Fuels for Internal

Combustion Engine
Fuel
• Fuel is a substance which participates easily with Oxygen
in self-sustaining exothermic reaction.

• Engine performance depends upon the fuel

characteristics.

• The character of fuel used may have considerable

influence on the design, output, efficiency, fuel
consumption, air pollution, and in many cases on the
reliability and durability of the engine.
Requirements for ICE fuels
• The fuel should get effectively atomized, vaporized and well mixed with
the air.
• The combustion process must be fast.
• Starting of the engine should be quick and reliable at any ambient
condition.
• The surface of the combustion chamber should remain free from carbon
and other deposits.
• The cylinder face, the piston and the piston rings should not get
subjected to excessive wear and corrosion.
• The basic elements of the engine should remain free from thermal
stresses due to temperature gradient developed during combustion.
• Combustion should be complete without the evolution of harmful
exhaust gases.
Selection of a fuel for a particular use in engines

• the type of the equipment required to store, supply and

burn the fuel in the engine

• the heating value per unit volume of the fuel

• the availability and cost of the fuel at the site of the

engine
Classification of Fuels
Solid fuels
a. Natural (primary): Wood, peat, coal,
Major ranks of coal from the lowest to the highest: lignite, subbituminous,
bituminous, semi anthracite, anthracite
b. Prepared (secondary): Charcoal, coke, briquetted coal, pulverized coal
Liquid fuels
a. Natural: Petroleum
b. Prepared: petroleum based - gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil,
lubricating oil, and non-petroleum based - benzol, alcohols
Gaseous fuels
a. Natural: Natural gas
b. Prepared: Liquified petroleum gas (LPG), producer gas, coal gas,
hydrogen
Classification of Fuels
Solid Fuels
Wood
• It is a naturally available solid fuel
Peat
• It is a mixture of decayed vegetable matter with water. It is used as a fuel
in a gas producer plant.
Coal
• This includes all types of natural solid fuels from lignite to anthracite. The
quality of coal improves gradually from lignite to anthracite.
Charcoal
• It is prepared by destructive distillation of wood. The by-products
resulting from distillation are methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone,
gaseous compounds and tar.
Solid Fuels
Coke
• It is the solid residue left after the destructive distillation
of certain soft coals. It is mainly used in blast furnaces.
Briquetted coal
• It is a block of compressed coal dust. The blocks are
prepared from fine coal and slacks of all types produced in
mining by compressing the material under high pressure.
Pulverized coal
• Reducing the coal to powder or dust is called pulverized
coal. Low grade fuel is efficiently burnt by pulverizing.
Types of coal
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Fuels (Petra = rock + oleum = oil)
A mixture of many different hydrocarbons, with some
Sulphur and other impurities.

Hydrocarbons present:
a) Paraffins
b) olefins,
c) naphthene,
d) aromatics.
Fractions obtained from the fractional distillation process
Liquid Fuels
Refining process of crude oil
1. Fractional distillation
The distillation of petroleum is carried in tubular furnace with a tall steel
fractionating column.
2. Cracking
It is the process of breaking down large and complex molecules into lighter
and simpler compounds.
3. Hydrogenation
A cracking process which occurs in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
4. Absorption
The gases leaving the refinery processes may contain some heavier
hydrocarbons in the vapour state, which may fall into the gasoline range.
The absorption process is used to recover these vapours.
Liquid Fuels
Refining process of crude oil
5. Polymerization
It is the process of combining the unsaturated products of one
family (two or more olefinic molecules) to form heavier and stable
compounds that have a high antiknock rating.
6. Alkylation
Combining light undesirable hydrocarbons of one chemical family
to form a larger molecule.
7. Isomerization
Changing the relative position of atom within the molecule of a
hydrocarbon without changing its molecular formula.
Liquid Fuels
Refining process of crude oil
8. Cyclization
Joining together the ends of a straight chain molecule to form ring
compound of a naphthene family.
9. Aromatization
Process of joining together the ends of a straight chain molecule to
form aromatic compound.
10. Reforming
Convert low antiknock quality gasoline into high antiknock quality.
11. Finished blended products
Mixing certain products to obtain a commercial product of desires
quality.
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum-based liquid fuels
1. Gasoline
• Mixture of liquid hydrocarbons having four to ten carbon
atoms, small amounts of lighter and heavier hydrocarbons
• Lightest petroleum fraction in the liquid form
• The boiling range of gasoline lies between 30 to 200 C
• The specific gravity lies between 0.70 and 0.78
• The heating value of a typical gasoline is 44000 kJ/kg
• It is widely used in spark-ignition engines
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum-based liquid fuels
2. Kerosene
• It is next fraction heavier than gasoline
• Widely used in lamps, heaters, stoves
• May be used in CI and gas turbines.
• The specific gravity of kerosene lies between 0.78 to 0.85
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum-based liquid fuels
3. Diesel oils
• Heavier than kerosene
• Wide range of specific gravity and distillation range
• Suitable for use in various types of CI engines
• Heating value of typical oil is 42, 000 kJ/kg
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum-based liquid fuels
4. Fuel Oils
• The range of specific gravity and the distillation range are
similar to diesel oils
• Used in continuous burners
5. Lubricating Oils
• Made up in part from heavy distillation of petroleum
• Used for lubricating purposes
Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum based liquid fuels
1. Benzol
• A distillate of coal tar
• Has high antiknock characteristics
• Can be used as fuel in SI engines when blended with
gasoline.
Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum based liquid fuels
2. Alcohol
• High antiknock characteristics which permit spark ignition
engines to run at higher compression ratios
• Alcohol fueled SI engines can produce slightly higher
power output
• Methanol and Ethanol are alcohols
Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum based liquid fuels
2. Alcohol
Ethanol
• Can be produced by fermentation of carbohydrates in
some plants like sugarcane and starchy materials like
corn, potatoes, maize and barley.
Methanol
• Produced from destructive distillation of wood, synthesis
from water gas, or from natural gas. One of the most
likely alternative automotive fuels.
Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum based liquid fuels
3. Acetone
• More volatile than methanol
• Antiknock quality is higher than that of butanol
• It is desirable fuel to blend with butanol
Important properties of methanol, ethanol and gasoline
Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum based liquid fuels
4. Diethyl-ether
• Very volatile fuel
• Used with other fuels to increase the volatility of the
blend
Gaseous Fuels
1.Natural gas
• Mixture of several gases
• The primary constituent is methane (85-99% of the total volume)
• Other constituents: hydrocarbons, inert gases (nitrogen, helium
and carbon dioxide, traces of hydrogen sulfide, water)
• Excellent fuel for SI engines
• Has a high ignition temperature, resistant to self-ignition,
excellent anti-knock properties.
• Pure methane has an equivalent research octane number (RON)
of 130, the highest of any commonly used fuel.
Gaseous Fuels
2. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Product of petroleum gases (propane (C3H8), propylene (C3H6),
& butane (C4H10)
• Used as fuels for stoves, trucks, buses, and tractors
• Has higher heating value compared to gasoline
• Since propane and butane are heavier than air, the escaping gas
tend to settle and collect in pockets thus creating explosion
hazard.
• Suitable for IC engines because of its availability and low carbon
content resulting in drastic reduction in exhaust emissions.
• Has high self-ignition temperature and high octane number
making it more suitable for SI engines.
Gaseous Fuels
3. Producer Gas
• Made by burning carbonaceous material (coal, wood,
charcoal, coke, etc.) with a large deficiency of air and
treating it with steam
• Can be used in an engine as a fuel
• Has a high percentage of 𝑁2
• Has a low heat value.
Gaseous Fuels
4. Coal Gas
• Coal is heated to temperature up to 1500 C in the
presence of very little air

5. Hydrogen
• Unlimited supply potential
• Almost non-polluting characteristics
Properties of Hydrogen, Methane and Gasoline
Fuels for SI engine
The performance of the spark-ignition engine depends upon
the following fuel characteristics:

a) Volatility
b) Sulfur contents
c) gum deposits
d) Carburetor detergent additives
e) Antiknock quality
Fuels for SI engine
a) Volatility
• The tendency of the liquid to evaporate at given
conditions
b) Sulfur contents
• Higher sulfur content in gasoline is undesirable because
of the formation of SO2 whose combination with water
vapor forms H2 SO4 which is very corrosive substance that
may attack the various parts of the engine affecting
engine performance and life.
• Sulfur content less than 0.1% are demanded for gasoline
used in SI engines.
Fuels for SI engine
c) Gum deposits
• Reactive hydrocarbon and impurities in the fuel have a
tendency to oxidize and form liquids and solids called
gum.
• It deteriorates the gasoline during the long period of
storage at high ambient temperature.
• The amount of gum increases with increases of oxygen,
with the rise in temperature, with exposure to sunlight,
and contact with metal. In storing metals, these factors
should be considered.
Fuels for SI engine
d) Carburetor detergent additives
• The intake manifold and carburetor deposits may result
from airborne contaminants, gums content in the
gasoline, incomplete combustion products, and crankcase
vapors.
• These deposits restrict flow of charge past the throttle
plate
Fuels for SI engine
e) Anti-knock quality
• Detonation in an SI engine causes a very rapid and
uncontrolled burning of the fuel and air mixture in a
cylinder, and this results in an abnormally rapid pressure
rise.
• This sets up vibration of the gases, the cylinder walls and
other metallic surfaces giving knock or noise.
• Therefore, the characteristics of the fuel should be such
that the knocking tendency is resisted, and this property
is called anti-knock quality.
Fuels for CI engine
Most CI engine fuels obtained in the fractions of crude
petroleum near kerosene and gas oil. These fuels are
heavier and more viscous than the gasoline used in the SI
engine.
Some of the important characteristics of CI engine fuels:
a) ignition quality
b) Volatility
c) Viscosity
d) gravity
e) corrosion and wear
f) handling ease
g) Safety
h) cleanliness
Fuels for CI engine
a) Ignition quality
• Most important characteristic
• It is a measure of ability of a fuel to ignite promptly after
injection, thus ensuring a progressive smooth burning and
easy starting
• The desired chemical structure for CI engine fuels is
opposite that desirable for SI engines
• The best fuel for the CI engine are straight chain paraffins
• A fuel with higher cetane number gives better ignition
quality in CI engines
Fuels for CI engine
b) Volatility
• Petroleum fuels used in CI engines cover a wide range of
volatility
• The range of volatility of CI engine fuels lies at lower
volatility compared to the range of volatility of SI engine
fuel
• High volatility fuels are generally not used in CI engines,
Fuels for CI engine
c) Viscosity
• The ratio of shearing stress in a fluid to the rate of shear
and a measure of the resistance of fluid flow.
• It affects the atomization of fuel and operation of the high
pressure fuel pumps.
• It decreases with increase in temperature.
• High viscosity causes low atomization and high
penetration of the spray jet.
Fuels for CI engine
d) Specific gravity
• The oil industry uses a scale adopted by the American
Petroleum Institute for measuring the relative density of
fuels, giving readings in degrees API
API gravity = 141.5/ SG at 15.56 − 131.5
• Light fuel has low specific gravity and has a higher API
gravity.
• CI engines specific gravity limits is 26 to 39 API
Fuels for CI engine
e) Corrosion and Wear
• The fuel should be such that it should not cause corrosion
and wear before and after combustion
• In order to avoid corrosion and wear, the fuel should not
contain much sulfur, ash and carbon residue.
Fuels for CI engine
e) Corrosion and Wear
• Sulphur: contents over 1% are harmful, while amounts of
0.5% are economically feasible
• Carbon residue: high carbon residue increases the
deposits in the combustion chamber and around nozzle
tips thus adversely affect spray characteristics.
• Ash: Could cause wear in the engine. Content should not
exceed 0.12% by weight for the heaviest fuel and should
be 0.01% for light fuels used in high-speed engines.
Fuels for CI engine
f) Handling ease
• Pour Point - indicates that it may not be possible to have
gravity feeding of fuel from the reservoir to the engine
below this temperature
• Cloud Point - It is the temperature below which the wax
content of the petroleum oil separates out in the form of
a solid. The wax solid may clog the fuel lines and fuel
filters.
Fuels for CI engine
g) Safety
• Flash Point - lowest temperature at which a fuel will
vaporize sufficiently to form a combustible mixture of fuel
vapor and air above the fuel. A minimum flash point of
65C is specified for safety.
• Fire Point - the temperature at which enough vapors will
rise to produce a continuous flame above the liquid fuel.
Fire hazard increases with increase in volatility
Flash Points of Some Fuel
Fuels for CI engine
h) Cleanliness
• Very important because of the precisely fitted parts in the
fuel pump and nozzle. Dirt and water in the oil may
damage engines.

i) Knock rating of fuels

• Determines whether or not a fuel will knock in a given
engine under give operating conditions
Analysis of Composition
Proximate Analysis
• Analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on mass
basis, the relative amounts of moisture content, volatile
matter, fixed carbon and ash.

Ultimate Analysis
• A precise chemical determination of the composition of
fuel which gives, on mass basis, the six basic components
coal: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and ash
as well as moisture content.
Analysis of Composition
Proximate Analysis
• Moisture – water expelled when the coal sample is heated for 1
hour at 104 - 110 ℃.
• Volatile Combustible Matter (VCM) – total loss in weight minus
moisture in coal when coal is heated for 7 min in a closed crucible
placed in a muffle furnace at 900 ℃ in the absence of air
• Ash – residue that remains when a weighed sample of coal is
slowly heated in an open crucible for 2 hours at 500-815 ℃.
• Fixed carbon (FC) – obtained by the difference from 100% of the
sum of moisture, VCM and ash.
Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity at Temperature (t)

API and Baume Gravity Units
Expresses the gravity or density of crude oil and liquid
petroleum products.

for liquids lighter than water, use API scale

for liquids heavier than water, use Baume scale
Higher Heating Value
Heating value obtained when the water in the products is in
the liquid state.
Lower Heating Value
Heating value obtained when the water in the products is in
the vapor state.
Stoichiometric A/F ratio for Solid Fuels
Actual A/F Ratio for Solid Fuels