, grouping them into (a
minimum number of) setups, and determination of the fixture used for each setup,
is called process planning.
These notes will be organized in three sections:
(i) Introduction to the processes,
(ii) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and
(iii) Process planning and machining planning for milling.

SAWING:

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through
various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with
the action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both
the metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with
electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable
type of saw.

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 The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high
speed steel. Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage.
The end result is that it is possible to complete a number of cutting projects before
there is a need to replace the blade. High speed steel blades are especially useful
when the saws are used for cutting through thicker sections of metal.

Along with the high speed steel blades, a cold saw may also be equipped
with a blade that is tipped with tungsten carbide. This type of blade construction
also helps to resist wear and tear. One major difference is that tungsten tipped
blades can be re-sharpened from time to time, extending the life of the blade. This
type of blade is a good fit for use with sheet metal and other metallic components
that are relatively thin in design.

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WELDING:

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by

melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.
Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-
based metals such as steel and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually stronger than
or as strong as the base metals being joined.

Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture

of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural
works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

a. OPERATION:

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 Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a
few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known
as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding. 

In this process an electrical machine (which may be DC or AC, but

nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to an electrode holder which carries an
electrode which is normally coated with a mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth
cable connects the work piece to the welding machine to provide a return path for
the current. The weld is initiated by tapping ('striking') the tip of the electrode
against the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature
generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of
the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work
piece while moving the electrode along the joint.

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 In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick' electrode is
covered with an extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which
generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux
ingredients react with unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag
which floats to the surface of the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the
weld while it is cooling. When the weld is cold the slag is chipped off.

The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and
being a discontinuous process it is only suitable for manual operation. It is very
widely used in jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range
of electrode materials and coatings are available enabling the process to be applied
to most steels, heat resisting alloys and many types of cast iron.

4.2.4 DRILLNG:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of

circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from

25
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (sward) from the hole as it is drilled.

a. OPERATION:

The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex; it
has straight cutting teeth at the bottom – these teeth do most of the metal cutting,
and it has curved cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created by
the helical teeth are called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from the
hole as it is being machined. Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero, and
so this region of the tool cannot do much cutting. Therefore, it is common to
machine a small hole in the material, called a center-hole, before utilizing the drill.
Center-holes are made by special drills called center-drills; they also provide a
good way for the drill bit to get aligned with the location of the center of the hole.
There are hundreds of different types of drill shapes and sizes; here, we will only
restrict ourselves to some general facts about drills.

26
 Common drill bit materials include hardened steel (High Speed Steel,
Titanium Nitride coated steel); for cutting harder materials, drills with hard inserts,
e.g. carbide or CBN inserts, are used;
In general, drills for cutting softer materials have smaller point angle, while those

for cutting hard and brittle materials have larger point angle If the Length/Diameter
ratio of the hole to be machined is large, then we need a special guiding support for
the drill, which itself has to be very long; such operations are called gun-drilling.
This process is used for holes with diameter of few mm or more, and L/D ratio up
to 300. These are used for making barrels of guns;

27
 Drilling is not useful for very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm), since
the tool may break and get stuck in the work piece; - Usually, the size of the hole
made by a drill is slightly larger than the measured diameter of the drill – this is
mainly because of vibration of the tool spindle as it rotates, possible misalignment
of the drill with the spindle axis, and some other factors;
For tight dimension control on hole diameter, we first drill a hole that is
slightly smaller than required size (e.g. 0.25 mm smaller), and then use a special

28
 Type of drill called a reamer. Reaming has very low material removal rate,
low depth of cut, but gives good dimension accuracy.
CHAPTER 4

DESRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

 DC Motor
 Sprocket
 Chain
 Battery
 Rack And Pinion
 Shaft
 Bearing
 Frame

D.C MOTOR:

The electrical motor is an instrument, which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. According to faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction,
when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

Constructional a dc generator and a dc motor are identical. The same dc

machine can be used as a generator or as a motor. When a generator is in
operation, it is driven mechanically and develops a voltage. The voltage is capable
of sending current through the load resistance. While motor action a torque is
developed.

29
 The torque can produce mechanical rotation. Motors are classified as series
wound, shunt wound motors.

Specification:

• Motor capacity: 12V.

• Without loading: 1020rpm.

Principles of operation:

The basic principle of Motor action lies in a sample sketch.

The motor run’s according to the principle of Fleming’s left hand rule. When
a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field is produced to move the
conductor away from the magnetic field. The conductor carrying current to North
and South poles is being removed.

In the above stated two conditions there is no movement of the conductors.

Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The field due
to the current in the conductor but opposes the main field below the conductor. As
a result the flux density below the conductor. It is found that a force acts on the

30
conductor to push the conductor downwards. If the current in the conductor is
reversed, the strengthening of the flux lines occurs below the conductor, and the
conductor will be pushed upwards

As stated above the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas
the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides
A and B will be the same coil magnitudes, but their directions will be opposite to
one another. In DC machines coils are wound on the armature core, which is
supported by the bearings, enhances rotation of the armature. The commentator
periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the armature. Thus the
armature rotates continuously.

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets
to create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the
fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then
the North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other
hand, the North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and
similarly south will repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and
repelling forces create rotational motion.

In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the
armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent
magnet (the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small
motors it is not to save power).

31
Electromagnets and Motors:

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how

the electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You
can understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario.

Say that you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire
around a nail and connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and
have a North and South Pole while the battery is connected. Now say that you take
your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of it, and you suspended it
in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure below.

If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end of
the nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would
happen The North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end
of the horseshoe magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet.

32
 The South end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The
nail would move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.

You can see that this half-turn of motion is simple and obvious because of
the way magnets naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric
motor is to then go one step further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of
motion completes, the field of the electromagnet flips.

The flip causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of motion.

You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons
flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the
electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of
motion, the electric motor would spin freely.

The Armature:

33
 The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric motor. The armature is
an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or more poles of a metal
core. The armature has an axle, and the commentator is attached to the axle. In the
diagram above you can see three different views of the same armature: front, side
and end-on. In the end-on view the winding is eliminated to make the commentator
more obvious. You can see that the commentator is simply a pair of plates attached
to the axle. These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the
electromagnet.

The Commentator and brushes:

34
 The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is accomplished by
two parts: the commentator and the brushes.

The diagram at the right shows how the commentator and brushes work
together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip the direction that
the electrons are flowing at just the right moment.

The contacts of the commentator are attached to the axle of the electromagnet,
so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of springy metal or
carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commentator.

a. Putting It All Together:

When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete
electric motor.

In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see
the commentator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes
through the horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip.

35
Because of the flip, the North Pole of the electromagnet is always above the axle
so it can repel the field magnet's North Pole and attract the field magnet's South
Pole.

If you ever take apart an electric motor you will find that it contains the
same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets, a commentator, two
brushes and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of metal.
Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles
as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three
poles:

It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the

electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles of
the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting
"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.

Motor calculations

Current (I) = 1.5 Amps

Voltage (V) = 12 V

The consumed electric power of the motor (Pin) = I x V = 1.5 x 12 = 18

W

The output mechanical power of the motor (Pout) = T x ωout Watts

The speed of the motor (N) = 51 x 20 = 1020 rpm

36
The actual Torque of the motor (Tin) = Eb x Ia x 60 / 2 x π x N = 9.55 x
1.5 x 60 / 2 x 3.14 x 1020 = 0.1341 N-m

Angular speed (ωout) = 2 x π x rpm / 60 = 2 x 3.14 x 1020 / 60 = 106.8

rad/sec

Pout = 0.1341 x 106.8 = 14.3 W

Efficiency of motor = Pout / Pin = 14.3 / 18 = 0.794 x 100 = 79.4%

Input angular speed (ωin) = 2 x π x rpm / 60 = 2 x 3.14 x 51 / 60 = 5.34

rad/sec

Fundamental equation for Gear pair = Tout / Tin = ωout / ωin = Tout /
0.1341 = 106.8 / 5.34

Tout = 6.282 N-m

CHAIN DRIVEN calculations

Pitch of chain (p) = 3.17 mm

No. of teeth on smaller sprocket Z1 = 18 teeth

No. of teeth on larger sprocket Z2 = 28 teeth

Diameter of smaller sprocket d1 = 70 mm

37
Diameter of larger sprocket d2 = 130 mm

No. of links in roller chains = 49 links

Center distance between two sprocket wheels = 410 mm

Puncher specifications

Punching diameter = 5.5 mm

Punching distance = 80 mm

5Roller specification

Diameter of Rollers = 45 mm

Length of the rollers = 430 mm

Center distance between two rollers = 45 mm

Chain

A chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to

another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly
bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides
vehicles.

38
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or
transmission chain passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing
with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain
putting mechanical force into the system .By varying the diameter of the input and
output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered. For example,
when the bicycle pedals' gear rotate once, it causes the gear that drives the wheels
to rotate more than one revolution.

Sprocket

A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, or cogs, that mesh

with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket'
applies generally to any wheel upon which radial projections engage a chain
passing over it. It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed
together directly, and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys
are smooth.

Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and other
machinery either to transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are
unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a track, tape etc. Perhaps the most common
form of sprocket may be found in the bicycle, in which the pedal shaft carries a
large sprocket-wheel, which drives a chain, which, in turn, drives a small sprocket
on the axle of the rear wheel. Early automobiles were also largely driven by
sprocket and chain mechanism, a practice largely copied from bicycles.

39
Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each
by its originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used
with timing belts have flanges to keep the timing belt centered. Sprockets and
chains are also used for power transmission from one shaft to another where
slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being used instead of belts or ropes and
sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can be run at high speed and some forms
of chain are so constructed as to be noiseless even at high speed.

BATTERY

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess
solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated
sunshine load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In
fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt.
Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage
means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs.
It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy
and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar
electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:
(1) Low cost
(2) Long life
(3) High reliability
(4) High overall efficiency
(5) Low discharge
(6) Minimum maintenance
(A) Ampere hour efficiency
(B) Watt hour efficiency

40
We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for
lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.
Battery Specification:
Battery capacity: 12V, 1.3Ah.
This is chargeable one
Battery charging time: 20min.
LEAD-ACID WET CELL:
Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the
type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile,
for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell
has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series
combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.
The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be
recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore
the output voltage, as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat
with excessive charge and discharge currents short ends the useful life to about 3 to
5 years for an automobile battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the
lead-acid type has the highest output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a
specified battery voltage.
CONSTRUCTION:
Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a
group of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the
electrolyte, consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This
construction enables the active material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the

41
grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge produces the positive and
negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the positive plate
is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative electrode is spongy lead (pb).
Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The
electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to
from the plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added
in normal service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without
provision for adding water.

Fig 5.1 Layout of Battery

RACK AND PINION

Rack and pinion animations rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that
comprises a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. The
circular pinion engages teeth on a linear “gear” bar–the rack. Rotational motion
applied to the pinion will cause the rack to move to the side, up to the limit of its

42
travel. For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a
locomotive or a rail car engages a rack between the rails and pulls a train along a
steep slope.

 A rack is a gear whose pitch diameter is infinite, resulting in a straight line

pitch circle.
 Involute of a very large base circle approaches a straight line.
 Used to convert rotary motion to straight line motion.
 Used in machine tools.

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which
convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called “the pinion”
engages teeth on a linear “gear” bar called “the rack”; rotational motion applied to

43
the pinion causes the rack to move, thereby translating the rotational motion of the
pinion into the linear motion of the rack.

For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or

a rail car engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope. For
every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack is the
profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius. (I.e. a toothed straight edge.)
A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for
the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.

The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanism of
cars or other wheeled, steered vehicles. This arrangement provides a lesser

44
mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recirculating ball, but much
less backlash and greater feedback, or steering “feel”. The use of a variable rack
(still using a normal pinion) was invented by Arthur E Bishop, so as to improve
vehicle response and steering “feel” especially at high speeds, and that has been
fitted to many new vehicles, after he created a specialized version of a net-shape
warm press forging process to manufacture the racks to their final form, thus
eliminating any subsequent need to machine the gear teeth. Enclosed steering rack
in an automobile for every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack.
This basic rack is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius. A
generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for
the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.

Applications

Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear actuator,
where the rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted to linear
motion.

The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is
usually small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus
torque, may still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear
immediately before this by either a gear or worm gear reduction. Rack gears have a
higher ratio, thus require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators.

DESIGN OF PINION

From PSG design data book (page no.7.18)

45
 dmin > (0.59/ σcmax) х [[Mt]/((1/E1)+(1/E2)) 2](1/3 _________________ (1)

Where,

σcmax = maximum contact compressive stress N/m2

E1, E2 = Young’s modulus N/m2

Mt = Torque N-m

E1 = E2 = 1.1х106 N/m2

Calculation of σcmax
________________
σcmax = HB х CB х Kcl (2)

Where,

HB = Brinell hardness number

CB = coefficient depends on hardness

Kcl = life factor

Kcl = {[1 x 107]/N} 1/6 _______________

(3)

N = 60 x n x T

Where

n = rpm

N = life in no. Of cycles

46
 T = life in hours.

= 8000 hours.

From P.S.G design data book (page no.2.4),

CB = 20

HB = 200

Substituting the values of N, n, T in the equation [3],

The value of kcl is obtained as 1.139.

Kcl = 1.139.

Substituting the values in equation [2]

σcmax = 20 x 200 x 1.1309

= 4520 x105 N/m2

Calculation of Mt
____________
Mt = 97420 x (Kw/n). (4)

For power calculation

Centrifugal force, fc = m ω2 r ____________

(5)

M = 7kg

W=mxg

 = 2Πn/60

47
 R = 1m

Substituting the values of m, ω, r in equation [4]

fc = 7.56 N.

Downward force, fd = mxg

= 7 x 9.81

= 68.6N.

Centrifugal force, f = fc + fd

= 68.6 + 7.56

= 76.17N

Torque = f x r = 76.17 x 1

= 76.2Nm.

Power = Torque x angular velocity.

= 76.2 x 1.05

= 79.7w

Substituting the value of kw and n in equation in [3],

Mt = 776.7

[Mt] = 1.4 x Mt

48
 = 1.4 x 776.7

= 1087.1 N-m

Substituting the values of σcmax, [Mt], E1, E2 in equation [1],

The minimum diameter of the pinion is calculated to be 78.7mm.

We have taken the standard diameter of pinion as 75mm.

Specification Of Pinion

Material : cast-iron
Outside diameter : 75mm
Circular pitch : 4.7mm
Tooth depth : 3.375mm
Module : 1.5mm
Pressure angle : 21
Pitch circle diameter : 72mm
Addendum : 1.5mm
Dedendum : 1.875mm
Circular tooth Thickness : 2.355mm
Fillet radius : 0.45mm
Clearance : 0.375mm

49
Design of rack

Pitch circle diameter of the gear is = 72mm

Circumference of the gear is =   pitch circle diameter
=  72
= 226mm
The dimension is for 360rotation
For 180rotation the rack length is 113 mm

3.3.1 Specification Of Rack

Material : cast iron

Module : 1.5mm
Cross-section :7525mm
Teeth on the rack is adjusted for 113mm
Shaft

Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in

general, has a circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may
be hollow or solid. The shaft is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears
or pulleys for the purpose of power transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon
by bending moment, torsion and axial force. Design of shaft primarily involves in
determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is arising due to
aforementioned loading. Other two similar forms of a shaft are axle and spindle.
Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not

50
transmit any torque. Spindle is simply defined as a short shaft. However, design
method remains the same for axle and spindle as that for a shaft. 8.1.2 Standard
sizes of Shafts Typical sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are, Up
to 25 mm 0.5 mm increments 25 to 50 mm 1.0 mm increments 50 to 100 mm 2.0
mm increments 100 to 200 mm 5.0 mm increments 8.1.3 Material for Shafts The
ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non metals are used as shaft material depending
on the application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for shaft are
discussed below. Hot-rolled plain carbon steel. These materials are least expensive.
Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always present on the surface and machining is
required to make the surface smooth.

Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish.
Amount of machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained.
This is widely used for general purpose transmission shaft.

Alloy steels

Alloy steel as one can understand is a mixture of various elements with the parent
steel to improve certain physical properties. To retain the total advantage of
alloying materials one requires heat treatment of the machine components after it
has been manufactured. Nickel, chromium and vanadium are some of the common
alloying materials. However, alloy steel is expensive. These materials are used for
relatively severe service conditions. When the situation demands great strength
then alloy steels are used. They have fewer tendencies to crack, warp or distort in
heat treatment. Residual stresses are also less compared to CS (Carbon Steel). In
certain cases the shaft needs to be wear resistant, and then more attention has to be
paid to make the surface of the shaft to be wear resistant. The common types of
surface hardening methods are,

51
Hardening of surface

Case hardening and carburizing

Cyaniding and nitriding

Design considerations for shaft

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted, Design based on
Strength In this method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the
shaft should not exceed the material yield stress. However, no consideration for
shaft deflection and shaft twist is included. Design based on Stiffness Basic idea of
design in such case depends on the allowable deflection and twist of the shaft.

Design based on Strength

The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The
stresses which may be present are as follows.

Basic stress equations:

Bending stress

Where,

M: Bending moment at the point of interest

do: Outer diameter of the shaft

k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because
inner diameter is zero )

52
Axial Stress

Where,

F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)

α: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)

The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action
factor. What is a column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of
buckling of long slender members which are acted upon by axial compressive
loads.

Here, α is defined as,

Where,

n = 1.0 for hinged end

n = 2.25 for fixed end

n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing

K = least radius of gyration,

53
L = shaft length

σ yc = yield stress in compression

Stress due to torsion

Where,

T : Torque on the shaft

xy τ : Shear stress due to torsion

Combined Bending and Axial stress

Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is
given by,

The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due
to torsion is only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is
neglected.

Maximum shear stress theory

Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a
machine member fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the
maximum allowable shear stress for the shaft material. Therefore,

54
Substituting the values of σx and τxy in the above equation, the final form is,

Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and
material properties. However, the above equation is further standardized for steel
shafting in terms of allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code
for shaft.

Specifications

Shaft diameter: 15mm

Inner Diameter: 10mm

Material: mild steel

BEARING

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered
the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing
cap is mild steel.
INTRODUCTION:
Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in
order to minimize friction and power loss.  While the concept of the ball bearing
dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has become
remarkably sophisticated.

55
 This  technology  was  brought  to  its  p resent  state  of  perfection  only
after  a  long  period  of research and development.  The benefits of such
specialized research can be obtained when it is possible to use a standardized
bearing of the proper size and type.  However, such bearings cannot be used
indiscriminately without a careful study of the loads and operating conditions.  In
addition, the bearing must be provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and
sealing. Design engineers have usually two possible sources for obtaining
information which they can use to select a bearing for their particular application:
a)  Textbooks
b)  Manufacturers’
Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly
detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the practicing
designer.  They, in most cases, contain information on how to design rather than
how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers’ catalogs, in
turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which relates to the
products of the particular manufacturer.  These catalogs, however, fail to provide
alternatives – which may divert the designer’s interest to products not
manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest selection of
many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.  
For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of the
subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different texts,
handbooks and manufacturers’ literature.  This information will enable the reader
to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designer’s interest
exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of references is provided at the
end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we are expressing our thanks and
are providing credit to the sources which supplied the material presented here.

56
Construction and Types of Ball Bearings:
A ball bearing usually consists of four parts:  an inner ring, an outer ring, the
balls and the cage or separator.
 To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls
run in curvilinear grooves in the rings.  The radius of the groove is slightly larger
than the radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be
provided.  The bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular
misalignment between the assembled shaft and mounting.  The separator keeps the
balls evenly spaced and prevents them from touching each other on the sides where
their relative velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of
types and sizes.  Single-row radial bearings are made in four series, extra light,
light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact
Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings
The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400.  Most, but not all,
manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are
multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.  
The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus,
bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore.  For additional
digits, which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to
manufacturer’s details.

57
  Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls.
For bearing designations of Quality Bearings &
Components (QBC), see special pages devoted to
this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a
considerable amount of axial thrust.  However,
when the load is directed entirely along the axis,
the thrust type of bearing should be used.  The
angular contact bear- ing will take care of both radial and axial loads.  The self-
aligning  ball  bearing  will  take  care  of  large amounts  of  angular
misalignment.   An increase in radial capacity may be secured by using rings with
deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial bearing. Radial bearings are
divided into two general classes, depending on the method of assembly.  These are
the Conrad, or no filling-notch type, and the maximum, or filling-notch type.  In
the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as shown in Fig. 1-4(a).
Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in place.    In  the
maximum-type  bearing,  the  balls  are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100 Series Extra
Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular Contact
Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3  Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4  Methods
of Assembly        for Ball Bearings (a) Conrad or non-filling notch type (b)
Maximum or filling notch type.
DESIGN OF BALL BEARING:
Bearing No. 6202 (Data book page.no 4.13)
Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm
Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12
mm
Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 15 mm

58
 r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing
r₁ = 1(From design data book)
Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)
Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2
= (35 + 15) / 2
dm = 25 mm
FRAME

A frame is a structural system that supports other components of a physical

construction. Frame is used to carry the total setup of arrangement. It has to able to
sustain the total weight of arrangement. It would be joined by arc welding to get
permanent joint. So frame is very important to our project.

Material: Mild Steel

Type: Rectangular

59
 CHAPTER 5

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING PRINCIPLE

CONSTRUCTION

Our proposed model “FABRICATION OF CHURNER MACHINE” need so many

raw materials which are mentioned in above chapter.

For that materials first of all we purchased the raw materials based upon
requirement and for that we’ve planned to how to buy. After bought we cut raw
materials in required dimensions in precise manner by using hand wheel cutting
machine. After that we’ve gone for some rough turning and finishing by using
lathe and grinding machines. After that for assembly purpose we went for welding
for permanent joint wherever we require and joined with rivets wherever we
require rigidly fixed joints.

60
WORKING PRINCIPLE

In our project we are using crank and slotted for convert rotating motion to
linear motion .in crank and slotted mechanism initial rotation is provided by
motor .then the rotation is transmit to slot through crank nob. So that we can
convert the rotating motion to linear motion. another one mechanism rack and
pinion is used to provide the forward and reverse rotation for mixing .here rack
will get linear movement from crank and slotted mechanism .when the rack will
get linear motion it convert it into rotating motion by pinion. Then we can get the
forward and reverse movement for mixing. 

61
 CHAPTER 6

COST ESTIMATION

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Amount (Rs)

i. SQUARE ROD 6 1500

ii. BEARING 4 200

iii. DC MOTORS 2 900

iv. SHAFT 2 200

v. CHAIN AND SPROCKETS 1 250

vi. RACK AND PINION 1 350

vii. BOLT AND NUTS 13 50

viii. CYLINDRICAL JAR 1 75

TOTAL (RS) = 3525

LABOUR COST:

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

62
 Cost = RS 2000/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

= 3525 + 2000

= Rs 5525

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

= Rs 1105

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

= Rs 6630

Total cost for this project = Rs.6630

63
 CHAPTER 7

2D LAYOUTS OF MODEL

64
 CHAPTER 8

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

• Construction is simple

• Cost efficient and easy to handle

• Less maintenance is enough

• Accidents occurred due to the vision bleach condition of the driver is totally
reduced due to this system implementation.

APPLICATIONS

 Used for domestic purpose

 Used for industrial application

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 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION

Thus, the work FABRICATION OF CHURNER MACHINE has been made in

accordance to the need. The initial mechanical setup of the project is made with
mild steel material. DC motor will give the initial input to the total setup by taking
energy form battery. The final output is obtained approximately due to
approximated dimensions used for fabrication. Total

Two headlamps will have turned based upon the application of ir sensor in order to
avoid accidents during night time.

For the appreciation for my project, I’ve learnt so many things during this project
work. Initially we’ve prepared one list what are the materials we’ve to purchase.
And entire duration of m project works we gained so much practical knowledge.
And we correlated theoretical with practical applications in order to calculate the
required calculations

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 CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

 Theory of Machines by S S Rattan\

 Design of Machine elements by V B Bhandari
 Work shop technology by PN Rao
 http://news.carjunky.com/how_stuff_works/car_headlights_ca325.shtml
 http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/108686/how-car-headlight-
works
 http://auto.howstuffworks.com/adaptive-headlight.htm
 S¨ollner, T.: Audi - The Leading Brand in Lighting Technology. Audi Press
Release (2013)
 Mercedes Benz: Mercedes-Benz Announces New Active Multibeam LED
Headlights. Press Release (2013)
 Rice, L.: Headlight with Single LED Module. SAE Technical Paper 2010-
01-0295 (2010)
 Garg, K., Nayar, S. K.: Detection and Removal of Rain from Videos. In:
IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern
Recognition (CVPR), vol. I, pp. 528-535 (2004)
 Meftah Hrairi and Anwar B. Abu Bakar 2010 Development of an Adaptive
Headlamp Systems.

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