d by abruptmethod

In this changes
of solution
chapter, in
wecross will
present section,
be andpresented
the as well
applied as theof
intheory
Sections high 6.4stresses
(3.9)
and
elasticity, 6.5. emphasizing
produced
s inand
ads cross by
section,
reactions, high concentrated
localized
as
are well
treated.loads
stresses
as the
Our high reactions,
created stresses
analysis by is are
abrupt
carried treated.
changes
out forOurin analysis
cross
isotropic section, asphysical
is carried well significance
outasfortheisotropic
high stressan
ibility
and employing
in terms
linearly produced of engineering
elastic stress.
materials
by notations
concentratedunderout in Cartesian
ordinary
loads and and and polar
elevated
reactions, coordinates.
temperatures.
are treated. OurThe The main
later
analysis ispurpose
chapters herefor
carriedinclude
out is is
to
re
under Two-Dimensional
treated. ordinary Our analysis
and elevated Problems
is carriedtemperatures. for isotropic
The later chapters include
solutions
s, Eqs. the
tter expressions
(3.6) reader
by and depend
the
and a clear
linearlyon ∂u/∂z
theory
(3.9), in ofand
and basic
elastic ∂v/∂z
elasticity
terms of understanding
vanishing,
materials
three on bending
unknown andofitsmethods
since wordinary
under of derivatives
beams,
quantities: and forare solving
elevated
noncircular
σ , σ , typicaland
zero. Atemperatures.
torsion, problems
The later
various in elasticity.
chapters
f elevated
sticity In
plane high on
strain bending
many temperatures.
has thus
localized of
engineering beams,
been stresses The
described later
applications,
wherein
created chapters
noncircular each
by ample
point
abruptinclude
torsion,
remains and
justificationvarious
within its
changes in x
may
transverse
cross y be found
plane,
section, for
as simplifying
well as the assumptions
high stresses w
axisymmetrically
ogether
ing with
application solutions
the
of the load. by
loaded
boundary We the theory
structural
conditions
next develop of
the elasticity
and
(3.7), machine
equations is usedoncomponents,
bending
in
governing the
the of beams,
solution
behavior plates,
of
of bodies noncircular
and shells. torsion, and various
ctural
f beams, andnoncircular
respect
produced
Problems machine
to by components,
3.2, 3.3,
torsion,
theconcentrated
state 3.4,
of strain3.7, plates,
3.8,
andloadsand 3.10,
various andreactions,
stress.
and
3.14, shells.
Of3.15, 3.17,
special are
3.29
importance,
treated. Ourbecause
analysis ofisand
the resulting
carried decrease
out for isotro
plane
vendepend strain.
situation,
on Problems
∂u/∂z axisymmetrically
after
and 4.6, 4.11,
determining
∂v/∂z vanishing, loaded
4.14, the
since 4.16,
w structural
4.24,
stress,
and its 4.27,
Eqs.
derivatives and
4.32,
(3.5) are machine
4.33,
and
zero. 4.39
(3.1)
A components,
yield plates, shells.
components,
3.2 complexity,
and
thusFundamental linearly plates, are and
= 0elastic
those shells.
reducing
eachmaterials
into Principles
athe
under
of three-dimensional
ordinary
Analysis and problem
elevated to one involving
temperatures. only two
The later dimensio
chapters inclu
iples
tution
as
spectively.of of
been Analysis
γProblems
εz =described yz =
In
3.2 Section
6.4,
γxz wherein
3.6,
6.6,
Eq. 6.7,
point6.26,
(2.36)
Eqs.
6.27,
provides
remains
(3.6) and
6.29
within following
(3.9) its stress–strain
transverse
will plane,
further be relationships:
reduced
thisWe
of the load. regard,
solutionsProblems next Fundamental
bywe
developthe
11.2,discuss
theory
the 11.3, of
11.7,
equations Principles
throughout
elasticity
11.10
governing thethe
on textofvarious
bending
behavior ofAnalysis
of beams,
bodies plane strain and plane
noncircular stressand
torsion, problems.
various
sof
ngle variable.
Tostress,
ascertain strain, the anddistribution of structural
stress,4.5, strain, and displacement within a an elastic body subject to a
axisymmetrically isdisplacement
loaded within of an elastic body subject to11.1,
Examples:3.1,3.3,4.1,4.3,4.4, 4.6,and machine
4.7,6.1, 6.2, 6.3, components,
6.4, 6.5, 6.6, plates,
11.2 and shells.
This chapter
To ascertain subdivided
the distributioninto two parts.
stress, In Part
strain, A,
and derivations
displacement of the governing
within differential
an elastic body subje
msprescribed
= γ
equires
xz = 0
displacement
into
consideration
equations system
Eq. (2.36)
within
prescribed and ofvarious
forces
provides
an
system
the
of elastic requires
following
a numberof body
approaches
forcesofconsideration
stress–strain
conditions
subject
for
requires to
solutiona ofofatwo-dimensional
relationships:
relating
consideration
number
to certainof
of
a
conditions
number problems
of
relatingin
conditions
to relating
certainand
Cartesian po
to cer
physical
erties, 3.2
and laws, Fundamental
geometry.material These Principles
properties,
fundamental and of Analysis
geometry.
principles These
of fundamental
analysis, also principles of analysis, also
on of coordinates
mportance, a number  physical of are
the stress conditions
laws,considered.
conditionmaterialrelating
is one Partoftoin
B
properties,certain
treats
plane andstress
stress. concentrations
geometry.
The basic These in membersprinciples
fundamental
(3.3) whose cross sections
of analysis
called
olid
y.was These the
mechanics
To ascertain
fundamental
manifest  called three aspects
problems,
the thethree
pronounced of
principles solid
summarized
distribution
aspects
changes mechanics
of of stress,
analysis,
ofandsolidcases problems,
Section
strain,
also
mechanics
of load1.3, summarized
are
andapplication conditions
displacement
 problems, in Section
of
overwithin
smallan
summarized 1.3, are
inelastic
areas.Section conditions
body1.3,subject ofto
are cond
atter given
orexpressions in Section depend1.8. In this section we present the governing
ior
equilibrium,
blems, stress–strain
prescribed
summarized material
equilibrium, systemrelations,
in ofonforces
behavior
material
Section
∂u/∂z
and
1.3,or and
conditions
requires
behavior
are
∂v/∂z
stress–strain vanishing,
of compatibility.
relations,
consideration
or
conditions
sinceand
(3.3) ofrelations,
stress–strain
of
wconditions
a number and itsofderivatives are
of compatibility.
andconditions
conditions
zero.toAcertain
relating
of compatibility.
ane stress
of plane problems.
strain  has thus been described wherein each
and
In
relations, Part
physical
displacement
addition, and
In A—Formulation
the laws,
stress,
conditions
addition, material
fields must
strain,
the of and and
properties,
be strain,
such asMethods
displacement
compatibility.
stress, andandsatisfy
to geometry.
fields
displacement ofpoint
the mustSolution
These
boundary
remains
be
fields fundamental
such
within its
(3.4)as be
must to satisfy
such
transverse
principles
as the
to boundary
satisfy
plane, also
of analysis,
the boundar
wing
stress, application
consider
called 
the of the
athree
thin load.
plate,
aspects as Wein
of next3.3,
Fig.
solid develop
wherein
mechanics thetheequations
loading is
problems, governing
summarized theinbehavior
Section of bodies
1.3, are condition
oblem.
conditions If the
se σz is not contained problem
forsuch
conditionsa inparticular is
for
the other dynamic,
problem.
a Problems
particular
governing the equations
Ifproblem.
expressionstheThis problem
for plane of
If the equilibrium
isproblem
strain, dynamic, become
is the
it is determined equations
dynamic, the of equilibrium
equations become
of equilibrium
rields
plane
hickness, 3.3
must
strain.
parallel
equilibrium,  Plane
be Strain
to as
the to
material satisfy
plane
ndently by applying Eq. (3.4). The strain–stress relations, Eqs. (2.34),
of the
behavior boundary
plate. or geometry
stress–strain contrasts
relations,
for this case become and conditions of compatibility.
em is Consider
iously
titution dynamic,
discussed,
ofEq. = γathe
εz (2.34) which
= equations
γ is
= 0 aof
infollowing
into equilibrium
state
Eq. of plane provides
(2.36) become
strain. To(3.4)
arrive
the at stress:
forfollowing stress–strain
Eq. (a)In into
theaddition, theexpressions
stress, strain, yields the stress–strain
yzlongxzprismatic member subject to lateral
planeand displacement relations plane
loading (for example, relationships:
a cylinder under pres
ained
rd tointhe other
 governing
stress within the plate, for
consider strain,
the itfact that σz, fields
is determined yxz, andmust
τyz be such as to satisfy the boundary
held
ying Eq.conditions between forfixed,
(3.4).Stress-strain smooth,
a particular
The strain–stress relations,
relations: rigid
(2.34), planes
problem.
Eqs. If the
for this (Fig.
case 3.1). is
problem
become Assume the the
dynamic, external forceof
equations toequilibrium
be functionsbec
of
ate. Because the plate is thin, the stress distribution may be very
and y coordinates only. As a consequence, we expect all cross sections to experience identical
ming that the foregoing is likewise true throughout the plate.
deformation, including those sections near the ends. The frictionless nature of the end constraint
igure 3.3.
permitsThinx,plate under plane
y deformation butstress.
precludes z displacement; that is, w = 0 at z = ±L/2. Considerations
symmetry dictate that w must also be zero at midspan. Symmetry (3.5) arguments can again(3.3)
be used (3.
to
thatstress
uch as these w
 = components
0 at ±L/4,areand so on,
functions of xuntil
and yevery
only, thecross section
first two is(3.10)
equations oftaken
(1.14)into account. For the case describ
This
he following is the equation
equations of of compatibility
equilibrium of plane strain: in terms(3.5) of stress.
the strain depends on x and y only:
We now
ss components have three
are functions expressions,
of x and Eqs.
y only, the first two (3.6)ofand
equations (3.9), in terms of three unknown quantities: σx,
(1.14)
uations of equilibrium of plane strain:
and τxy. This set of equations, together with the boundary conditions (3.7), is used (3.4) in the solution
use σzplane
is not strain problems.
contained in the For
other a given situation,
governing expressions for(3.11a)
after determining the stress,
plane strain, Eqs. (3.5) and (3.1) yie
it is determined (3.1
σy fromthethestrain
pendently by ofand
sumapplying
the of
Equations displacement,
first two (3.4).
of Eqs.in
compatibility
Eq. respectively.
(3.10)
Theterms and inserting
of stress:
strain–stress Inthe
Section 3.6,
result into
relations, Eq.Eqs.
Eqs. (3.6)(3.6) and (3.9) will further be red
(2.34), for this case become
ain to one
ird equation equation
of (1.14) containing
is satisfied a the
if Fz = 0. In single variable.
case of plane strain, therefore, no body force
 (3.6)
problem, is3.4 take ifthe body force Fofz plane
= 0 and Ftherefore,
x and Fynoeach to be
(3.9)functions
into Eq.  Plane
(2.34) Stress Problems
(1.14) satisfied Fyields
z = 0. thecase
In the following stress–strain
strain, relations
body force for plane stress:
nce
ationofofthe preceding,
compatibility theofstress
in terms is specified by
stress. stress:
(3.2
Thin plate under plane (3.11b)
In many problems of practical
hree expressions, Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9), in termsFigure
importance,
of three unknown
the stress
quantities:
condition is one of plane stress. The basic
σx, σyin
, a cylindrical body.
) definedefinition
the out-of-plane principal strain in terms 3.1. Plane
ofis the in-plane strain
stresses (σ , σ ) or
et of equations, togetherof this
with the state
boundary of stress
conditions was
(3.7), given used inintheSection
solution of1.8.xInythis section we present the governin
oblems. equations
For a  given situation,for theafter solution
determining oftheplane
stress,stress
Eqs. (3.5) problems.
and (3.1) yield
Eq. (2.34) yields
displacement, respectively.the following stress–strain
Inrelations:
Section 3.6, Eqs. (3.6)relations
and (3.9)forwill
plane stress:
further
ot contained
To in Stress-strain
exemplify
n containing a single variable.
the other governing
the case expressions
of plane for
stress, plane stress,
consider itbe reduced(a)
acanthin
be obtained
plate, as in Fig. 3.3, wherein the loading is
rom Eqs.
remain (3.11);
uniformly
constant over then ε = ∂w/∂z
distributed
z the thickness may be
over the applied to
thickness,
of the yield
plate and w. That
parallel is, only
to theand
are functions u (3.5) contras
of xv areof the plate. This geometry
plane
tress Problems
ndependent with variables that of in thethe governing equations. In the case of plane stress, therefore,
ibes
much aasstate
these
ms of practical
–displacement
of plane
stress
importance,
relations thelong
stress.
are again
prism
stressEquations
components condition
given by
previously
are (1.14)
functions
isEqs.
one of and
plane
(3.1).
discussed,
of(1.48),
stress.x The
Exclusion andfromywhich
together
basiconly, is
the
Eq. (2.4)
infirst
with a state
of εz =twoof plane strain.
equations To arrive at
of (1.14)
nis reduce tentative
to the conclusions
wasforms
given infound with
ofin1.8.
Sectionregard 3.3.to ofthe
Thus, stress
Eqs. within
(3.6) andthe (3.10)
plate, consider the fact that σz, yxz, and
(3.7)
ehethe
statefollowing equations equilibrium planein thestrain:
of stress Section In this section we present the governing
plane
solutionstress
of plane equations
stress approximate,
problems. as is demonstrated section that follows.
ibriumare andzero the boundary
on both conditions
faces of the inplate.
this case,
Because as inthe the plate
case of is plane
thin, the stress distribution may be very
quations
he of plane
case of plane  stress, stress willanow
consider be reduced,
thin plate, as in Fig.as3.3,inwherein
the casetheofloading
plane is strain, to three
ving
ibuted closely
stress
over components
the approximated
thickness, only. Since
parallel to theby Eqs.
planeassuming
(3.1) plate.that
of the apply the
to plane
This foregoing
geometry(3.10)
strain is likewise
and plane
contrasts stress, true throughout the plate.
ylong prism previously
condition represented discussed,
by Eq.which
(3.8)isapplies
in a stateinofboth
Figure planecases.
strain.The
To arrive
latteratexpression may

usions with regard to the stress within the plate, consider the3.3. Thin
fact that σz, yxzplate
, and τyzunder plane stress.
llows, substituting strains
Equations from Eqs. (3.10) and employing Eqs. (3.6):
of compatibility: (3.11a)
th faces of the plate. Because the plate is thin, the stress distribution may be very
imated by assuming that the foregoing is likewise true throughout the plate.
m the sum Figure of the3.3.
first two
Thin plateof Eqs.
under (3.10)
plane stress.and inserting
(3.11a)the result into Eq. (3.6)

sum
hirdofequation
the first two
ofof(1.14)
Eqs. (3.10) and inserting
is satisfied the =
if F result
0. Inintothe
Eq.case (3.12)
of plane strain, therefore, no body force
z
f compatibility, together with the equations of equilibrium, represents a useful form
g equations for problems of plane stress.
Relations for Orthotropic Materials (3.11b)
(3.11b)
enalthe out-of-plane
stress–strain
out-of-plane principal
relations
principal termsstrain
forinorthotropic
strain in terms
of thematerials
in-plane of the
in terms
stresses (σofxin-plane stresses
, orthotropic
σy) or moduli of(σx, σy) or
 he differential equations
3.6 Airy’s StressofFunction
equilibrium [Eqs. (3.6)], together with the
nsway
er demonstrated
to overcome thatdifficulty
the the solution of in two-dimensional Eq. problems in elasticity
Eq. (3.9) or (3.12)] and the involved the solution of[Eqs.
boundary conditions (3.17)
(3.7)]. is to
Inuse
thethe method
(b)thatof
event
of the differential
The
differences. preceding
Herebeam.
anegligible,
wide equations
the these sections
governing
The of equilibrium
demonstrated
equationin
stiffness isthe that
replaced
latter[Eqs.
the
by (3.6)],
solution
series
case is,offor together
of
finite
v = with
two-dimensional
difference
0.3, about the problems in elasticity
equations
10% greaterwith
F
wide
y
ary
on
7.3),
arebeam. The
requires
conditions
[Eq. (3.9)
which or
relate stiffness
integration
(3.7).
(3.12)]
the The
stress
equations
in
and the
ofequations
the
the
function
reduce
latter
boundary
at case
differential tois, for
equations
of equilibrium
stations conditions
that v
are removed= 0.3,
ofare
[Eqs. about
equilibrium
identically
from (3.7)]. 10%
[Eqs.
one another greater
(3.6)],
satisfied
In the owing
together
event
by finiteby that toowing
the to the preve
theprevention
sidewise
ces.
ofcompatibility
sidewise
displacementdisplacement
(Secs.
equation [Eq. (Secs.
5.2 5.2
andreduce
(3.9) or13.4). and
(3.12)] 13.4).
and the boundary conditions
close to [Eqs. (3.7)]. In the event that
x,
nd FThese
y), are equations,
introduced
negligible, byalthough
G. B.
these not exact,
Airy, frequently
related
equations to the
y the body forces F and F are negligible, these equations
lead
to to solutions
stresses that are
as follows: the exact
n. The resultsTable
obtained Table
3.1.are, 3.1.y Conversion
x however,
Conversion applicable
between between
only Plane
to specific
Plane Stress reduce
Stress
numerical
and to andStrain
problems.
Plane PlaneSolutions
Strain Solutions
omial Solutions (a)
mentary approach to obtaining solutions of the biharmonic equation uses polynomial functions
ous degree with undetermined coefficients
their coefficients of the so
adjusted stress 4Φ =Clearly,
thatfunction an assumed
0 is satisfied.
(3.16)(a)
polynomial
A brief discussion form ofmust satisfy the(a)
ocedure follows. biharmonic equation and must be of second degree or higher in order to yield a nonzero stress
nto the compatibility equation, Eq. (b), yields
solution of Eq. (3.16), as described in the following paragraphs. In general, finding the desirable
nomial of thepolynomial second degree, form is laborious and requires a systematic approach [Refs. 3.2 (b) and 3.3]. The Fourier
mined coefficients of
undetermined the stress function
coefficients Clearly,
of the an assumed
stress functionpolynomial
Clearly, form
an must
assumed satisfy the
polynomial formmechanics,
must satisfy
ary
onic conditions
equation biharmonic
series, indispensible in the analytical treatment of many problems in the field of applied
and (3.7).
must be The
of equations
second degree or of equilibrium
higher in order to are
yield identically
a nonzero stresssatisfied by (b)the
is also oftenequation employedand (Secs. must10.10be ofand 13.7).degree or higher in order to yield(b)
second a nonzero stress
6nmial
ofAiry’s
, y), Eq. 3.6
(3.16),
introduced Airy’s
Stress
together as described
solution by
with Stress
Function
ofG.
the
Eq. in
B. the Function
boundary
(3.16),following
Airy, as related paragraphs.
conditions
described to the
(3.7).
in theInfollowing
general,
stresses
The
 Another way to overcome the difficulty involved in the solution of Eq. (3.17)
finding
as
equations the
follows:of
paragraphs. desirable
equilibrium
In general,
(3.17) is to identically
arefinding
(3.20) satisfied
use thethemethod
desirable
of by
form
ndary conditionsis laborious and
(3.7).requires a systematic approach [Refs. 3.2 and 3.3]. The Fourier
the  polynomial
stress
finite function, formThe Φ(x,
is equations
y),
laborious andof
theofintroduced equilibrium
by G.
requires a B. Airy,
systematicare identically
related
approach tomechanics,
the satisfied
stresses
[Refs. 3.2 byequations
as follows:
and 3.3]. The Fourier
ese The preceding
indispensible
preceding
Eq. (3.14). thedifferences.
inThe analytical
sections
associated sectionsHere
treatment
demonstrated
stresses
governing
demonstrated
many
are that
equation
problems
the that
solution
is replaced
in the
the solution
field
of
by of
of applied series
two-dimensional
of finite
two-dimensional difference
problems problems
in in elasticity
elasticity
lished
Φ(x,
often y), isintroduced
employed the formulation
series,
(Sec.
(Secs.
Equilibrium: 7.3), by
indispensible
which
10.10 G.
and of
B. aAiry,
relatein
13.7).two-dimensional
the related
analytical
the stress to the
function problem
treatmentstresses
of
at stations thatin
many arewhich
as follows:
problems
removed body
from forces
in the field of applied
one another by finite mechanics,
quires requires integration of the differential equations of lead
equilibrium [Eqs. (3.6)],
close totogether thewith the
ay
r way as totointegration
require
overcome
is also
distances. the
the
ofThese
often the
solution
difficulty
differential
employed of(Secs.
equations,
involved a insingle
the
equations
10.10
although and
not
biharmonic
solution of
offrequently
13.7).
exact,
Eq.
equilibrium
equation,
(3.17) is to use
to[Eqs.
solutions
which
the method
(3.6)],
that are
must
of
together
of with
the exact
mpatibility
ee stress compatibility
components equation
solution.
Another equation
The
are
way [Eq.
results(3.9)
constant
to equation
overcome [Eq.
obtained orthe
throughout(3.9)
(3.12)]
are, or and
(3.12)]
however,
the
difficulty body. the and
boundary
applicable
For
involved a in the
theonly
rectangular boundary
toconditions
specific
solution plate conditions
[Eqs.
numerical
(Fig.
of Eq. (3.16) [Eqs.
(3.7)].
3.4a),isproblems.
(3.17) ittois In(3.7)].
use the method Inofthe
the event even
that
dary conditions.
ifferences. Here the governing is replaced by series of finite difference equations (3.16)
ntbody
.3), that the
whichthe body
foregoing
forces
relate  finiteFforces
thexdifferences.
Polynomial stress Fy xare
maySolutions
and F be and
adapted
function atF toare
negligible,
Here ythe
stations negligible,
represent are simple
that these
governing these
tension
equations
equation
removed from equations
one(c
reduce
is replaced ≠ 0),
2another reduce
by double
to
series
by finiteof to difference
tension
finite (c2 ≠ equations
to
n the
the
0),These compatibility
case
or pure Substitution of plane
(Sec. 7.3),
shear (b
Compatibility: equation,
stress
≠which
0). we
notrelate Eq.
have
the (b),
σ
stress =yields
τ =
function τ = 0 and
at stations σ
that , σ , and
areyyields
removed τ from one another by finite
es. equations, An elementary 2of
although (3.16) into to
exact,
approach the compatibility
frequently z lead
obtaining equation,
xz to solutions
solutions yz of thethat Eq.
arex(b),
biharmonic close to the exact
equation xyuses(3.16)
polynomial functions
consequence, distances.
γxzdegree These
=are,
γyzhowever,
= 0,equations,
and although
εxcoefficients
, εy, only
εz, andnot exact,
γxy are frequently lead to solutions that are close to the exact
so independent
that 4Φ = 0 isof
n. The results obtained applicable to specific numerical problems. z. In
nomial of thesolution. ofthird
various degree
The results
with their
obtained
adjusted satisfied. A brief discussion of
) into the compatibility
this Eq.
procedure follows. equation, Eq.are, (b), however,
yields applicable only to specific numerical problems.
regoing, from
mial Solutions
 (2.12), it is seen that in addition to Eq. (3.17), the following
(a
(3.17)(a)
Polynomial
A polynomial Solutions
of the
also hold:Plane stress compatibility:
mentary approach to obtaining second
solutions degree,
of the biharmonic equation uses polynomial functions
4Φ
(3.17)
ous degree with Antheir
elementary approach
coefficients toso
adjusted obtaining
that solutions of the biharmonic
= 0 is satisfied. equation
A brief discussion uses polynomial functions
of(3.21)
shed is
cedure What has been
theofformulation
follows. accomplished
various degree ofwith is the
a two-dimensional formulation of
problem
their coefficients adjusted a two-dimensional
in which
so that 4Φ =body problem
forces in
0 is satisfied. which
A brief body forces
discussion of
are Figure
absent, 3.4.
in Stress
such a fields
way as of
to (a) Eq.
require (3.20)
the and
solution (b)
of Eq.
a (3.21).
single biharmonic (3.17)
equation, which
(3.20)must of
y as toofrequire
nomial the solution
this procedure
the  second degree, of a single biharmonic equation, which must of
follows.
course satisfy
satisfies the boundary
Eq. (3.14). conditions.
ary conditions. A polynomial of theThe associated
second degree,stresses are
mplished is the formulation of a two-dimensional problem in which body forces (b) (b
It should be noted that in the case of plane stress we have σz = τxz = τyz = 0 and σx, σy, and τxy
nway
ether as
the case to of
together
with
independent
require
theplane
with the
stress
ofthe
boundary solution
we
z. boundary
As conditionsof conditions
have aσsingle
= τγxz biharmonic
arez(3.7).
a consequence,
= (3.7).
Theτγyzequations
= 0Theand equation,
σof
theequations
which
x, σequilibrium
yε, ,and
a of
τγequilibrium
(3.20)
xy are must
are of are identically
identically satisfied satisfie
by
 All three stress components constantxz =throughout
yz = 0, and εbody.
x, εy,For z andrectangular
xy independent
plate of z.
(Fig. 3.4a), itIn
is
undary conditions.
sonsequence,
thefunction,
stress γassociated
=Φ(x,
γyz the =stresses
0, andareεy),, εintroduced
,beεby, Eq.
and γto are independent theof z.(cto2In≠the
stress
Eq. (3.14).
accordance The xzfunction,
apparent that
with y),
the Φ(x,
introduced
foregoing xmay
foregoing, yfrom G. B.
zadapted by
(2.12),
xy G.it B.
Airy, is Airy,
related
represent simple
seen related
to
thattension
in stresses
addition to stresses
0), as
double
Eq. asthe
follows: follows:
tension
(3.17), (c 2≠
(3.20)
following
at in thecompatibility
egoing, case
from of
2 ≠plane
0, aEq.
 satisfies
0), or
(2.12),
Eq. stress
pure
equationsitshear
(3.14). we
isThe (bhave
seen
also 0).σin=addition
≠that
2hold:
associated τxz = τare
z stresses = Eq.
yzto 0 and σx, σythe
(3.17), , and τxy
following
eea stress
also components
hold:
consequence, γare
A polynomial constant
= γofyzthe = throughout
third
0, and εxthe
degree , εbody. For a rectangular plate (Fig. 3.4a), of itz.isIn
nt that the foregoing may xz be adapted to represent y, εz, and
simple
γ are independent
tensionxy(c2 ≠ 0), double tension (c2 ≠
foregoing,
0), or pure shear  from (b2Eq.
All three (2.12),
stress
≠ 0). it is seen
components are that in addition
constant throughouttothe Eq. (3.17),
body. For a the following
rectangular plate (Fig. 3.4a), it is
(3.16) (3.16
ons also hold: apparent that the foregoing may be adapted to represent simple tension (c 2 ≠ 0), double tension (c2 ≠
Eq. (3.17).
nomial of the third degreeIt leads to stresses (3.21)
bstitution of
Substitution 0, (3.16)
a2 ≠ 0),ofinto
or(3.16)theshear
pure compatibility
into (b
the 0). equation,equation,
2 ≠compatibility Eq. (b), Eq. yields (b), yields
 Figure 3.4. Stress fields of (a) Eq. (3.20) and (b) Eq. (3.21).
A polynomial of the third degree
(3.21)
For a3 = b3 = c3 = 0, these expressions reduce to
For a3.4.
Figure 3 = Stress
b3 = cfields
3 = 0,of these
(a) Eq. expressions reduce
(3.20) and (b) Eq. (3.21).to
(3.17)
(3.21) (3.17
hat hasWhat
been  representing
accomplished
has the is
been accomplished casetheof pure
formulationbending
is Stress
thebendingof aofof
formulation theEq.rectangular
two-dimensional plateEq.(Fig.
problem in3.4b).
which body forces
of theofrectangular
a (3.20)
two-dimensional problem
3.4b). in which body for
Figure 3.4. fields (a) and (b) (3.21).
representing the case of pure plate (Fig.
absent,
areinabsent, Asuch ainway
polynomial suchasaofto
wayrequire
the as to the
fourth solution
require
degree, of a single
the solution of abiharmonic
single biharmonicequation, which must
equation, of must
which
urse satisfy
course Athe
polynomial
boundary
satisfy of the fourth
conditions.
the boundary degree,
conditions.
houldItbe noted
should that
be
fulfills in the
noted
Eq. Itcase
that
(3.17). of
to plane
in the
leads case of
stressesstress
planewe havewe
stress σz = τxz =σzτ=
have yz τ=xz0=and
τyz =σx0, σand
y, and
σx, τσxyy, and τxy
ependent of  z. As of
independent a consequence, γxz = γyz γ=xz0,= and
z. As a consequence, γyz =εx0,, εand
y, εzε, xand
, εy,γεxyz, are
andindependent of z. In of z. In
γxy are independent
cordance with
accordance the
satisfies foregoing,
with
Eq.the from
if e4Eq.
foregoing,
(3.17) (2.12),
= from
–(2c Eq.it(2.12),
is seenitthat in addition
is seen to Eq. (3.17),
that in addition to Eq. the following
(3.17), the follow
Eq. (3.17). It leads to stresses 4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are
mpatibility
compatibility equations
satisfies Eq. also hold:
(3.17)
equations if e4hold:
also = –(2c4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are

fulfills Eq. (3.17). It leads to stresses

 olynomial
3.17) if e4of= the
–(2cfifth degree
4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are
if e4 = –(2c4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are (3.22)
f pure bending of the rectangular plate (Fig. 3.4b).
satisfies Eq. (3.17) if e4 = –(2c4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are (3.22)
urth degree, (3.23)
Eq. (3.17) satisfies Eq.4 (3.17)
if e4 = –(2c if e4corresponding
+ a4). The = –(2c4 + a4). stresses
The corresponding
are stresses are
lls Eq. (3.17) providedofthat
A polynomial the fifth degree
of the fifth degree (3a5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0 (3.22)
fifth degree
llows thatA polynomial of the fifth degree
4 = –(2c4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are (3

mial of the Afifth
polynomial
degree of the fifth degree (3.23)
components fulfills Eq.
of stress (3.17)
are then provided that (3.23)
17) provided that (3.23)
(3a5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0
rovided that fulfills Eq.(3a(3.17) provided that

It follows 5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0
that
(3a5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 +(3a 2d55++2c3f55+)ye5=)x0+ (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0 (3.23)
th degree
It fulfills
q. (3.17) provided follows Eq. that
that(3.17) provided that
The components of stress are then
nts of stress  are then (3a + 2c5 + e5)x + (b
of5stress
(3a5++2d2c5 5++3fe55)y
thensolved5 by
)x =+ 0(b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0
blems of practical
The importance
components mayare be combining functions (3.20) through (3.23), as
sstress
that are then
ired. With It follows that
experience, the analyst begins to understand the types of stress (3.23)distributions arising
mided
a variety
that of polynomials.
ponents of stress are then of stress are then
The components
(3a5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0
xample 3.1. Problems Stress Distribution in a Cantilever Beam
Problems ofofpractical practical importance may be solved by combining functions (3.20) through (3.23
importance may be solved by combining functions (3.20) through (3.23), as
racticalcantilever
narrow importance
required.
required. With ofmay
With be solved
experience,
rectangular
experience, cross
the
by
thecombining
analyst
section
analyst begins
functions
isbegins
toloaded to by
understand
(3.20)
understand
athe through
types the
concentrated (3.23),
types
of stress of at
force asits free
stress
distributions distributions
end
arising ar
hal experience,
suchimportancefromthe
from
magnitude aamay analyst
bethe
variety
that
variety of ofbegins
solved
beam by tocombining
polynomials.
polynomials.weight understand the types(3.20)
may befunctions
neglected of stress
(Fig. distributions
through
3.5a). (3.23), asarising
Determine the stress
ess of are then
polynomials.
rience, theinanalyst
stribution the beam. begins to understand the types of stress distributions arising
lynomials.
igure 3.5. Example (a)
of practical Example
importance
Problems 3.1.
of Stress
3.1. mayEnd-loaded
 Stress
practical Distribution
be Distribution
solved
importance bycantilever
in acombining
Cantilever
in a be
may beam;
Beam(b)
functions
Cantilever
solved stress
byBeam(3.20)distribution
combining through away
(3.23),
functions as from
(3.20) through (3.2
1. Stress Distribution
With experience, narrowthe
required.
A narrow With in
analyst
cantilever a Cantilever
begins
experience,
of rectangular Beam
tothe ends.
understand
analyst
cross section theistypes
begins of stress
to understand
loaded distributions
theatypes of arising
stress distributions
A cantilever of rectangular cross section is by a concentrated
loaded by force at its free
concentrated forceendat its fre
ess
rietyDistribution
antilever of polynomials.
ofof fromsuch ain
ofrectangular a Cantilever
magnitude
variety cross ofthat the Beam
beamisweight
polynomials.
section loaded may bybeamay neglected
concentrated (Fig. 3.5a).
force Determine
at its freethe
end stress
such
distribution magnitude
in the that
beam. the beam weight be neglected (Fig. 3.5a). Determine the stress
nitude that  the beam weight may be neglected (Fig. 3.5a). Determine the stress
er of rectangular distributioncrossin section
the beam. is loaded by a concentrated force at its free end
mportance
in thethe
beam. Figure
may be 3.5. Example
solved by 3.1.
combining(a) End-loaded
functions cantilever
(3.20) beam; (b)
through stressasdistribution away from
(3.23),
that
le 3.1. beam
Stress weight
Distribution
Example may
3.1. bein neglected
a
Stress Cantilever
Figure 3.5. Example 3.1. (a) End-loaded (Fig.
Distribution 3.5a).
Beam in a Determine
Cantilever the
Beamstress
ends.cantilever beam; (b) stress distribution away
.nce,
beam.
w
the analyst
Example
cantilever 3.1. begins
(a) to understand
End-loaded the types
cantilever of stress
beam; (b) distributions
stress
ends.
arising
distribution awayitsfrom
omials. A narrow cantilever of rectangular cross section is loadedforce
of rectangular cross section is loaded by a concentrated by a at free end force at its f
concentrated
mple 3.1.
magnitude that(a) End-loaded
the beam cantilever
weightthat mayends.beam; (b) stress distribution away from
of such magnitude thebebeam
neglected
weight(Fig. may3.5a). Determine
be neglected (Fig.the3.5a).
stressDetermine the stress
ution in the beam. distribution in the ends.
beam.
Distribution in a Cantilever Beam
e 3.5. Example 3.1. (a)
Figure 3.5.End-loaded
Example 3.1. cantilever beam; (b)
(a) End-loaded stress distribution
cantilever beam; (b) away stressfromdistribution awa
of rectangular cross section is loaded by a
ends.concentrated force at
ends. its free end
at the beam weight may be neglected (Fig. 3.5a). Determine the stress

am.
e 3.1. (a)  End-loaded Solution cantilever beam; (b) stress distribution away from
tion
The situation described ends. may be regarded as a case of plane stress provided that the beam
nsituation
described
may described
be regarded may beas may
regarded
a casebe regarded
of asplane
a case asofa plane
stress case of
provided plane
stress stress
provided
that the beam provided that the beam
that the beam
 thickness t is small relative to the beam depth 2h.
kness
stive tot is
small small
relative
the beam relative
todepth
The followingthe beam toboundary
2h. the beam
depth 2h.depth 2h.
conditions are consistent with the coordinate system in Fig. 3.5a:
yngfollowing
conditions
boundary  boundary
are conditions
consistent
conditions arewith are coordinate
the
consistent consistent
with the with
system
coordinatetheincoordinate
Fig. 3.5a:insystem
system in Fig. 3.5a:
Fig. 3.5a:
 (a)
These conditions simply express the fact that the top and bottom (a) edges of(a) the beam (a)are not loaded
ytions
se express
simply
conditionsInexpress
the addition
fact
simply to
theEq.
the top(a),
thatexpress
fact theitfact
and
that is necessary,
bottom
the top edges
thatand on the
ofand
the bottom
top basis
beamof
theedges
bottom zero
ofare external
thenot
edges loaded.
beam
of loading
arebeam
the in not
the xloaded.
not loaded.
are direction at x =
oisEq. (a), it0,isthat
necessary, on σx =basis
the
necessary,0 along thebasis
ofthe
on zero vertical
externalsurface at xin= the
loading
of zero external 0. Finally,inthe
theapplied
x direction
loading x = load at
xatdirection
ddition to Eq. (a), it is necessary, on the basis of zero external loading in the x direction at x =
P must
x = be equal to the
 tions
ess are consistent 0,
thatthat theσtop with
x=0
thebottom
along coordinate edgessystem
the vertical ofsurface in Fig.at xare 3.5a:
= 0. notFinally, (a) the applied load P must be equal to
nd Fthe fact
y are negligible, these equations reduce to
and the beam loaded.
(a)
dessary,
that the beamon the These basisconditions
resultant of zero
the shearing external
simply loading
forces
express inthe
distributedthefactx direction
across
that the theat free
top xand=(a) end:
bottom edges of the beam are no
ress
ss the thefact
factthat thatthe thetop topand and bottom bottom edges
edges of
of the
the beam
beam are are notnot loaded.
loaded.
lycessary,
surface at x =
Infact 0.
addition Finally, to the
Eq. applied
(a),bottom load
it isloading P
necessary, must onbe equal
the basis to
(a)ofthe (a)
m
express
ssary,
in Fig. on onthe
3.5a: thethe basis
basis thatof the
of zero
zero top and
external
external loadingedges inof
in the
thethe beam
xxdirection
direction are atxzero
atnot = = external loading in the x directi
xloaded.
salisdistributed
surface atx0,across
that
x=on=0.0. σthe = free
0 along end: theexternal
vertical surface atthexequal
=x0.direction
Finally, the applied load P must be equal
ss
necessary,
surface
the factat that
the Finally,
the Finally,
top
xbasis
and bottom
ofthe
the zeroapplied
appliededgesload
loadloading
of the
PPmustmustin
beam
be be
areequal
to
not loaded. tothethe at x = (a)
vertical
es surface
distributed resultant at x =the
across of0.the
free shearing
Finally, end:theloading forces distributed
applied load P must across
be equal the free to the end: (
essary,
distributed on Applied the(a) basis
across load:
of
the zero
free external
end: in the x direction at x =
forces
surfacedistributed
at xloaded. = 0. across the
Finally, the applied
free end:load P must be equal to the
e beam are notThe negative sign agrees with the convention for stress discussed (b) in Section 1.5.
ndistributed across x = the free (b)
ry
the x direction
conditions For at purposes
(3.7). The of end:
illustration,
equations of three approaches
equilibrium are are employed
identically satisfied to determine
by the distribution of
must be equal  to the (b) (b)
the
y), convention
introduced within forthe
by G. beam.
stress
B. Airy, discussed related into Section
the stresses 1.5. as follows:(b)
The are negative sign agrees (b)
hndary
hree conditions
theapproaches
convention  Method
for(3.7). stress
1. The
Inasmuch
employed equations
discussed theinwith
toasdetermine of the
Section
bending theconvention
equilibrium 1.5.
moment
distribution are for
varies ofstress
stressdiscussed
identically
linearly satisfied
with x andin Section
by σx at any1.5.
section dep
he
Φ(x,
s with
three convention
y), introduced
the
approaches Remember convention
onFor for
y, purposes
itareis stress
by G.
for
employed
reasonable
the Airy B.discussed
stressAiry,
ofStress torelated
discussed
illustration,
to in Section
assumethree
determine
Functions: toin
athethe 1.5.
stresses
Section
approaches
general 1.5.as are
distribution
expression follows:
(b)employed
of stress
of the form to determine the distribution
ree approaches within arestressthe beam.
employed to determine
tion,convention
nding
the three
moment approaches
(b)varies
for arediscussed
linearly employed
with xinand σx atthe
toSection
determine 1.5.distribution
any the distribution
section depends of stress of(3.16)
stress
ending
ne1.5. a general moment  expression Method varies1.linearly Inasmuch
of the form with as xthe andbending
σx at any moment
sectionvaries depends linearly with x and σx at any section de
ree
othethe approaches
compatibility are employed
equation, to
Eq. determine
(b), the
yieldsa general distribution of stress
me abending
general on y, compatibility
expression
moment it is reasonable
varies of the form
linearly to assume
xwithand xσand expression of the(3.16) form
ding moment varies linearly with x at σ anyx atsection
any sectiondepends depends
he distribution And of the
stress equations:
(
assume
aintogeneral a general expression expression of thewith of
form the form
nding
) any moment
the compatibility
section depends in varies clinearly
which 1
equation,
represents ax constant.
Eq. and(b),σxyields
at Integrating
any sectiontwice depends with respect to y,

e a generalLet’s expression
assume a of general the form expression of the form: (c) (3.17)
(c)
ant.
shed Integrating
is the formulation twice with of arespect
two-dimensionalto y, problem in which body forces to y,
(c)respect (
tant. Integrating 
in whichtwice c represents
with
1 respect atoconstant.
y, Integrating twice(c) with (3.17)
y as to require (c)the fsolution
where and of a singlefunctions biharmonic equation, which must of
constant. Integrating 1(x)twice fwith
2(x) are respect to y, of x to be determined. (c) Introducing the Φ thus obtained in
ary
mplished conditions.
nt. Integrating is the formulation twice with of a two-dimensional
respect to y, problem in which body forces
(3.17), we have (d)
way
ant. as toof
theIntegrating
case  require plane twice the
stress solution
with werespecthave of aσtosingley,
= τ biharmonic
= τ = 0 and equation,
σ (d) which must of
z xz yz x y, and τxy
, σ
undary
ions ofofconditions.
ctions
onsequence, xxtotowhere beγbe determined.
determined. Introducing
fIntroducing the
theΦΦ γxythusof xobtained
thus obtained into
into of Eq.
Eq.z.(d)
(d)xz = γfyz1(x) = 0,and and εx, εare
2(x) y, εfunctions
z, and are independent
to be determined. InIntroducing the Φ thus obtained
atgoing,in thefrom case(3.17), of compatibility
plane we stress
have we have σinz =addition
τxz = τyzto= Eq. 0 and σx, σythe(d), and τxy
ethus functions
obtainedUsing ofEq.
Since
into xEq.to(2.12),
be
the second it isequations:
determined. seen
term that
isIntroducing
independent theofΦy,thus (3.17),
obtained
a solution (d)
following
into
exists Eq.all x and y provided that d4f1
for
alsoa consequence,
ons hold:
of x to be determined. γxz = γyz = 0,Introducing and εx, εy, εthe z, and Φ thusγxy are independent
obtained into Eq. of z. In
ons of x tofrom
foregoing, be determined.
Eq. (2.12),Introducing it is seen that theinΦaddition
thus obtained to Eq.into (3.17), Eq. the following

ons
pendent
pendent alsoof hold:
ofA y,y,Since
aasolution
solution solution
the exists
for all for
exists
second
exists xfor
termand all
all
is xindependent
xand
y values yyprovided
andprovided provided of y,that
that: that dd44ff11/dx
a solution /dx44exists
== for all x and y provided that d
, which, upon integrating, 4 leads to
4
which,
rovided upon that  d fintegrating, 1/dx =  00and d d f2f/dx
and leads 2/dx to= 0,=which,
0, which, upon integrating, leads to
4 4 4 4
and upon integrating, leads to 4f /dx4 =
sintegrating,
independent
4 = 0, leads of y, a solution exists for all x and y provided that d
d4f2/dxupon
hich, which,toupon
integrating, f1(x) = to c32x+3 c+leads
integrating,
leads c23x+to2+c x+c
4+ c 5 f1(x) = c2fx (x)
3 + c x2 + c 3 1
cc5 x2 + c x + c
f (x) = c x x c x 3= 4c x4x + + 4
endent of
f1(x) =ofc2y, y,
xfa 3 a
+(x) solution
12
csolution exists
2 for
33 all2 4x and5y provided 1that4 d f21/dx =3 4 5
endent 3x=
+ xc34x+fexists
c
+c(x) cx52=+3cc2for
x x ++all
cc32xx+and c4x +y cprovided f (x) = cthat
x 3 +dc fx2/dx + c
4
x =+ c
1 f22(x) = 3xc36x+ c+4 xc27x+5 c+ xc8+x c+ c9 2
1 5 6 1
f2(x) 7= c6x83 + c9 7x2 + c8x + c9
f2(x) = c6x3f +(x) c7fx=22(x)
+ c
c6xwhere
= x c+ 6
38 +f2c(x) c 7
c92=, cc6,...,3
x x ++ 2 8
cc7xconstants
are + c8x + of 9c9 integration. Substitution of f1(x) and f2(x) into Eq. (d) gives
 2of integration. 7x 2 + 3c
e constants
constants of integration. whereSubstitution Substitution
8 9
c , c ,..., areofconstants of f
f (x) 1(x) and and of
f (x)fintegration.
2(x) intointoEq.Eq. (d) gives of f (x) and f (x) into Eq
Substitution
(d) gives
integration.
c2, c3,...,of
onstants  Substitution
areintegration. of f1(x)2andSubstitution
constants ofSubstitution
integration. 3f2f(x)
of into Eq.
of1 f1(d) gives
(x)into
andEq.
f22(x)(d)
into Eq. (d) gives 1 2
1(x) and f 2(x) gives

Expressions for σy and τxy follow from Eq. (3.16):

ssions
w from
d and for
Eq.σy(3.16):
and τxyEq.
 from follow from Eq. (3.16):
τ
τxy followfollow
and τxy follow from Eq. (3.16):for σy and τxy follow from Eq. (3.16):
(3.16):
Expressions
from Eq.
y xy Substituting this (3.16):
into stress functions:

may be regarded as a case of plane stress provided that the beam (e)
tive to the beam depth 2h.point, we are prepared to apply(e)the boundary
At this (e) Substituting Eqs. (a) into (e), we
conditions.
(e)
point, we are prepared to obtain
applyc2the
= cboundary
3 = c6 = cconditions.
7 = 0 and Substituting
. The final
Eqs. (a)condition, Eq. (b), may now be written as
into (e), we
yoprepared
conditions are consistent with the coordinate system in Fig. 3.5a:
. The final condition, Eq. (b), may now be written as (e)(e)
apply toboundary
the apply the boundary
conditions. conditions.
Substituting Substituting
Eqs. (a) Eqs.
into (a)
(e), we into (e), we
c2 = c3 = c6 = c7 = 0 and
c7 = 0 and. The final .condition,
The final Eq.
condition,
(b), may Eq.
now(b),bemay now as
written be written as
are prepared  to
e prepared to apply from apply
At the
this boundary
point,
the boundary we conditions.
are prepared Substituting
to
conditions. Substituting applyEqs. Eqs.
the (a)
boundary
(a) intointo (e),
wewe
conditions.
(e), Substituting Eqs
which
=6 c=7c=7 0= and
0 and obtain . cThe
. The = final
c3 =
2 final ccondition,
6 = c7 =Eq.
condition, 0Eq.
and (b),
(b), maymaynow now .be be
The (a)
written
final as
written as
condition, Eq. (b), may now
which
y express the fact that the top and bottom edges of the beam are not loaded.
where is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis. From Eqs. (c)
is necessary, on the basis of zero external loading in the x direction at x =
 At this point, we are prepared to apply the boundary conditions. Substituting (e)(a) into (
Eqs.
oint, we are prepared to
obtain c2 = c3 = c6 = c7 = 0 and apply the boundary conditions. Substituting
. The final condition,
(a) Eqs. (a) into (e), we
Eq. (b), may now be written
(e) (a) Eqs. (a) into (e), we
At2 = this
c =point,
c
3 the fact
6 that = we
obtain
c = are
0
7 the top c prepared
=
and c
2 and3 bottom = c to
=
6 edgescapply
. =
The0 the
and
final boundary
condition,
7 of the beam are not loaded. conditions.
. The
Eq. final
(b), Substituting
condition,
may now beEq. (b), may
written
(e) as now be written
xpress These conditions simply express the fact that the top and bottom edges of(e) the beam are not loaded. (e)
pared
obtain to
c2 apply
=oncthe the
c6 boundary
=basis =ofctozero = 0(a), conditions.
and loadingoninSubstituting
. The final Eqs.
at x =(a)
condition, intoEq. (e),direction
the x(b),
wemayat xnow be written as
we
necessary,
At
are this
prepared
3 In
point, addition
to we
apply
7 Eq.
are external
the it is necessary,
prepared
boundary to the
the
apply
conditions.
x direction
basis of zero external
the boundary
Substituting loading in
conditions.
Eqs. (a) (e)
into (e)
=
Substituting
(e), we Eqs. (a) into
0toand
dical At thisthe
surface
apply  atpoint,
x0,=that .Finally,
0.we
boundary σThe
x are
= 0 alongfinal
prepared condition,
thetheapplied to apply
vertical
conditions. load
surfacePEq.
the
atmust
Substituting =(b),
x boundary may
0.beFinally,
equal
Eqs. now
conditions.
to
the beload
theinto
applied
(a) written
Substituting
P must be
(e), we asequalEqs.
to the(a) into (e), we
= c6obtain
erepared
rces = c7 =tocc0from
obtain
distributed
prepared =and
= c3cwhich
=3 c=
resultant
apply
across of=
the
the cthefree c0.7and
7==end:
shearing
6cboundary
The 0final
=forces and condition,
distributed
conditions. . across the Eq.
free
TheSubstituting
final (b),final
. condition,
The
end:
Substituting may now
Eq.
Eqs. be
condition,maywritten
(b),into
(a) now
into Eq. beas
(b),
(e), wemay
written as now be writt
d  to
22
. apply
The 6the
final boundary
condition, conditions.
Eq. (b), may now be Eqs.
written (a)
as (e), we
ich from which
=7 = c7 0= and
0 and .. TheThe finalfinalcondition,
condition,Eq.Eq. (b),(b), maymay nownow be written
be written as as
rom which (b)
(b) in Section 1.5.
from whichThe negative sign agrees with the convention for stress discussed
ith from
where is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis. From FromEqs.
which
is the
the conventionmoment
 where
Forfor ofofinertia
stress
purposes is theofmoment
discussed
illustration, inthe cross
Section
three section
of1.5.
inertia
approaches about
of the
are employed the neutral
cross
to determinesection axis.
about
the distribution From
of the Eqs.
stress (c)axis.
neutral Eqs
together
where
n, with
three approaches
and
andMethod
is (e),
within
the(e),
the
are
thetogether
values beam.
together
moment
employed of the with
with
ofdetermine
to
the
constants,
inertia values
the values of
thethe the of
of
crossthe
stresses
distribution
constants,
of are
the constants,
section stress found
aboutthe
the to stresses
thebeneutral
stresses are found
areaxis. found to
From be
to beEqs. (c)
1. Inasmuch as the bending moment varies linearly with x and σx at any section depends
ent
nd (e), of
whereinertia
together ofy,the
on it is cross
is
with the moment
the
reasonable section
valuesto assume ofabout
of inertia athe
of the
the
constants,
general neutral
cross of
expression axis.
section
the
the form Fromare
stressesabout the Eqs.neutral
found(c) axis.
to beFrom Eqs. (c)
sbending
theand
values moment
(e),
of the
moment  of
together inertia
constants,
varies with ofthethe
the
linearly values
with cross
stresses
x and of the σsection
areconstants,
found
x at any about
section the
tothebe neutral
stresses
depends areaxis.foundFrom to be Eqs. (c)
f inertia
where of the cross ofisthesection
the moment about the neutral
of inertia
stressesofare axis. From
thefoundcross Eqs.
to section (c) about (c)the neutral axis. From(3.24 Eq
erume with the values
a general expression constants,
of the form the be
uesmomentof the of constants, inertia of thethe cross
stresses section
are found about to be the neutral axis. From Eqs. (3.24) (3.2
th the
oment andvalues
of(e),inertia together
of the of with
constants,
the cross thethevalues stresses
section of
about the found
are constants,
the to
neutral be the axis.stressesFrom are
Eqs.
(c)found to be
(c)(3.24)
ribution of The distribution at of these (3.24)
these
The in which c1 represents
stresses
distribution these stresses
a constant.
sections
of Integrating
away from
stresses at
at sections
twice with
sections endsaway
the respect toisy, shown
away from
from the
inthe ends
Fig.ends isisshown
3.5b. shownin inFig.
Fig.3.5b.
3.5b.
he values of the constants, the stresses are found (c) to be (3.24)
The distribution
The distribution
2. Beginning  Method withof bending
these
of2.these stresses
stresses
Beginning moments atat sections
with
with sections
Mbending away
away
z = Px, moments
bending we
moments from
from
may the Mthe
ends
assume
M endsis
zz == Px, Px, is
ashown
we shown
stress
we infield
may
may Fig. in3.5b.
assume
(3.24) Fig. a3.5b.
similar
assume astress
to thatfield
stress fieldsimilar
similar
(d)
stresses
nstant.
Method Method at
Integrating
2. stresses sections
2. twice
Beginning
Beginning away
with with from
respectbending the
to y, ends
moments M is shown z z==
in
Px, Fig.
wewe may 3.5b.
(3.24)
assume a stress field similar to that
ase
nh of of pure
these for the fcase
bending: (x) with
1at andof
sections bending
pure bending:
are awaybending: moments
from the M ends Px,
is shown may in assume
Fig. a stress
(3.24)
3.5b. into Eq. field similar to that
bending
where
moments Mhave
f2(x) functions of x to be determined. Introducing the Φ thus obtained
(3
ses
or forsections
at
the the case
case of
away
of(3.17),
pure pure
we z = Px,
bending:
from
bending: thewe ends may assumeina Fig.
is shown stress 3.5b. field similar to that
inning
hese
ing: with bending
stresses at sections moments awayM z = Px,
from the we ends may is shownassume ina Fig.
stress field similar
3.5b. (3.24) to that
nding The distribution
moments M z = of
Px, these
we may stresses
assume at a sections
stress field away
(d)
similar from to the
that ends is shown in Fig. 3.5b.
pure
g with of bending:
bending

moments M
unctions
Method at
x to be determined.
2.Since
Beginning z is=independent
Introducing
with
Px, we the Φ
bending
may
of thus assume
obtained
moments
ainto
stress
Mfor Eq. field similar that dto that
4f /dx 4=
z =in Px, we3.5b. may assume a (f)
stress field simila
the second term y, a solution exists all x and y provided
se stresses
bending:
sections away from the ends is shown Fig. 1
(f) (
n offor
with the Equation
bending case
ofmomentsof(3.12)
pure bending:
M = Px, we mayby (f)
compatibility
Equation compatibility is zsatisfied
(3.12)
of compatibility
compatibility by
is satisfied these
(3.12)
(3.12) isassume
is stresses.
these
satisfied
satisfied aOn
stresses. stress
by
by theOnbasis
these
these field
the of
basis similar
stresses.
stresses.
(f) Eqs.
of Eqs.
On
On (f), to
(f),
the
the that
the
the
basis
basis of
of Eqs.
Eqs. (f),the
(f), the
s of equations
Equation
nding: equilibrium
ofequations of equilibrium
equations leadof
compatibility of lead to is satisfied
toequilibrium
equilibrium
(3.12) lead to to by these4 stresses. On the basis of(f)Eqs. (f), the
dependent
yquations of
(3.12) isofsatisfied y, a solution by exists
these all x andlead
forstresses. yOnprovided
the basisthat doff1/dx Eqs.
4=
(f), the
equilibrium lead to (f)
mpatibility
lead to Equilibrium (3.12) is equations satisfiedare these stresses. On the basis of Eqs. (f),(f)
bysatisfied: the
12) is
uilibrium satisfied lead by
to these stresses. On the basis of Eqs. (f), the
bility (3.12) (f)isyields
satisfied by these stresses. On the basis of Eqs. (f), the (g)
to (g) (
rium lead
From the to(f)second
(f) yields
yields expression, τ can depend only on y. The first equation of (g) together with Eqs. (g
Equation of compatibility (3.12) is satisfied by these stresses. On the basis of Eqs.
 xy (f) (g) (f), the
e second expression, From the τxy can expression,
second depend onlyτxy oncan y. The depend first only equation on y. ofThe (g) together
first equation with
(g) first equation of (g) together Eqs.
of (g) togetherwith wi
equations  From of theequilibrium
second expression, lead to τxy can depend only on y. The
ity (3.12)
From the second is satisfied
from expression,
which by these τxy canstresses. depend only On the on y.basis The first of Eqs. equation (f), the of (g) (g)together with Eqs.
ion,
m lead τ xy to can depend
from which only on y. The first equation of (g) together (g) with Eqs.
nd expression,  from τ which
xy can depend only on y. The first equation of (g) together (g)with Eqs.
τxythecan basis of
depend (τxy )y+±hon=y.0:The
only c =first –Ph2equation /2I. The of resulting
(g) togetherexpression with for τxy
Eqs.
ned on the basis of (τ ) = 0: c = –Ph 2/2I. The resulting expression for τ
pression,
dentical with τ xy can depend
thec isresult xy only
y+±h
previously on y. The
obtained. first equation of (g) together with Eqs.
2/2I. The resulting xy
Here
Here c isdetermined
determined on the
on basis
the of
basis (τ )
of (τ = )0: c = =–Ph 0: c = –Ph 2/2I. The expression
resulting forexpression
τxy for
and is identical with the result previously obtained.
 xy y+±h xy y+±h
may
ss of be
ofFrom treated
(τ(τxyxymay
))y+±h satisfies
Here =0: by
0:
c is superimposing
Eq.
ccEq.== (b)
–Ph and
determined 22 is
/2I. identical
The the polynomials
with
resulting
isonidentical
the basiswiththe result
expression
of (τthe Φ and
previously =forΦ
0:τ4τxy,
obtained. 2
roblem the
y+±h  satisfies be=second
treated –Ph(b)superimposing
expression,
by andThe
/2I. τresulting
xy can the expression
depend xy)y+±h
polynomials result
2 for
only on
Φ
cxy=The
previously
y.
and
–Phfirst
Φ ,
/2I. equation
obtained. The (g)resulting expression
of (g) togetherfor w
Method 3. The problem
2 may be treated by superimposing 2the 4
polynomials Φ and Φ ,
with
of (τxy
with the
the)y+±hresult
a satisfies
result 2= = 0:
Method previously
cpreviously
2 c== Eq.
a4–Ph
3. =(b)
The obtained.
b4/2I. and
=
obtained.
problem 4 is
cThe = identical
eresulting
4may = 0be treated with
expression thebyresult forpreviously
τxy
superimposing obtained.
the 2
polynomials 4
Φ2 and Φ4,
ssion, τ xysuperimposing can depend
a =
23.=The c only
= a
2 cobtained. = on b y.= The
c =a first
e = =
c 0
= equation
a = b = c of= (g)
e = together
0 with Eqs.
with thethe
treated result
by (τpreviously
superimposing
Method =4–Ph
the
problem 24/2I.
polynomials may 4 be 4Φ 2 and
Φtreated Φ
by4=4,4,superimposing
onreated by
basis of xy)y+±h 0: the polynomials The 22aand Φ = xyc4 = ethe =polynomials Φ2 and Φ4,
2resulting 4expression 4 for 4 τ
 2 = c 2 a 4 = b 4 4 0
identical
eated with Thus, the result previously obtained. Φ and Φ ,
aa22==cby c22=superimposing
=aa44==bb44==cc44==the ee44=polynomials
Thus,by superimposing the polynomials
=00 2 a2 = c24 = a4 = b4 = c4 = e4 = 0
m may be treated Φ2 and Φ4,
a2 = c2 =  aThus, 4 = b4 = c 4 = e 4 = 0
s components 2 =are
 aThe c2 = a4 = b4 = stress
corresponding c4 = ecomponents
4=0 are
ng stress components are
The corresponding stress components are
onents
nents are are  The It the corresponding
is seen that the foregoing stress components
satisfies the second arecondition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) leads to
ng satisfies second condition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) leads to
nents
foregoing
ess are  satisfies
components d4 =are –2b2/h 2. We then obtain
the second condition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) leads to
btain
then obtainIt is seen that the foregoing satisfies the second condition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) le
fies
ies the the second
second condition
condition
Itd4is=seen–2b2that /h2. the ofEqs.
of
We Eqs. (a).
foregoing
then (a). The
obtain The
satisfies firstof
first of Eqs.
theEqs. second (a) leads
(a) leads
condition to of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) le
to
oing satisfieswhich the second condition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) leads
es the second d4 =condition
–2bwhen 2. of
2/hsubstituted
WeEqs. theninto obtain
(a). The first
condition (b)of Eqs.in(a)
results b2 leads
= –3P/4ht to to = Ph2/2I. As before, τxy is as
obtain
into condition given (b) in results
Eqs. (3.24). in b2 = –3P/4ht = Ph2/2I. As2 before, τxy is as
tituted into condition (b) results in b = –3P/4ht = Ph /2I. As before, τ is as
 coordinates
rable to Coordinates
employ are polar
used advantageously
coordinates rather wherethana the
degree of axial
Cartesian symmetry
system used exists.
exclusively thus
Polar
l,ylinder,
econd
isfies thea second
polarcondition disk, aofcondition
coordinates wedge,
Eqs. a curved
are used
(a). The
of beam,
advantageously
first
Eqs. ofThe
(a). andfirst
Eqs. a large
where
(a) athin
leads
of Eqs. plate
degree
to(a) ofcontaining
axial
leads a
to symmetry exists.
slude
related either to the loading or to the boundary of a loaded system
a cylinder, a disk, a wedge, a curved beam, and a large thin plate containing a often
oysystem
polar (r,
coordinates
θ) and therather than the
Cartesian Cartesian
system system
(x, y) are usedbyexclusively
related thus
the following
inates
a): aresystemused advantageously where a degree of axial symmetry exists.
ordinate (r, θ) and the Cartesian system (x, y) are related by the following
r, a disk, a wedge, a curved beam, and a large thin plate containing a
Fig. 3.7a): 2/2I. As before,
results in
ondition (b)  b2results
= –3P/4ht
in b2==Ph
–3P/4ht = Ph2/2I. τAs xy is as τxy is as
before,
m (r, θ) and the Cartesian system (x, y) are related by the following

3.9 Basic Relations in Polar Coordinates
(a)
Geometrical considerations related either to the loading or to the boundary of a loaded syst
ned
ution is obtained
.7. (a) the same
Polar asitthe
is that
coordinates;
make foundas(b)
same
preferable by employing
that foundelement
tostress
employ by the
employing
polar in polar
coordinatesthecoordinates.
rather than the Cartesian (a)system used exclus
resultforces
dary
Figure in a far.
3.7. stress
result
(a) In distribution
general,
Polar polaras coordinates
in acoordinates;
stress indicated
distribution asinindicated
(b) stress Fig.
are 3.5b,advantageously
used
element ininFig. 3.5b,
polar where a degree of axial symmetr
coordinates.
ion is not
e, the exact.

solution isInnot
Examples any case,Inhowever,
exact.
include a any case,recall
cylinder, thata wedge,
however,
a disk, Saint-
recall that Saint-beam, and a large thin plate contain
a curved
e result
to regardasthe quite accurate
result
circular as quite
hole. foraccurate
sectionsfor away from away
sections the from the (a)
Polar
ress on coordinates;
an The infinitesimal (b)element
stress element
polar coordinate system
abcd of(r, inθ)
unitpolar
and coordinates.
the Cartesian
thickness describedsystem (x, y) are related by the follow
by polar
f The r andexpressions
the displacement
.rmination ofθ-directed (Fig.
the displacement after3.7a):
fieldbody derivation
field are
forces of the by Fof
afterdenoted
derivation the
r and Fθ. Equilibrium of
hat
ss on an infinitesimal element abcd of unit thickness described by polar
The r and θ-directed body forces are denoted by Fr and Fθ. Equilibrium of
atder the state of stress on an infinitesimal element abcd of unit thickness described by polar
inates (Fig. 3.7b). The r and θ-directed body forces are denoted by F and F . Equilibrium of
r θ
decreasing
dforces
ncreasing or the
 decreasing
requires that
uniformFigure
temperature
the uniform ofPolar
an entirely
temperature
3.7. (a) of an entirely
coordinates; (b) stress element in polar coordinates.
xpansion
ons yield or
l,resultant
sin(dθ/2) expansioncontraction occursbyindθ/2
or contraction
may be replaced such a way
occurs
and as toacause
in such
cos(dθ/2) way a Additional
by 1.as to cause a
while
main experiencing
d bycubic,
dropping while changes
experiencing
terms of length
containing changes onofeach
higher-order lengthof its
on sides.
each of its
infinitesimals. sides. analysis
A similar
companied
he tangential
ection unaccompaniedbydirection.
normal stresses.
When
by In stresses.
both
normal addition,
equilibriumInthere are there
equations
addition, arearedivided by r dr
hesin(dθ/2)
body maybody
beinreplaced by dθ/2
as toand cos(dθ/2) by 1. Additional
uch as dθ is
resses. If heated
the
is small, issuch
sin(dθ/2) maya be
heatedwayin such
replaced aproduce
by way acos(dθ/2)
as to
dθ/2 and nonuniform
produce by 1.a Additional
nonuniform
by
ons
mal dropping
expansions
cation

areis prohibited
achieved are
terms containing
from taking
prohibited
by dropping
higher-order
placetaking
terms from freely
containing
infinitesimals.
because
place
higher-order freelyof because
infinitesimals.
A similar analysis
of analysis
A similar
ethe
e tangential
ary temperature
performed
even ifforthe direction. When
is uniform,
thetemperature
tangential both
or
direction.
is equilibrium
ifWhen
the
uniform,material
both equations
exhibits
orequilibrium
if the are
equations
material aredivided
exhibits byr rdrdr(b)
divided by
e results are Equations of Equilibrium
respect to x and y in the Cartesian system may be transformed into derivatives (b)
θ by
ves applying
with respectthetochain x and rule:
y in the Cartesian system may be transformed into derivatives
o r and θ by applying the chain rule: (b)
(3.31)
These equations yield
ct to x and
forces,  y (3.31)
Eqs. in the Cartesian system
are satisfied by amay be function
stress transformedΦ(r,into θ) for derivatives
(3.31)the
which
pplying
radialofthe
eabsence and
bodyIn chain rule:
tangential
forces,
the Eqs.ofdirections
absence (3.31)
bodyare are
satisfied
forces, given
using by function
byaastress
stress function  Φ(r, θ) ,for which(3.31)
the
components in the radial and tangential directions are given by
rces, Eqs. (3.31) are satisfied by a stress function Φ(r, θ) for which the (c)
radial and at
properties tangential
a point notdirections
containing areanygiven by
derivatives are not affected by the (c)
the coordinates,
verning propertiesasatisaobserved point not next.
containing any derivatives are not affected by the
angleofapproximation
theAny sin as
derivatives θ ≈is θobserved
withis respect
employed, to xand
andarcs
y in ab
theand cd
Cartesian system
ature
brium coordinates, next. (c) may be transformed into der
ng to Fig. 3.8a, with it is observed
respect to r and that
θ abyuapplying
displacement of side
the chain ab
rule:
Equilibrium  (3.32)
ties atThe
rain. a point
radialnot containing
strain any derivatives
εr, the deformation are not
per unit affected
length of sideby the
n–Displacement
ordinates, as Relations
is observed next. (3.32)
acement: Strain-Displacement Relations:
der now the deformation of the infinitesimal element abcd, denoting the r and θ displacements
Relations
nd v, respectively. The general deformation experienced by an element may be regarded as
osed
rmation a  change
of (1)of in length of the element
the infinitesimal sides, as inabcd,
Figs. 3.8a and b, and
denoting the(2)r and
rotation of the(3.32)
sides, as
θ displacements
s. 3.8c and d. (3.33a)
y. The general deformation experienced by an element may be regarded as
elations
Figure 3.8. Deformation and displacement of an element in polar coordinates.
eformation
nge in length per unitsides,
of the
Relations length as
governingofin
ab,Figs.
is 3.8a and
properties at ab,point
and not
(2) containing
rotation of any the sides, as are not affected by
derivatives
mation of the infinitesimal element abcd, denoting the r and θ displacements
The general curvilinear
deformation nature of the coordinates,
experienced by an elementas ismayobserved next. as
be regarded
Deformation and displacement of an element in polar coordinates.
 (f) and (g) provides the total shearing strain (e)
s law in polar coordinates, we need only replace subscripts x with r and y with θ in
is (∂v/∂θ)dθ. The resultant tangential strain, combining Eqs. (d) and
Cartesian equations. In the case of plane stress, from Eqs. (3.10) we have
(g) (3.33c)
(3.33c)
(g)
nships
acement inrelationships
(g) provides polarthe totalcoordinates
in polar
shearing are thus given
straincoordinates bygiven
are thus Eqs. by
(3.33).
Eqs. (3.33).
ovides the total shearing strain
(3.33b)
’s law in polar coordinates, we need only replace subscripts x with r and y with θ in
(3.33c)
oordinates,
Cartesian we need only replace subscripts xEqs.
with r andwey have
with θ in
tation
nt eb′fequations.
relationships ofinside In the
a′b′ caseto
due
polar coordinates ofathus
are plane stress, from
u displacement.
given by Eqs. The(3.10)
(3.33). associated strain
ons. In theHooke’s case ofLaw: plane stress, from Eqs. (3.10) we have (3.33c)
(3.34)
onships in polarwecoordinates
n polar coordinates, aresubscripts
need only replace thus givenx withby Eqs.
r and (3.33).
y with θ in
an equations.
Eqs. In the to
(3.5) lead case of plane stress, from Eqs. (3.10) we have
(3.37)
Similar transformation equations may also be written for the strains and(f) εr, γrθ, and εθ.
coordinates, we need only replace subscripts x with r and y with θ in
with aInvthe
tions. displacement
Compatibility alone
Equation
case of plane is shown
stress, from Eqs.in Fig. 3.8d.we
(3.10) Since
havean initial
(3.34)
has occurred,
It

can the relative rotation gb″ h of side bc is of the equation of compatibility:
be shown that Eqs. (3.33) result in the following form
, Eqs. (3.5) lead to
(3.34) (3.34)
(3.37)
3.5)
to lead to For plane strain: (3.38)
ion equations may also be written for the strains and εr, γrθ, and εθ. (3.35)
To arrive at a compatibility equation expressed in terms of the stress function Φ, it is necessary to
Equationsevaluate the partial derivatives ∂2Φ/∂x2 and ∂2Φ/∂y2 in terms of r and θ by means of the chain rule
ation
together with Eqs. (a). These derivatives lead to the Laplacian operator:
he subscripts
Eqs. x′ with
(3.33) result r and
in the y′ with form
following θ in Eqs.
of the(1.17) results
equation in
of compatibility:
(3.34)
(3.35)

(3.39)
ndEquations
to (3.35)
ions The equation of compatibility
Transformation Equations:in alternative form is thus (3.38)
the subscripts x′ with r and y′ with θ in Eqs. (1.17) results in
scripts x′ with
atibility r and y′
equation with θ in Eqs.
expressed (1.17) of
in terms results
the in (3.35) to(3.36)
stress function Φ, it is necessary
derivatives 2
∂ Φ/∂x 2 2 2
ess σx, τxy, and σy inand ∂ Φ/∂y
terms of σr,inτrθterms
, and ofσθr(Problem
and θ by means of the
3.26) by chain rule
replacing θ with –θ in(3.40)
a). These derivatives lead to the Laplacian operator:
, For
 the axisymmetrical, zero body force case, the compatibility equation is, from Eq. (3.9) [referring
with r and y′ with θ in Eqs. (1.17) results in
to (3.39)], (3.36) (3.36)
,ress
τxy, and
σx, στyxyin, and
termsσofin
σr,terms
τrθ, and
ofσσθ r(Problem
, τrθ, and3.26) by replacing
σθ (Problem θ with
3.26) by–θreplacing
in θ with –θ in
y
(3.39)
(3.35)
us,  (3.41)
mpatibility inEquation
alternative form is thus
of compatibility:
The remaining relationships appropriate to two-dimensional elasticity are found in a manner similar
to that outlined in the foregoing discussion. (3.36)
x′ with r and

y′ with θ in Eqs. (1.17) results in
σy in termsExample
of σr, τ3.3.
rθ, State
and σofθ Stress
(Problem 3.26)
in a Plate by replacing θ with(3.40)
in Tension –θ in
A large thin plate is subjected to uniform tensile stress σ at its ends, as shown in Fig. 3.9.
cal, zero body force case, the compatibility equation is, fromo Eq. (3.9) [referring
Determine the field of stress existing within the plate.
Figure 3.9. Example 3.3. A plate in uniaxial tension.
(3.36)
d σy in terms of σr, τrθ, and σθ (Problem 3.26) by replacing θ with –θ in
(3.41)
ionships appropriate to two-dimensional elasticity are found in a manner similar
eanalysis,
foregoingit will prove convenient to locate the origin of coordinate axes at
 discussion.
Solution
te as shown. The state of stress in the plate is expressed by

te
Φ =ofσoStress in a Plate
y2/2, satisfies in Tension
the biharmonic equation, Eq. (3.17). The geometry
.isThe stress function
subjected Φ maytensile
to uniform be transformed
stress σ byatsubstituting
its ends, asy =shown
r sin θ,inwith
Fig.the3.9.
o
d of stress existing within the plate.
 sis, it will prove convenient to locate the origin of coordinate axes at
hown. The
urposes state
of this of stress
analysis, in the
it will plate
prove is expressed
convenient by the origin of coordinate axes at
to locate
enient to locate the origin of coordinate axes at
nterinof
ss thethe plate
plate as shown. by
is expressed The state of stress in the plate is expressed by
2/2,
oy satisfies the biharmonic equation, Eq. (3.17). The geometry
ress
tress
rmonicfunction,
function  ΦΦ=Eq.
equation, may y2be
σo(3.17).
/2, transformed
satisfies the biharmonic
The geometry equation,
by substituting y = rEq.
sin(3.17).
θ, withThethegeometry
sis,
sts it
polarwill prove
form. The convenient
stress to
function Φlocate
may
e transformed by substituting y = r sin θ, with the the
be origin of
transformed coordinate
by axes
substituting y =atr sin θ, with the
(3.31)
wing result:
hown. The state of stress in the plate is expressed by
dy forces, Eqs.  (3.31) are satisfied by a stress function Φ(r, θ) for which the
n the radial and tangential directions are given by
——————————————— (h)
y 2/2, satisfies the biharmonic equation, (h) Eq. (3.17). The geometry (h)
o
ow follow from Eqs. (h) and (3.32):
resses
tress
h) in the plate
and function
(3.32): now be
Φ may follow from Eqs.by
transformed (h)substituting
and (3.32): y = r sin θ, with the

(h)
 (3.42) (3.42) (3.42)
ow follow from Eqs. (h) and
——————————————— (3.32): (3.32)
ly, τsubstitution
=d directly to theofforegoing
xy = 0 could σy = τled
have xy = 0 could
directly
result, have
to
using theled
the directly result,
foregoing to the foregoing
using theresult, using the
nt Relations
sormation
. of stress,expressions
Eqs. (3.36). of stress, Eqs. (3.36).
eformation of the infinitesimal element abcd, denoting the r and θ displacements
vely. The general
 deformation experienced by an element may be regarded as
B—Stress Concentrations
ntrations
hange in length of the sides, as in Figs. 3.8a and b, and (2) rotation of the sides, as
(3.42)
tresses Due
dsoncentrated Loads to Concentrated Loads
8.= Deformation
τxy = 0 couldand havedisplacement
led directlyof to an
theelement
foregoing result, using the
in polar
ow
ctingconsider
at the a============
concentrated
vertex of a very force
large or Psemi-infinite
or F acting at the vertexcoordinates.
of a very large or semi-infinite
sFig.
of stress,
entrated 3.10). Eqs.
force
The P
load(3.36).
or F acting at the
distribution alongvertex
the of a very
thickness (z large or semi-infinite
direction) is uniform. The thickness of
thickness (z direction) is uniform. The thickness of
distribution
ge is taken as
er unit thickness. along
unity,
Chapter the
so P thickness
or F is the(z
4. Failureit is
In such situations, direction)
load per
Criteria unit is uniform.
thickness. The
In suchthickness of it is
situations,
soent
nverseP ormethod.
to useF is the load per unit thickness. In such situations, it is
polar coordinates and the semi-inverse method.
ntrations
edinates
3.10. and the
Wedge ofsemi-inverse
unit thickness method.
subjected
d to a concentrated 4.3 load
Failure perby unit thickness: to
Yielding (a)a concentrated load per unit thickness: (a)
nit thickness subjected knife edge or pivot; (b) wedge cantilever.
(b) wedge cantilever.
oncentrated 4.4 Loadstobya concentrated
Failure Fracture load per unit thickness: (a)
knife edge or pivot; (b) wedge cantilever.
entrated forceTypes P or F ofacting
Fractureat theinvertex
Tension of a very large or semi-infinite
distribution There
along the are thickness
two types(zofdirection)
fracturesistouniform. The thickness
be considered of tests of polycrystalline specimens: brittle
in tensile
so P or F is the load per unit thickness. In such situations, it is
fracture, as in the case of cast iron, and shear fracture, as in the case of mild steel, aluminium, and
dinates and the semi-inverse method.
other metals.
nit thicknessProgressive
subjected toFracture:a concentrated Fatigue load per unit thickness: (a)
knife edge Multiple
or pivot; application
(b) wedge cantilever.
and removal of load, usually measured in thousands of episodes or more, are
referred to as repeated loading. Machine and structural members subjected to repeated, fluctuating, or
alternating stresses, which are below the ultimate tensile strength or even the yield strength, may
nevertheless manifest diminished strength and ductility. Since the phenomenon described, termed
lity, the concentrated
fatigue, load is assumed
is difficult totopredict
be a theoretical line load and will be spread over an
a theoretical line load and will be spread over anand is often influenced by factors eluding recognition, increased
small finite width. Plastic deformation may occur locally. Thus, the solutions that follow are
occur locally.uncertainty
Thus, the solutions that follow
in strength andarein service life must be dealt with.
d in the immediate vicinity of the application of load.
onload
of load.
is assumed to be a theoretical
Experimental determinationline load and will
is made be spread
of the numberover an
of cycles (N) required to break a specimen at a
lastic deformation may occur locally. Thus, the solutions that follow are
particular stress level (S) under a fluctuating load. From such tests, called fatigue tests, curves termed S–
icinity of the N application
diagrams of load.
can be constructed.

Figure 4.3. Typical S–N diagram for steel.

load is assumed to be a theoretical line load and will be spread over an

lastic deformation may occur locally. Thus, the solutions that follow are
icinity of the application of load.


4.5 Yield and Fracture Criteria

4.6 Maximum Shearing Stress Theory
The maximum shearing stress theory is an outgrowth of the experimental observation that a ductile
material yields as a result of slip or shear along crystalline planes. it is also referred to as the Tresca
yield criterion
This theory predicts that yielding will start when the maximum shearing stress in the material equals the
maximum shearing stress at yielding in a simple tension test.
In the case of plane stress, σ3 = 0, there are two combinations of stresses to be considered. When σ1 and
σ2 are of opposite sign, that is, one tensile and the other compressive, the maximum shearing stress is
(σ1 – σ2)/2. Thus, the yield condition is given by




which may be restated as




The boundary of the hexagon thus marks the onset of yielding, with points outside the shaded region
representing a yielded state.
The foregoing describes the Tresca yield condition. Good agreement with experiment has been realized
for ductile materials.


4.7 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

The maximum distortion energy theory, also known as the von Mises theory
In this theory, failure by yielding occurs when, at any point in the body, the distortion energy per unit
volume in a state of combined stress becomes equal to that associated with yielding in a simple tension
test.

or, in terms of principal stresses,

For plane stress σ3 = 0, and the criterion for yielding becomes or, alternatively,


 defines the ellipse.


σe = σyp, where σe is known as the von Mises stress or the effective stress
 .

4.8 Octahedral Shearing Stress Theory

The octahedral shearing stress theory predicts failure by yielding when the octahedral shearing stress at
a point achieves a particular value. This value is determined by the relationship of τoct to σyp in a simple
tension test.



Referring to the table above, we obtain 

The criterion may also be viewed in terms of distortion energy


Octahedral shearing stress theory enables us to apply the distortion energy theory while dealing with
stress rather than energy.
Example 4.1. Circular Shaft under Combined Loads
————————————-


4.10 Maximum Principal Stress Theory

According to the maximum principal stress theory, Rankine theory, a material fails by fracturing when
the largest principal stress exceeds the ultimate strength σu in a simple tension test. That is, at the onset
of fracture,

Thus, a crack will start at the most highly stressed point in a brittle material when the largest principal
stress at that point reaches σu.
In the case of plane stress (σ3 = 0),

This may be rewritten as



4.11 Mohr’s Theory
The Mohr theory of failure is used to predict the fracture of a material having different properties in
tension and compression when results of various types of tests are available for that material.



4.12 Coulomb–Mohr Theory

The Coulomb–Mohr or internal friction theory assumes that the critical shearing stress is related to
internal friction. If the frictional force is regarded as a function of the normal stress acting on a shear
plane, the critical shearing stress and normal stress can be connected by an equation of the following
form 


This expression may also be viewed as a straight-line version of the Mohr envelope.
The following expression is obtained, applicable for σ1 > 0, σ2 < 0:


σu: ultimate strength of the material in tension

: ultimate strength of the material in compression

The magnitude of the limiting shear stress may be graphically determined from the figure


Example 4.3. Tube Torque Requirement
——————
Example 4.4. Design of a Cast Iron Torsion Bar
————-
4.13 Fracture Mechanics
Fracture is defined as the separation of a part into two or more pieces.The mechanisms of brittle
fracture are the concern of fracture mechanics, which is based on a stress analysis in the vicinity of a
crack or defect of unknown small radius in a part. A crack is a microscopic flaw that may exist under
normal conditions on the surface or within the material.

Stress-Intensity Factors

In the fracture mechanics approach, a stress-intensity factor, K, is evaluated. This can be thought of as a
measure of the effective local stress at the crack root.

 mode I, opening; (b) mode II, sliding; (c) mode III, tearing.
For plates and beams, the stress-intensity factor is defined as

σ = normal stress;
λ = geometry factor, depends on a/w, listed in Table 4.2;
a = crack length (or half crack length);
w = member width (or half width of member).



4.14 Fracture Toughness

 In aa notch.
k at the root of toughness test of
Loading is aincreased
given material,
slowly,the stress-intensity
and a record is factor at which a crack will propagate is
measured. This is the critical stress-intensity
. The data are interpreted for the value of fracture toughness factor,
[Ref. referred to as the fracture toughness and
denoted by the symbol Kc.
on a memberFor of known
a knownorapplied
assumed crack
stress length,
acting on when the of known or assumed crack length, when the magnitude
a member
K reaches fracture toughness K
of stress-intensity ,
factor
c theKcrack will
reaches propagate,
fracture leading
toughness Kc, the crack will propagate, leading to rupture in
of safety foran
fracture
instant.mechanics
The factorn,ofstrength-to-stress
safety for fractureratio, is thus n, strength-to-stress ratio, is thus
mechanics


or (4.17)
or from Eq. (4.16), this becomes

Example 4.5. Aluminium Bracket with an Edge Crack
—————————-
Example 4.6. Titanium Panel with a Central (4.18)
Crack
—————————-
e yield strength and fracture toughness for some metal alloys,
4.15 Failure Criteria for Metal Fatigue
single edge-notch test specimen.
The mean stress and the alternating or range stress:
gth σyp and Fatigue Toughness Kc for Some Materials






Example
M specifications 4.7.aFatigue
require LoadaoforTension-Bending
crack length member thicknessBar
t
—————————-

Chapter 6. Torsion of Prismatic Bars

(4.19)
rack surfaces. The values of a and t found by Eq. (4.19) are also

ons is demonstrated in the solution of the following numerical

et with an Edge
 Crack



Angle of Twist

Example 6.1. Stress and Deformation in an Aluminium Shaft
———————
Example 6.2. Redundantly Supported Shaft
———————-


Axial and Transverse Shear Stresses



6.3 Stresses on Inclined Planes


6.4 General Solution of the Torsion Problem



Geometry of Deformation
the warping deformation 






Equations of Equilibrium


Equations of Compatibility


where 

6.5 Prandtl’s Stress Function

Φ(x, y), the Prandtl stress function,


The equation of compatibility in terms of Φ:


Boundary Conditions



the resultant shear stress τ must be tangent to the boundary


Example 6.3. Analysis of an Elliptical Torsion Bar
—————————-
Example 6.4. Equilateral Triangle Bar under Torsion
———————————
Example 6.5. Rectangular Bar Subjected to Torsion
———————————-
6.6 Prandtl’s Membrane Analogy
It is demonstrated next that the differential equation for the stress function is of the same form as the
equation describing the deflection of a membrane or soap film subject to pressure. Hence, an analogy
exists between the torsion and membrane problems, serving as the basis of a number of experimental
techniques.

Equation of Equilibrium





Shearing Stress and Angle of Twist


Example 6.6. Analysis of a Stepped Bar in Torsion
—————————
 Figure 6.16. Membrane ana

6.7 Torsion of Narrow Rectangular Cross Section



To arrive at Eq. (a), the bounda

employed. The volume bounde
 = pbt3/12S. According to the an
According to the analogy, p is replaced by 2θ and 1/S by G, and consequently  . The torsiona




The shearing stress is linear in x producing a twisting moment T about z given Here
by Je represents the effective


Thin-Walled Open Cross Sections

The angle of twist per unit leng

 Maximum shear occurs at ±t/2





 or
where ti is the larger of t1 and t2.

Chapter 11. Stability of Columns

According to Eq. (b), the shear
about z given by





11.3 Buckling of Pinned-End Columns












2
I = Ar
r is the radius of gyration.
Le/r is called the effective slenderness ratio.

Example 11.1. Load-Carrying Capacity of a Wood Column

11.6 Critical Stress: Classification of Columns


Long Columns , Short Columns, Intermediate Columns

Example 11.2. Buckling of the Boom of a Crane