C. Zalian: Nonlinear coupled oscillators, Blazhko effect and synchronisation.

tion zone, we have two oscillatory systems : a system of
coupled oscillators and a relaxation oscillator. We will see
how, by considering the mutual influence of these oscilla-
tors, we can reach a synchronisation state, but also, in some
cases, annihilate the oscillations.
4.2.1. Synchronisation and its modelization
Excited nonlinear oscillator Let’s consider a nonlinear oscil-
lator excited by an external force :
where µ, is a real, and γ is associated to linear and non-
linar terms of growth or decay of the oscillations. The κ
variable corresponds to the nonlinear amplitude and fre-
e−iωt p(t)
quency coupling. Finally the average , is the first
iω
harmonic of the periodic signal p(t), which is usually not
equal to zero, and which gives the complex and constant
term −iE.
By substituting some variables, we can reduce the num-
ber of parameters in the previous equation :

r
µ t
ẍ + ω02 x = f (ẋ, x) + p(t) (29) A= a , t= (36)
γ µ
where ω0 is the natural frequency of the oscillator,
f (ẋ, x) the nonlinear part, p(t) the excitation term con- Which gives :
trolled by the  coefficient and the frequency ω. We consider
 and the nonlinear part as small. We will look for solutions ȧ = −iνa + a − |a|2 a − iα|a|2 a − ie (37)
in the form of :
where :
1
A(t)eiωt + c.c.


x(t) = (30) ω 2 − ω02
2 ν= ≈ (ω − ω0 )/µ (38)
2ωµ
where A(t) is the complex amplitude and where c.c. is
the complex conjugate term. We can rewrite equation (29)
in the following form : κ
α= (39)
γ

ẍ + ω 2 x = ω 2 − ω02 x + f (ẋ, x) + p(t)

(31)
e = Eγ 1/2 µ−3/2 (40)
Writing it as a system of differential equations, we have
: We will consider the two following scenarii :
– α = 0 corresponding to the isochronous case, ie. where
amplitude and frequency are independant ;
(
ẋ = y
(32) – α 6= 0 corresponding to the nonisochronous case.
ẏ = −ω 2 x + ω 2 − ω02 x + f (ẋ, x) + p(t)


In the isochronous case, equation (37) becomes :
We can write y(t) as :
ȧ = −iνa + a − |a|2 a − ie (41)
1
iωA(t)eiωt + c.c.


y(t) = (33) Before considering the detailed analysis of this equa-
2
tion, it is necessary to give an interpretation of the so-
Consequently, we obtain an equation for the complex lutions for the original variables x ∝ Re(a(t)eiωt ) and
amplitude : y ∝ Im(a(t)eiωt ). If a stationnary solution exists for a (ie.
there is a fixed point), then x and y will be synchronised
e−iωt  2 to the excitation frequency ω. This correspond to a phase
· ω − ω02 x + f (ẋ, x) + p(t)


Ȧ = (34) locking phenomenon. If there is a periodic solution for a,
iω the original variables will follow a quasi periodic variation
When the excitation frequency is close to the natural composed of two independant frequencies similar to the the
frequency, the right member of the previous equation is behaviour of an anharmonic oscillator. The first period will
small. Thus, we can deduce that the variation of the com- be the one of the excitation, the second the one of the pe-
plex amplitude will either be slow (if they are important) riodic solution.
or weak (if they are quick). We will restrain our study to An exhaustive study of equation (41) is available in
the case of slow and important variation. Thus, we will Holmes & Rand (1978). We will present here its main con-
neglect the power of eiωt terms. This can be achieved by clusions.
averaging the signal over a period T = 2π/ω. This method, Looking for fixed points, we obtain the equation :
know as the method of averaging was developed by Nayfeh
and Mook (Nayfeh 1979) and leads to an equation with an R2 (1 − R2 )2 + ν 2 R2 = e2 (42)
analytical solution. By applying it, the previous equation
becomes : which has got three solution as long as :

ω 2 − ω02 27e2
Ȧ = −i A + µA − (γ + iκ) |A|2 A − iE (35) 9ν 2 + 1 − (1 − 3ν 2 )3/2 < < 9ν 2 + 1 + (1 − 3ν 2 )3/2 (43)
2ω 2
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 A&A proofs: manuscript no. AA

1.0

0.8
D x1,2 (t) =
1
A1,2 (t)eiωt + c.c.


(46)
B 2
1
y1,2 (t) = iωA1,2 (t)eiωt + c.c.


(47)
0.6 2
e

This leads us to a system of equation :

0.4

A C Ȧ1 = − i∆1 A1 + µ1 A1 − (γ1 + iα1 )|A1 |2 A1

0.2
+ (β1 + iδ1 )(A2 − A1 )
(48)
Ȧ2 = − i∆2 A2 + µ2 A2 − (γ2 + iα2 )|A2 |2 A2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 + (β2 + iδ2 )(A1 − A2 )
|ν| where ∆1,2 = ω1,2 − ω. The coupling terms β and δ are
Fig. 23. Bifurcation diagram in the isochronous state of a forced proportional to B and D. Writing the complex amplitude
oscillator represented by the variables ν and e, corresponding re- in the following form : A1,2 = R1,2 eiφ1,22 , we obtain a set
spectively to the frequency difference between the excitation and of four equations :
natural frequency and the amplitude of the excitation (Pikovsky
et al. 2000).
Ṙ1 =µ1 R1 1 − γ1 R12 + β1 (R2 cos (φ2 − φ1 ) − R1 )

− δ1 R2 sin (φ2 − φ1 )
and only one in the other case. Hence, equation (41)  
has one or three fixed points. In the bifurcation diagram R2
φ̇1 = − ∆1 − µ1 α1R12 + δ1 cos (φ2 − φ1 ) − 1
represented in figure 23, the A zone represents the region R1
with three fixed points. In zone B, C and D there is only R2
one fixed point. To study the stability of these points we + β1 sin (φ2 − φ1 )
R1
have to linearize equation (41). This gives us the follow- (49)
R2 =µ2 R2 1 − γ2 R22 + β2 (R1 cos (φ1 − φ2 ) − R2 )


ing characteristic equation for the square of the amplitude
|a|2 = R2 : − δ2 R1 sin (φ1 − φ2 )
 
R1
φ̇2 = − ∆2 − µ2 α2R22 + δ2 cos (φ1 − φ2 ) − 1
λ2 + (4R2 − 2)λ + (1 − 3R2 )(1 − R2 ) + ν 2 = 0 (44) R2
R1
The behaviour of the solutions next to a fixed point will + β2 sin (φ1 − φ2 )
R2
be determined by the value taken by R, itself depending
on ν and e variables. The bifurcation diagram of (41) is As the coupling terms are independant of the phase dif-
represented in figure 23. For the A and B zone, the only ference, we can reduce our system to three equations by
stable solution is an asymptotic stable one. It is associated introducing ψ = φ1 − φ2 :
to a parfect synchronisation of the oscillator ant the ex-
citation. In region C and D, the attractor is a limit cycle
Ṙ1 =µ1 R1 1 − γ1 R12 + β1 (R2 cos ψ − R1 ) − δ1 R2 sin ψ


corresponding to the quasi periodic case. We will not go
into the details of the bifurcation diagram and we redirect Ṙ2 =µ2 R2 1 − γ2 R22 + β2 (R1 cos ψ − R2 ) + δ2 R1 sin ψ


the reader to Pikovsky (2001) for more details.
The asynchronous case is more complex. An exhaus- ψ̇ = − ν + µ1 α1R12 − µ2 α2R22
 
tive study has been conducted by Levina & Nepomnyaschiy R2 R1
(1986). Their results show that the bifurcation diagram is + −δ1 + δ2 cos ψ + δ1 − δ2
R1 R2
approximatively unchanged for low values of α : α2 < 1/3.  
R2 R1
For higher values, new bifurcations appear. − β1 + β2 sin ψ
R1 R2
(50)
Nonlinear coupled oscillators Following the same approach,
we can demonstrate the existence of synchronisation for two where µ = ω2 − ω1 . The general case can be simplified
coupled oscillators. by supposing that their behavior are similar excluding their
Considering the general equation : natural frequencies. Thus, µ1 = µ2 = µ etc. We can also
substitute variables as we did in the forced oscillator. Fi-
nally, by dividing the coupling coefficient by µ and α by
x¨1 + ω12 x1 =f1 (x˙1 , x1 ) + D1 (x2 − x1 ) + B1 (x˙2 − x˙1 ) µ/γ, keeping the same notation, we get :
(45)
x¨2 + ω22 x2 =f2 (x˙2 , x2 ) + D2 (x1 − x2 ) + B2 (x˙1 − x˙2 )

where ω1,2 are the natural frequencies of the oscillators. Ṙ1 = R1 (1 − R12 ) + β(R2 cos ψ − R1 ) − δR2 sin ψ (51)
We will only consider nonlinear terms in xi and ẋi .
As in the case of the forced oscillator, we look for solu-
tion in the following form : Ṙ2 = R2 (1 − R22 ) + β(R1 cos ψ − R2 ) + δR1 sin ψ (52)
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 C. Zalian: Nonlinear coupled oscillators, Blazhko effect and synchronisation.
R2 R1
ψ̇ = − ν + α(R12 − R22 ) + δ(− + ) cos ψ
R1 R2
R2 R1
− β( + ) sin ψ
R1 R2
A detailed study of these equation has been made by
Aronson et al. (1990). We will focus here on their main
results.
First of all, for a relatively important coupling coeffi-
cient β and frequency detuning ν, the origin R1 = R2 = 0
becomes an asymptoticly stable node inducing an annihi-
lation of oscillations. A demonstration of the existence of
this phenomenon, which has no equivalent in the case of
forced oscillator, can be done the following way. We suppose
that all parameters are equal and that δ = 0. By choosing
ω = (ω1 + ω2 )/2 we can fix ∆1 = −∆2 = ∆ and we get :
Ȧ1 =(i∆ + µ)A1 + β(A2 − A1 )
Ȧ2 =(−i∆ + µ)A2 + β(A1 − A2 )
The study of stability gives :
p gested by Cox (1980) was an obvious consequence of this
λ=µ−β± β 2 − 42 .
Thus, the A1 = A2 = 0 state is stable if : µ < β <
(µ2 + 42 )/2µ.
Moreover, from equations (51)-(53), Aronson et al. have
shown that the studied system has two stable fixed points
for the phase difference : ψ = 0 or ψ = π.
4.2.2. Consequences for mode selection and the analogy with
the FPU system
The first question we can ask ourselves is : “does the modu-
lation observed in the FPU system remains if we take into
account the ionization region as an excitation force in our
modelization ?”. The answer given by Dauxois et al. (2007)
is yes. Studying the forced and damped β model of Fermi,
Pasta and Ulam, he has shown that under certain condi-
tions for the amplitude and the frequency, no equipartition
of energy would take place and that the modulation phe-
nomenon would still take place.
Consequently, the inclusion of the ionization region in
our modelization not only allows us to give a more rigorous
model explaining the Blazhko effect, but most of all gives us
an explanation of the synchronisation phenomenon and the
pulsation mode selection which have lacked an analytical
and quantitative demonstration up to now (see for instance
Cox (1980)). The study of two coupled nonlinear oscillators
has shown us that under certain conditions, we could have
a synchronisation of frequencies between the oscillations of
the ionization zone and the inner adiabatic layers. More-
over, this synchronisation had two fixed points in the sta-
bility analysis of the phase difference between those two sys-
tems : 0 et π. If the configuration of those oscillators would
not permit synchronisation, then a quasi periodic behaviour
would take place. Thus, besides the explanation of the layer
synchronisation, our model is able to explain the existence
of the different types of RR Lyrae stars, namely RRab, RRc
and RRd and the mode selection. Indeed, in the synchro-
nised case, the fixed points 0 and π for the phase difference
correspond, respectively, to RRab and RRc stars. The non-
synchronisation is associated to the RRd type stars.
5. Conclusion
The discrete nonlinear equation of pulsation that we have
(53) developed in the radial adiabatic case led us to a rich anal-
ogy with the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam experiment. We were able
to explain the Blazhko effect as a consequence of nonlinear
energy transfer between oscillations modes induced by soli-
tons. This theory, unlike others, is able to explain the side-
lobes asymmetry due to a frequency and amplitude modula-
tion with the same period. It is also able to explain the evo-
lution of the rise time and period change during a Blazhko
cycle.
We have improved this description by including the ef-
fect of the ionization zone. After developing a dynamical
model of its behaviour, based on a relaxation oscillator, as
suggested by the study of the envelope asymmetry of the
lightcurve and of the radial velocity, we have studied its
influence on the adiabatic layers, first as a forced system
oscillator, then as a system of two coupled oscillators. Us-
(54) ing the extensive results in this field, we have shown that
three kind of stable configurations could be obtained. Each
of these could be linked to one of the RR Lyrae type stars
: RRab, RRc and RRd. The synchronisation of layers sug-
(55) modelization. One more interesting result was the oscilla-
tion death. A last stable state of our system was the one
were oscillations would be annihilated. The existence of this
state could explain the red limit of the instability strip.
Yet, to be fully complete, several points have to be in-
vestigated more deeply. We have only consider an homoge-
neous system of coupled oscillators in the adiabatic case.
The inhomogeneous case of the FPU experiment has been
studied by Verhulst & Bruggeman (2015) and its results
could have also been included in our publication. But, most
of all, a quantified study of our model parameters has to be
done and linked to the existing results of the FPU models.
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