BBA- EVENING

4TH SEMESTER-FALL

Course Name: Organizational Behavior

Topic: Assignments

Submitted By: Batool Abbas (21) Submitted To: Mr. Riaz Uddin
 Chapter 1: What is Organizational Behavior- Questions for Review
Q1) What is the importance of interpersonal skills?

Answer: Interpersonal skills are those skills that an individual uses to interact with others on daily basis.
These skills are used to understand people; like active listening, motivation, leadership, team work,
flexibility and the like. Interpersonal skills involve communication that could be verbal or non- verbal
(listening).

These skills are vital for communicating and coordinating with employees at work. Managers with strong
interpersonal skills are in the position to create good relationships and can work well with others. They
understand the needs and requirements of the co-workers, customers and peers. These skills also help in
solving complex issues and make better decisions; by understanding others, managers can come up with
solutions better for everyone. This leads to job satisfaction, helps to maintain a good work environment
and lowers stress. Also, qualified workers will likely to stay in such an environment. The reputation of the
firm will also increase, which will benefit them economically. Managers try to hire staff with strong
interpersonal skills as they often work best in groups and coordinate well with their colleagues. Such
people make effective leaders due to their ability to converse with and encourage people around them.

Q2? What do managers do in terms of functions, roles, and skills?

Answer: Managers in an organization direct others what to. They get their work done through other. They
even allocate resources and make decisions. These are those people who examine the work of others and
are responsible to attain the goals in the organizations.

Functions of Managers

a) Planning: Organizations aims to achieve goals and managers are those who define those goals and
the sources available through which these goals will be achieved. This function includes stating the
goals, defining the plans for achieving them and creating a plan to coordinate activities. This
function increases as manager’s move from lower levels to upper levels in the organization.
b) Organizing: Managers are responsible for designing the organization’s structure. This function
includes what tasks are to be done, how they will be executed, how to group them in teams, who
reports to whom and where decisions are to be made.
c) Leading: The manager is responsible for coordinating the employees and directing them. Leading
refers to motivating employees, directing their tasks, effectively communicating with them and
solving issues.
d) Controlling: This function includes making sure things are running smoothly in the firm. Managers
must examine the performance and compare it with the previous goals set. If there are any variations,
then it’s his duty to get the firm to operate effectively. Hence, monitoring, comparing and correcting
are the controlling function.

Roles of Managers

a) Interpersonal roles: A manager’s interpersonal roles are based on various interactions with other
people; how he communicates, listens to others, and understands them well. Depending on the
situation, a manager may need to act as a figurehead, where he acts as a symbolic figure doing
 routine duties of social and legal nature; a leader, where he encourages and directs the employees to
do the task; or a liaison where he maintains contacts with the outsiders who provide information and
other favors.
b) Informational roles: Managers gathers information that is useful for the organization. He does the
following: monitoring where he receives information from different sources like preferences of
people which is vital for the external and internal information of the organization; disseminating,
where he transfers the information received to other employees of the organization; spokesperson
where he shares information about the organization’s plans, actions, and policies and represents the
firm in the outside world.
c) Decisional roles: Managers are responsible for decision making. These roles are: entrepreneur where
managers looks for opportunities in the environment and brings ventures in order to bring change;
disturbance handler where managers are responsible to right actions when firms face unexpected
issues; resource allocator where managers allocate monetary, physical and human resources;
negotiator where managers bargain and discuss with other units to gain advantages for the
organization.

Skills of Managers

a) Technical Skills: These skills consist of applying expertise to work; applying the knowledge and
abilities needed to perform certain tasks. Like mechanical equipment, design programs, civil
engineers or surgeons. These skills are learned through education and some are learned on the job.
Jobs require employees to be technically expert.
b) Human Skills: these skills include the capability to understand, communicate, support and encourage
people in teams and individually. It is to understand the needs of others and efficient at handling
conflicts. Managers should encompass this skill as he as to get work done through others.
c) Conceptual Skills: The mental ability to examine and solve complex issues comes under this skill.
For instance, decision making, where managers have to recognize the issue, get alternate solutions to
solve them, examine and each and select the best one. Then, a set of strategies are to be defined and
ways to carry them out. The capability to generate new ideas and innovate with the existing
methodologies also comes under these skills.

Q3) What is organizational behavior (OB)?

Answer: It is a field of study that examines the effect that individuals, groups, and structure have on
behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an
organization’s effectiveness. It basically studies what people do in an organization and how this affects
the performance. It is concerned with employment-related matters and hence focuses on behaviors related
to jobs, employment turnover, absenteeism, management, performance and productivity. OB also
includes topic like motivation, leadership, group structure, learning, attitude development, conflict, work
design and stress. It is a human tool for human benefit; individuals are able to examine and study why
others are acting in such a manner and will be in the position to change it.
Q4) Why is it important to complement intuition with systematic study?

Answer: Systematic study helps in making accurate predictions. Like behavior is predictable. In this study
we systematically gather evidences, look at the causes and effects, and gather conclusions in controlled
and scientific manner. Evidence based management complements the systematic study. It suggests to base
managerial decisions on the scientific evidence available.

Systematic study and EBM add that most of the decisions are made on the bases of our intuition or “gut
feelings.” It’s the position when you know when to go with your feelings.

If decisions are made on the bases of feelings or intuition, then there are possibilities things may go
wrong. This is because; such verdicts will be made with half the information valued. Depending on our
gut is not accurate as it tends to overestimate the accuracy of what we think we know Just relying on
intuition will lead us to making wrong decisions. Also systematic studies are not always right and you
can’t just rely on that. . Hence it is better to pair our feelings or gut with systematic study while making
decisions.

Q5) What are the major behavioral science disciplines that contribute to OB?

Answer: The major behavioral science disciplines that contribute to OB are:

a) Psychology- This study deals with studying the human behavior that measures explains and changes
the behavior of humans. Psychologists predict the behavior of the humans to a great extent by
examining the dynamics of personal factors and understand the behavior. Factors like boredom,
fatigue, personality, emotions, learning, personality, training, motivational forces etc. the obstruct
efficient work. Other factors are processes, job satisfaction, appraisals, perception, job-selection,
work design and work stress.
b) Sociology- This studies people in relation to their social environment or culture. Sociologists have
study group behavior in complex firm structures and gather information from group dynamics like
organizational culture, organizational technology, communication, power and conflict.
c) Social Psychology- Social psychology, generally considered a branch of psychology, blends ideas
from both psychology and sociology to deal with how people are impacted by other individuals who
are present around them. Psychologists study how groups function and change. They measure and
understand variations in attitude, identifying communication patterns, building trust the way in which
group activities can satisfy individual needs and group decision making.
d) Anthropology- It studies the societies and communities to learn about individuals and their activities.
Anthropologists understand the customs and cultures that aids in understanding differences in
attitudes, values and behavior between people. It further studies organizational culture and
environment, differences between national culture and how people adapt to the prevailing culture.
This leads to proper management and understanding of changed behavior.
e) Political Science- It studies the behavior of individuals within a political environment. Like
allocation power, structuring of conflict. It studies how people manipulate power for self- esteem.
People are likely to gain superiority in the firm by deceiving other. Through coalition formation and
malpractices.
f) Economics- It studies the transaction costs that influences the organization and it’s system. It further
studies how the organization works to avoid market failures by reducing production and transaction
 costs. Such costs include market and internal transactions; for instance, managers giving incentives to
employees like bonuses, medical care and the like.

Q6) Why are there few absolutes in OB?

Answer: There are few absolutes in OB because, OB studies the human behavior; the reason why
individuals behave in a particular manner and humans are complex. Two people are not going to act in the
same manner when put in a situations; the behavior changes in different scenarios. For instance, not
everyone will like challenging tasks or will be motivated by money. Predictions can only be possible if
certain conditions are applied to it. This is the concept of contingency variables. When making a decision,
or predicting something managers or scholars must consider the situational factors. Those which are gone
unseen but do leave an impact.

General concepts or principles cannot be applied because OB is not a discipline. It is a social system. It
studies human behavior which keeps changing and humans which are not alike. Hence there are few
absolutes in OB.

Q7) What are the challenges and opportunities for managers in using OB concepts?

Answer: Challenges these days brings opportunities for managers to use OB notions. The following are
the issues managers’ face, for which OB gives the solutions to

1. Responding to Economic Pressures

Economic pressures like a recession effects the organization drastically. Such a time leads to layoffs and
poor performance of the employees. It gets difficult to manage the workforce during these difficult times.
Even if firms are performing well economically they have to make challenging decisions. Managing
employees at times of difficulties is critical.

OB concepts suggests that understanding how to reward or to provide benefits to them, retain them,
encourage them in good times help a lot. During bad times, decision making and coping comes in handy.

2. Responding to Globalization

Increased Foreign Assignments- Firms are no longer restricted through borders. You will see firms owned
by the British like McDonalds and Burger King selling in different parts of the world. Organizations also
hire employees from different parts of the world and have to adjust as per their norms and culture. These
can very challenging if the size of the firm is large.

Working with People from Different Cultures- When firms operate in foreign countries, they have to
understand the cultures, attitudes and values of the people there because what motivates you won’t be
motivating for them. Even the society responsibility has to be considered

Overseeing Movement of Jobs to Countries with Low-Cost Labor- It is also difficult for managers who are
operating in developed nations to compete with laws of the under developed ones. For instance, the labor
laws can vary and provide a cost advantage. In a global economy, jobs tend to flow in that direction
where costs are lower. These hit the local businesses a lot. Managers find it challenging to balance the
requirements of the organization and the responsibilities of the societies they are working in.
OB helps in understanding the diverse cultures individuals belong from. It helps to understand why
employees in the foreign country act differently than the host country and helps in adjusting. Through the
principles from which OB is derived like anthropology and socio psychology, managers can recognize
why individuals behave in a particular manner.

3. Managing Workforce Diversity

Organizations consist of employees that aren’t similar in terms of gender, race, values, physical abilities
and ethnicity. They struggle to retain them so that they can advantage from their talents and knowledge.
This becomes challenging for managers to accommodate to the different working styles of the workers.
Like managers think that whether all the cultured are important to consider; how to influence the
differences amongst groups for competitive advantages; examining the legal requirements of the country
and the like.

4. Improving Customer Service

Organizations consisting of several workers may get annoyed while dealing with customers. This can be
non-beneficial for the firm as customers make and mar the organization. If they are not satisfied then the
business will lose its sales and achieve lower profits.

OB suggests that the importance of customer service should be instilled in employees and clients are not
to be ignored. Managers should create a customer responsive environment. They should improve
customer service through training employees to benefit customers by interacting with them properly;
using technologies like internet and catering to their needs all the time; providing sales services and
technical support.

5. Improving People’s Skills

There are rapid changes occurring in the technology, environment and systems of the organizations. It has
become vital for managers and employees to adapt to these changes and for that they need to possess
technical and managerial skills. It can be challenging for managers if required skills are not possessed by
employees because goals won’t be met. Skills can be enhanced by providing training and development
programs and through socialization.

6. Stimulating Innovation and Change

Organizations must innovate and flexible to changes or else they will vanish from the industry; their
rivals will take up the industry. Firms have to continuously improve quality and face the rivals where
there will be several goods and services. Employees can either be an obstruction for change or could
adapt. The challenge for managers is to stimulate their employees’ creativity and tolerance for change.

The field of OB provides a wealth of ideas and techniques to aid in realizing these goals. Like providing
training and maintain a healthy work environment. Motivation should be given in terms of money and
appraisals so that employees strive to innovate and adapt to changes.
 7. Coping with “Temporariness”

Due to the rapid changes, globalization, advances in technology, organizations have to adapt and be
flexible to changes. This leads them to work in a “temporary” environment. Workers need to continuously
enhance their knowledge in order to work different tasks. They can’t expect to do the same task that was
in their job description 10 years ago which also provided security of the job. In the past years, these have
changed; temporary work groups have been created from workers from different departments and the
increased use of employee rotation to fill constantly changing work assignments. Firms have to downsize,
sell of the poorly performing units to other contracts and replace permanent employees with temporary
ones.

The study of OB can help to better understand a work world of continual change, overcome resistance to
change, and create an organizational culture that thrives on change.

8. Working in Networked Organizations

Network organizations will enable individuals to contact and work together though they may several
miles away. Communication takes place through computer at workplaces worldwide and employers are
changed due to the service variations. Examples include graphic designers, technical writers, media
editors and medical transcribers who work in such organizations.

It’s a huge challenge for the managers to coordinate with and motivate employees that are not physically
present. Managers must possess new skills to handle such employees that are connected to other people
for carrying out their work. OB provides a set of principles to guide managers in enhancing these skills.

9. Helping Employees Balancing Work-Life Conflicts

Employees are stressing on how to balance their work-life conflicts. Since they have to work for extra
hours, provide services around the clock as they working in networked organizations and have to cater to
clients with after sale services, employees don’t get time to give to their families, fulfill commitments to
children, parents and friends. Work-life interferes in their personal lives and this doesn’t satisfy the
employees. They want flexible timings so they can manage their personal lives.

This is a challenge for the managers as employees now demand reduced working hours in order to
balance their work-life conflicts. Organizations that don’t help their people achieve work–life balance
will find it increasingly difficult to attract and retain the most capable and motivated employees.

OB provides suggestions and principles for managers to design workplaces like flexible schedules; breaks
which will help employees balance work-life conflict.

10. Creating a Positive Work Environment

Organizations strive to provide positive work environment for employees. OB researches in positive
organizational scholarship, which looks in to how firms enhance human strengths and unlock potential in
employees. The key concepts that are studied are hope, resilience in times of strain, engagement and the
like. Scholars also examine the idea of “reflected best-self”- asking workers to recall when they were at
their best so as to exploit their strengths. This focuses on our good aspect instead of our limitations. It
challenges to see OB from a different point of view and aids managers to exploit the worker’s strengths.
 11. Improving Ethical Behavior

It is obvious for employees to behave in an unethical manner when there are a lot of activities going on in
the organization. Managers face ethical decisions or ethical choices where they have to decide what is
good or what is bad in the firm. Employees watching people engaging in unethical activities at work find
it normal to do the same just because the rest is doing.

Managers face challenges like whether to praise an employee or favor them, what to ignore in the firm or
not; how to give fair treatments in times of downturns. Managers and their organizations are responding
to the problem of unethical behavior in a number of ways. They’re writing and distributing codes of
ethics to guide employees through ethical dilemmas. They’re offering seminars, workshops, and other
training programs to try to improve ethical behaviors.

Q8) What are the three levels of analysis in this book’s OB model?

Answer: A model is a demonstration of a real time phenomenon. There are three variables in the OB
model namely inputs, process and outcomes. The levels of analysis in these variables are individual,
group and organizational. These are discussed below:

I. INPUTS: These variables define what will occur in the firm later. The level of analysis are:

 Individual level: Variables at this level include diversity which is the quality of people belonging
from different cultures; personality which are the inborn characteristics of individuals and values
which are the beliefs individuals have regarding specific things. These are shaped by the
combination of people’s genetic inheritance and childhood environment.
 Group level: These variables include group structure which is the layout of the group; group roles
which are the norms given to members for how to perform in groups and team responsibilities
which are the tasks allotted to each member. These are assigned right after the groups are formed.
 Organizational level: These variables include structure which refers to the layout of the
organization set to carry out goals and culture which means the values of the organization that
guide the employees. These are usually the result of years of development and change as the
organization adapts to its environment and builds up customs and norms.

II. PROCESSES: These are the actions that individuals, groups and the organizations involve in as a
result of inputs which lead o specific outcomes. The level of analysis in the model are:

 Individual level: Processes at this level include emotions and moods which are the feelings of
individuals towards a specific event; motivation which refers actions that is needed to do tasks;
perception which is the opinions of individuals and decision making which refers making choice
using information and alternatives.
 Group level: Processes at this level are communication which the way members of groups interact
effectively; leadership which is the way groups are directed; power and politics which refer to
 how group members exploit others by manipulating power and conflict and negotiation which
refers to group members solve issues in groups.
 Organizational level: Processes in this level are human resource management which means how
organization manages people to attain better performance and change practices which refer to how
organizations act in order to apply changed practices in management.

III. OUTCOMES: These refer to key factors that are affected by other variables and those which are
predicted and explained. Outcomes can influence inputs. Following are the level analysis in this
model:

 Individual level: Outcomes in this level are attitudes and stress which are the positive and negative
evaluations made by employees; task performance which are the effective and efficient methods an
individual completes his task; citizenship behaviors which are the activities like doing extra work,
avoiding conflicts, helping others; withdrawal behavior are the actions individuals take to separate
them from the work. All these affect the effectiveness of the organization and influence their profits.
 Group level: Outcomes in this level are group cohesion which refers to how group members support
each other and group functioning which means the quality and quantity of the group’s output. Both
of them are dependent variables.
 Organizational level: Outcomes in this level are productivity which refers to the efficiency and
effectiveness of the organization in achieving its goals and survival which refers to the degree at
which the organization is able to grow in the coming years.

CASE STUDY: LESSONS FOR “UNDERCOVER BOSSES”

Q1) What are some of the things managers can learn by walking around and having daily
contact with line employees that they might not be able to learn from looking at data and
reports?

Answer: By walking around and directly interacting with employees, managers can understand how
employees do their task or job every day. This is vital to know because sometimes managers make
decisions which are out of the reach of employees to conduct; they either don’t have the abilities and
skills to perform it or face several challenges.

Like are they facing any harassment, suffocated environment, financial aid and issues in balancing
personal and professional lives. Managers can set flexible work timings, provide incentives and take
actions in support of such employees.

Also, while communicating with the employees, they received several ideas which were appropriate for
bringing changes in the firm. Such ideas would have been ignored if the employees’ belonged to lower
level management because generally only the ideas of higher level management is considered.
Managers also come to know which sector requires improvements; by examining the work being done
in the organization, managers can improve areas where work is being done slow. This could be due to
poor facilities and lack of skills in employees. They can decide on taking steps to enhance the
employees’ skills by providing training programs and can install proper equipment for work.

Furthermore, by checking on employees managers can come to know which employees are wasting
time and resources; those who are just loitering around and not concentrating on the work. Actions
against such workers can be taken.

Q2) As an employee, would you appreciate knowing your supervisor regularly spent time with
workers? How would knowing top executives routinely interact with line employees affect your
attitudes toward the organization?

Answer: It would be highly appreciated if my supervisor often spent time with workers. This is because
it would give a sense of esteem that the manager is concerned about the issues I face as an employee. It
will also make me feel that my manger is caring which not the case generally in organizations is.
Managers usually don’t pay attention to the employees below them and just dictate orders for the goals
to be attained. This attitude of the manager will show that he is taking steps to solve the issues
employees face and will be highly valued.

My attitude towards the organization will be positively affected. As I will be satisfied with my job,
knowing that my issues and ideas will be considered. Also, my input will be more in the organization
which will increase my productivity. Due to the routine check of my manager, I will be more dedicated
towards achieving goals of the organization so that a bad image is not created of mine. This will also
motivate me to come to work as the work environment will be healthy and less absenteeism will take
place.

Q3) What ways can executives and other organizational leaders learn about day-to-day
business operations besides going “undercover?”

Answer: Apart from going undercover, managers can take the following steps in order to learn about
day to day business operations:

a) Managers can conduct regular meetings where employees could be allowed to show their works
and discuss their issues without being intimidated.
b) They can conduct sessions in which employees can freely talk about the ideas they have regarding
improvements.
c) They can become part of group assignments to recognize the strengths and weaknesses of
employees.
d) Managers can conduct outdoor games for the leisure of the employees once in a while so that
employees the communication gap lessens and employees feel relaxed to communicate with them.
e) They can handout questionnaire or surveys to employees; where employees can relate their issues
while being anonymous.
Q5) Are there any dangers in the use of a management by walking around strategy? Could
this strategy lead employees to feel they are being spied on? What actions on the part of
managers might minimize these concerns?

Answer: Management by walking around does sound beneficial as employees of the firm are heard,
helped and recognized. However there some risks attached to it. Firstly, if managers walk around for
longer periods, employees might think that they are being spied upon. They might start believing that
executives don’t trust them with the organization’s resources or the work they do. This method is not
about monitoring, it is about taking corrective actions once issues occur.

Secondly, if employees examine that their manager waking around most of the time, they will assume
that he is loafing. This won’t leave a good impression of the manager. It is often believed that managers
under this method don’t get the time to concentrate on their tasks of strategically planning,
coordinating, making decisions and the like.

Thirdly, management based on personal impressions gathered by walking around runs counter to a
research and data-based approach to making managerial decisions. Such impressions could lead to
making wrong long term decisions for the organization which will later prove to non-beneficial.

Lastly, some employees are not productive when their managers are around watching them; they feel
anxious and can’t concentrate on their work. This can hamper performance.

Managers can take steps to minimize concerns. Firstly, they should not spend equal time on every
employee; loitering around just a few and keeping an eye on them will make employees feel that they
are being spied. Critiquing should be avoided and the managers should openly speak to the employees
that why this is being done in order to remove misunderstandings.
 Chapter 2: Foundations of Individual Behavior- Questions and Answers

Q1) Define the key biological characteristics

Answer: Biological characteristics are personal characteristics such as age, gender, race, and length of
tenure, ability job fit that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These are
representatives of surface-level diversity. They influence an individual in one manner or the other inside
an association or inside society. These characteristics are the main contributor in regards to how an
individual may function or perform in the working environment.

A) Age- the length of time a person has lived or existed.

o The relationship between age and job performance is increasing in importance: job performance
declines with increasing age. Also, the workforce is aging; workers over 55 are the fastest growing
sector of the workforce.
o Employers’ perceptions are mixed: They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring
to their jobs, specifically experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
Older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to new technology.
Some believe that the older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. That conclusion is based
on studies of the age-turnover relationship.
o It is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism- Close examination finds
that the age absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or
unavoidable. In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence. However, they have
higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to their poorer health associated with aging and
longer recovery periods when injured.
o There is a widespread belief that productivity declines with age and that individual skills decay over
time- Reviews of the research find that age and job performance are unrelated. This seems to be true
for almost all types of jobs, professional and nonprofessional.
o The relationship between age and job satisfaction is mixed- Most studies indicate a positive
association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age 60. Other studies, however, have found a
U-shaped relationship. When professional and nonprofessional employees are separated, satisfaction
tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among
nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years.

B) Gender- Gender is the range of characteristics relating to, and differentiating between, masculinity
and femininity.

o There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job
performance, including the areas of problem-solving, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation,
sociability and learning ability
o Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more likely than
women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor.
o There is no evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects job satisfaction.
 o There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules- Mothers
of preschool children are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible work schedules, and
telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.
o Absence and turnover rates- Women’s quit rates are similar to men’s. The research on absence
consistently indicates that women have higher rates on absenteeism. The logical explanation:
cultural expectation that has historically placed home and family responsibilities on the woman.

C) Marital Status- the distinct options that describe a person's relationship with a significant other.
Married, single, divorced, and widowed are examples of civil status.

o There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital status on job
productivity.
o Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo fewer
turnovers, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.
o More research needs to be done on the other statuses besides single or married, such as divorce,
domestic partnering, etc.

D) Tenure- a permanent post in the organization

o The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to misconceptions and
speculations.
o Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted- There is a positive
relationship between tenure and job productivity. There is a negative relationship between tenure to
absence. Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover. Tenure has consistently been found
to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of
turnover. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.

E) The Ability-Job Fit- the fit between the abilities of a person and the demands of a job, or the desires
of a person and the attributes of a job.

o Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit.

o The specific intellectual or physical abilities required depend on the ability requirements of the job.
For example, pilots need strong spatial-visualization abilities.
o Directing attention at only the employee’s abilities, or only the ability requirements of the job,
ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the interaction of the two.
o When the fit is poor employees are likely to fail.
o When the ability-job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far exceed the
requirements of the job, performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be organizational
inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction.
o Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employee’s job satisfaction when the
employee’s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the limitations
of the job.

F) Race and Ethnicity- Race is the biological heritage people use to identify themselves; ethnicity is the
additional set of cultural characteristics that often overlaps with race. This definition allows each
individual to define his or her race and ethnicity.
 o Evidence suggests that some people find interacting with other racial groups uncomfortable unless
there are clear behavioral scripts to guide their behavior.
o Race and ethnicity have been studied as they relate to employment outcomes such as hiring
decisions, performance evaluations, pay, and workplace discrimination- In employment settings,
individuals tend to slightly favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion
decisions, and pay raises, although such differences are not found consistently, especially when
highly structured methods of decision making are employed.
o Members of racial and ethnic minorities report higher levels of discrimination in the workplace.
Some research suggests that having a positive climate for diversity overall can lead to increased
sales.

Q2) Identify two types of ability

Answer: Ability is an individual’s current capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Overall abilities
are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical

Intellectual Abilities:- Intellectual abilities are abilities needed to perform mental activities like thinking,
reasoning, and problem solving. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, SAT and ACT and graduate admission
tests in business (GMAT), law (LSAT), and medicine (MCAT) for example, are designed to ascertain a
person’s general intellectual abilities The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual
abilities are:
1. Number aptitude- the ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic like accountant computing the
sales tax on a set of items.
2. Verbal comprehension- the ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words
with each other. Like plant manager following corporate policies on hiring
3. Perceptual speed- the ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately.
Like, fire investigator identifying clues to support a charge of arson
4. Inductive Reasoning- ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem.
Like, market researcher forecasting the demand for a product in the next time period.
5. Deductive reasoning- the ability to use logic and asses implications of an argument. Like, a
supervisor selecting two different suggestions of employees.
6. Spatial visualization- Ability to imagine how an object will look if its position in space were
changed. Like, interior designing redecorating an office
7. Memory- the ability to retain and recall past experiences. Like, a salesperson remembering the
names of the customers.

Jobs differ in the demands they place on intellectual abilities. The more complex a job in terms of
information-processing demands, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to
perform successfully. Where employee behavior is highly routine and there are few or no opportunities to
exercise discretion, a high IQ is not as important to performing well. Research suggests that although
intelligent people perform better and tend to have more interesting jobs, they are also more critical when
evaluating their job conditions. Thus, smart people have it better, but they also expect more.

 Multiple Intelligence: It contains four parts:

1. Cognitive: it consists of learning, remembering, solving problems and making judgments.
 2. Social: this refers to successfully building ties and navigates in the environment. Like an
individual should know when to talk, listen, what to say.
3. Emotion: this refers understanding your emotions, revealing stress, communicate effectively,
empathize with others, be good to them, overcome challenges.
4. Cultural: this refers to understanding that differences occur due to culture and the ability to bring
the best quality in each that are same with the company’s culture.

Physical Abilities: These are the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar
characteristics. There are nine basic abilities needed in the performance of physical tasks:

Strength Factors

 Dynamic strength- Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time
 Trunk strength -Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly abdominal)
muscles
 Static strength- Ability to exert force against external objects
 Explosive strength- Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts

Flexibility Factors

 Extent flexibility- Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible
 Dynamic flexibility Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements

Other Factors

 Body coordination -Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body
 Balance- Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance
 Stamina- Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time.

Q3) Shape the behavior of others

Answer: Shaping the behavior refers to systematically reinforcing successive step that moves an
individual closer to the desired response. The key concepts to be focused are that reinforcement is
required to change behavior; some rewards are more effective than others and the timing of the
reinforcement.

For example, a manager is trying for the new intern to speak confidently in meetings. So in the first
standing he gives a good appraisal, next reward is given when he participates more and so on and so forth.

The main way to shape the behavior is through reinforcement. This refers to motivate individuals to do
anything. If a person is rewarded he does that thing often and if punished then he avoids it. For instance,
employees are likely to notice their managers; if they don’t find them lenient at work, they are likely to
adopt the same behavior when they become managers. There are other kinds of reinforcement:

A) Positive Reinforcement: this refers to providing a reward (monetary or non-monetary) for a desired
behavior. A stimulus is added in the situation which increases the probability of a behavioral
 response. For example, managers can motivate employees and explain behavior. They can provide
bonus at the end of the month if targets are achieved. This reduces absenteeism, increases
productivity and reduces work accidents.
B) Negative Reinforcement: this refers to removing an unpleasant consequence, when the desired
behavior occurs. It allows the workers to perform better so they can have an unpleasant condition
removed. For example, employees will put in more effort to reach their targets in order to avoid their
manager’s constant checking and nagging.
C) Punishment: this refers to applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.
For example, managers cutting pays, firing employees or demoting them if they are working slow.

D) Extinction: this refers to withholding of reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (end). For
example, during a busy period, a manager may decide to give some positive reinforcement in the
form of overtime pay to encourage employees to work extra hours and come in during the weekends.
When business slows down the manager stops approving overtime a move aimed at dissuading
employees from working extra hours and weekends. So, that behavior will be forgotten after some
time because the positive reinforcement that encouraged it has been withdrawn.

Other ways to shape behavior are:

A) Classical Conditioning: It is a theory of learning or a process through which behavior can be

changed. Here the event is repeated several times that results into the desired behavior. Even if the
individual doesn’t possess the desired quality or doesn’t like it, it can be instilled in the behavior
through this process. It’s key concepts are:

 Unconditioned Stimulus: a naturally occurring phenomenon

 Unconditioned Response: an occurring response to a natural stimulus
 Conditioned Stimulus: artificial stimulus introduced into stimulus
 Conditioned Response: response to artificial stimulus.

For example, the food smell coming from the break rooms in the organization leads to hunger. Hence
employees spend more time there which reduces productivity and wastes their time. The manager, in
order to change this behavior, charges a fee after a particular visit time, then employees will feel hungry
but will visit the break room less often due to the fee charged. This will increase productivity and
dedication towards work.

In this case:

Unconditioned Stimulus: Food smells from the office break room

Unconditioned Response: Hunger which leads to employees going their more often

Conditioned Stimulus: Fee charged after a particular time

Conditioned Response: Employees take fewer breaks which increases productivity.

B) Operant Conditioning: It is a type of conditioning in which a desired voluntary behavior leads to a
reward or prevents a punishment. It’s key concepts are:

 Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

 Conditioned (learned) behavior
 Reinforcement

The behavior is not learned, and a condition is added to it in order to reinforce it. A stimulus is added in
the situation, which strengthens the probability of a behavioral response.

For example, the manager offers programs to positively reinforce employee actions that lead to effective
customer service. Also, raises, bonuses, promotions and other forms of awards or recognition that directly
relate to a job well done.

Q4) Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement

Answer: This refers to time the rewards and punishments. Before applying the reinforcements it is better
to decide which one to use in order to influence the level and rate of continued behavior. Hence it is
important to know the schedule of reinforcements.

The four schedules of reinforcement are:

1) Continuous Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement schedules are those situations in which

every occurrence of an act is reinforced. The desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
For instance, new employees learning how to process customer orders will learn the proper
procedure the fastest if they are reinforced every time they take an order correctly.

2) Intermittent Reinforcement: The schedule used where a desired behavior is reinforced often
enough to make the behavior worth repeating every time it is demonstrated. It is reinforced at
regular intervals after some behaviors but not after each one. For example, if managers give
rewards on internal basis, it will trigger excitement and will reinforce the behavior effectively.

3) Fixed-Interval Schedule: Those schedules where rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.
Like rewarding for a behavior precisely once a week or after a specific time has elapsed. For
example, a weekly paycheck is a good example of a fixed-interval schedule. The employee
receives reinforcement every seven days, which may result in a higher response rate as payday
approaches.

4) Variable Interval Schedule: Those schedules where rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant
number of responses. For instance, Manuel is the manager at a fast-food restaurant. Every once in
a while someone from the quality control division comes to Manuel’s restaurant. If the restaurant
is clean and the service is fast, everyone on that shift earns a $20 bonus. Manuel never knows
when the quality control person will show up, so he always tries to keep the restaurant clean and
ensures that his employees provide prompt and courteous service. His productivity regarding
 prompt service and keeping a clean restaurant are steady because he wants his crew to earn the
bonus.

5) Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: Those schedules where reinforcement is provided after a
specific number of responses. For instance, a sales person selling a bottle of shampoo gets a
commission every time he sells one bottle. He tries to sell as much as bottle he can because the
bonus (reward) is based on the number of bottles.

6) Variable ratio reinforcement schedule: A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced

after an unpredictable number of responses For instance, Call centers often offer random bonuses
to employees. Workers never know how many calls they need to make to receive the bonus, but
they know that they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.

Each differs with respect to the time and response. The following chart shows the differences

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT TIME AND RESPONSE

Continuous Reinforcement after each response

Intermittent Reinforcement not after every response; at

regular intervals

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement after a specific time has elapsed

Variable- Interval Reinforcement on varying time intervals

Fixed- ratio Reinforcement after specific number of

responses

Variable-ration Reinforcement after an unpredictable number

of responses.

Q5) Clarify the role of punishment in learning

Answer: Punishment is a kind of reinforcement in which an undesirable condition is applied to remove an

undesirable behavior.

Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they are two
very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a
behavior. In contrast, punishment always decreases a behavior.
In learning, punishment plays a vital role as it is very effective in implementing change through an
experience. The undesirable condition will lead the individual to quickly leaving the unwanted behavior.
Also, in learning we sometimes observe others and learn, hence if punishment is applied quickly and
consistently it will allow people to learn that certain kinds of behaviors are not accepted or are
problematic. In the organization it helps employees learn that what kind of behavior is acceptable and
what is not. Constructive punishment that is focused on natural consequences shapes behavior in the
desired direction. Employees learn that negative behaviors equal punishment and disciplinary measures,
while positive behaviors are rewarded. Hence they strive to do those which leads to healthy work
environment.

Q6) Practice self-management

Answer: Self-management refers to how allows people to control their thoughts, feelings and actions. If
you have strong self-management skills, you’re able to set goals independently and take the initiative to
achieve them. Self-management skills are important in the workplace because they help you contribute to
a better work environment for yourself and your coworkers. Examples of self-management skills include
self-confidence, persistence, resilience, patience, perceptiveness, and emotional regulation.

The following steps can be taken: OB MOD

a) Identify the critical behavior

b) Develop baseline data
c) Identify behavioral consequences
d) Develop and apply intervention
e) Evaluate performance and evaluation.

For example, you can apply your organizational skills to your time, physical space, energy and mental
capabilities to establish neatness and improve functionality. If you are well-organized, you’re able to plan,
prioritize and execute important activities, helping you self-manage your essential workplace
responsibilities.

Self-motivation is to take initiative and finish tasks you know should be completed. When you’re self-
motivated, you anticipate and plan for potential tasks needed to achieve more significant assignments or
to solve ongoing issues. You’re driven by your desire to succeed and not by outside factors, which makes
you more productive in the workplace. Self-motivation is the side of self-management that ensures
forward progress with your projects and activities.

Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Questions for Review

Q1) What are the main components of attitudes? Are these components related or unrelated?

Attitudes are known as the “evaluative” statements regarding people, objects or events. It determines the
choices we make and the way we act based on our likings and disliking. There are three main components of
attitudes which are as follows:

 Cognitive component

The belief and opinion segment of an attitude is called the cognitive component. This is based on
information, facts and knowledge we possess. For instance, Sara’s manager burdened her with work and
didn’t distribute it evenly among her co-workers. Sara believes her boss is unfair.

 Affective component

The emotional and feeling segment of an attitude is called the affective component. It consist emotions like
liking, disliking, favoring and the like. The term attitude essentially refers to the affected part of the three
components. Following the above example, Sara dislikes her manager.

 Behavioral component

The tendency or intention to behave in a particular manner towards an object is known as the behavioral
component. The behavior will depend on the cognitive (belief or opinion) and affective (feeling)
components. Following the above example, Sara will either start complaining about her manager to others in
the workplace or look for another job.

All the three components are closely related specially cognition and affective components. Cognitive leads to
affect which in turn leads to behavior. Hence it is difficult to separate them. A change in one component is
likely to produce a change in others. In firms, attitudes are vital for their behavioral component. Hence,
managers need to understand how attitudes are formed and the relationship to actual job behavior.

Q2) Does behavior always follow from attitudes? Why or why not? Discuss the factors that affect
whether behavior follows from attitudes.

Usually, people believe that attitudes are related to behavior- that is, the attitude people hold determine what
they do which is called the principle of consistency. Like, employees try to avoid assignments they find
unpleasant. However, it is clear that people do not always follow it, sometimes the reverse is true. This is due
to the “cognitive dissonance” which is the discomfort experienced when two cognitions like thoughts, beliefs
or attitudes are incompatible with each other. The dissonance could happen when you learn a piece of
information that contradicts with a long-standing belief or opinion. Any form of inconsistency is
uncomfortable and that individuals will therefore attempt to reduce it. They will seek a stable state, which is
a minimum of dissonance. For instance, knowing smoking is harm, tobacco executives will brainwash
themselves by looking at the benefits of tobacco. This was introduced by Leon Festinger. The factors are:

o Importance of the elements creating it: People will be more motivated to reduce dissonance when the
attitudes or behavior are important to them.
o Degree of influence: People will be more motivated to reduce dissonance when they believe it is due to
something they can control.
o Rewards of dissonance: High rewards accompanying high dissonance tend to reduce the tension inherent
in the dissonance.
o Importance of Attitude: Refers to how important the attitude is for the person.
o Correspondence to Behavior: The closer the attitude and behavior, the stronger the relation.
o Accessibility: Memory accesses the attitude easily that are expressed often. This has shaped the behavior.
o Social pressure: Discrepancies between the attitude and behavior which facilitates expressions.
o Direct experience: Those attitudes that are based on direct experience show stronger relation between
attitude and behavior.

Q3) What are the major job attitudes? In what ways are these attitudes alike? What is unique about each?

The major job attitudes are:

 Job Satisfaction

It is the positive feelings of a job resulting from the evaluation of its characteristics. When people speak
about worker’s attitude they mean job satisfaction. For instance, employee will be satisfied if they are
respected by their peers or work in a work-friendly environment.

 Job Involvement

It is the level to which an individual psychologically identifies with the work he does and participates
considering the performance important to self-worth. This idea leads to the utilization of the skills at fullest
and enhances self-worth. Higher levels mean employee starts caring for the work he does.

 Logical Empowerment

Also called psychological empowerment, this means the level to which an individual believes that they have
autonomy in the workplace. For instance, managers allow employees to participate in decision making, allow
them to correct customers’ issues to a certain level and the like. Higher levels lead to more enthusiastic
employees.

 Organizational Commitment

This can be defined as the stance of dedication. It’s a strong desire to remain a member of the firm for longer
periods once the individuals’ objectives align with that of the organization. They will put more efforts and
OB predicts that committed workers will be willing to make sacrifices and perform well in the organization.
It has three dimensions:

o Affective commitment- emotional attachment with the organization; employee will want to stay
genuinely in the organization
o Continuance commitment- the economic value of staying; when the in individual prefers to remain in the
firm due to high costs involved in leaving it.
o Normative Commitment- preference to remain in the organization arises from a sense of moral obligation.
He stays there as there is a family history of involvement in a particular occupation so it seems unethical to
exit the job.
 Perceived Organizational Support

The level at which individuals believe that the organization value their efforts and contributions. Like,
forgive their minor mistakes, give them accommodation or higher rewards. Higher levels indicate higher
levels of organization citizenship behavior and job performance. Lower levels will lead to tardiness and lack
of interest.

 Employee Engagement

Individual’s involvement, satisfaction with and enthusiasm for the work he does is called employee
engagement. The employee is socially, physically and mentally immersed in their work and report high
levels of satisfaction, commitment and organization citizenship behavior. Like they enhance co-worker
relations and skills.

These attitudes are related and not distinct. They reveal the behavior of the employees in the workplace;
higher and lower levels of these job attitudes will demonstrate how the employees will behave towards the
even or person at the job

However, there are differences in the variable. Like job satisfaction focuses on the environment, job
involvement emphasizes on the employee gives importance to self-worth, logical empowerment focuses on
the psychological element whereas organization commitment deals with the personal attachment towards the
job and employee engagement is measured after job satisfaction and involvement. Overall, there is no
distinction but a lot of overlap.

Q4) How do we measure job satisfaction?

Job satisfaction can be measured in the following ways:

a) Single Global Rating

Under this method, employees have to answer to only one question, “All things considered, how satisfied
you are with your job”

The employees will circle numbers between 1-5 that corresponds to answers from highly satisfied to highly
dissatisfy. This method is not time consuming as a single question captures the essence.

b) Summation of Job Factors

In this method, key elements that cause job satisfaction like supervision, pay, promotion, the work itself,
relation with co-workers, feedback and the like are listed. Responses are made on a standard scale by
employees and ratings are added to create an overall job satisfaction score.

This method gathers accurate evaluation of job satisfaction. However, some argue that since job satisfaction
is too broad, this summation of job factors will leave out important data.

Q5) What causes job satisfaction? For most people, is pay or the work itself more important?
There are several factors that lead to job satisfaction. Studies indicate that when employees identify with the
work they do, establish healthy social interactions with their co-workers and supervisors, enjoy supervision
to an extent, are given training and independence they are likely to be more satisfied.

Personality also causes job satisfaction; those who strongly believe in themselves having core strong core
values are more satisfied with their job. Not only do they see their work as more fulfilling and challenging,
they are more likely to move toward challenging jobs. Those with negative core self- evaluations set less
ambitious goals and are more likely to give up when confronting difficulties. Thus, they’re more likely to be
stuck in boring, repetitive jobs.

Pay and promotions do satisfy workers but up to a certain extent. Higher pays will satisfy poor employees
but not all. For instance, employees will not be satisfied if they are paid well but are not valued in the
organization. Money may bring happiness but not satisfaction. Hence, the work itself is more important.
Employees are seen more satisfied when they are provided with intrinsic benefits.

Q6) What outcomes do job satisfaction influence? What implications do these have for management?

Job satisfaction influences the following:

 Satisfaction and Job Performance: Satisfied workers are more likely to be productive workers and
organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organizations with fewer ones.
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Satisfied employees would seem more
likely to talk positively about the organization, help others, and go beyond the normal expectations in their
job.
 Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction: Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and
loyalty. They use their imaginations to satisfy customers.
 Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: There is a negative relationship between satisfaction and
absenteeism. Satisfied employees will enjoy work and will not skip work.
 Job Satisfaction and Turnover: Job satisfaction is inversely linked to turnover and low turnover has
been shown to increase organizational productivity and performance.
 Job Satisfaction and Workplace Deviance: Job satisfaction is inversely related to workplace deviance.
Dissatisfied employees will abuse, steal at work, show laziness and join unions which will hamper
performance and lower the productivity.
 Job Dissatisfaction can lead to the employees leaving the firm (exiting), actively wanting improvements
in the firm (voice), optimistically waiting for changes to occur (loyalty) and passively worsen the conditions
like being absent or late (neglect).

Implications for management include:

 Committed and satisfied employees perform better, are less absent and enjoy the work.
 Managers should provide a healthy work environment and create positive attitude.
 A useful measurement of the overall job attitude could be beneficial for managers to check how the
employees are responding to their job.
 Managers should provide intrinsic benefits to employees like challenging work, better interactions, skill
development, and more responsibilities which actually satisfy them and not just the pay or promotions.
 Managers can come to know that employees are dissatisfied through their behavior; when they resign or
behave in such manners that are against the norms of the organization. So they can either replace the
unproductive ones or try to motivate them.

CASE STUDY-" LONG HOURS, HUNDREDS OF E-MAILS AND NO SLEEP:

DOES THIS SOUND LIKE A SATISFYING JOB? "

Q1) Do you think only certain individuals are attracted to these types of jobs, or is it the characteristics of
the jobs themselves that are satisfying?

Answer: These jobs are hectic, challenging and require a lot of time dedication from the individual. The
employees have to sacrifice their family-time, put their relations at stake, and enjoy less during vacations.
Hence, these job situations won’t appeal to everyone; only certain individuals are attracted to these kinds of
occupations:

1) Those who give priority to their professional life than their personal life
2) Those who love to work round the clock
3) They want a higher status in the society and are prestige conscious.
4) Those who are best at stress management and prefer taking challenges
5) Those who are need of monetary support

The characteristics of the job aren’t appealing. If only the offered intrinsic benefits, it would be satisfying.

Q2) What characteristics of these jobs might contribute to increased levels of job satisfaction?

Answer: The characteristics of these jobs that might increase job satisfaction are:

1) Higher job- autonomy: Employees who are given some rights to make decisions, correct the mistakes of
the clients, dominate over the lower management or are allowed to involve in the activities of the workplace
are more satisfied. Specially, those with high profiles and prestige like in the case study is Irene Tse who is
likes to be independent, leads the organization is seem to enjoy her work and is never absent.
2) Challenging tasks: When employees are given monotonous tasks they get lazy and start losing interest in
their work. To keep them motivated and satisfied, managers should provide them challenging tasks that
regularly enhance their skills and keep them on their toes. From the case study, the work lives of Tiny Kruz
and David Clark are challenging; they have to constantly be on their toes, thinking of new ideas to expand
their business. Irene Tse has also taken her organization to the top from levels of recession and again has
seen the worse but has still managed to main the status quo.
3) Work benefits: Employees are more satisfied when they receive benefits other than the monetary ones.
Some examples are health, travelling experience, better pay, accommodation, maternal leave and the like. In
the case study, David Clark, Tiny Kruz enjoys these benefits and is hence satisfied with their jobs. They get
to travel to several exotic places due to work reasons. Even the pay they receive is handful.
4) The work itself: Employees are more satisfied when their skills are enhanced at work and they get to
learn something new. In the case study, David Clark, is satisfied with his job because not only he gets to go
various places but he is finds ways to promote his channel. He gets more exposure as he is conversing with
people around the globe. Even Irene Tse has gotten the chance to develop the organization.
5) Interactions: Employees are more satisfied when the supervisors, managers communicate better with the
employees. They have a sense of involvement in the workplace and enjoy it more.

Q3) Given that the four individuals we just read about tend to be satisfied with their jobs, how might this
satisfaction relate to their job performance, citizenship behavior, and turnover?

Answer: Job Satisfaction and Performance: Satisfied employees are likely to perform well on the job.
They provide better services and also convince customers. This brings loyal customers to the organization
and creates a good reputation of the firm. Employees give their best efforts and show sincerity and
dedication in the work. Satisfied employees are more productive; in this case, Gian Paolo, Irene Tse are
giving up their family time and vacations and performing their job activities. David Clark, when not
travelling, reaches his office and responds to about 500 messages. All the individuals are working on their
toes and coping up with whatever difficulties they are facing.

Job Satisfaction and Citizenship Behavior: Satisfied employees not only perform well but are flexible in
citizenship behavior. They speak well of the organization to others, help and support their subordinates and
co-workers. In the case, Irene Tse demonstrates better work performance and shows a positive picture of the
organization to others. The nature of the job David Clark and Gian Paolo, are working in requires them to
speak better of the organization. All of them have gone beyond their expectations, whether it is giving up
their family time, relationships, less leisure and dedicated their time and efforts to work.

Job Satisfaction and Turnover: Job satisfaction of these individuals is negatively related to turnover.
Highly satisfied employees don’t quit their jobs. In this case, Irene is highly motivated about her work; she
hardly remembers the days she skipped work. Also, others like Tiny Kruz are getting travelling benefits
which he seems to enjoy so he won’t quit work. These individuals, however stressful, like their jobs, as they
are satisfied with the job requirements like travelling, pay benefits, self-development opportunities and the
fact that they are associated with a high profile company so it is least likely they will resign their job.

Q4) Recall David Clark’s statement that “There are plenty of people who would love to have this job.
They’re knocking on the door all the time.” How might Clark’s perceptions that he has a job many others
desire contributes to his job satisfaction?

Answer: David Clark is satisfied with his job because of the increased demand of it. This makes him
maintain his position and work extremely hard for it. He thinks that if he doesn’t give a good performance,
the firm may fire him. Apart from the work benefits like traveling and good pay, another factor that satisfies
him is that others are also looking for the same position as his. It gives him a sense of prestige that others
wanting this position may look at his occupation as ideal. And in times where people are looking for jobs, he
has one with a status in the society.
 Chapter 4: EMOTIONS and MOODS- QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
Q1) What is the difference between emotions and moods? What are the basic emotions and
moods?

Answer: The difference between emotions and moods are as follows:

EMOTIONS
Emotions are intense feelings.
An emotion passes away quickly. For instance, if a
co-worker is rude to you, you will be angry for a
while and then will be normal
An emotion is directed at something or someone. It
is felt because of an event. For example, feeling
good after seeing your friend at work.
Emotions are action oriented. This means, when
you feel something, you immediately express it
through your face expression or tone.
Emotions if allowed to stay for longer will turn into
a mood. For instance, if your manager spoke to you
in a rude manner, you show emotion of anger
towards him and later you may feel di-spirited. You
even start overacting to certain events. This state is
called a mood
Emotions are numerous in nature like anger, fear,
sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise etc.
Emotions can be rational or irrational
MOODS
Moods are less intense than emotions.
Moods tend to stay longer. If you allow your
emotions to stay for a long time, they turn into a
mood. For instance, you will stay in a bad mood for
the whole day.
Moods are not directed at something or someone. It
has a less specific cause. For example, you can
wake up in a bad mood.
Moods are cognitive oriented. This means a good
or a bad mood will make us brood or think for a
long time and affect us either positively or
negatively.
Moods allow you to generally act in a specific
manner. If you are in a good mood, you will
response to an unpleasant event in an optimistic
way. The mood makes you emotional in response
to an event.
Moods are generally of two kinds- positive and
negative affect
Moods are rational

Basic of emotions- Emotions can’t be labeled; some affect us deeply and some don’t. Also, we are in a
position to show some and even not. Emotions are labeled even as per culture and facial expression.
However, scholars have stated six basic emotions which are anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and
surprise. All emotions stem from these basic ones.

Basic of moods- There are of two kinds. First is positive affect which consists of positive emotions like
excitement, cheerfulness, alertness, happiness at high end and boredom, sadness, tiredness at low end. The
second is negative affect which consist of tension, upset, stress, anxiety at high end and tranquility,
relaxation, contentment, at low end.

Q2) Are emotions rational? What functions do they serve?

Answer: Emotions and rationality conflict. They can be rational or irrational. Expressing some emotions
publicly can be damaging the reputation. For instance, displaying emotion like sadness to the point of
crying in an office room can make it toxic and demonstrate you weak.

However, serve a few functions. Like they help us to understand the events going around us so that we can
make rational decisions. It is vital to be emotional; for instance, a manager who doesn’t think emotionally
before firing an employee will not be liked by workers. We should use both feeling and thinking in our
decisions; at work, it removes stereotypes and thinks before speaking with co-workers and managers.

It also helps in taking ethical decisions. Individuals have some sense of emotional stirring that encourage
them to take ethical actions. For example, donating, taking actions against the mistreated and the like.

Q3) What are the sources of emotions and moods?

Answer: The sources of emotions and moods are:

a) Personality: Emotions and moods have a trait element. Individuals have the tendency to demonstrate
emotions and moods at different intensities, more often than others, differ in how they experience the
emotion. For example, one employee will be prone to sadness and other will be prone to anger.
b) Day of the week and Time of the day: It has been noticed that individuals are in a better mood when the
week ends rather than at the start of the week. Likewise, a positive mood is experienced during the mid-
point of the day and a negative mood is experienced during the beginning of the day.
c)Weather: In general, there is no link between weather and moods. Nobody has reported a good mood on a
bright day or vice versa. This only happens when individuals link two events that have no connection.
Like weather being a source to a specific mood. This is known as “illusionary correlation.”
d) Stress: Stressful events like a deadline or loss of a big sale negatively affect the mood. Increasing stress
can worsen the mood and let us experience negative emotions. Also, low levels of constant stress like
personal and office work, physically unwell can worsen the mood.
e)Social activities: Individuals that engage in social activities either formal (meetings), informal (parties),
physical (picnics) and sedentary (watching movies with friends) lead to experience positive mood.
Managers that conduct gatherings annually for employees alleviate their moods.
f) Sleep: The quality of sleep, affects the mood. The ones who are sleep deprived experience feelings like
fatigue and anger. This also impairs decision making, job satisfaction and don’t allow people to control
emotions.
g) Exercise: Individuals opt the “sweat therapy” to alleviate their moods at work. Allowing cycling breaks
during work will help improve moods.
h) Age: Individuals learn to better emotional experience with age. Periods of negative moods faded rapidly
in the elderly. The younger ones experience negative moods often.
i) Sex: It is believed that women emotionally express themselves, experience emotions more intensively and
hold onto them more often than men. It also depends on how one is culturally socialized. Men
demonstrate emotions like anger most of the time whereas, women exhibit emotions like fear and
sadness.

Q4) What impact does emotional labor have on employees?

Answer: Emotional Labor is when employees express organizationally required emotions during
interpersonal work activities. At first, it was vital in service jobs only, but now it’s needed in every job
sector. For example, a sales person or a flight attendant needs to have a friendly demeanor and needs to
smile even if he/she doesn’t feel like.

Employees will demonstrate feelings needed by the organization (displayed emotions), hide inner feelings
fake emotions (surface acting) and change inner feelings to match the organizational rules (deep acting).
This can be challenging for them as they have to show one emotion while feeling another. This disparity is
called “emotional dissonance” and is proved to be dangerous.

The impact is that employees get frustrated-they bottle up feelings which emotionally tire them. In firms
like hospitals where there are high emotional displays demands, mental collapse was higher. An employee
uses his mental and physical abilities into the job and emotional labor tires him off. This lowers
productivity and job performance. The worker is likely to blow-up and offends his co-workers and
managers. He also thinks that managers don’t care about his feelings and gives a negative profile. Hence it
is vital to understand the impact of emotional labor on employees.

Q5) What is affective events theory? What are its applications?

Answer: Affective events theory is a model that states that workplace events leave a positive or a negative
impact on the employee which then impacts the behavior. It starts by identifying:

 Emotions are reactions to an event at work. This includes degree of independence, requirements for
emotional labor, and job demands.
 Events are created like time pressures, hassles, support from co-workers and the like.
 These events generate positive and negative emotional responses to which the employee’s moods lead to
react with higher or lower intensity.
 The emotions impact contentment and performance like efforts, intention to resign, commitment and the
like.

The applications of the theory are:

 Existing emotions impact job satisfaction at any point along with previous emotions around the event.
 As emotions and moods alter, the impact on the performance also varies.
 Emotion driven behaviors don’t last for long and have high variability.
 As emotions be it positive ones, are not always compatible with desired behavior to do a job, they don’t
have a positive impact on the job performance.
 An emotional episode consists of several emotional experiences, caused by one incident, and includes
elements of moods and emotion cycle.

Q6) What is the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence?

Answer: Emotional intelligence relates to the non-cognitive abilities, capabilities, and competencies that
impacts the individuals’ ability to face the organizational demands and environment. It is to understand how
you and others feel and to control your emotions. Emotional Intelligence is controversial and not accepted
wholly
Case for Emotional Intelligence: The following are the evidences:

 Intuitive Appeal: Individuals agree that it’s beneficial to possess social intelligence. Those who can
recognize emotions in others manage or regulate their own feelings and handle social interactions well
are effective in the workforce.
 Predicts criteria that matter: EI predicts the employee performance. High levels of EI refers to a person
will behave well at the job. Those who can recognize the emotions of others and act according to it are
valued in the firm.
 EI is biologically based: Individuals with their brains damaged that govern emotional processing scored
lowered on EI tests and couldn’t make decisions properly. Hence EI is genetically influenced.

Case against Emotional Intelligence: The evidences are as follows:

 Too vague a concept: There are researchers who don’t understand the idea of EI as various terms are
used to define it. Some uses the ability based tests, self-reports and tests that are not related with
cognitive intelligence. Hence, the methods used by each concept do not relate.
 EI can’t be measured: EI is a kind of intelligence and can’t be measured. There needs to be right and
wrong answers on tests to measure it however, some tests don’t have such questions. There are diverse
methods like asking to associate ones feelings with colors or self-reports that carry self- evaluated
statements.
 Its personality with different label : EI is related to personality and intelligence; if you have control over
these factors then it’s the same thing. EI is related to the measures of personality like emotional
stability. EI is determined by characters like cognitive intelligence, conscientiousness self-report which
are to converge with the personality measures.

Q7) What are some strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects?

Answer: Emotion regulation refers to recognizing and changing emotions one feels. There are strategies to
regulate emotions and they are given below:

 Thinking about pleasant things- When one experiences negative emotions, he/she should try thinking
about those things that he/she likes. This will allow him not to overact to situations at work.
 Suppressing negative thoughts- If a co-workers behavior has led you in a bad mood then you should
recall the good he did to you. You should let go of all the negative thoughts arising from the event
and from the bad mood.
 Distracting yourself- If you’re angry for instance then you could go for a walk or listen to some music
to help you distract from the event causing the negative emotion.
 Re-appraising the situation- This means to re-examine the situation that caused the negative emotion
so that any variability in it can also fluctuate the mood.
 Engaging in relaxation techniques- Employees can improve their moods by getting involved in
exercises, taking breaks and chatting with friends.

The impact of emotion regulation is as follows:

 a) It will be problematic for those possessing strong personality characteristics to control or alter their
emotions.
b) Those with lower levels of self-esteem will not alter their emotions of sadness, as they will believe
that they don’t deserve to be happy.
c) Altering emotions or moods need efforts and that can be exhausting for a person.
d) Emotional suppression will lead to negative emotions.
e) People are likely to blow out, if they can’t control their inner feelings.
f) Re-appraising situations is generally more effective in generating positive emotions.

Q8) How do you apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues?

Answer: Understanding emotions and moods can help improve the capability to predict and explain the
following OB issues:

o Selection

Employers should base EI as a vital factor for hiring people specially for those job that require social
interactions like customer service, sales job, flight attendant, nurses etc. This leads to well job
performance and creates a strong customer base, good reputation for the organization. For instance,
employees at L’Oreal with high levels of EI made greater sales as compared to those with low levels.

o Decision Making

Researchers have suggested that emotions and moods affect decision making. Employees in good mood,
are able to make rational and quick decisions; since they are experiencing positive mood, they find better
solutions to issues as they are quick in processing information. However, the depressed ones make poor
decisions; they are slow in their work and in dull moods don’t work effectively.

o Creativity

Employees in positive moods generate creative ideas, are flexible and open minded. They will come with
ideas to uplift co-workers and support them, aid the customers and build a strong image of the
organization. Managers should keep employees happy by praising or encouraging them which will keep
them in a positive mood.

o Motivation

The encouraged employees are in positive mood hence they perform better as they feel their efforts are
valued. A positive mood will lead to being creative, a good feedback from the manager will in turn
reinforce the positive mood and allow the employee to perform well. For instance, this could increase
sales.

o Leadership

Leaders or managers depend on emotional appeals to convey their message. Managers know that for the
acceptance of complex goals of the organization, emotions are to be aroused. Those who are energetic,
enthusiastic, and excited also keep the employees the same way. This leads to positive social
conversations with customers and co-workers. For example, a sports team leader or a politician focus on
inspirational goals and act interested in order to placate people.

o Negotiation

Emotions play an important role during a negotiation. A negotiator that pretends to be frustrated has an
advantage over its opponent. The ones who have a control over their emotions don’t led out all the
information they possess. If an employee shows emotion of fear then it’s likely he will make impaired
decisions.

o Customer Service

Employee’s emotional state will impact the service he provides. A positive mood during social
interactions also satisfies customer needs and will influence levels of repeated business. Emotions are
transferred to clients; a positive one will allow them to trade for longer periods and vice versa. However,
this can harm the employee physically and mentally if he doesn’t want to exhibit a positive mood at the
particular time.

o Job Attitude

Individuals tend to carry their work mood elsewhere; those who were in positive moods at work will be in
good mood at home, or amongst friends and those who have had a stressful day at work won’t be able to
relax and will be frustrated amongst family members.

o Deviant Workplace Behavior

Employees who have worked for longer periods will behave in an unacceptable manner. These can be
traced to negative emotions. For instance, you envy your co-worker for having a higher pay than yours so
you distort his achievements. Those exhibiting negative emotions can’t understand others and engage in
physical or verbal aggression.

o Safety and Injury at Work

Negative moods lead to careless behavior. Those in negative mood will involve in physical aggression
which threatens the safety at work. Such employees become anxious and avoid risks. They become
pessimist and may panic when facing a threatening situation.

o Manager’s Influence

Managers should be in a good mood so as to keep the employees motivated. They should also select team
members with high level of EI so others are also influenced positively. They should not ignore the
emotions of employees as that is critical to rational thinking. Emotions will help them to predict the
behavior of the employee. They should try to maintain a positive environment which will keep the
employees in a positive mood and better their performance and productivity.
 CASE STUDY- IS IT OKAY TO CRY AT WORK?
Q1) What factors do you think make some organizations ineffective at managing emotions?

Answer: The factors that make some organizations ineffective at managing emotions are:

a) Culture of the organization: The culture of the organization has a huge impact on the way it perceives
feelings of the employees. If the manager is old or believes in traditions then he might not be in the
favor of exhibiting emotions as he would consider it to be weak. For instance, they will yell and shout
at the employees when things go wrong just like the second case mentioned. This shows that some of
the organizations still do not consider managing the emotions effectively.
b) Nature of the organization: It also depends on what is the nature of the firm. If the organization is
using the production approach, then managers will not be effective in detecting or recognizing the
emotions of the employees. They would just want their work to be done and targets achieved. On the
other hand, if firms use the humanitarian approach like a sales service or customer service job, then
managers will consider the emotions of the employees as it will be the requirement for the employees to
be satisfied in order to have healthy social interactions.
c)Size of the organization: Executives that are dealing with employees in larger firms often ignore their
emotions. It is difficult for them to consider every employee’s feelings and can only consider the
emotions of the key workers.
d) Location of the organization- It also depends where the organization is based. For instance, in the US,
managers encourage employees to exhibit more positive emotions, whereas, in Middle East countries,
showing positive emotions like smiling is considered as sexual. Hence, employees act as per the
principles of the location they are.
e)Emotions are complex to understand: It gets difficult to understand emotions because emotions are a
natural part of the human and can’t be separated from them. Also, humans are also complex and each
will exhibit different emotions. Sometimes, they will fake it too. Hence it is difficult for firms to
effectively manage them.

Q2) Do you think the strategic use and display of emotions serve to protect employees, or does
covering your true emotions at work lead to more problems than it solves?

Answer: to decide whether the employees should hide or exhibit their emotions depends on the situation he
or she is. It is very obvious that employees hide their inner feelings at work. In some organizations,
managers find it very irritating to know what the employees are facing and so to avoid that employees hide
their feelings. Moreover, employees don’t want to “get in trouble” as they believe by stating how they truly
feel and simply fake it; sharing a lot with co-workers could backfire as they could relate everything to the
manager. Furthermore, those who are working in the Middle East countries and smiles as part of daily
emotions that could be interpreted as a symbol of sexual attraction. The employee will then get involved in
sexual harassment cases. Hence, hiding emotions in these cases serves as protection.

Employees can strategically display emotions, when they are facing any issue. Crying or gearing when put
in challenges can demonstrate them as weak. That won’t be beneficial for them as managers paying the high
wages to them wouldn’t want such employees to serve them.
Q3) Have you ever worked where emotions were used as part of a management style? Describe
the advantages and disadvantages of this approach in your experience.

Answer: Yes, I have worked in such an environment. I was working in a school and my headmistress used
emotions against us. Like fatigue, sadness, sluggishness; we were not allowed to sit and had to be on our
toes. We couldn’t be lenient with the students too and show a strict and emotionless demeanor. This led to
pros and cons

The advantages were we were able to manage our emotions, specially the negative ones. Also, the goal was
achieved and by ignoring the unwanted emotions, we were able to concentrate on making proper decisions,
strategies for attaining goals. We even complied with rules and principles and fewer issues occurred.

The disadvantages were that, we were highly stressed out as we had to consider the job requirements. The
students were less responsive and we were disliked a lot. There was less motivation left to do the job. The
bad moods were carried elsewhere too like in family gatherings and amongst friends.

Q4) Research shows that acts of co-workers (37 percent) and management (22 percent) cause
more negative emotions for employees than do acts of customers (7 percent). 130 What can
Laura’s company do to change its emotional climate?

Answer: In the case of Laura, it seems like there exists a toxic environment for the employees to work in. It
is very normal for the manager to shout at employees and be aggressive but employees to not show their
emotions no matter what they are facing. They have to keep their emotions in check which can be
dangerous; it could lead to dissatisfaction, poor job performance, frustration, stress and the like.

The company, in order to change its emotional climate, can take the following steps:

a)Hear out the employees once in a while. They can listen to their emotional concerns by having direct
conversations with the employees.
b) Allow them breaks where they can relax.
c)Conduct programs where their efforts are recognized. This will keep them happy and satisfied
d) Motivate them at every step. This also includes encouraging them to speak about those acts that
generate negative emotions in the workplace.
e)The company can give training programs to the managers where they can learn how to handle the
emotions of the employees.
f) If employees want to cry, then they should not be mocked at. However, these negative emotions should
be made to demonstrate strategically
 Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior- Questions For Review

Q1) Define group. What are the different types of groups?

Answer: A group can be defined as two or more individuals that interact and are independent. They work
together to attain specific goals. They agree and disagree on the discussions and ideas presented by other
members. Members of the group get along, feel the desire to contribute and coordinate the efforts to have
high performance level.

Types of Groups:

There are two types of groups

a) Formal group

This group is defined by the organization’s structure and is given designated work assignments and tasks.
The team members should work in specific manner or in a stipulated behavior that is demanded by the
organization and which is needed to achieve the organizational goals. In these we find groups like
command, task and committees. For instance, the six members of an airline flight crew a formal group.

b) Informal group

These groups are not formally structured or organizationally determined, but are natural formations in the
work environment that appear in response to the need of social contact. Interest groups come under this
category. For instance, three employees from different departments having lunch together.

Q2) What are the five stages of group development?

Answer: The group passes through a sequence in their development. The five stage model is a useful
framework for understanding group development. The five stages of group development are as follows:

A) Forming

This is the first stage of group development. This stage presents the time the group is starting to come
together and is characterized with uncertainty and anxiety. Conflict, misunderstanding, controversy,
personal opinions are avoided even though members are starting to form impression of each other and
gain understanding what the group will do together. Consequences of this stage include understanding the
group, how the team will be organized, who will be responsible for, what discussions of group goal
through rough projects, outline rules and the resources available to use and how to use them. Members
learn what to do, how the group will operate, what is expected and acceptable. This stage is complete
when members think they are part of the group.

B) Storming

At the second stage, there is an intragroup conflict. Dispute and competition are at it’s greatest as
members have understood the workings of the group and have a general feel of belongingness towards
others and the group itself. Questions regarding leadership, norms, authority, responsibilities, and reward
system tend to arise. These are to be answered so the group can move further. By the end of this sage,
there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group. Members resist the existence of
groups impose on their individuality. The dominated ones emerge and the less confrontational stay in
their comfort zone. There are conflicts about who will control the group.

C) Norming

This stage is characterized by close relationships and unity (cohesiveness). There’s a strong sense of
group identity and mutual trust and friendship. Group interactions are easier, more cooperative and
productive. Disputes are easily solved and operations get back on track. The stage is complete when the
group has gathered a set of expectations of what defines correct behavior. The group structure solidifies.

D) Performing

The structure at this point is functional and accepted. Group energy has moved forward from
understanding each other to performing task at hand. The morale is high as members acknowledge the
talents bought by each members, are flexible, trust each other. Leadership is distributed and members
adapt as per the needs of the group. Steps are taken to complete the tasks. This is the last stage of
permanent groups.

E) Adjourning

This is the last stage of temporary groups who have a limited task to perform. Wrapping up activities is
the main focus and the group prepares to disband. Members are either elated and proud at the group’s
achievements or depressed over the loss of friendships, mutual trust gained during the period of group
life. Task is completed.

Alternative model for temporary groups with deadlines: Temporary groups with deadlines do not
seem to follow the usual 5 stage model.

1. The first meeting sets the group’s direction.

2. The first phase is one of inertia.

3. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, when the group has used up exactly half of its
allotted time.

4. There are major changes.

5. A second phase of inertia follows.

6. The last meeting has markedly accelerated activity. This pattern is called the Punctuated equilibrium
model.

Q3) Do role requirements change in different situations? If so, how?

Answer: Role is defined as the expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit. Individuals are required to play a number of roles at work. For instance, an
individual is a member of middle management, electrical engineer, primary spokesperson in the
community. There are also off the job roles like being a father, brother, football player.

Role requirements change in different situations. This is explained below:

Role Identity- The character and role that a person devises for himself as an occupant of a particular
social position. Like an entrepreneur, a CEO. There are certain behaviors that are consistent with the role
of an entrepreneur like making decisions, taking risks etc. We enact and develop a different view of who
we are

Role Perception- The idea of how we are supposed to act in a given situation. We get the perceptions
from stimuli around us like books, movies, friends etc. In such a situation, we know how to act; the
potential behavior is defined already so we act in that manner.

Role Expectations- These are others expectations of how we should act in a given situation. Here,
individuals have to act as per the idea of what others think they should be doing. For instance, a doctor
will be expected to treat patients with skill and care, police officers are expected to uphold the law. The
role expectations are looked through the psychological contract which is a written agreement that exists
between the employee and the employer. The agreement sets out the mutual expectations.

Role Conflict- This refers to when compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply
with another. Two or more expectations are mutually contradicting. For instance as a finance manager,
John has to show lower profits from what attained so as to gain tax benefits for his organization. This role
requirement contradicts with the role he has a religious figure which denies him to do so.

Behavior varies with each role we play in our lives. We act as per the situation. The role required for an
identity will differ from the role expected by our family members or religious standards. Even through
experiments like Zimbardo’s it was examined that individuals who played the role of prisoners and guards
knew how to behave as per their role requirement as they had seen it in movies and sources of mass
media. The background allowed them to quickly assume their roles requirement that were different from
their personality. For instance, if one is manager training employees under him he would have to a little
harsh but if he is a volunteer of an orphanage he needs to be soft with the children. Also, in other
experiment same as Zimbardo’s it was demonstrated that when people are monitored they behave
differently.

Q4) How do group norms and status influence an individual’s behavior?

Answer: Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior shared by their members that express what they
ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances.

Influence of Norms on Individual Behavior

Norms exert pressure on individuals to behave in a particular manner; wherever they are working or
living, they have to follow the norms or else the individual won’t fit in and will be considered as the one
violating the norm. For instance:

 Performance norms are those that demonstrate how hard individuals should perform, what the level
output should be, how to get the job done and what level of tardiness is appropriate.
  Appearance norm are those that directs individuals regarding their physical appearance-like what
fashion should they wear.
 Social arrangement norms are those that direct individuals on how they should act in social settings.
 Resource allocation norm are those which direct individual on how to allocate resources in the
organization.
 Hawthorne Studies- studies were conducted on employees to check whether group norms affect the
behavior. It was concluded that the productivity of each depends on the norms stated; like how much
to be produced is decided and a level below or above is not produced. Also, it was concluded that
individuals behaved efficiently because they considered themselves as someone from high status.
Next, the norms suggested some “do’s” and “don’ts” which each individual had to follow. For
instance, don’t work too little, or too much, don’t squeal, don’t ridicule and the like.
 Conformity- This concept suggests that individuals being a member have the tendency to be
accepted in groups. Conformity place strong pressures on individuals to change their behaviors to
conform the group’s standards. This was shown in Solomon Asch’s experiment which showed that
group norms pressurize conformity. Individuals conform to the important groups which are called
“reference groups” these are those groups for which individuals want to be a part of and are aware
of its’ members.
 Deviant workplace Behavior- these are the voluntary behavior that violates the norms of the
organizations like yelling at others due to frustration, getting sexually harassed. Such behaviors are
flourished when they are supported by the norms of the organization. It leaves an impact on the
individual behavior in such a manner that if one member sees another involving in inappropriate
activities, he will also do the same.

STATUS

Status can be defined as a socially defined rank given to groups or group members by others. All groups
will have some rights, roles and rituals to differentiate its members. Through the “status characteristics
theory” a status is determined.

Influence of Status on Individual Behavior

 A high status person will have a control over others; he will tend to control the outcomes.
 Status and Norms- status has effects on the power of norms and pressures to conform. Those having
a high status can deviate from norms and don’t have the pressure to conform. They won’t care about
the group’s social awards.
 Status and Group interaction- individuals of high status are more assertive. They criticize, speak and
command more. They also give more ideas and are creative.
 Status Inequity- perceived inequity can lead to corrective behavior. The hierarchy is distributive.
 If a group member has a central position in his social network then he will be considered as someone
of high status and then will influence the functioning of the group.
 Status will influence behavior in such a way that individuals will start using it as source to exploit
resources or humans in the organization. For instance, the government officials are seen to exploit
resources because of their status.
 Some also get involved in inappropriate activities as they don’t fear the rules and regulations
imposed.
Q5) How does group size affect group performance?

Answer: the size does affect the group’s performance but it also depends on the dependent variable we
examine.

Smaller groups are faster in completing tasks; the group is small and hence the decision making process is
faster and easily done. The performance of the group won’t be enhanced as there will less room for
creative ideas due to the fewer members available.

Larger groups take time to perform the tasks. As members are more, decision making process is slow.
However, the performance can be enhanced through the various talents available in the group. Problem
solving is better done in large groups as there are diverse ideas and solutions to go for. Fact-finding goals
are achieved easily.

The performance of the group also depends on the concept of “social loafing”. This is the tendency of
individuals to give fewer efforts while working in groups rather than alone. Even if the size of the group
is small, it will depend on the individuals it consists of. If members are not interested in performing the
task efficiently and effectively then the performance will be negatively affected.

Researchers have examined the results of group performance. It was expected as the number of people
increase in a group, the productivity will enhance. However this was not the case; it was noticed that the
productivity decreased as more members joined a spot called rope pulling. Group performance increases
in size but the addition of new members has diminishing returns of productivity.

Q6) What are the advantages and limitations of cohesive groups?

Answer: Cohesive groups are where members are attracted to one another and are motivated to stay in the
group. Groups are cohesive as they have spent time together; established relations and some external
work-threat have bought them together.

Advantages of Cohesive groups

1. Members are familiar with one another

2. It increases group loyalty
3. Effective communication takes place: As it is a task of a group or a team, then the team leader
might be aware of all the consequences of work assign to a person. And because of the group
cohesiveness, the whole team can experience some sort of change in their communication levels.
4. Time saving: A work or a task allotted to a group of persons instead of work allotted to an
individual can approach a positive side of the work. For instance, when it comes to a person, then
the person might take a little longer time to solve the issues, but when it comes to the group of
people, then the solution can be better and quicker as compared to the individual doing the work.
5. It can foster friendly competition
6. Better cooperation: If it is a group of members who share similar interests and attraction as
compared to each other, then it is quite clear that all the things which can be delivered with the help
of group cohesiveness behavior can produce better cooperation between the teams and their
members.
Limitations of Cohesive groups

1. There will be a clash of personalities

2. If members belong from diverse culture then it can lead to conflicts
3. It leads to less creativity as members have their own thoughts from similar fields which bring the
creativity down. The end result is not very satisfactory in terms of innovation.
4. Lofty goals- Unrealistic goals and ambitions crush the identity of the group cohesiveness and the
outcomes are not up to the mark. There is a greater rate of failure.
5. Low level of productivity: Most of the time, working in a group cannot favor a company or an
organization with the help of their group, and that is because all the teams own their thinking. And
in this case of production, a group cohesiveness Process brings it down to a low level because most
of the team members available in the team are from the same field of work.
6. Domination: The domination can experience because of the team leaders of each group. Most of
these types of group leader domination can never benefit the company; moreover, it can damage the
unity of the group.

Q7) What are the implications of diversity for group effectiveness?

Answer: Diversity is the level to which members of the group are similar to or different from one another.
Diversity can affect group effectiveness. The various implications for group effectiveness care as follows:

Good Implications

 More likely to have diverse abilities and information

 Variety of perceptions
 More effective on creativity demanding the task and problem solving
 Greater opportunity for personal and professional growth

Bad Implications

 Members are less satisfied being in diverse groups which leads to cohesiveness
 When values and ideas are different there is a conflict.
 It lowers the group morale
 Members are not motivated to work which hampers performance
 Makes communication difficult due to the different language difference
 Difference in attitude towards power-distance- people have different ways of using power and can
exploit it which will decrease the effectiveness

Q8) What are the strengths and weaknesses of group (versus individual) decision making?

Answer: Decision-making groups may be widely used in organizations, but are group decisions preferable
to those made by an individual alone? The answer depends on a number of factors. Let’s begin by looking
at the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.
Strengths of Group Decision Making

 Groups generate more complete information and knowledge. By aggregating the resources of several
individuals, groups bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process.
 They offer increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity to consider more approaches
and alternatives.
 Finally, groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution. Group members who participated in
making a decision are more likely to enthusiastically support and encourage others to accept it.
 More output can be generated

Weaknesses of Group Decision Making

 Group decisions are time consuming because groups typically take more time to reach a solution.
 There are conformity pressures. The desire by group members to be accepted and considered an
asset to the group can squash any overt disagreement.
 Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. If they’re low- and medium-ability
members, the group’s overall effectiveness will suffer.
 Finally, group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision, it’s clear
who is accountable for the final outcome. In a group decision, the responsibility of any single
member is diluted.

Strengths of Individual Decision Making

 Typically faster than group decision making

 Best individual in a group usually outperforms the group
 Accountability is easier to determine

Weaknesses of Individual Decision Making

 Fewer ideas
 Possible to put off making decisions if left alone to do it

Effectiveness and Efficiency

 Whether groups are more effective than individuals depends on how you define effectiveness. Group
decisions are generally more accurate than the decisions of the average individual in a group, but
less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate.
 In terms of speed, individuals are superior. If creativity is important, groups tend to be more
effective.
 If effectiveness means the degree of acceptance the final solution achieves, the nod again goes to the
group.
Q9) How effective are interacting, brainstorming, nominal, and electronic meeting groups?

Answer: These are the techniques by which groups make decisions. These reduce some of the
dysfunctional aspects of group decision making,

Interacting groups

The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting groups. Members meet face
to face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate. But as our discussion of
groupthink demonstrated, interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members
toward conformity of opinion. Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and electronic meetings can
reduce problems inherent in the traditional interacting group

Brainstorming

Brainstorming can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity 80 by encouraging any
and all alternatives while withholding criticism. In a typical brainstorming session, a half-dozen to a
dozen people sit around a table. The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so all participants
understand. Members then freewheel as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. To
encourage members to “think the unusual,” no criticism is allowed, even of the most bizarre suggestions,
and all ideas are recorded for later discussion and analysis. Brainstorming may indeed generate ideas—
but not in a very efficient manner. Research consistently shows individuals working alone generate more
ideas than a group in a brainstorming session. One reason for this is “production blocking.” When people
are generating ideas in a group, many are talking at once, which blocks the thought process and
eventually impedes the sharing of ideas.

Nominal group

The nominal group technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-
making process, hence the term nominal. Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional
committee meeting, but they operate independently. Specifically, a problem is presented and then the
group takes the following steps:

1. Before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes down ideas on the problem.

2. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group. No discussion takes place until
all ideas have been presented and recorded.

3. The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.

4. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest
aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits a group to meet formally but does
not restrict independent thinking, as does an interacting group. Research generally shows nominal groups
outperform brainstorming groups.
Electronic Meeting

The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique with
sophisticated computer technology. It’s called a computer assisted group, or an electronic meeting. Once
the required technology is in place, the concept is simple. Up to 50 people sit around a horseshoe-shaped
table, empty except for a series of networked laptops. Issues are presented to them, and they type their
responses into their computers. These individual but anonymous comments, as well as aggregate votes,
are displayed on a projection screen. This technique also allows people to be brutally honest without
penalty. And it’s fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions don’t digress, and many participants can
“talk” at once without stepping on one another’s toes.

Each of the four group-decision techniques has its own set of strengths and weaknesses. The choice
depends on what criteria you want to emphasize and the cost–benefit trade-off. For instance, an
interacting group is good for achieving commitment to a solution, brainstorming develops group
cohesiveness, the nominal group technique is an inexpensive means for generating a large number of
ideas, and electronic meetings minimize social pressures and conflicts. Early evidence, however, suggests
electronic meetings don’t achieve most of their proposed benefits. They actually lead to decreased group
effectiveness, require more time to complete tasks, and result in reduced member satisfaction compared
with face-to-face groups. Nevertheless, current enthusiasm for computer-mediated communications
suggests this technology is here to stay and is likely to increase in popularity in the future.

CASE STUDY- NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF GROUP COLLABORATION

Q1) Think about a time when you’ve been in a group that had to make a collective decision that didn’t
turn out well. Can you identify any specific decision-making errors the team made?

Answer: The group had to take decision on the resources needed for the manufacture of supplement good.
The group constituted of 10 members of including the group leader. The decision making errors the team
made were:
1) Decisions of the leader was enforced; hence the ones who were not in favor of the ideas didn’t show
much interest in the work
2) Being of a high status, one member was over-confident and so he ignored the risks that could be
involved. Like risks of external factors
3) Some members didn’t prepare their ideas and just randomly came during the discussions. This led to
poor decision making.
4) Two of them were less confident hence did not present their ideas which could have been used
5) As the leader’s ideas were enforced, nobody got the chance to speak and implement their own ideas.
6) The leader was lenient in the follow up after the implementation of the decision hence resources
were wasted.
Q2) In the situation you encountered, can you think of any strategies that would have helped make the
group decision-making process more efficient and accurate?

Answer: The strategies taken are:

To conduct electronic group meeting and voting idea wherein each individual would get a chance to vote
would have been a better idea than the group discussion. Electronic group meeting would have given
everyone equal opportunity to project their ideas and also the better ideas would have got a better ranking.
Also, since everyone would have been involved in voting, it would be a unanimous decision and the team
would be motivated to contribute their part to the successful implementation and execution of the ideas.

Also, instead of making a group of 10 members, it would be better to make a smaller group like of 7
members. Large groups are much more likely to make biased decisions.

Choose a heterogeneous group over a homogenous one (most of the time). Various studies have found
that groups consisting of individuals with homogeneous opinions and beliefs have a greater tendency
toward biased decision making.

Share collective responsibility. The outcome of a decision may be influenced by elements as simple as the
choice of the group’s messenger. We often observe one single individual being responsible for selecting
suitable group members, organizing the agenda, and communicating the results. Moreover, all members
should feel accountable for the group’s decision making process and its final outcome. One way to do that
is to ask the team to sign a joint responsibility statement at the outset, leading to a more balanced
distribution of power and a more open exchange of ideas.

Q3) Can you think of a type of decision that is probably better made by an individual than a group?
What types of decisions need to be made by groups?

Answer: An individual makes economic decisions. For instance, which jeans to purchase. This doesn’t
require a collaborative approach because the decision has to be made promptly.
Individual decision making can be effective for a manager in certain cases or when the
team's input is not desired or, required. Certain decision like the hiring and taking up of new
projects can be handled by the manager himself and does not require the intervention of the
group,
Individual decision making can be effective for a manager in certain cases or when the
team's input is not desired or, required. Certain decision like the hiring and taking up of new
projects can be handled by the manager himself and does not require the intervention of the
group,
Individual decision making can be effective for a manager in certain cases or when the
team's input is not desired or, required. Certain decision like the hiring and taking up of new
projects can be handled by the manager himself and does not require the intervention of the
group,
Individual decision making can be effective for a manager in certain cases or when the
team's input is not desired or, required. Certain decision like the hiring and taking up of new
projects can be handled by the manager himself and does not require the intervention of the
group,
 Individual decision making can be effective for a manager in certain cases or when the team's input
is not desired or, required. Certain decision like the hiring and taking up of new projects can be
handled by the manager himself and does not require the intervention of the group.
 Programmed decisions can be taken by individuals, where one solution is followed every time. For
instance, purchase of raw material, granting leave to an employee and supply of goods and
implements to the employees.
 Routine decisions are related to the general functioning of the organization. They do not require
much evaluation and analysis and can be taken quickly by individuals.
 An operational decision like giving a bonus to an employee doesn’t require a group decision making.
Decisions a group can make are as follows:
 Non-programmed decisions which require careful analysis and the ideas of others. For instance,
opening a new branch or introducing a new product of the organization.
 Strategic decisions which require the investments of many and are made once can be taken by group.
 Decisions that are related to the team strategy initiatives, activities, etc., would be re quired to be
made by groups