Mask 03 Block 01

Master of Arts in Sanskrit
(MASK)
MSK-03
History of Vedic Literature
Block -01
Samhita Literature
UNIT- 1 RGVEDA SAMHITA
UNIT-2 YAJURVEDA
UNIT-3 SAMAVEDA
Unit-4 ATHARVAVEDA
MASK PROGRAMME
EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University
Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. ,Utkal University
Prof. Prativa Manjari Rath ,Retd. Prof, Utkal University
Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Associate Prof. , BJB Auto. College, BBSR
Dr. Subash Chandra Dash , Associate Prof. , Utkal University
Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College, Cuttack
Dr. Narayana Prasad Dash ,Retd. Reader in Sanskrit , S.V.M Autonomous College , Jagatsinghpur
Dr. Paramba Shree Yogamaya, Assistant Prof. , Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Puri
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Odisha State Open University
CONVENOR
Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia ,

Former Officer in Charge, Regional Centre, B.J.B Auto. College Bhubaneswar
COURSE WRITER
Dr. Paramba Shree Yogamaya , Assistant Prof. , Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya , Puri
COURSE EDITOR
Dr. Nirmal Sundar Mishra, Associate Prof. , S.V.M Autonomous College , Jagatsingpur
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. SareetaPujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur
MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari
Registrar
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur
(cc) OSOU, 2020. Samhita Literature is made available
under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
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UNIT- I: RGVEDA SAMHITA
1.1. Learning Objectives.

1.2. Introduction to Vedic Literature.
1.2.1. Meaning of the Word ‘Veda’.
1.2.2. Definition of Veda.
1.2.3. The Literature of Veda.
1.3. Samhita Literature.
1.3.1. Divisions of Samhita Literature.
1.3.2. Recensions of Vedas.
1.3.3. Number of Vedas. (वेदत्रयी/ चत्वारः वेदाः।)
1.4. Rgveda (ऋक्संहिता)

1.4.1. Rgveda: Definition and Meaning.
1.4.2. Date of Composition of Rgveda.
1.4.3. Arrangement of Rgveda.
1.4.4. Number of Mantras in Rgveda.
1.4.5. Subject-matter of Rgveda.
1.4.6. Family Books.
1.4.4. Significance of Rgved
1.5. Model Question.
1.5.1 अहतदीर्घोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रश्ाः ।
1.5.2 दीर्घोत्तरमल
1.5.3 सहं िप्तोत्तरमल

1.5.4 अहतसंहिप्तोत्तरमल
1.6. Further Reading.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 1

1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about-
 The Meaning & Definition of the word ‘Veda’.
 The Origin and Recensions of Samhita Literature.
 The Arrangement & Contents of Rgveda.
 The significance of Rgveda.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO VEDIC LITERATURE
The meaning of the word ‘वेद’is knowledge, in general. Veda is not

pronounced by any man. Therefore, it is अपौरुषेय .It is said by the sage
Parasara that –
न कश्चिद्वेदकर्त्तास्यतद्वेदस्मर्त्ता ितुमख
ुा ः।
वेदो नतरतयणः सतक्षतत्सस्वयम्भरू रततशश्र
ु म ू ।।(परतशरस्मतृ तः)
It is eternal (नित्य).It is mystic and symbolic. Symbolic Vedic theories are

exposed in इनिहासs and परु ाणs to the fullest with so many आख्यािs and
उपाख्यािs. It is the flash of supramental consciousness in this material
world. It is beyond space and time. It is not for any particular sect or
religion rather there are the noble and high moral prayers and thoughts of
the world prosperity. It uplifts the worldly man towardsdivine grace.
There is a prayer for a harmonious, prosperous and blissful living–
समतनी व आकूततः समतनत हृदयततन वः।

समतनमस्तु वो मनो यथत वः सस
ु हतसतत। (ऋक् 10.191.4)

o worshipping men! be your intention the same,
your hearts be the same, be your mind the same,
that it may be a good company for you.
[Here, the ऋषषिः is अङ्गिरसिः, दे विा is संज्ञाि and छन्द is अिष्ट
ु ु प ्]
वेद is the soul's march on the path of Truth. According to the

वेदाङ्िज्योनिषम ्– (वेदाहहयज्ञार्थमभिप्रवत्त
ृ ा) the Vedas are indeed intended to
serve the purpose of sacrifice and the importance of sacrifice is that it can
lead an individual soul to heaven according to the injuction स्विथकामो यजेि।
1.2.1. MEANING OF THE WORD ‘VEDA’
The word वेद is derived from the root षवद्.पाणणनि indicates three senses to
the root षवद् according to three conjugations (िण).
i. The root षवद् in the fourth conjugation (हदवाहद)means ‘to be or to
exist'. (षवद्सत्तायाम ्)
ii. In the second conjugation (अदाहद), it means to know or to be
conscious or aware of. (षवद्ज्ञािे).
iii. In the sixth conjugation (िुदाहद), it means to gain or to attain.
(षवद्लल
ृ ािे)
The word वेद is derived from षवद्, to be or to exist, would mean Being or
Existence, i.e. the Sat (सि ्) of Vedanta. When it is derived fromषवद्to be
conscious, it would mean the cit (गिि ्) or consciousness and again derived
from षवद्, to gain or attain, it would mean the highest gain or attainment i.e.
the bliss or आिन्द. Since bliss is the highest gain, the highest thing worth
striving for, it is rightly said “आिन्दान्िपरोलाििः "…means there is no gain
greater than the bliss. Thus, the word वेद combines in itself all the three

senses of the root in three of its conjugations and connotes सच्चिदािन्द.
Therefore, etymologically वेद is that eternal knowledge which reveals to us
the essential self-nature of सच्चिदािन्दand the nature of this manifested
creation, the evolutionary world nature and world action.
1.2.2. DEFINITION OF VEDA.
(i) िस्माद्यज्ञात्सवथहुििः ऋििः सामानि जज्ञज्ञरे ।

छन्दांभस यज्ञज्ञरे िस्माि ् यजुस्िस्मादजायि।।(ऋग्वेदिः 10.90.9)
(ii) सत्तायां षवद्यिे ज्ञािे वेषत्त षवन्िे षविारणे।
षवन्दिे षवन्दनि प्राप्तौ श्यन्लक्श्
ु नम्शेच्ववदं क्रमाि ्।।
(वैयाकरणभसद्धान्िकौमद्
ु ां िरु ाहदप्रकरणे)
--ित्त्वाहदकं श्रेष्ठपरु
ु षार्ं वेषत्त जािानि अिेि इनि वेदिः (करणे घञ ्)।
--ित्त्वाहदकं षवद्िे (अच्स्ि) यच्स्मि ् स वेदिः (अगिकरणे घञ ्)।
--ित्त्वाहदकं षवन्िे षविारयनि येि इनि वेदिः (करणे घञ ्) ।
--ित्त्वाहदकं षवन्दनि (परोपकारार्ं)षवन्दिेि (स्वोपकारार्थञ्ि )
--वा येि यस्माि ् वा स वेदिः (करणे अपादािे वा घञ ्)।
- -यद्वा ित्त्वाहदकं वेदयिीनि षवद्+णणि ् + अि ् कत्तथरीनि वेदिः।
(iii) ....षवद् षविारणे षवद्सत्तायां षवद् ज्ञािे षवदल ृ लािे एिेषां िािूिां षवषये
विथन्िे यस्मात्तिो वेदा इत्यक्
ु ािः। (सित्सज
ु ािीये )
(iv).....इष्टप्राप्त्यनिष्टपररहारयोरलौकककमप
ु ायं यो ग्रन्र्ो वेदयनि स वेदिः।
(सायणिः,कृवणयजुवेदिावयोपद्घािे )

(v) ... अलौकककं परु
ु षार्ोपायं वेत्त्यिेिेनि वेदशब्दनिवथििम ्।
िर्ािोक्म–् प्रत्यक्षेणािुभमत्या वा यस्िूपायो ि बुध्यिे।

एिं षवदच्न्ि वेदेि िस्माद् वेदस्य वेदिा।।
(सायणिः, ऋग्वेदिावयिभू मकायाम ् ।)
(vi) मन्रब्राह्मणात्मको वेदिः। (सायणिः, िैषत्तरीयसंहहिािावयोपोद्घािे) ।
(vii) मन्रब्राह्मणयोवेदिामिेयम ्। (आपसिम्ब-यज्ञपररिाषायाम ्) ।
(viii) वेदत्वं िाम िमथिःशब्दार्ोियनिष्ठिः ि िु केवलं शब्दनिष्ठिः।
(ix) षवद्न्िे ज्ञायन्िे लभ्यन्िे वािमाथहदपुरुषार्ाथिः यैस्िे वेदािः।

(उवटिः,ऋक्श्प्रानिशाख्यिावये)
(x) रयो वेदा अजायन्ि अग्िेिः ऋग्वेदिः वायोयथजव

ु ेदिः आहदत्यात्सामवेदिः।
अच्ग्िवायुरषवभ्यस्िु रयं ब्रह्म सिाििम ्।
दद
ु ोह यज्ञभसद्ध्यर्थमग्ृ यजुिः सामलक्षणम ्॥ (मिुस्मनृ ििः 1-23)
(xi) िोदिा हह िूिं िवन्िं िषववयन्िं सूक्ष्मं व्यवहहिं षवप्रकृष्टभमत्येवं

जािीयकमर्ं शक्श्िोनि अविमनयिुम ्। (शबरस्वामी, शाबरिावयम ्1-1-2)
(xii) षवदन्त्यिन्यप्रमाणवेद्ं िमथलक्षणमर्थमस्माहदनिवेदिः।

(मेिानिगर्िः, मिुस्मनृ ििावये।)
(xiii) सोsयं िद्पद्िािलक्षणिया रयीसंज्ञज्ञिो वेदिः।
ऋग्यजिःु सामार्वेनि ििुिःसंहहिासु षविक्ा षवषयिेदाि ्।
(मािवािायथिः, जैभमिीयन्यायमालाषवस्िरे )

(xiv) ये षवदच्न्ि जािच्न्ि षवद्न्िे िवच्न्ि षवन्दच्न्ि लिन्िे िर्ा षवन्दन्िे
षविारयच्न्ि सवे मिवु यािः सत्यषवद्ां यैयेषु वा िर्ा षवद्वांसिः िवच्न्ि िे
वेदािः।
(स्वामीदयािन्दिः, ऋग्वेदाहदिावयिभू मकायाम ्)
(xv) The word Veda means ‘knowledge’ and then ‘the knowledge par
excellence’ i.e. the sacred,the religious knowledge’, and it does not denote
any one single literary work like perhaps the word 'Koran’, or any compact
collection of a definite number of books, completed at any particular time,
like the word ''bible” (the ‘book par excellence’) or like the word
"Tripitaka’, the Bible of the Buddhists, but a large extent of literature that
came into being in the course of many millennia and was transmitted
centuries long from generation to generation by until at last by a later
generation - of course in the hoary past - it was declared as 'sacred
knowledge’as‘divine revelation’ on account of its age as well as its content.
(Winternitz, A. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, p. 47 (
1.2.3. THE LITERATURE OF VEDA.
It is believed that in its original state, theवेद was one andकृष्णद्वैपायन

divided it into four parts. This is the reason for which he is known as
वेदव्यास.‘वेदान्ववव्यासयस्मात्सवेदव्यासइन्िस्मिृ ः’।(महाभारिम)् He arranged the four सन्ं हिाs
as per the requirements of the processes of symbolic sacrifice and
transmitted the ऋग्वेद to पैल, the यजुवेदtoवैशम्पायन, the सामवेदtoजैन्मन्नand the
अथवववेदtoसमु विु .
तत्र ऋग्वेदधरः पैलः सतमगो जैममतनः कववः।

वैशम्पतयन एवैको तनष्णततो यजुषतमत
ु ।।
अथवताङ्गगरसमतसीत्ससम
ु न्तद
ु तारुणो मतु नः।
इततहतसपरु तणतनतां वपतत मे रोमहषाणः॥(श्रीमद्भतगवतमहतपुरतणम ्, XII.6.50-51)

In course of time, they transmitted them to their pupils and thereafter they
developed the tradition of oral transmission from teacher to pupil. वेद is
known as श्रनु ििः means hearingbecause the revealed texts were not written
and read, but only spoken and heard. Not only the संहहिािः were supposed to
have been breathed out by Brahman and ‘seen’ or‘visualized’ by the ऋषषिः ,
but also every word in the उपनिषद्, the latest products of the Vedic
Literature were considered as indisputable truth coming from Brahman,
which is testified by the whole history of Indian Philosophy. Through oral
transmission, various recensions or शाखािः developed. A detailed description
about the शाखािः of वेदs is found in श्रीमद्िािविमहापरु ाणम ् (XII/6/50-80 &
XII/7/1-25). Asimilar description is also found in the शाच्न्िपवथ (ch. 342) of
the महािारिम ्. Further, organized information on the शाखाs on the वेदिःis
found in िरणव्यह
ू . There are three notable books of the िरणव्यह
ू . It
isattributed to शौिक, कात्यायि and व्यास. According to पिञजभलऋग्वेद has
21 recensions, यजुवेद has 101,सामवेद has 1000 and अर्वथवेद has 09
recensions.
1.3. SAMHITA LITERATURE
1.3.1. DIVISIONS OF SAMHITA LITERATURE.
The entire collection of मन्रिःis called संहहिा. The word वेद is applicable to
both the collection of मन्रिः (inevitable expression of poetic inspiration and
revelation) and the ब्राह्मणs. The ब्राह्मणिः are supposed to be a detailed
analysis and commentary on the संहहिािः. The ब्राह्मणिः are divided into three
parts –

i. ब्राह्मणिः
ii. आरण्यकिः and
iii. उपनिषि ्
In the ब्राह्मणिः there is a detailed statement and explanation of various kinds

of sacrifices and their ceremonies and rituals. The आरण्यकs are much more
esoteric and the उपनिषि ्s expound the knowledge contained in the वेदs.
The उपनिषि ्s are also called वेदान्ि. At a later period, वादरायणव्यास
composed the ब्रह्मसर
ू or शारीरकसर
ू in order to present the उपनिषि ्s in an
organized form. At a still later period, the ििवद्गीिा was composed as a part
of the महािारि and it is considered to be the quintessence of the उपनिषि ्s.
So, Vedic literature mainly consists of मन्रसंहहिा, ब्राह्मणs, आरण्यकs and
उपनिषि ्s. All are considered to be essential. Further the study of the ब्रह्मसर
ू
and ििवद्गीिा is also considered to be necessary. Vedic literature also
included six additional works which are supposed to be aids in
understanding the वेद. They are
i. भशक्षा
ii. कल्पिः
iii. व्याकरणम ्
iv. निरुक्म ्
v. छन्दिः
vi. ज्योनिषम ्।

1.3.2. RECENSIONS OF VEDAS
Through oral tradition, there came about a development of various

recensions or शाखाs of various वेदs. The total number of शाखाs are believed
to be 1,131 (ऋक्श्शाखाs-21+यजुिःशाखाs-101+सामशाखाs-1000+अर्वथशाखाs-
09). But at present, only 10 शाखाs remain alive. The recensions related to
ऋग्वेद and the names available are–
i. शाकल
ii. वावकल
iii. आश्वलायि
iv. शांखायि
v. माण्डूकायि
But one शाखा named शाकलशाखा remains alive now out of these five names
and broadly of the 21 शाखाs which existed at one time. वावकलशाखा is
available partly. There is a claim that शांखायिशाखा is still known to a few
वेदपाठीs in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, but this is not certain. The ऋच्त्वक् or
priest of ऋग्वेद is known as होिा.
यजव
ु ेदशाखा- The यजव
ु ेदis classified broadly into शक्श्
ु लयजव
ु ेद and
कृवणयजव
ु ेद. शक्श्
ु लयजव
ु ेद is known as वाजसिेनयसंहहिा.There are two extant

शाखाs of शक्श्
ु लयजुवेद or वाजसिेनयसंहहिा, namely काण्वसंहहिा and
माध्यच्न्दिसंहहिा .
The कृवणयजुवेदसंहहिा has 05 extant शाखाs, namely
i. िैषत्तरीय
ii. कषपष्ठल
iii. कठ
iv. काठक
v. कालाप or मैरायणी
Incomplete versions of कषपष्ठल and कठ are available. The ऋच्त्वक् or priest

of यजव
ु ेद is known as अध्वय.ुथ
सतमवेदशतखत
The सामवेद has 03 existing शाखाs, namely कौर्म
ु , शणायिीय and जैभमिीय.
The सामवेद is musical in character and it contains those ऋक् swhich can be
appropriately sung. The ऋच्त्वक् or Priest of सामवेद is known as उद्िािा.
अथवावेदशतखत
The 09 शाखाs of अर्वथवेद as indicated by पिञ्जभल are पैपलाद, शौिक,
स्िौद, मौद, जाजल, जल्द, दे वदशथ, िरणव्यह
ू , ब्रह्मवेद .But today we have only

two शाखाs, namely पैपलाद and शौिक. The ऋच्त्वक orpriest of अर्वथवेद is
known as ब्रह्मा.
1.3.3. NUMBER OF VEDAS. (वेदत्रयी/ ित्सवतरः वेदतः)
From the very beginning the वेद was one. वेदव्यास has divided it according
to the different forms of the मन्रs. Those which are poetical, composed
with meters and quarters known as ऋक् (िेषामग्ृ यरार्थवशेिपादव्यवस्र्ा –
जैभमनिसर
ू म ् 2.9.35). The मन्रs which are musical in character are known as
साम (िीनिषस
ु ामाख्या- जैभमनिसर
ू म ् 2.1.36 .(The मन्रs excluding ऋक् and
सामare known as यजुिः (शेषय
े जुिः- जैभमनिसर
ू म ्2.1.37). On the basis of this
division, the वेद is known as रयी. On the basis of the division of their
subject matter, वेदs are four. A verse is found in this context as follows –
ऋग्यजःु सतमतथावतख्यतन ् वेदतन ् पव

ू ताददमभमख
ुा ःै ।
शस्त्रममजयतां स्तुततस्तोमां प्रतयश्ितां व्यधतत्सरमतत॥(श्रीमद्िािविम
् ् 3/12/37)
(i) The subject matter of ऋक् is शस्त्र. The मन्रs which are not sung, but
recited by the होिा are known as शस्त्र(अप्रिीि-मन्र-साध्यास्िनु ििःशस्रम ्
ii) The subject matter of यजुष ्is इज्या or यज्ञकमथ .It is said that the form of
the यज्ञ is created from the यजव
ु ेद (यज्ञस्यमारांषवभममीिउत्विः)by the priest
अध्वयिःुथ

iii) The subject matter of सामis स्िुनिसोमिः which means those ऋक् s
which are used for eulogization or the ऋक्श्मन्रs which are sung by the
उद्गािा are known as स्िोमs.
(iv)The subject matterofअर्वथ is atonement (प्रायच्िि). According to

श्रीिरस्वामी the aim of atonement is ब्राह्मकमथ which means these actions are
instituted by the priest ब्रह्मा. To rectify the faults of other priests and to
advise the atonement of the duty of the priest ब्रह्मा. So, due to different
subject matters on sacrificial basis and Priest's works, वेदs are four or
ििुष्टयी.Therefore, according to the requirements of the priests (ऋच्त्वक् ) the
compilation of मन्रs are known as four संहहिाs. This is described in the
ज्ञािसक्
ू म ् of ऋग्वेद.
ऋितां त्सवः पोषमतस्ते पप
ु ष्ु वतन ् गतयत्रां त्सवो गतयतत शक्वरीष।ु
ब्रह्मत त्सवो वदतत जतत-ववद्तां यज्ञस्य मतत्रतां ववमममीत उ त्सवः।।
(ऋग्वेदिःX.71.11)
One priest nourishes the ऋक् s.This priest is called होिा. Another priest has
to sing the िायर (साम) as his function at the sacrifice (and is known as
उद्गािा). The duty of another priest is to measure out the whole structure of
the sacrifice. This priest is called अध्वय.ुथ ब्रह्मा alone is responsible for the
success and efficacy of the यज्ञ,its execution in accordance with its inherent
purpose and spirit. Thus, the मन्रs which are later classified into four
संहहिाs are inspired by the needs of prayer and worship in the form of
performance of यज्ञs.

The knowledge of a मन्र means the knowledge of its five particulars, viz.
(i) the ऋषषिः to whom the मन्र is ascribed (ii) the छन्दs (metre) of the
मन्रिः, (iii) दे विा (the deity) to whom it is addressed, (iv) the purpose or
ceremony for which it is applied (षवनियोििः), and (v) the meaning of its
words(शब्दार्थिः) as well as the philosophy behind it
( अदृष्टार्थिः).
1.4 RGVEDA / RKSAMHITA (ऋक्सांदहतत)
Among the four वेदs, the ऋग्वेद occupies a prominent place. The oldest
layers of the ऋग्वेदसंहहिा are the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European
language. This text is respected most while describing any शास्त्रs in India.
Not only the name is taken first, rather the sacrificial performances
instituted with ऋग्मन्रs are strongin comparisonto साम/यजुमन्
थ र. It is
described in िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा –
यद्वै यज्ञस्य साम्िा यजुषा कक्रयिे भशगर्लं िि ् ,यद्ऋिा ित्दृढभमनि।
(िैषत्तरीयसंहहिाVI.5.10.3 ). It is depicted in परु
ु षसक्
ू that the ऋग्मन्रs are
created from the षवराट्परु
ु ष in the मािसयाि named परु
ु षमेि.
तस्मतद् यज्ञतत ् सवाहुतऋि : सतमततनजज्ञज्ञरे ।

छन्दतांमस जज्ञज्ञरे तस्मतत ् यजुस्तस्मतदजतयत।। (ऋग्वेदिःX.90.9 )

From that great general sacrifice, the ऋक् s and सामs were created.
Therefrom, were spells and charms produced; the यजष
ु s had its birth from
it. (Trans. R.T. H. Griffith).
1.4.1 Rgveda: Definition and Meaning
ऋचयिेस्िय
ु िेअियाइनिऋक् .By which (deities) are eulogized are known as
ऋक् s. ऋि ् (स्िुिौ/ to praise) is the root here. The core text ऋग्वेदिः, fromऋि ्
(to praise) and वेद (knowledge) is the ancient text.The definition of ऋक् is
‘िेषामग्ृ यरार्थवशेिपादव्यवस्र्ा’ (जैभमनिसर
ू म ्2/1/35). Those which are
poetical, composed with metres and quarters are known as ऋक् .The
ऋग्मन्रs are also known asशस्त्रs .“अप्रिीि -मन्र-साध्यास्िनु ििःशस्त्रम ्” which
means the मन्रs which are not sung but recited are known as
शस्त्रम ्.शंस्यिेस्िुयिेइनिशस्त्रम ्.The meaning of मन्र or ऋक् described in a
ऋक्श्मन्र is as follows –
ऋिो अक्षरे परमे व्योमन्यश्स्मन ् दे वत अगध ववश्वे तनषेदःु ।

यस्तन्न वेद ककमि
ृ तकररष्यतत य इर्त्दिदस्
ु त इमे समतसते।।
(ऋग्वेदिः 1.164.39)
In this मन्र two original questions namely what the वेद is and what it
contains are answered.The सक्
ू s(hymns) and the मन्रs (verses) abide there
परब्रह्मि ्,the supreme and eternal God head whose sound body is ऒम ्.All
the gods abide there. What can one do with the ऋक् s who knows not that
ब्रह्मि ्? If one is ignorant of the Supreme and the Ultimate

Reality, that is affirmed in these मन्रs, of what use to Him are the empty
words there in? On the contrary, those who have grasped that Reality, who
are united with it and constantly abide in it, are established or समासिे
(meaning by Jagannath Velankara).
1.4.2 Rgveda: Date of composition
The antiquity of theवेद has been a subject of discussion and dispute.

According to Indian tradition it is impossible to determine the period of
composition of वेद. Because it is eternal (नित्य) and not written by human
beings (अपौरुषेय). According to महािावयकारपिञ्जभल—
'िहहछन्दांभसकक्रयन्िे।नित्यानिछन्दांभस' (महािावयम ्IV.3.101). The मन्रs are
not written. They are eternal. Further, it is said by ििह
थ ृ रर in वाक्श्यपदीयम ्
that ‘ऋषषणामषपयज्ज्ञािंिदप्यािमपव
ू क
थ म ्'. The knowledge of the ऋषषs are
prior to the वेदs. As the seers are not the composers; rather they have
visualized the मन्रs; it is difficult to fix a time of the वेदs as per the Indian
tradition.
But the western scholars and modern Indian scholars have tried their best to
fix an approximate date of the वेदs. They have followed the historical
method in this regard.The ऋग्वेद is far more archaic than any other Indo -
Aryan text. For this reason, it was the centre of attention of western
scholarship from the time of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth.
(1) According to Max Müller

The first attempt was taken by Prof. Max Müller in 1859 to fix a time of the
वेदs. He has divided the time of Vedic composition in four categories in his
book‘Ancient Sanskrit Literature’. It is definite that the वेदs are practised in

this land before Buddhism. Buddhism mentions the Vedic practices which
is of 500 B.C.
The four divisions of Vedic period according to Max Müller are –
a. छऩ्दकालिः- 1200 B. C. to 1000 B. C.

b. मन्रकालिः – 1000 B.C. to 800 B.C.
c. ब्राह्मणकालिः – 800 B.C. to 6oo B.C.
d. सर
ू कालिः -600 B.C. to 400 B.C.
So, as per the time divisions by Max Müller the वेदs are of 3300 years old
composition.
(2) According to Jacobi

The German scholar Jacobi fixes the time of Veda during 4500 B.C. to
2500 B.C. His time division is quite nearer to the timings fixed by Bal
GangadharTilak.
(3) According to Winternitz

M. Winternitz has fixed two ranges of time periods for Vedic composition.
1) 2000 -2500 B.C.– beginning
2) 750 -500 B.C.-ending.
(4) According to A.C. Woolner and Hugo Winckler–

A. C. Woolner and Hugo Winckler had fixed the time in between
2000 B. C. to 1200 B.C.
(5) According to Pt. Shankar Balkrishna Dixit

According to the eminent astrologer Pandit Shankar Balkrishna Dixit, there
are some descriptions of stars in Vedic literature especially in

शिपर्ब्राह्मणम ्. The stars indicate the weather cycle. There is a line in
शिपर्ब्राहमणम ् where the कृषत्तका star rises just in the east point -
"एकं द्वे रीणण ित्वारीनि वा अन्यानि िक्षराणण अर्ैिा एव िनू यष्ठा यि ्
कृषत्तकास्िद् िम
ू ािमेव एिदप
ु नै ि िस्माि ् कृषत्तकास्वादिीि। एिा ह वै प्राचयै
हदशो ि चयवन्िे, सवाथणण ह वा अन्यानि िक्षराणण प्राचयै हदशश्च्यवन्िे”।
(शिपर्ब्राह्मणम ्2.1.2) .
Now a days that east point has moved a little bit to north. So, as per the
calculation of Shankar Balakrishna Dixit, the above star position
hasoccurred before 3000 years back. It may be the time of शिपर्ब्राह्मणम ्.
The िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा where also the description of this कृषत्तका star is found, is
prior to शिपर्ब्राह्मणम ्. The ऋग्वेद is still prior to िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा .If 250
years’ gap is kept for each era, then the ऋग्वेद’s time will be 3500 B.C.So,
according to Shankar Balakrishna Dixit the ऋग्वेद is a 5500 years old
composition.
(6) According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak

According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak this time is still prior to the कृषत्तका based
time. He has deeply observed the Rgvedic verses and found out the
description of वसन्ि-सम्पाििः there. It is described in िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा that the
फाल्िुिीपणू णथमा is the face of the year. If the moon is in the फाल्िुिी star,
then the sun will be in मि
ृ भशरा star. That is वसन्िसम्पाििः. This type of
description is also found in the legends of ऋग्वेद. The position of मि
ृ भशरा is
found in some verses of the ऋग्वेदिः. The description of वसन्िसम्पािin the
मि
ृ भशराstar would be 2000 years back description. Because there are two
more stars in between मि
ृ भशरा and कृषत्तका (972 x 2 = 1944). So, the मन्रs

about the वसन्िसम्पाििः in मि
ृ भशरा are of (2500+1944) about 4500 B.C.
Tilak further states that prior to this वसन्िसम्पाििः and मि
ृ भशरा star ऋग्वेदिः
has मन्रs about पि
ु वथसिःु star. The deity of this पि
ु वथसिःु star is अहदनििः.अहदनििः
is called as दे वजििी. When the वसन्िसम्पाििः happens in पि
ु वथसिःु then the
दे वयािtime starts. At that time पि
ु वथसिःु was the first stat in star series. When
the Sun enters into the पि
ु वथसिःु star the auspicious time or दे वयाि or
उत्तरायण starts. As this happened before two stars from मि
ृ भशरा the
अहदनिकाल would be 2ooo years before the मि
ृ भशरा time. अहदनियि
ु is the
oldest time of Indian culture. It was situated in between 6ooo - 4ooo B. C.
No other culture was found prior to this; neither the Greek civilization nor
the Persian civilization.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak also has divided the time for the वेदs into four parts-
1) अहदनिकाल: (6ooo-4ooo B.C.) - In remote past some prose and poetical

निषवदमन्रs describing the name, qualities and actions of main deities were
revealed.
2) मि
ृ भशराकालिः(4000-2500 B.C.) - This is prime era of the आयथs where
most of the Rgvedicमन्रs were revealed.
3) कृषत्तकाकालिः (2500-1400B.C.) – In this period the िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा,

theशिपर्ब्राह्मण and the other ब्राह्मणs are composed. वेदाङ्िज्योनिषम ् is also
composed in this period. Because the turn around of sun and moon towards
the north ofश्रषवष्ठा star, is described there. On the basis of this calculation,
the time of वेदाङ्िज्योनिषम ्is about 1400 B.C.

4) अच्न्िमकाल: (1400 - 500 B.C.) – Theश्रौिसर
ू s, िह्य
ृ सरू s and the दशथिसर
ू s
are written within one thousand years. Further, the rise of Buddhism is the
last part and result of Vedic era.
7) According to Bogazkoy Inscription –
In1907 Dr. Hugo Winckler had conducted a research on the basis of the
Inscription at Bogazkoy, a place situated on Asia minor or modern Turkey
to fix the dates for Vedic composition. In west Asia there were two tribes,
namely Hittite and Mitanni. The heads of these two tribes had a fight and
they had their prayers for protection. The Mitanni tribe had mentioned the
names of Vedic deities, namely भमर, वरुण, इन्र, and िासत्या) अच्श्विौ .(
Later these two tribes had marital relationship. All these are found recorded
in the Bogazkoy or Bogaz-kai Inscription. The time of this inscription is
1400 B.C.
The mention of the Vedic deities shows that one branch of the Vedic people
might have migrated to the west Asia and in course of time they had
developed a mixed culture there where they had not forgotten the major
Vedic deities. As the time of this Inscription is 1400B.C., definitely the
Vedic civilization is much older than this. It is viewed by the Western
Scholars that it may of the time range around 2500 B.C. to 2000 B.C.
(8) According to Geographical Changes

On the basis of some geographical descriptions inऋग्वेद , the time of its
composition is fixed. On the belt of the भसन्िु riverthe ऋषषs had their
sacrificial alters. The description of सरस्विी river is significant one where it
is said that having its origin from the high mountains and the pious river
meets the sea in estuary.

एकत िेतत ् सरस्वती नदीनतम ्।
शगु ियाती गगररभ्य आ समद्र
ु तत ्।। (ऋग्वेदिःVII.95.2)
Further, in another मन्र it is described that both the rivers सरस्विी and
शि
ु ुहर fall in the ocean (ऋग्वेद:III.33.4). Thorough study of the ऋग्वेद
suggests that there was a sea in the west of the nation where there is the
desert of Rajasthan now. Due to any severe earthquake the big water space
became vanished and there came up the dry desert land. The river सरस्विी
which was falling in that sea would have lost its bed within the sands of that
desert. In िाण््यब्राह्मण (25.10.6), it is clearly mentioned that सरस्विी
became vanished in ‘षविशि’ and re-appeared in प्लक्ष-प्रस्रवण which
indicates that सरस्विी has lost its bed within the sands of Thar desert in
Rajasthan. This is one view.
From the ऋग्वेद it is observed that Vedic civilization was established in the
area of सप्तभसन्िु and there were four seas around. The मन्र (X.136.5) of
ऋग्वेद describes that there were two seas in the east and west of सप्तभसन्ि.ु
Another two मन्रs describe that there were four seas.
1- रतयःसमद्र
ु ॉितुरोsस्मभ्यां सोम ववश्वतः।
आ पवस्व सहमिणः।। (ऋग्वेदिःIX.33.6)
Here the सोम is eulogised to bring the wealth related to the four seas and to
grant our thousand wishes.
1 - स्वतयध
ु ां स्ववसां सन
ु ीथां ितःु समद्र
ु ां धरुणां रयीणतम ्।। (ऋग्वेदिःX.47.2)

Due to great changes in the geography within these thousands of years, we
now see this land Bhārata today. At that time, it was a land which had seas
in its four directions, where the Vedic civilization had grown up. In those
days, the Gangetic plains, the areas near the foot of mountains Himalayas
and the mountain places of Assam were underneath the sea.In a later period,
some of the rivers originating from the Himalayas , runs to fall in the sea of
east. A very little description of the Ganges is found in ऋग्वेदिः (X.75). At
that time there was sea water in the east and south of पञ्िाव area;
therefore, the land of South India seems to be a separate one. North India
was a severely cold area. A reference is there in the ऋग्वेद where the name
of the year is हहम (ऋग्वेदिःI.64.14/ II.1.2/ VI.10.7). These geographical
descriptions indicate the Pleistocene or pre-Pleistocene era. It might be of
50,000 B. C. to 25,000 B.C. The geologists have accepted it that because of
the geographical change in the Rajputana area and because of the changes
in the Himalayan region, the climate of North India picked warmth. The
Rajputana sea and the glaciers became disappeared. Due to lack of rains
gradually the bed of सरस्विी river dried up and vanished under the sand
bed of Rajputana desert.
According to these geographical and geological changes the composition of

ऋग्वेद may be of 25,000 B. C. Dr. Avinash Chandra Das has proved this in
his book 'Rgvedic India’.
(9) According to Pt. Dinanath Shastri Chulet
Pandit Dinanath Shastri Chulet has calculated the time of the वेदs on the
basis of ज्योनिषम ् in his book ‘वेदकालनिणथयिः’. He has tried to prove the
time of वेदs in a very remote past, i.e. three lakh years back. " These two
above proofs of Indians are opposed by the western scholars. Among all the

above discussions, the view of Bal Gangadhar Tilak seems more logical in
arguments.
1.4.3 ARRANGEMENT OF RGVEDA
मण्डलक्रमिः - The whole text of ऋग्वेद is organized in ten ‘books'

(10मण्डलs) of varying age and length. So that in Nirukta etc. RV is
designated as दशतयी. The text clearly originates as oral literature; so the
English translation of मण्डलs as ‘book’ may be a misleading term. The
individual मण्डलs are collections of hymns that were intended to be
memorised by the members of various groups of priests.
The western scholars have named मण्डलs 2 to 7 as 'family books’ which

form the oldest part of the ऋग्वेदिः. It accounts 38 percent of the entire text.
They are called’ family books’ because each of them is attributed to an
individual ऋषष and was transmitted within the lineage of the same ऋषषs'
family or of his students.The hymns within each of the मण्डलs are arranged
in collections of the सक्
ू s dealing with a particular deity (दे विा). For
example - The first मण्डल deals with अच्ग्िसक्
ू s, the second मण्डल deals
with इन्रसक्
ू s. The second to seventh मण्डलs have a uniform format.
The eighth and ninth मण्डलs, comprising सक्

ू s of mixed age, account for 15
percent and 09 percent respectively. The ninth मण्डल is entirely dedicated
to सोमिः and सोमयज्ञिः. Therefore, it is known as ‘पवमािमण्डलम ्’.The first
and the tenth मणडलs are the youngest and they are also the longest मण्डलs.
They have 191 सक्
ू s each accounting for 37 percent of the text.
Nevertheless, some of the सक्
ू s in मण्डलs eight, one and ten may still

belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the text in the family
books. The first मण्डल has a unique arrangement not found in the other nine
मण्डलs. The first 84 सक्
ू s of the tenth मण्डल from have a structure different
the remaining सक्
ू s in it. Each मण्डल consists of सक् ु उक्,
ू s or hymns (स+
literally ‘well recited or eulogized') intended for various rituals. The सक्
ू s in
turn consist of individual stanzas called ऋक् which are further analysed into
units of verse called पाद (foot or step).The छन्दs (metres) most used in the
सक्
ू s are िायरी (03 पादs of 08 letters each), अिष्ट
ु ु प ् (04 पादs of 08 letters
each), त्ररष्टुप ् (04पादs of 11 letters each) and जििी (04पादs 12 letters each).
The त्ररष्टुप ्छन्दिः (40%) and िायरीछन्दिः (25%) dominate in the ऋग्वेद. For
pedagogical convenience, each मण्डल is divided into roughly equal sections
of sever सक्
ू s called अिव
ु ाक (recitation), which modern publishers often
omit.
1.4.3 NUMBERS OF MANTRAS IN RGVEDA
There are 85 अिव

ु ाकs, 1017 सक्
ू s, 11 वालणखल्य-सक्
ू s and 10580 and ¼
मन्रs in ऋग्वेदिः. Theसक्
ू arrangement as per the मण्डलs is as follows -
मण्डल 1 191
मण्डल 2 43
मण्डल 7 104

मण्डल 9 114
मण्डल 10 191
बालणखल्यसक्
ू 11
= 1028
These णखलसक्
ू s are found in the eighth मण्डल starting from सक्
ू 49 to 59
and there are 80 मन्रs.‘णखल’means appendix. In अिव
ु ाकािक्र
ु मणी (an
auxiliary text) the total number of मन्रs is read as (+10580 & 1/4).
ऋितां दश सहितणण ऋितां पञ्िशतततन ि।

ऋितमशीततः पतदि पतरणां सांप्रकीततातम ्।। (अिव
ु मणी, 43)
It also describes the total number of words in ऋग्वेदिः as 1,53, 826
शतकल्यदृष्ेः पदलक्षमेकां सतधं ि वेदे त्रत्रसहियक्त

ु म ्।
शतततन ितष्ौ दशकियां ि पदततन षट्िेतत दह िगिातततन।।
(अिव
ु मणी 45)
There are 4,32,000 letters in ऋग्वेदिः as it is depicted in अिव

ु मणी of
शिपर्ब्राह्मणम ् स ऋिो व्यौहि ्। द्वादश वह
ृ िीसहस्राणण। एिावत्यौ ह्यिी । यािः
प्रजापनिसष्ट
ृ ािः। (श.ब्रा--X.4.2.2.23)There were also 36 letters in बह
ृ िीछन्दिः .
So , 12 (द्वादश) Nos. of Brhati is equal to 12x36= 432 again it is to be
multiplied by 1,000 (सहस्राणण) = 4,32,000 or ित्वाररशिसहस्राणण
द्वात्ररंशचिाक्षरसहस्राणण।( last line of अिव
ु मणी)

(ii) अष्टकक्रमिः
There are 08 अष्टकs and each अष्टक has 08 chapters in ऋग्वेदिः. So, there are
64 chapters in ऋग्वेदिः. Each chapter is subdivided into विथs. Inविथsthere are
मन्रs.ऋग्वेद has 2006 विथs. Sripada Damodara Satavallkar is a renouned
vedic scholar. He has prerared a bhasya on the RV. He, quoting another
famous vedic scholar Pandit Narayan Bhatta of Malvar , has cited an
interesting sanskrit verse on the numbers of अष्टक, मण्डल, अिव
ु ाक, विथ, ऋक् ,
शब्द, अक्षर, etc. have been depicted like this-
जानन्नपि पिषा मोदं सयज्ञः िातना नरः ।

रसं पिन्नाय मांसदो नरस्तस्य जलापििः ।।
which means –
अष्टकं -------- जािि ------ 8
मण्डलं -------- अषप -------- 10
अध्यायिः -------- हद्वषा ------ 64
अिुवाकिः ------- मोदं --------- 85
सक्
ू ं ----------- सयज्ञिःपा 1017
विथिः ------------ ििािारिः ----- 2006
ऋक् ------------ रसं भिन्िाय --- 10472
अिथिथ ---------- मांसादे िरिः ----- 20875
शब्दिः ---------- िस्य जलागिपिः ---- 1,53,816
अक्षरिः --------- ---- ----- 3,94,221
The बालणखल्य सक्

ू s are not counted here. If those are taken into account
( 11 Suktas , 80 ऋिा , 18 विथ and 3044 letters) then the total number
comes as – 1028 सक्
ू s , 2024 विथs , 10552 ऋक् s and 3,97,265 letters.

Among these two types of arrangements, the मण्डलक्रमिः or मण्डल division
is more significant, historical and scientific.
1.4.5 SUBJECT MATTER
मण्डल-01 comprises of 191 सक्श्

ू िs .1.1is addressed to अच्ग्िand his name is
the first word of the ऋग्वेदिः. The remaining सक्
ू s are mainly addressed to
अच्ग्ि and इन्र, as well as वरुण, भमर, अच्श्विौ, मरुद्गणिः, उषा, सय
ू ,थ ऋिि
ु ण,
रुर, वाय,ु बह
ृ स्पनि, षववण,ु द्ावापगृ र्वीिर्ा all the deities. This मण्डल is dated
to have been added to ऋग्वेद after मण्डल 2 through 9 and includes the
Philosophical Riddle Hymn (अश्ववामीयसक्
ू म ्1.164), which inspires
chapters in later उपनिषद् such as मण्
ु डक.
मण्डल-02 comprises of 43सक्

ू s, mainly अच्ग्ि and इन्र. Itis chiefly
attributed to the ऋषषित्ृ समदशौिहोर.
मण्डल-03 comprises of 62 सक्

ू s, mainly toअच्ग्ि andइन्र and toषवश्वदे वािः.
Theverse-III. 62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the िायरीमन्र.
Most सक्
ू s in this book are attributedtoषवश्वाभमर-िागर्ि.
मण्डल -04 comprises of 58 सक्

ू s, mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र as well as the
ऋिि
ु णs, अच्श्विौ, बहृ स्पनि, वाय,ु उषा etc.. Most सक्
ू s in this book are
attributed to वामदे व-िौिम.

मण्डल-05 comprises of 87 सक्
ू s mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र, षवश्वदे वािः,
मरुद्गणिः, the twin deitiesभमरावरुणौand अच्श्विौ. Two सक्
ू s each are dedicated
to उषा and to सषविा. Most सक्
ू s in this book are attributed to the अत्ररclan.
मण्डल-06 comprises 75 सक्

ू s,mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र, षवश्वदे वािः, पष
ू ि ्,
अच्श्विौ, उषाetc. Most सक्
ू s in this मण्डल are attributed to िरद्वाज, the
बाहथस्पत्य family ofअङ्गिरसs.

ू s, mainly to अच्ग्ि, इन्र, षवश्वदे वािः,
मरुद्गणिः,भमरावरुणौ, अच्श्विौ, उषा, इन्रवरुणौ, वरुणिः, वायिःु , two each
toसरस्विी (ancient river and the deity of speech) and षववणुिःand to
others.Most off the सूक्s in thisमण्डलare attributed to वभशष्ठिः.

ू s to various gods. सक्
ू s 8/49 to 8/59are the
apocryphal (बालणखल्यs). सक्
ू s 1/48 and 60- 66are attributed to the काण्व
clan.The rest to अङ्गिरस poet.
मण्डल -09 comprises 114 सक्

ू s, entirely devoted to सोमपवमाििः.

ू s, frequently in later language, addressed to
अच्ग्ि, इन्र and various other deities. It contains the िदीस्िनु ि which is in
praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of
the Vedic civilization. The परु
ु षसक्
ू (X.90) is important in studies of Vedic
sociology. The philosophical Hymns (दाशथनिक -सक्
ू ानि (are found in this
10th मण्डल only. There are Philosophical सक्
ू s, namely परु
ु षसूक्म ् (X.9) ,

हहरण्यििथसक्
ू म ् (X.121), वाक्श्सक्
ू म ् (X.125), िासदीयसक्
ू म ् (X.129),
िाववत्त
ृ म ् or अघमषथणसक्
ू म ् (X.190) which deal withmultiple speculations
about the creation of the universe.
The ज्ञािसक्
ू म ् (X.71) and the श्रद्धासक्
ू म ् (X.151) are significant in dealing
with intelligence and devotion respectively. The marriage hymns
(षववाहसक्
ू म ्-X.85) and the death hymns (मत्ृ यस
ु क्
ू म ् -X.10-18) still are of
great importance in the performance of the corresponding िह्य
ृ rituals.
In Rgveda Samhita the highest ऋक्श्मन्रs are found for the eulogization of
200 सूक्s are exclusively found in the name of Deefive and his eulogization is
also found in 50 more सूक्s with other deities. The most eulogized deity of
$eÝiJeso is Indra as 250 are exclusively meant for him. His eulogization is also
found in 50 more megÊkeÀs with other deities. G<ee has a significant place among
the female deities in $eÝiJeso. Indra is the deity of vigour and victory and G<ee is
the most beautiful one where one can find the highest poetic relish of the
$eÝef<e. Besides, the other deities are - meefJelee, Het<ee, efce$e, Je©Ce, efJe<Ceg, Fvê, मारूिs are
applied in sactificial fituals (Þeewle³e%es) and during oblations (meesceengefle) in meesce³eज्ञ
also.
The subject matters of oMececeC[ue

i) The philosophical Hymns (oeMee|vekeÀmegक्ाefve)
ii) oevemlegefleë
iii) संवादसूक्
iv) लौकककसूक्
v) मिोवैज्ञानिकसक्
ू

i) The philosophical Hymns
(a) Heg©<emegक्ced ($eÝiJeso : x/90)- There are 16 cev$es in Heg©<emetक् of $eÝiJesomebefnlee. The creation
of this universe is from the efJejeìd Heg©<e. The mental sacrifice or autterity is
imagined as Heg©<eमेOe from which all the living and non-living objects
took their forms. All the four वेदs all the deities, all the animals of
sacrificial help are created in this process. The space and parts of time
are deschibed as the sacrificial objects in this symbolic sacrifice of
creation.
(b) efnjC³eieYe&/ÒepeeHeeflemegक्ced ($eÝiJesod : x/121) - The metक् x/121, in which ÒepeeHeefle is praised
as the creator and preserves of the world and in the burnden of the
song “Which god should we honour by sacrifice ?” Though the Heeo
literally tronslates this, still the word keÀmcew is addressed to the named keÀ.
The thought lies hidden that there is nothing in the pluratity of gods
and that only one and the only one is the creator ÒepeeHeefle. Finally this
scepticism has found its most powerful expression in the profound
poem of creation, i.e. veemeoer³emegक्ced .
(c) JeekedÀmegक्ced/osJeermetक्ced ($eÝiJeso: x/125) - The self identification of JeekedÀ with the ye´ïeved
and the feeling of all-pervadingness is described in this metÊkeÀ. The
daughter of the $eÝef<e DecYe=Ce is known as JeeueecYe=Ceer who enlogizes harself as
one with the universal soul or ye´ïeved. The मन्रs in this megक् are known as
DeeO³eeeflcekeÀceन्रs. These types of सूक्s are very few in $eÝJesomebefnlee comprising to
03 सूक्s only, namely this JeekedÀmegक्ced (ऋiJeso: x/125), mevêJewkegÀCþermegÊkeÀced (ÞeieJesoë /48)
and ueJeसक्
ू ($eÝiJesoë /119).
(d) veemeoer³emegक्ced (ऋiJesoë x/129)

It begins with the description of the time before creation. The very
begining word denies the existence of any thing before the creation,
even the time and space. Only very timidly does the poet attempt to
give an answer to the question of the origin of the world. He imagines
the situation before the creation as darkness shrouded by darkness. The
creation begins with ‘tapas’ i.e. heat perhaps a kind of brooding-heat.
Only one was there who is the consciousness breathing without the air
(Deeveerle Jeeleb mJeOe³ee lesokeÀम...).
् The megक् ends with question which has the answer
in hidden ‘who knows the creator of this world and how does the
creation come up ? He / That may know; if not, then who else knows’
which nobody knows the secret of this creation without the ccreator.
(e) YeeJeJe=Êeced / DeOece<e&Ceसक्

ू ced ($eÝiJesoë x/190)
The megक् deal with the creation and creator related description or depict
the nature of Hejceelcee or ye´ïe are known as philosophical. In this light, the
DeOece<e&CemegÊkeÀced or YeeJeJe=त्त DeOece<e&Ce$eÝef<e clearly depicts the sequence of this
creation in three cev$es only. In most of the philosophical hyans of the $eÝiJeso
the thought of a creator comes up. Sometimes, he is Heg©<e, sometimes
efnjC³eieYe&-ÒepeeHeefleë, sometimes JeekedÀ or ye=nmHeefleë or efJeéekeÀcee&. In the hymns of the
great thought, the All-one-ness is presented. All the pluralities are
illusion; the only reality one. This thought is found in the DeéeJeeceer³emegक्ced
$eÝiJesomebefnlee õ
They call it Indra, Varana and Mitra,

Agni, the beautiful-winged bird of the heaven i.e. Garuda,
Many names to the only one give the poets,
They call it Agni, Yama, Matarisva.
($eÝiJesoë I/164/46)
These philosophical hyms build a bridge to the philosophical

speculation of the उपनिषदs.

(ii) oevemlegefle : õ
A kind of intermediary role between religious and secular poetry are
the oevemlegelf es. These are the songs of praising generosity, namely of
princes and lords of sacrifices for whom the poems were composed.
There are about forty such megक्s. Only one megक् ($eÝiJeso: I/126) is wholly a
oevemlegefleë. In all other cases it is usually only 3 to 5 मन्रs at the end of the
megक् which contain the oevemlegefleë. Some of them are victory - songs in
which Fvê is praised. With the praise of God, the glorification of the
king is connected. At the end, the singers praised for his long life who
has presented him the cattle, horses and also beautiful women as slaves
from the spoils of war. Very extensive sacrificied songs which are
mostly addressed to Fvê were obriously composed for some specific
occassions on the orders of a prince or a rich man and were sung at the
time of sacrifice. Some verses are there in which the song of sacrifice
is browsed for giving to the singer rich priestly rewards. The oevemlegefle
undoubtedly refer to historical events or in any case to red
happenings. Therefore, these are important.Another hywn of oevemlegefle
($eÝiJesoë x/117) also deserves to be mentioned because in it a quite
strange and moralising note is struck that is not found any where else.
The last stanza of this megक् is an example of riddle-poetry which was
very popular among ancient Indians as with other ancient folks.
meceew ef®e×mleew ve meceb efJeefJeäë

meceeleje ef®eन्ि meceb ogneles ~
³ece³eesच्िन्ि mecee Jeer³ee&efCe
%eeleer ef®elmevleew ve meceb He=Ceerleë ~~
($eÝiJesoë x/117/9)

(iii) mecyeeomegक्ततefve õ
The dialogue-hymns of the $eÝiJeso are of frequent occurances in Indian

literature. We find similar semi-epic and semi-dramatic poems,
consisting chiefly or entirely of dialogues or conversations. The same
style is found in the ceneYeejleced, in the परु ाणs and in Buddhist literature.
These are aniant ballads of the same kind. The Rgvedic ballad poetry
is the source for both epic and drama. These ancient सम्वादs or ballads
were not always composed entirely in verse form, but sometimes
introducing or a concluding story was told in prose and occcasionally
the verses were linked together by short explanation in prose. The
mecyeeo-megक्s are —
(a) ³ece³eceer - mecyeeomegक्ced ($eÝiJesoë x/10) - An old myth on the origin of jeef$e is
supposed in this megक्ced. Some western scholars are of the view that its
the myth on the origin of the human beings from the first pair of twins.
Yami seeks to seduce her brother in order that the human rece may go
extinct. Yama rejects the tempting words of his sister. He pointed to
the eternal laws that forbids the union of blood-relations. The
dialogues are though and unalease are still full of dramatic power.
(b) Heg©रवा-GJe&Meer-mecyeeoसक्
ू ced ($eÝiJesoë x/95)
The most famous mecyeeoसक्

ू ced is Heg©रवा-GJe&Meer-mecyeeoसक्
ू ced. This is a poem of 18
stanzas, consisting of the dialogue between परु
ु रवा and GJe&Meer. Heg©रवा is a
mortal being and उवथशी is a celestial lady (DeHedmeje). They stayed together
in the earth for four years and after giving birth to a son, GJe&Meer
disappeared as per the condition of contract. Heg©रवा went out in search of
her in grief. He found her in a lake with other water nymphs. Then the
dialogue starts. This ancient story of love of a mortal king for a
daughter of the gods is also preserved else where in Indian literature.
The MeleHeLeye´eïeCeced (xI/5/1) describes the saga of Heg©रवा and GJe&Meer.

The reunion of Heg©Kee with his beloved is not very clear either in $eÝiJesomebneflee
or MeleHeLeye´eïeCecedin . It appears that he changes into a ievOeJe& and reaches
heaven where he experiences the happiness of reunion. The story is
shortly hinted in keÀeþkeÀmebefnlee, in the nefjJeMeb, an appendix to the ceneYeejleced, in
the efJe<CegHegjeCeced and in keÀLeemeefjledmeeiejced, the book of fairy tales. Kalidasa has
created the immorted drama named efJe¬eÀceesJe&Meer³eced from it.
(c) mejceeHeefCe-mecyeeomegक्ced ($eÝiJesoë x/108)

This सक्
ू is a dialogue between the messanger of Fvê named mejcee and
पणणs, the misers. The पणणs are the evil charactors who had stolen the
cows or the rays or the glory of Fvê. The mejcee, the dog messanger has
approached them to return back the cow, being sent by Fvê. On this
base, the dialogues go on. Fvê have defeated the पणणs and taken back the
cows and glories at the end.
(d) efJeéeeefce$e-veoer-mecyeeomegक्ced ($eÝiJesoë III/33) —

$eÝef<e efJeéeeefce$e requests two rivers namely efJeHeend and Meglegefê to give him the way
to return home from a sacrifice. He has a lot of offerings and chariots.
These two rivers were flowing over in a flooded manner by blocking
the returning path. So the $eÝef<e eulogizes the two rivers as mother. They
have reciprocated to the $eÝef<e and finally they have reduced down their
level of flow; So that efJeéeeefce$eë crossed them with his sacrificial gifts.
This is a very soft and beautiful invocation to the rivers as mothers.
So many dialogues are found in the depiction of सक्

ू s though not the
whole सक्
ू . Some scholars enumerate them as 20. Besides, the
mecyeeoसक्
ू ueewefkeÀkeÀसक्
ू s are there which deal with very worldly behaviours
and actions etc.

(e) Wordly Hymns (लौकककसक्त
ू ततन)
Eventhough everybody knows that the Atharva Veda is famous for
accommodating the hymns related to wordly affairs more , still there
are such types of hymns available in Rgveda also . In 10.163 of
Rgveda the scientific description of the different limbs of human body
and the remedies for the diseases like T.B. etc. are available. In 10.161
the description of the returning back of a dying person from the death
is also available.
Equally in 10.162 which is called as रक्षोहा सक्

ू , so many description
related to the demons who are the dangerious obstacles for the
noble deeds and the ways of their removal also are available.
In 10.145 there is a mantra where a wife prays to protect her husband

from the co-wives.
इमां खिाम्योषगिं वीरुिं बलवत्तमम ् ।
यया सपत्ीं बििे यया संषवदिे पनिम ् ।। ( RV. 10.145)
Another example can be taken where there is the prayer to dispell the enimies away
(10.166)
ऋषिं मां समािािां सपत्ािां षवषासहहम ् ।
हन्िारं शरण
ु ां कृगि षवराजं िोपनिं िवाम ् ।।
In RV (10.58) there is another interesting सक्

ू which can arrect the mind which is flying
for away due to its fickleness. This sukta is called as and its presiding deity is , मि
आविथि . The last (12no.) mantra is –
यत्ते िूिं ि िव्यं ि मिो जिाम दरू कम ् ।

ित्त आ विथयामसीह क्षयाय जीवसे ।।
In R.V there is a hymn known as ओषगिसूक् (10.97).The classification of plants and

trees are made from the Ayurvedic point of view. For example –
यािः फभलिीयाथ अफला अपवु पा याि पच्ु वपणीिः ।

बह
ृ स्पनि-प्रसूिास्िा िो मुिन्त्वंहसिः ।।
Another two सूक्s can be quoted here , where the subjects of a kingdom pray their king
(RV.10.173 & 174)
ध्रव
ु ं िे राजा वरुणो ध्रव
ु ं दे वो बह
ृ स्पनििः ।
ध्रव
ु ं ि इन्रिाच्ग्िि राष्ट्रं िारयिां ध्रव
ु म ् । (RV.10.173.5)
अभि त्वा दे विः सषविाभि सोमो अवीवि

ृ ि् ।
अभि त्वा षवश्वा िूिान्यभिविो यर्ासभस ।। (RV.10.174.3)
In this way so many story references in connection with the ordinary worldly
transactions are there in different hymns . Hence , one can not disqualify the R.V to be
only a fashion for the elevated souls and the general public can not be gained by going it
through .
1.4.6 Family Books (JebMeceC[ueced)-
The text is organized in ten ‘books’ or मण्डलs or varying age and

lenght. The text clearly originates as oral literature and ‘books’ may be
a misleading term. The individual मण्डलs are much rather, stand alone
as collections of hymns that were intended to be memorized by the
members of various groups of priests.
This is particularly true for the ‘family bocks’ From 2nd to 7th मण्डल,
which form the oldest part of the $eÝiJesoë and account 38% of the entire
text, are called ‘family books’; because each of them is attributed to an
individual $eÝef<e and was transmitted within the lineage of this ऋषषs
family or to his students.
The name of the ऋषषs are mentioned partly in the ब्राह्मणs and partly in
the independent list of the authors (Dee<ee&vegkeÀceCeer) which follow the Jesoe²
literature. They are —

ie=त्ससceoë - 2nd ceC[ueced
efJeéeeefce$eë - 3rd ceC[ueced
JeeceosJeë - 4th ceC[ueced JebMeceण्डueced
Deef$eë - 5th ceC[ueced
YejÜepeë - 6th ceC[ueced
JeefMeä - 7th ceC[ueced
The 8th ceC[ueced contains hymns that are attributed to the entire family of
the कण्वs and that of the Deef²jme. The Devegक्रceपीs give us the names of the
ऋषषs of every single hymn of the remaining books or मण्डलs (I, IX, X).
It is noteworthy that among them, there are women seers also.
1.4.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF RGVEDA
The Jesos as a whole are classed as Þegefleë in Hindu tradition. This has been
compared to the concept of divine revelation in western religious
tradition. Þegefleë simply means “that what is heard, in the sense that it is
transmitted from father to son or from teacher to pupil from
generation”. The $eÝiJesomebefnlee or other वेदs do not assent anywhere that they
are DeHeew©षे³e and this revential term appears oly centuries after the end of
the vedic period in the texts of the ceerceebmee school of Hindu philosophy.
By the period of Puranic Hinduism, in the medieval period, the

language of the hymns had been almost entirely unintelligible and their
interpretation mustly hinged of mystical ideas and sound symbolism.A
number of commentaries are found upon the text. ³eemkeÀ was an early
commentator of the ऋग्वेद and became famous by discussing the
difficult words. mee³eCeë wrote an exhaustive commentary on it in 14th
century. Commentaries are also found of mkeÀvetmJeeceer (pre- mee³eCeë, roughly of
the Gupta Period), GoieerLeë (pre-mee³eCeë), of Jes¹ìceeOeJeë (pre- mee³eCeë, 10th to 12th
centry A.D.) and cegodieue (after mee³eCeë, an abbrevoated version of mee³eCe
commentry.)
1.5. MODEL QUESTIONS.
Group - A - 01 mark questions (answer in one word / one sentence).
1. $eÝiJeso keÀefle ceC[ueeefve meefvle ?

2. $eÝiJesom³e cev$emebK³ee ........... ~
3. veemeoer³eसूक्तm³e ceC[uemebK³ee कत ? क अस्य ceC[uem³e $eÝef<eë ?
4. JeeceosJeë $eÝiJesom³e keÀm³e ceC[uem³e $eÝefषë ?
5. keÀë Yejleer³eë p³eesefle<eeOeejsCe Jesom³e कतलकलनां ke=ÀleJeeved ?
Group - B - 05 marks questions (short type) to be answered in 50

words.
1. keÀeefve keÀeefve ceC[ueeefve JebMe ceण्डueeefve ? $eÝ<eerCeeb veeceesuuesKeHegjëmejb सूियle ~

2. cewkeÌmeceguej-ceneso³em³e celesve Jesom³e keÀeueefveणा³eb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~
3. mecyeeoसूक्ततveeb HeरवefÊe&meeefnl³eb Òeefle ³eesieoeveb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~
4. $eÝiJesom³e ceC[ueevegmeejb efJe<e³emeejb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~
5. $eÝiJesoस्य Yee<³ekeÀejeë kesÀ ?
Group - C - 10 marks questions (medium type) to be answered in 200

words.
1. $eÝiJesom³e efJeYeepeveb keÀefleefJeOeced ? meefJeशे<eb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~

2. $eÝiJesom³e oeMe&efvekeÀसक्त
ू तनतां efJeJes®eveb kegÀ©le ~

3. $eÝiJesom³e mecyeeoसूक्ततveeb efJeJejCeb दत्त्वत महत्त्वां प्रततपतदयत ।
४. $eÝiJesos ueewefkeÀkeÀसूक्ततveeb efJeJejCeb ÒeoÊe ~
Group - D - 15 marks (essay type) question to be answered in 250 words.
1. $eÝiJesom³e oeMe&efvekeÀसक्त
ू तveeceJee&®eervelJeb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~
2. $eÝiJesom³e efJe<e³eefJeJes®eveb kegÀ©le ~

3. $eÝiJesom³e cenlJeb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~
1.5 Further Readings
सहायकग्रन्ाः
1. वैपदकसापहत्यऔरसंस्कृपत, आचाययबलदेवउिाध्याय, शारदासंस्थान, 37 बी.,
ु दुर्ायकुण्ड, वाराणसी 221005 ।

रवीन्द्रिरी,
ु
2. वैपदकवाङ्मयस्येपतहासः, आचाययजर्दीशचन्द्रपमश्रः, चौखम्बासरिारतीप्रकाशन,
वाराणसी।
3. वैपदकसापहत्यऔरसंस्कृपत, वाचस्पपतर् ैरोला, चौखम्बासंस्कृतप्रपतष्ठान, 38 यू.
ए.,जवाहरनर्र, बंर्ालोरोड, पदल्ली 110007 ।
4. वेदिपरचय, कृ ष्णलाल, पहन्दीमाध्यमकायायन्वयपनदेशालय, पदल्लीपवश्वपवद्यालय,
ई.ए./6, मडेलटाउन, पदल्ली 110 009 ।
5. A History of Indian Literature, ed. by Jan Gonda, Vol.I,
Fasc. 1, Vedic Literature [Fasc. 1 : J. Gonda – Vedic

Literature
P. Rolland – Ritual Sūtras
J. Varenne – Upaniṣads]
Originally published at Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden,
Germany.
6. “Vedic Literature” (Occasional Paper), Kireet Joshi,
Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, New Delhi.
7. वेदकाअर्य (Meaning of the Veda) [both in Hindi and
English], Jagannath Vedalankar, Rashtriya Veda Vidya
Pratishthan, New Delhi.
8. Vedic Mythology, A. A. Macdonell, MLBD, Delhi.
ु
9. वैपदकमाइर्ौलोजी (वैपदकिराकर्ाशास्त्र), ु
पहन्दीअनवादक –रामकुमारराय,
चौखम्बापवद्यािवन, वाराणसी 221001 ।
10.Vedic Mythology, Vol. I & II, Alfred Hilebrandt, (Eng.) S.
Rajeswar Sharma, MLBD, Delhi.
11.Rgvedic Legends through Ages, H. L. Hariyappa, Deccan
C ollege, Poona.
12.A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, M. Winternitz, (Eng.
Trans.) V. Srinivasa Sarma, MLBD, Delhi.
13. A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature (Brāhmaṇa

and Āraṇayaka Works), Satya Shrava, Pranava
Prakashan, 1/28, Panjabi Bagh, New Delhi 110026.
14.वैपदकवाङ्ममयकाइपतहास (तीनिार्), िंसत्यश्रवा।
15.िारतवषयकाबृहद ्इपतहास (प्रर्मतर्ापितीयिार्), संिादक – सत्यश्रवा,
प्रणवप्रकाशन, मकाननं 1, मार्य 28, िूवीिंजाबीबार्, नईपदल्ली 110026 ।
ु
16.अमृतसन्दोह (सम्पापदतिस्तक), मानपसंह, पनमयलिपिके शन, पदल्ली 110094 ।
ु
17.कल्याण-वेद-कर्ाङ्क, र्ीताप्रेस, र्ोरखिर।
18. वैपदकसंपहताओमेंं नारी, डा. मालतीशमाय, सम्पूणायनन्दसंस्कृतपवश्वपवद्यालय,
वाराणसी।
19. Vedic Heritage, Ram Gopal, Spellbound Publications Pvt.
Ltd., 177/28, Medical Mor, Model Town, Rohtak,
Haryana 124001.
20.The Vedic Language and Exegesis, Ram Gopal,
Spellbound Publications Pvt. Ltd., 177/28, Medical Mor,
Model Town, Rohtak, Haryana 124001.
21.The Religion of the Ṛgveda, H. D. Grisworld, MLBD, 41
U. A., Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110007.
22.The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upaniṣads
(Vol. 31 & 32), A. B. Keith, MLBD, Delhi.
23. The Rig Veda and the History of India (Rig Veda Bharata

Itihas), David Frawley (Vamadeva Shastri), Aditya
Prakashan, 2/18, Ansari Road, New Delhi 110002.
24.Vedic Symbolism, Prof. Satya Prakash Singh, Maharshi
Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 36,
Tugalakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi 110062.
25.Vedic Studies in India and Abroad, Chief Editor – Prof.
Sriniwas Rath, Editor – Prof. Vachaspati Upadhyaya,
Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan,
Ujjain.
26.Vedas: Traditional and Modern Perspectives, ed. by V.
Kameswari, The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute,
Mylapore, Chennai 600004.
27.The Wonder that was India, A. L. Basham, Picador,
London, printed in India by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi.
28 ବ ୈଦିକସାହିତ୍ୟ ଓ ସଂସ୍କ ୃତ୍ି, ଡଃଅଭି ନ୍ନଚନ୍ଦ୍ରଦାଶ, ଗ୍ରନ୍ଥମନ୍ଦିର, ିବ ାଦ ିହାରୀ, କଟକ ।

UNIT II: YAJURVEDA

2.2. Introduction on Yajurveda.
2.3. Yajus: Definition &Meaning.
2.3.1. Date of composition.
2.3.2. Arrangement & Number of Mantras.
2.4. A – Recensions.
B - Sukla-Yajurveda.
C – Krsna-Yajurveda.
D – Organization.
2.4. Subject matter of Yajurveda.
2.5. Significance of Yajurveda.
2.6.1 अहतदीर्घोत्तरमल
2.6.2. दीर्घोत्तरमल
2.6.3. सहं िप्तोत्तरमल
2.6.4. अहतसहं िप्तोत्तरमल
2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 The definition & meaning of the word ‘Yajus’.
 The Date, Arrangement & Recensions of Yajurveda.
 The Divisions & Subject Matter of Yajurveda.
 The Significance of Yajurveda.

2.2 INTRODUCTION ON YAJURVEDA
The Yajurveda (yajurveda, from yaj meaning "worship") is the Veda

primarily of mantras in prosaic for worship form rituals. An ancient Vedic
Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were
pronounced by a priest while an individual performes ritual actions such as
those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of
the scriptures of Hinduism.The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is
unknown, and estimated by scholars to be around 1200 to 1000 BC,
contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the "black" or "dark"

(Krishna) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" (Shukla) Yajurveda. The
term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses
in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged,
clear" Yajurveda. According to some scholars the portion of YU written
prosaic form is called as कृवणयजुवेद. They says that िद्त्वं हह यजुवेदस्य
कृवणत्वम ् । Because at that time a composition different from the
poetic form was not generally accepted as a good sign. The black
Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white
Yajurveda have survived into the modern times.
The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda Samhita includes about
1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of
verses in Rigveda. The middle layer includes the Satapatha Brahmana, one
of the largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection.[8] The youngest layer
of Yajurveda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads,
influential to various schools of Indian philosophy. These include
the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, the Isa Upanisad, the Taittiriya Upanisad,
the Katha Upanisad, the Svetasvatara Upanisad and the Maitri Upanisad.

2.3 Yajus: Definition and Meaning
Yajurveda is a compound Sanskrit word, composed of yajus (यजुस ्)

and veda (वेद). Monier-Williams translates yajus as "religious reverence,
veneration, worship, sacrifice, a sacrificial prayer, formula, particularly
mantras muttered in a peculiar manner at a sacrifice". Veda means
"knowledge". Johnson states yajus means "(mostly) prose formulae or
mantras, contained in the Yajur Veda, which are muttered".
Michael Witzel interprets Yajurveda to mean a "knowledge text of prose

mantras" used in Vedic rituals. Ralph Griffith interprets the name to mean
"knowledge of sacrifice or sacrificial texts and formulas". Carl Olson states
that Yajurveda is a text of "mantras (sacred formulas) that are repeated and
used in rituals".
2.3.1 Date of Composition

The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period
of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - younger than
the Rgveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the
Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda. The scholarly consensus dates the
bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age,
c. 1200 or 1000 BC, corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom. The Vedas
are notoriously hard to date accurately as they are compilations and were
traditionally preserved through oral tradition leaving virtually no
archaeological evidence. Scholars such as Georg Feuerstein and others
suggest that the dates given to most of these texts is far too late.

2.3.2 Arrangement and number of Mantras
2.4
A - Recensions
The Yajurveda text includes Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16
recensions are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many
as 86 recensions. Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have
survived, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only
because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly
the same, except for a few differences. In contrast to Sukla Yajurveda, the
four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions.
B- Shukla Yajurveda
The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The
name Vajasaneyi is derived from Vajasaneya, patronymic of
sage Yajnavalkya, and the founder of the Vajasaneyi branch. There are two
(nearly identical) surviving recensions of the Vajasaneyi Samhita
(VS): Vajasaneyi Madhyandina and Vajasaneyi Kanva. The lost recensions
of White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India,
include Jabala, Baudhya, Sapeyi, Tapaniya, Kapola, Paundravatsa, Avati,P
aramavatika, Parasara, Vaineya, Vaidheya, Katyayana and Vaijayavapa.
Recensions of the
White Yajurveda
Recension Anuvak No.of
Adhyayas
as Verses
Regional presence
Name
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Madhyandina 40 303 1975
Gujarat, North India
Maharashtra,Odisha,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Kanva 40 328 2086
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu

C- Krishna Yajurveda
There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittirīya
saṃhitā, Maitrayani saṃhitā, Kaṭha saṃhitā and Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā. A
total of eighty six recensions are mentioned to exist in Vayu Purana,
however vast majority of them are believed to be lost. The Katha schoolis
referred to as a sub-school of Carakas (wanderers) in some ancient texts of
India, because they did their scholarship as they wandered from place to
place.
Recensions of the Black Yajurveda

Recension No. of Sub- No. of Regional
Kanda Prapathaka
Name recensions Mantras presence
Taittiriya 2 7 42 South India
Western
Maitrayani 6 4 54
India
Kashmir,
Kāṭhaka
12 5 40 3093 North India,
(Caraka)
East India
Haryana,
Kapiṣṭhala 5 6 48
Rajasthan
The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the Taittirīya
saṃhitā. Some attribute it to Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska and mentioned
by Panini. The text is associated with the Taittiriya school of the Yajurveda,
and attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally, partridge birds).
The Maitrayani saṃhitā is the oldest Yajurveda Samhita that has survived,
and it differs largely in content from the Taittiriyas, as well as in some
different arrangement of chapters, but is much more detailed.

The Kāṭhaka saṃhitā or the Caraka-Kaṭha saṃhitā, according to tradition
was compiled by Katha, a disciple of Vaisampayana. Like the Maitrayani
Samhita, it offers much more detailed discussion of some rituals than the
younger Taittiriya samhita that frequently summarizes such accounts.
The Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā or theKapiṣṭhala-Kaṭha saṃhitā, named after the
sage Kapisthala is extant only in some large fragments and edited without
accent marks. This text is practically a variant of the Kāṭhaka saṃhitā.
D- Organization
Eachregional edition (recension) of Yajurveda

had Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyakas, Upanisads as part of the text,
with Srautasutras, Grhyasutras and Pratisakhya attached to the text. In
Sukla Yajurveda, the text organization is same for both Madhayndina and
Kanva shakhas. The texts attached to Sukla Yajurveda include
the Katyayana Shrautasutra, Paraskara Grhyasutra and Shukla Yajurveda
Pratishakhya.
In Krishna Yajurveda, each of the recensions has or had their Brahmana

text mixed into the Samhita text, thus creating a motley of the prose and
verses, and making it unclear, disorganized.
2.4 SUBJECT MATTER OF YAJURVEDA
The Vajasaneyi Samhita has forty chapters or adhyayas, containing the

formulas used with the following rituals:
Chapter
Ritual Name Days Nature of Ritual
No.
1-2 Darsapurnamasa 2 Offering cow milk to fire. Separating

(Full and new calves from the cows.
moon rituals)
Offer butter and milk to fire.
3 Agnihotra 1 Welcome three chief seasons: Spring,
Rains and Autumn.
Taking Bath in river. Offering milk
and soma to fire. Offerings to deities
4-8 Somayajna of thought, speech. Prayer
to Vishnu to harm no crop, guard the
cattle, expel demons.
Cup of Victory, Installation of a
Vajapeya and
9-10 King. Offering of butter and Sura (a
Rajasuya
kind of beer or wine) to fire.
Formulas and rituals for building
altars and hearths for Agni yajna,
11-18 Agnicayana 360
with largest in the shape of outspread
eagle or falcon.
Offerings of Masara (rice-barley
liquor plus boiled millet) to fire.
Expiate evil indulgences in soma-
19-21 Sautramani
drinking. For dethroned king, for
soldiers going to war for victory, for
regulars to acquire cattle and wealth.
Only by King. A horse is released,
followed by armed soldiers, where in
anyone who stops or harms the
180 wandering horse is declared enemy
22-25 Ashvamedha or of state. The horse is returned to the
360 capital and is ceremoniously
slaughtered by the soldiers. Eulogy
to the departed horse. Prayers to
deities.

Supplementary formulas for above
26-29
sacrifices
Symbolic sacrifice
of Purusha (Cosmic Man). Nominal
victim played the part, but released
uninjured after the ceremony,
30-31 Purusamedha
according to Max Muller and others.
A substitute for Ashvamedha (horse
sacrifice). The ritual plays out the
cosmic creation.
Stated to be more important
than Purushamedha above. This
ritual is a sacrifice for Universal
Success and Prosperity. Ritual for
32-34 Sarvamedha 10
one to be wished well, or someone
leaving the home, particularly for
solitude and moksha, who is offered
"curd and ghee (clarified butter)".
Ritual funeral-related formulas
35 Pitriyajna for cremation. Sacrifice to the
Fathers and Ancestors.
According to Griffith, the ritual is for
long life, unimpaired faculties,
health, strength, prosperity, security,
36-39 Pravargya
tranquillity and contentment.
Offerings of cow milk and grains to
yajna fire.
This chapter is not sacrifice which is
ritual-related. It is Isha Upanishad, a
philosophical treatise about inner
40
Self (Atman, Soul). The verse 40.6
states, "The man who in his Self
beholds all creatures and all things

that be, And in all beings sees his
own Self, then he doubts no longer,
ponders not.
The various ritual related mantras in the Yajurveda Samhita are typically set
in a meter, and call on Vedic deities such as the Savita (Sun), Indra, Agni,
Prajapati, Rudra and others. The Taittiriya Samhita in Book 4, for example,
includes the following verses for the Agnicayana ritual recitation
(abridged),[50]First harnessing the mind, Savita; creating thoughts and
perceiving light, brought Agni from the earth.
Harnessing the gods with mind; they who go with thought to the sky, to
heaven, Savita instigates those who will make great light.
With the mind harnessed, we are instigated by god Savita, for strength to
goto heaven.Whose journey the other gods follow, praising the power of the
god, who measured the radiant regions of the earth, he is the great god
Savita.God Savita, impels the ritual, impels for good fortune the lord of
ritual !Divine Gandharva, purifier of thought, purifies our thoughts ! May
the lord of speech make our words sweet !
God Savita, impel for us this ritual,
Honoring the gods, gaining friends, always victorious, winning wealth,
winning heaven !
— Taittiriya Samhita 4.1.1, Translated by Frits Staal
2.5 Importance / Significance of Yajurveda
The text is a useful source of information about the agriculture, economic

and social life during the Vedic era. The verses, for example, list the types
of crops considered important in ancient India. May my plants and my
barley, and my beans and my sesame,
and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and my sorghum and my wild rice,
prosper by sacrifice.
— White Yajurveda 18.12

2.6. MODEL QUESTION:
2.6.1 अनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 15X2

1. यजुवेदस्य षविाजिस्य सषवस्िरं पररियं दत्त ।
2. ‘िद्त्वं हह यजुवद
थ स्य कृवणत्वम ्’ – अस्य आशयं स्पष्टीकुरुि ।
3. यजुवेदस्य कालं षववेियि ।
2.6.2. दीघोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रनािः । 10X4
1. यजुवेदस्य संस्करणािां षववरणं भलखि ।
2. यजव
ु ेदस्य महत्वं प्रनिपादयि ।
3. यजुवेदस्य प्रनिपाद्ं षवषयमालोियि ।
4. यजुवेदीय-यज्ञािां स्वरूपं महत्वञ्ि वणथयि ।
5. यजुवेदस्य िठिप्रकारमालोियि ।
2.6.3. संज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 05X4

1. किः मोनिअर् षवभलयम्स ्? सिः ‘यजष
ु ्’-शब्दस्य कमर्ं प्रददानि ?
2. वाजसिेयी-संहहिायािः पररियं प्रदत्त ।
3. यजव
ु ेदीयािां यज्ञािां िामानि भलखि ।
4. यजुवेदस्य शाखािां पररियं दत्त ।
5. मैरायणी-संहहिायािः पररियं दे यम ् ।
6. यजुवेदीयािां ब्राह्मणग्रन्र्ािां वणथिं कुरुि ।
7. कृवणयजुवेदीय-उपनिषदिः पररियं दत्त ।
8. वेदेषु यजुवेदस्य वैभशष्ट्यं ककम ्?
2.6.4. अनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 02X5

1. ‘यजष
ु ्’-शब्दस्य निवथििं कुरुि ।
2. यजुवेदस्य आिुमानिक-रििाकालं सूियि ।
3. यजव
ु ेदे उच्ल्लणखिािां मन्राणां संख्यां निहदथशि ।
4. कर्ं यजुवेदिः कृवण-शुक्श्ल-वणथिाम्िा िाभमििः?
5. यजुवेद-मन्रेषु केषां शस्यािां िामानि प्रदत्तानि?

6. सवथमेिस ्-यज्ञस्य वैभशष्ट्यं ककम ्?
7. सोमयज्ञे ककं कक्रयिे?
8. पुरुषमेि-यज्ञे ककं पुरुषिः मेध्यिे?
9. दशपौणथमासयज्ञे ककमिष्ठ
ु ीयिे?
10. कृवणयजुवेदस्य कनि संस्करणानि सच्न्ि?
2.7. FURTHER READING:
1. वैपदकसापहत्यऔरसंस्कृपत, वाचस्पपतर् ैरोला, चौखम्बासंस्कृतप्रपतष्ठान, 38 यू. ए.,जवाहरनर्र,

बंर्ालोरोड, पदल्ली 110007 ।
2. वैपदकवाङ्ममयकाइपतहास (तीनिार्), िंसत्यश्रवा।
3. Vedic Mythology, Vol. I & II, Alfred Hilebrandt, (Eng.) S. Rajeswar

Sharma, MLBD, Delhi.
4. िारतवषयकाबृहद ्इपतहास (प्रर्मतर्ापितीयिार्), संिादक – सत्यश्रवा, प्रणवप्रकाशन, मकाननं

1, मार्य 28, िूवीिंजाबीबार्, नईपदल्ली 110026 ।

UNIT III: SAMAVEDA

3.2. Introduction on Samaveda.
3.3. Saman: Definition, Meaning & Types.
3.4. Recensions of Samaveda.
3.5. Date, Arrangement and Number of Mantras:
3.5.1. Date of composition of Samaveda.
3.5.2. Arrangement of Samaveda.
3.5.3. Number of Mantras in Samaveda.
3.6. Subject-matter of Samaveda.
3.7. Indian Music and Samaveda.

3.8.1. अनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।
3.8.2. दीघोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रनािः ।
3.8.3. संज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।
3.8.4. अनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रनािः ।
3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 The Definition, Meaning & Types of Samaveda.
 The different Recensions of Samaveda.
 The Arrangement & Contents of Samaveda.
 The contribution of Samaveda to Indian Music.

3.2. INTRODUCTION ON SAMAVEDA
The Samaveda (सामवेद, sāmaveda,from sāman "song"and veda "knowledg

e"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text,
and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a
liturgical text which consists of 1,549 verses. All but 75 verses have been
taken from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived,
and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts
of India.
While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rgvedic
period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rgvedic Mantra period
of Vedic Sanskrit, c. 1200 or 1000 BCE, roughly contemporary
with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda. Embedded inside the Samaveda is
the widely studied Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad, considered
as primary Upanishads and as influential on the six schools of Indian
philosophy, particularly the Vedanta school. The classical Indian music and
dance tradition considers the chants and melodies in Samaveda as one of its
roots.
It is also referred to as Sama Veda.
3.3. SAMAN: DEFINITION, MEANING & TYPES
The Samaveda is the Veda of Chants, or "storehouse of knowledge of

chants". According to Frits Staal, it is "the Rigveda set to music". It is a
fusion of older melodies (sāman) and the Rig verses. It has far fewer verses
than Rigveda, but Samaveda is textually larger because it lists all the chant-
and rituals-related score modifications of the verses.

The Samaveda text contains notated melodies, and these are probably the
world's oldest surviving ones. The musical notation is written usually
immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in
syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic Sakha (school).
3.4. RECENSIONS OF SAMAVEDA

R. T. H. Griffith says that there are three recensions of the text of the
Samaveda Samhita: The Kauthuma recension is current in Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Odisha and since a few decades in Darbhanga, Bihar,
The Rāṇāyanīya in the Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gokarna, few parts

of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and the Jaiminiya in the Karnatac, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala
3.5. DATE, ARRANGEMENT AND NUMBER OF MANTRAS:

3.5.1. DATE OF COMPOSITION OF SAMAVEDA
Michael Witzel states that there is no absolute dating for Samaveda and
other Vedic texts. He estimates the composition of the Samhita layer of the
text chronologically after the Rgveda, and in the likely range of 1200 to
1000 BCE, roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda.
There were about a dozen styles of Samavedic chanting. Of the three
surviving versions, the Jaiminiya preserves the oldest surviving tradition of
Samavedic chanting.
Manuscripts and translations

The Kauthuma recension has been published (Samhita, Brahmana,
Shrautasutra and ancillary Sutras, mainly by B.R. Sharma), parts of the
Jaiminiya tradition remain unpublished. There is an edition of the first
part of the Samhita by W. Caland and of the Brahmana by Raghu Vira
and Lokesh Chandra, as well as the neglected Upanisad, but only parts
of the Srautasutra. The song books remain unpublished.

A German edition of Samaveda was published in 1848 by Theodor
Benfey, and Satyavrata Samashrami published an edited Sanskrit
version in 1873. An English translation was published by Ralph Griffith
in 1893. A translation in Hindi by Mridul Kirti called "Samveda Ka
Hindi Padyanuvad" has also been published recently.
The Samaveda text has not received as much attention as the Rgveda,
because outside of the musical novelty and melodic creativity, the
substance of all but 75 verses of the text have predominantly been
derived from the Rigveda. A study of Rigveda suffices.
3.5.2. ARRANGEMENT OF SAMAVEDA

The Samaveda comprises two major parts. The first part include four
melody collections (gāna, िाि) and the second part three verse "books"
(ārcika, आगिथक). A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in
the arcika books. The Gana collection is subdivided
into Gramageya and Aranyageya, while the Arcika portion is subdivided
into Purvarcika and Uttararcika portions. The Purvarcika portion of the
text has 585 single stanza verses and is organized in order of deities,
while Uttararcika text is ordered by rituals. The Gramageya melodies
are those for public recitations, while Aranyageya melodies are for
personal meditative use such as in the solitude of a forest. Typically, the
Purvarcika collection were sung to melodies described in the
Gramageya-Gānas index, and the rules of how the verses mapped to
verses is described in the Sanskrit texts such as the Puspasutra.
Just like Rgveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with
Agni and Indra hymns but shift to abstract speculations and philosophy,
and their metres too shifts in a descending order. The later sections of
the Samaveda, states Witzel, have least deviation from substance of
hymns they derive from Rgveda into songs. The purpose of Samaveda
was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer"
priests.

The Samaveda, like other Vedas, contains several layers of text,
with Samhita being the oldest and the Upanisads the youngest layer.
3.5.3. NUMBER OF MANTRAS IN SAMAVEDA
Samaveda
Vedic
Brahmana Upanisads Shrauta Sutras
School
Kauthuma- Pancavimsa Chandogya Latyayana

Ranayaniya Sadvimsa Upanishad Drahyayana
Kena Upanisad
Jaiminiya or
Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Jaiminiya
Talavakara
Upanishad
The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken almost entirely

from Rgveda, except for 75 verses. The largest number of verse come
from Books 9 and 8 of the Rig Veda. Some of the Rgvedic verses are
repeated more than once. Including these repetitions, there are a total of
1,875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.
3.6 SUBJECT MATTER OF SAMAVEDA
Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical

score sheet that must be heard. Staal states that the melodies likely existed
before the verses in ancient India, and the words of the Rigveda verses were

mapped into those pre-existing melodies, because some early words fit and
flow, while later words do not quite fit the melody in the same verse. The
text uses creative structures, called Stobha, to help embellish, transform or
play with the words so that they better fit into a desired musical harmony.
Some verses add in meaningless sounds of a lullaby, for probably the same
reason, remarks Staal. Thus the contents of the Samaveda represent a
tradition and a creative synthesis of music, sounds, meaning and
spirituality, the text was not entirely a sudden inspiration.
The portion of the first song of Samaveda illustrates the link and mapping
of Rgvedic verses into a melodic chant:
अग्ि आ याहह वीिये – Rigveda 6.16.10

Agna ā yāhi vītaye
Samaveda transformation (Jaiminiya manuscript):
o gnā i / ā yā hi vā i / tā yā i tā yā i /
Translation:
O Agni, come to the feast.
— Samaveda 1.1.1, Translated by Frits Staal
3.7 INDIAN MUSIC AND SAMAVEDA
The Indian classical music and dance, states Guy Beck, is rooted in the
sonic and musical dimensions of the Sama Veda, along with the Upanisads
and Agamas. The Samaveda, in addition to singing and chanting, mentions
instruments. The rules and suggestions for playing various instruments form
a separate compilation, called the Gandharva-Veda, and this Upaveda is
attached to the Samaveda. The structure and theory of chants in the
Samaveda have inspired the organizing principle for Indian classical arts

and performances, and this root has been widely acknowledged by
musicologists dealing with the history of Indian music.
Our music tradition [Indian] in the North as well as in the South,
remembers and cherishes its origin in the Samaveda... the musical version
of the Rgveda.
— V. Raghavan
3.8. MODEL QUESTION:
3.8.1. अहतदीर्घोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रश्ाः । 15X2
1. सामवेदस्य वैहिष्ट्यं प्रहतपादयत ।
2. सामवेदस्य कालं हिर्णयत ।
3. “The Rgveda set to music”- इहत के िोक्तम?् कथञ्चोक्तं?
-सप्रमार्मपु स्थापयत ।
3.8.2. दीर्घोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रश्ाः । 10X4
1. सामवेदस्य गठिप्रकारं हविदयत ।
2. सामवेदस्य ब्राह्मर्ाहद-सिायकग्रन्थािां पररचयं दत्त ।
3. सामवेदस्य संस्करर्ािां िाखािाञ्च हववरर्ं हलखत ।
4. वेदषे ु सामवेदस्य स्थािं हिरूपयत ।
5. ऋग्वेद-सामवेदयोः साम्यं वैषम्यञ्च हवचारयत ।
3.8.3. सहं िप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रश्ाः । 05X4

1. रार्ायर्ीय-िाखा हकम्?
2. कः ग्रीहिथ?् तस्यािसु ारं सामवेदस्य कहत सस्ं करर्ाहि सहन्त?
3. छान्दोग्योपहिषदः पररचयं दत्त ।
4. ऋग्वेदीय-मन्त्रः सामवेदे कथं प्रयज्ु यते - एके िोदािरर्ेि प्रकाियत ।
5. कः Theodor Benfey (1809- 1881)? Ref: He wrote ‘The Hymns
of Sama-Veda’, in 1848.
6. हकं ग्राम्यगेयम?् हकञ्च अरण्यगेयम?्
7. सामवेदस्य पाश्चात्य-अिवु ादकािां िामाहि हलखत।
8. लाटायि-श्रौतसत्रू ं हकम?् तस्य िाखां च सचू यत ।
3.8.4. अहतसंहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 02X5

1. सामि-् िब्दस्य अथं हलखत।
2. सामवेदे कहत संख्यकाः मन्त्राः सहन्त?
3. Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (1826-1906)
कहस्मन्वषण “Hymns of the Samaveda” पस्ु तकं रहचतवाि?्
Ans. – 1893.
4. सामवेदस्य परु ोहितस्य िाम हकम?्
5. आहचणकेत्यस्य कोSथणः?
6. कस्यां िाखायां प्राचीितमं सामगािं प्राप्यते?
7. सामवेदे कहत सख्ं यकाः मन्त्राः मौहलका हतष्ठहन्त?
8. सामवेदे कहत अध्यायाः हवद्यन्ते?
9. यास्कस्य मतािसु त्ृ य ‘सामि’् िब्दस्य अथं प्रकाियत ।
10. ‘कौथमु े’हत िब्देि हकं बध्ु यते ?

ु
1. वैपदकसापहत्यऔरसंस्कृपत, आचाययबलदेवउिाध्याय, शारदासंस्थान, 37 बी., रवीन्द्रिरी,
दुर्ायकुण्ड, वाराणसी 221005 ।
2. वेदिपरचय, कृ ष्णलाल, पहन्दीमाध्यमकायायन्वयपनदेशालय, पदल्लीपवश्वपवद्यालय, ई.ए./6,
मडेलटाउन, पदल्ली 110 009 ।

UNIT IV: ATHARVAVEDA

4.2. Introduction on Atharva Veda.
4.2.1. Definition, Meaning & Types of Atharva Veda.
4.2.2. Date of composition.
4.2.3. Arrangement of Atharva Veda.
4.2.4. Recensions of Atharva Veda.
4.3. Subject-matter of Atharva Veda.
4.3.1. Surgical and Medical treatment.
4.3.2. Charms against fever, jaundice and other diseases.
4.3.3. Remedy by Medicinal Herbs.
4.3.4. Spells and prayers to gain love.
4.3.5. Speculations on the nature of man /life/good & evil.
4.3.6. The Wonderful structure of man.
4.3.7. Prayer for peace.
4.4. Manuscripts and Translations.
4.5. Indian Medicine, Magic & Atharva Veda.
4.6 Model Question.
4.6.1. अनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।
4.6.2. दीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।
4.6.3. संज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।
4.6.4. अनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः ।

4.1 : LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about -
 The Meaning of Atharva Veda.
 The Recensions, Arrangement and Types of Atharva Samhita.
 The Date of Atharva Veda.
 The Scientific Elements in the prayers of Atharva Veda.
4.2: INTRODUCTION ON ATHARVA VEDA
The Atharva Veda (अर्वथवेद, Atharvaveda from atharvāṇas and veda,

meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the
procedures for everyday life".The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a
late addition to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism.
The Atharvaveda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and it is a collection of

730 with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books. About a sixth of the
Atharvaveda texts adpts verses from the Rgveda, and except for Books 15
and 16, the text is in poetic form deploying a diversity of Vedic
matters. Two different recensions of the text – the Paippalāda and
the Śaunakīya – have survived into modern times. Reliable manuscripts of
the Paippalada edition were believed to have been lost, but a well-preserved
version was discovered among a collection of palm leaf manuscripts
in Odisha in 1957.
The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an

epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars. In contrast to the 'hieratic
religion' of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a
'popular religion', incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the
daily rituals for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals.
Royal rituals and the duties of the court priests are also included in the
Atharvaveda.

The Atharvaveda was likely compiled as a Veda contemporaneously
with Samaveda and Yajurveda, or about 1200 BC - 1000 BC. Along with
the Samhita layer of text, the Atharvaveda includes a Brahmana text, and a
final layer of the text that covers philosophical speculations. The latter layer
of Atharvaveda text includes three primary Upanisads, influential to various
schools of Indian philosophy. These include the Mundaka Upanisad,
the Mandukya Upanisad and the Prashna Upanisad.
4.2.1 ATHARVAN : DEFINITION, MEANING AND TYPES

The Veda may be named, states Monier Williams, after the mythical priest
named Atharvan who was first to develop prayers to fire, offer Soma, and
who composed "formulas and spells intended to counteract diseases and
calamities". Monier Williams notes that the now obsolete term for fire used
to be Athar. The name Atharvaveda, states Laurie Patton, is for the text
being "Veda of the Atharvāṇas".
The oldest name of the text, according to its own verse 10.7.20,
was Atharvangirasah, a compound of "Atharvan" and "Angiras", both
Vedic scholars. Each school called the text after itself, such as Saunakiya
Samhita, meaning the "compiled text of Saunakiya".The "Atharvan" and
"Angiras" names, states Maurice Bloomfield, imply different things, with
the former considered auspicious while the latter implying hostile sorcery
practices. Over time, the positive auspicious side came to be celebrated and
the name Atharva Veda became widespread. The latter name Angiras which
is linked to Agni and priests in the Vedas, states George Brown, may also
be related to Indo-European Angirôs found in an Aramaic text from Nippur.
Michael Witzel states Atharvan roots may be *atharwan or "[ancient]

priest, sorcerer", with links to Avestan āθrauuan "priest" and
Tocharian <*athr, "superior force".The Atharvaveda is also occasionally
referred to as Bhrgvangirasah and Brahmaveda, after Bhrigu and Brahma
respectively.

4.2.2. DATE OF COMPOSITION
The ancient Indian tradition initially recognized only three Vedas. The
Rgveda, the verse 3.12.9.1 of Taittiriya Brahmana, the verse 5.32-33 of
Aitareya Brahmana and other Vedic era texts mention only three
Vedas. The acceptance of the Atharvanas hymns and traditional folk
practices was slow, and it was accepted as another Veda much later than the
first three, by both orthodox and heterodox traditions of Indian
philosophies. The early Buddhist Nikaya texts, for example, do not
recognize Atharvaveda as the fourth Veda, and make references to only
three Vedas. Olson states that the ultimate acceptance of Atharvaveda as the
fourth Veda probably came in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE.
However, notes Max Muller, the hymns of Atharvaveda existed by the
time Chandogya Upanishad was completed (~700 BCE), but were then
referred to as "hymns of Atharvangirasah".
Frits Staal states that the text may be a compilation of poetry and
knowledge that developed in two different regions of ancient India, the
Kuru region in northern India and the Pancalas region of eastern India. The
former was home to Paippalāda, whose name was derived from the sacred
fig tree named Pippala (षपप्पल). This school's compositions were in the
Rgvedic style. The Pancalas region contributions came from composer-
priests Angirasas and Bhargavas, whose style was unlike the metric
Rgvedic composition, and their content included forms of medical sorcery.
The Atharvaveda editions now known are a combination of their
compositions.
The core text of the Atharvaveda falls within the classical Mantra period
of Vedic Sanskrit, during the 2nd millennium BC - younger than
the Rgveda, and roughly contemporary with theYajurveda mantras, the
Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda. There is no absolute dating of any
Vedic text including the Atharvaveda. The dating for Atharvaveda is
derived from the new metals and items mentioned therein; it, for example,
mentions iron (as krsna ayas, literally "black metal"), and such mentions
have led the scholars to the estimate that the Atharvaveda hymns were
compiled in the early Indian Iron Age, c. 1200 to 1000 BC, corresponding
to the early Kuru Kingdom.
4.2.3. ARRANGEMENT OF ATHARVA VEDA.

The Atharvaveda is a collection of 20 books, with a total of 730 hymns of
about 6,000 stanzas. The text is, state Patrick Olivelle and other scholars, a
historical collection of beliefs and rituals addressing practical issues of
daily life of the Vedic society, and it is not a liturgical Yajurveda-style
collection.
4.2.4. RECENSIONS OF ATHARVA VEDA.
The Caraṇavyuha, a later era Sanskrit text, states that the Atharvaveda had
nine shakhas,schools: paippalāda, stauda, mauda, śaunakīya,jājala, jalada, brahmavada
, devadarśa and cāraṇavaidyā.
Of these, only the Shaunakiya recension, and the more recently discovered
manuscripts of Paippalāda recension have survived. The Paippalāda edition
is more ancient. The two recensions differ in how they are organized, as
well as content. For example, the Book 10 of Paippalada recension is more
detailed and observed carefully not doing a single mistake, more developed
and more conspicuous in describing monism, the concept of "oneness
of Brahman, all life forms and the world".The Atharvaveda Samhita
originally was organized into 18 books (Kāṇḍas), and the last two were
added later. These books are arranged neither by subject nor by authors (as
is the case with the other Vedas), but by the length of the hymns. Each book
generally has hymns of about a similar number of verses, and the surviving
manuscripts label the book with the shortest hymns as Book 1, and then in
an increasing order (a few manuscripts do the opposite). Most of the hymns
are poetic and set to different metres, but about a sixth of the book is prose.

Most of the hymns of Atharvaveda are unique to it, except for the one sixth
of its hymns that it borrows from the Rgveda, primarily from its 10th
mandala. The 19th book was a supplement of a similar nature, likely of new
compositions and was added later. The 143 hymns of the 20th book of
Atharvaveda Samhita is almost entirely borrowed from the Rgveda.
The hymns of Atharvaveda cover a motley of topics, across its twenty

books. Roughly, the first seven books focus primarily on magical poems for
all sorts of healing and sorcery, and Michael Witzel states these are
reminiscent of Germanic and Hittite sorcery stanzas, and may likely be the
oldest section. Books 8 to 12 are speculations of a variety of topics, while
Books 13 to 18 tend to be about life cycle rites of passage rituals.
The Srautasutra texts, Vaitāna Sūtra and the Kauśika Sūtra are attached to
the Atharvaveda Shaunaka edition, as are a supplement of
Atharvan Prayascitthas, two Pratishakhyas, and a collection
of Parisisthas. For the Paippalada edition of Atharvaveda, corresponding
texts were Agastya and Paithinasi Sutras but these are lost or yet to be
discovered.
4.3 SUBJECT MATTER OF ATHARVAVEDA

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an
epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars. The Samhita layer of the
text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of
magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove
maladies believed to be caused by demons, herbs- and nature-derived
potions as medicine. Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated
to rituals without magic and to theosophy. The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is
one of the oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious
medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European
antiquity".

The Atharvaveda Samhita contains hymns many of which were charms,
magic spells and incantations meant to be pronounced by the person who
seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or
her behalf. The most frequent goal of these hymns charms and spells were
long life of a loved one or recovery from some illness. In these cases, the
affected would be given substances such as a plant (leaf, seed, root) and
an amulet. Some magic spells were for soldiers going to war with the goal
of defeating the enemy, others for anxious lovers seeking to remove rivals
or to attract the lover who is less than interested, some for success at a
sporting event, in economic activity, for bounty of cattle and crops, or
removal of petty pest bothering a household. Some hymns were not about
magic spells and charms, but prayer qua prayer and philosophical
speculations.
The contents of the Atharvaveda contrasts with the other Vedas. The 19th
century Indologist Weber summarized the contrast as follows,
The spirit of the two collections [Rgveda, Atharvaveda] is indeed widely

different. In the Rgveda there breathes a lively natural feeling, a warm love
for nature; while in the Atharva there prevails, on the contrary, only an
anxious dread of her evil spirits and their magical powers. In the Rgveda we
find the people in a state of free activity and independence; in the Atharva
we see it bound in the fetters of the hierarchy and superstition.
— Albrecht Weber
Jan Gonda cautions that it would be incorrect to label Atharvaveda Samhita

as mere compilation of magical formulas, witchcraft and sorcery. While
such verses are indeed present in the Samhita layer, a significant portion of
the Samhita text are hymns for domestic rituals without magic or spells, and
some are theosophical speculations such as "all Vedic gods are One".
Additionally, the non-Samhita layers of Atharvaveda text include a
Brahmana and several influential Upanisads.

4.3.1 SURGICAL AND MEDICAL TREATMENT
The Atharvaveda includes mantras and verses for treating a variety of

ailments. For example, the verses in hymn 4.15 of the recently discovered
Paippalada version of the Atharvaveda, discuss how to deal with an open
fracture, and how to wrap the wound with Rohini plant (Ficus Infectoria,
Native to India)
Let marrow be put together with marrow, and joint together with joint,
together what of the flesh fallen apart, together sinew and together your
bone. Let marrow come together with marrow, let bone grow over together
with bone.We put together your sinew with sinew, let skin grow with skin.
— Atharvaveda 4.15, Paippalada Edition
4.3.2 CHARMS AGAINST FEVER, JAUNDICE AND DISEASES
Numerous hymns of the Atharvaveda are prayers and incantations wishing

a child or loved one to get over some sickness and become healthy again,
along with comforting the family members. The Vedic era assumption was
that diseases are caused by evil spirits, external beings or demonic forces
who enter the body of a victim to cause sickness. Hymn 5.21 of the
Paippalāda edition of the text, for example, states, ‘Heaven our father, and
Earth our mother, Agni the men-watcher,
let them send the ten days fever far away from us.
O fever, these snowy mountains with Soma on their back have made the
wind, the messenger, the healer for us,
Disappear from here to the Maratas.
Neither the women desire you, nor the men whosoever,
Neither a small one, nor a grown-up weeps here from desire of fever.
Do not harm our grown-up men, do not harm our grown-up women,
Do not harm our boys, do not harm our girls.
You who simultaneously discharge the balasa, cough, udraja, terrible are
your missiles,O fever, avoid us with them.
— Atharvaveda 5.21, Paippalada Edition, Translated by Alexander

Lubotsky
4.3.3 REMEDY FROM MEDICINAL HERBS
Several hymns in the Atharvaveda such as hymn 8.7, just like the Rigveda's
hymn 10.97, is a praise of medicinal herbs and plants, suggesting that
speculations about the medical and health value of plants and herbs was an
emerging field of knowledge in ancient India. The Atharvavedic hymn
states (abridged),
The tawny colored, and the pale, the variegated and the red,
the dusky tinted, and the black – all Plants we summon hitherward.
I speak to Healing Herbs spreading, and bushy, to creepers, and to those
whose sheath is single,
I call for thee the fibrous, and the reed like, and branching plants, dear to
Visva Devas, powerful, giving life to men.
The conquering strength, the power and might, which ye, victorious
plantspossess,
Therewith deliver this man here from this consumption, O ye Plants: so I
prepare the remedy.
— Atharvaveda 8.7, Shaunakiya Edition
4.3.4 SPELLS AND PRAYERS TO GAIN A LOVE
The contents of Atharvaveda have been studied to glean information about

the social and cultural mores in Vedic era of India. A number of verses
relate to spells for gaining a husband, or a wife, or love of a woman, or to
prevent any rivals from winning over one's "love interest".May O Agni !, a

suitor after our own heart come to us, may he come to this maiden with
fortune!
May she be agreeable to suitors, charming at festivals, promptly obtain
happiness through a husband!
As this comfortable cave, O Indra !, furnishing a safe abode hath become

pleasing to all life,thus may this woman be a favourite of fortune, beloved,
not at odds with her husband!Do thou ascend the full, inexhaustible ship of
fortune;
upon this bring, hither the suitor who shall be agreeable to thee!
Bring hither by thy shouts, O lord of wealth, the suitor, bend his mind
towards her; turn thou the attention of every agreeable suitor towards her!
— Atharvaveda 2.36
4.3.5 SPECULATIONS ON THE NATURE OF MAN, LIFE, GOOD

AND EVIL
The Atharvaveda Samhita, as with the other Vedas, includes some hymns
such as 4.1, 5.6, 10.7, 13.4, 17.1, 19.53-54, with metaphysical questions on
the nature of existence, man, heaven and hell, good and evil. Hymn 10.7 of
Atharvaveda, for example, asks questions such as "what is the source of
cosmic order? what and where is planted this notion of faith, holy duty,
truth? How is earth and sky held? is there space beyond the sky? what are
seasons and where do they go? does Skambha (literally "cosmic
pillar",synonym forBrahman) penetrate everything or just somethings?
does Skambha know the future? is Skambha the basis of Law, Devotion and
Belief? who or what is Skambha?"[53]
4.3.6 THE WONDERFUL STRUCTURE OF MAN

(...) How many gods and which were they,
who gathered the breast, the neck bones of man?
how many disposed the two teats? who the two collar bones?
how many gathered the shoulder bones? how many the ribs?
Who brought together his two arms, saying, "he must perform heroism?"
(...) Which was the god who produced his brain, his forehead, his
hindhead?(...) Whence now in man come mishap, ruin, perdition, misery?
accomplishment, success, non-failure? whence thought?
What one god set sacrifice in man here?
who set in him truth? who untruth?
whence death? whence the immortal?
— Atharvaveda 10.2.4 - 10.2.14, Paippalāda Edition (Abridged)
The Atharvaveda, like other Vedic texts, states William Norman Brown,
goes beyond the duality of heaven and hell, and speculates on the idea
of Skambha or Brahman as the all pervasive monism. Good and
evil, Sat and Asat (truth and untruth) are conceptualized differently in these
hymns of Atharvaveda, and the Vedic thought, wherein these are not
dualistic explanation of nature of creation, universe or man, rather the text
transcends these and the duality therein. Order is established out of chaos,
truth is established out of untruth, by a process and universal principles that
transcend good and evil.[51][55]
4.3.7 PRAYER FOR PEACE
Some hymns are prayer qua prayer, desiring harmony and peace. For
example,Give us agreement with our own; with strangers give us unity
Do ye, O Asvins, in this place join us in sympathy and love.
May we agree in mind, agree in purpose; let us not fight against the
heavenly spiritAround us rise no din of frequent slaughter, nor Indra's arrow
fly, for day is present !
— Atharvaveda 7.52

4.4 MANUSCRIPTS AND TRANSLATIONS
The Shaunakiya text was published by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight
Whitney in 1856, by Shankar Pandurang Pandit in the 1890s, and by Vishva
Bandhu in 1960–1962. Ralph Griffith translated some chapters into English
in 1897, while Maurice Bloomfield published one of the most relied upon
translations of the Shaunakiya recension of Atharvaveda in 1899.
A corrupted and badly damaged version of the Paippalāda text was edited
by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 from a
single Kashmirian Śāradā manuscript (now in Tübingen). Durgamohan
Bhattacharyya discovered palm leaf manuscripts of the Paippalada
recension in Odisha in 1957. His son Dipak Bhattacharya has published the
manuscripts. Thomas Zehnder translated Book 2 of the Paippalada
recension into German in 1999, and Arlo Griffiths, Alexander Lubotsky and
Carlos Lopez have separately published English translations of its Books 5
through 15.
4.5 INDIAN MEDICINE, MAGIC AND ATHARVAVEDA
Kenneth Zysk states that the "magico-religious medicine had given way to a
medical system based on empirical and rational ideas" in ancient India by
around the start of Christian era, still the texts and people of India continued
to revere the ancient Vedic texts. Rishi Sushruta, remembered for his
contributions to surgical studies, credits Atharvaveda as a
foundation. Similarly, the verse 30.21 of the Caraka Samhita, states it
reverence for the Atharvaveda as follows,Therefore, the physician who has
inquired [in verse 30.20] about [which Veda], devotion to the Atharvaveda
is ordered from among the four: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and
Atharvaveda.
— Sutrasthara 30.21, Atharvaveda

The roots of Ayurveda – a traditional medical and health care practice in
India—states Dominik Wujastyk, are in Hindu texts of Caraka
Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, both of which claim their allegiance and
inspiration to be the Vedas, especially Atharvaveda. Khare and Katiyar
state that the Indian tradition directly links Ayurveda to Atharvaveda.
Wujastyk clarifies that the Vedic texts are more a religious discourse, and
while herbal health care traditions can be found in Atharvaveda, the purely
medical literature of ancient India are actually Caraka Samhita and Sushruta
Samhita, these two are the real roots of Ayurveda. Kenneth Zysk
adds Bhela Samhita to this list. The verse 11.7.24 of Atharvaveda contains
the oldest known mention of the Indic literary genre the Puranas.
The 1st millennium AD Buddhist literature included books of magico-

religious mantras and spells for protection from evil influences of non-
human beings such as demons and ghosts. These were called Pirita (Pali:
Paritta) and Rakkhamanta ("mantra for protection"), and they share
premises and style of hymns found in Atharvaveda.
4.6: MODEL QUESTION:
4.6.1. अनिदीघोत्तरमल
ू क-प्रनािः । 15X2
1. अर्वथवेदस्य षवषयवस्िु वैशद्ेिालोियि ।
2. अर्वथवेदस्य िठिप्रकारं षवशदयि ।
3. अर्वथवेदस्य कालं निरूपयि ।
4.6.2. दीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 10X4

1. अर्वथवेदे रोिोपशमि-प्रकक्रया कर्ं प्रनिपाहदिा – आलोियि ।
2. अर्वथवेदस्य शाखािां पररियं दत्त ।
3. ककम ् अर्वथवेद आयुवेदस्य आिारिः – षविारयि ।

4. िारण-मारण-उचिाटिम ् अर्वथवेदस्य मूलभमनि प्रमाणीकुरुि ।
5. ऋग्वेद-अर्वथवेदयोिः साम्यासाम्यं षववेियि ।
4.6.3. संज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 05X4

1. अर्वथवेदस्य िाम्ि अर्ं प्रकाशयि।
2. अर्वथवेदस्य सवथप्रािीि-प्रकाशिं केि कदा ि कृिम ्?
3. अर्वथवेदस्य साहहत्यमुपरर संक्षेपेणालोियि ।
4. अर्वथवेदस्योपनिषदिः पररियं प्रदत्त ।
5. अर्वथवेदिः प्रािीि-िारिीय-षवज्ञािस्य मूलािारे नि प्रमाणं दशथयि ।
6. अर्वथवेदस्य दाशथनिक-षविारिारां प्रकटयि ।
7. अर्वथवेदस्य यज्ञप्रयोिोपरर आलोििं कुरुि ।
8. ककम ् अर्वथवेदे ऋषष-परम्परा वत्तथिे?
4.6.4. अनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रनािः । 02x5

1. अर्वथवेदे कनि अध्यायािः सच्न्ि?
2. किः पैपलादिः? कि ब्रह्मा ?
3. अर्वथवेदस्य अन्यिाम ककम ्?
4. िारिीय-लौहयुिस्य समयिः कदा आसीि ् ?
5. अर्वथवेदस्य सूक्संख्यां निहदथशि ।
6. अर्वथवेदे कनि शाखािः सच्न्ि?
7. अर्वथवेदे ककं िद्ात्मकािः िािािः सच्न्ि?
8. अर्वथवेदे प्रर्म-सप्त-काण्डेषु ककं वणणथिमच्स्ि?
9. अर्वथवेदािुसारं रोहहणी-वक्ष
ृ स्य प्रयोििः कुर कक्रयिे?
10. अर्वथवेदे प्रयुक्- ‘स्कम्ि’-इत्यस्य शब्दस्य अर्ं भलखि ।
1. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, M. Winternitz, (Eng.
Trans.) V. Srinivasa Sarma, MLBD, Delhi.

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Master of Arts in Sanskrit

UNIT- 1 RGVEDA SAMHITA

Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University

Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. ,Utkal University

Prof. Prativa Manjari Rath ,Retd. Prof, Utkal University

Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Associate Prof. , BJB Auto. College, BBSR

Dr. Subash Chandra Dash , Associate Prof. , Utkal University

Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College, Cuttack

Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia ,

Dr. SareetaPujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur

Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur

1.1. Learning Objectives.

1.4. Rgveda (ऋक्संहिता)

1.5.3 सहं िप्तोत्तरमल

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 1

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO VEDIC LITERATURE

The meaning of the word ‘वेद’is knowledge, in general. Veda is not

It is eternal (नित्य).It is mystic and symbolic. Symbolic Vedic theories are

There is a prayer for a harmonious, prosperous and blissful living–

समतनी व आकूततः समतनत हृदयततन वः।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 2

वेद is the soul's march on the path of Truth. According to the

1.2.1. MEANING OF THE WORD ‘VEDA’

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 3

1.2.2. DEFINITION OF VEDA.

(i) िस्माद्यज्ञात्सवथहुििः ऋििः सामानि जज्ञज्ञरे ।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 4

िर्ािोक्म–् प्रत्यक्षेणािुभमत्या वा यस्िूपायो ि बुध्यिे।

(vi) मन्रब्राह्मणात्मको वेदिः। (सायणिः, िैषत्तरीयसंहहिािावयोपोद्घािे) ।

(vii) मन्रब्राह्मणयोवेदिामिेयम ्। (आपसिम्ब-यज्ञपररिाषायाम ्) ।

(viii) वेदत्वं िाम िमथिःशब्दार्ोियनिष्ठिः ि िु केवलं शब्दनिष्ठिः।

(ix) षवद्न्िे ज्ञायन्िे लभ्यन्िे वािमाथहदपुरुषार्ाथिः यैस्िे वेदािः।

(x) रयो वेदा अजायन्ि अग्िेिः ऋग्वेदिः वायोयथजव

(xi) िोदिा हह िूिं िवन्िं िषववयन्िं सूक्ष्मं व्यवहहिं षवप्रकृष्टभमत्येवं

(xii) षवदन्त्यिन्यप्रमाणवेद्ं िमथलक्षणमर्थमस्माहदनिवेदिः।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 5

1.2.3. THE LITERATURE OF VEDA.

It is believed that in its original state, theवेद was one andकृष्णद्वैपायन

तत्र ऋग्वेदधरः पैलः सतमगो जैममतनः कववः।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 6

1.3. SAMHITA LITERATURE

1.3.1. DIVISIONS OF SAMHITA LITERATURE.

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 7

ii. आरण्यकिः and

In the ब्राह्मणिः there is a detailed statement and explanation of various kinds

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 8

Through oral tradition, there came about a development of various

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 9

The कृवणयजुवेदसंहहिा has 05 extant शाखाs, namely

Incomplete versions of कषपष्ठल and कठ are available. The ऋच्त्वक् or priest

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 10

1.3.3. NUMBER OF VEDAS. (वेदत्रयी/ ित्सवतरः वेदतः)

ऋग्यजःु सतमतथावतख्यतन ् वेदतन ् पव

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 11

(iv)The subject matterofअर्वथ is atonement (प्रायच्िि). According to

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 12

1.4 RGVEDA / RKSAMHITA (ऋक्सांदहतत)

तस्मतद् यज्ञतत ् सवाहुतऋि : सतमततनजज्ञज्ञरे ।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 13

1.4.1 Rgveda: Definition and Meaning

ऋिो अक्षरे परमे व्योमन्यश्स्मन ् दे वत अगध ववश्वे तनषेदःु ।

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 14

1.4.2 Rgveda: Date of composition

The antiquity of theवेद has been a subject of discussion and dispute.