Chapter 3

Plant Design
 Plant design:- broad function taking place in the origin of an enterprise
 Basic concepts of Industrial Plant Design
• Basic decision by management for effective plant design
include
 Acquisition of capital for the following industrial concern
 For the initial establishment
 To cover operating costs
 For changing financial structure of the ongoing enterprise and secure
funds for expansion
 Product design:- is the foundation upon which a plant layout is
built. Good product design has three aspects
 Design for function:- product must perform the function for which its
customers intends to
 Design for manufacturing:- the product specifies the manufacturing
process. Easy to manufacture product
 Design for selling :- to sell a product both aesthetics and convenience
are required
 Sales planning for requirement:
 One of the critical information for effective plant layout is volume of
production output, which are determined by market demand
 Determination of production process:
 Process planning is closely allied with plant layout
 The concern here are planning the process of economic manufacture
 Make or Buy
 The decision is based on unit cost
 In such analysis the management is interested in
 Reducing unit material and processing costs
 Minimizing cash investment
 Improving product
 Plant size
 Product price range
 Price range influence quality, quantity and manufacturing process
 High volume >> less profit per unit, profitable from aggregate
 Building type selection
 Diversification
 To diversify doesn’t mean to widening scope of manufacturing
line, but rather mean entering a completely new field
 Organizational development
 Plant location
 A systematic approach to plant location can be divided into
o Selection of general territory
o Selection of specific community and site
o Water
o Communication
o Wind direction
o Condition of the site
o Future development complementary plants
 Table . Plant location factors
Location factor Territory selection Selection of site and
community
Market X

Raw materials X

Transportation X X

Power X X

Climate and fuel X

Labor and wages X X

Laws and taxation X X

Community services and attitude X

Water supply and waste disposal X

  Plant location techniques
• The location decision is part of larger study called facility management,
which involves both location of the facility and the composition, or
internal layout of the facility

E.g. 1. Suppose the management of a certain Metal

manufacturing company has decided to embark upon a
manufacturing facility expansion. The expansion is necessary
because of an increase in sales of its product. There are currently
two facilities, one in region R1 and the other in region R2, but
there is no additional space available at either site. Furthermore,
the company has warehouses in W1, W2, W3, W4, and W5. The
company also feels that transportation costs might be reduced if
a new Plant at different location were constructed. The figure
below shows the existing sites.
 The problem is where the
“best” location for the new
plant.

W1
W3

W2
M2

W5
W4
M1
1. Analytical techniques
 Careful examination of the problem and utilize mathematics to search
optimum solutions
 Usually the criterion or objective function is to minimize some cost
functions, often distance traveled chosen as cost function
 E.g. if two facilities are located at points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2)
D = [(X1-X2)^2 + (Y1-Y2)^2]^1/2 …….where D is the Euclidean
distance (straight line distance in the case of interstate or intercity travel)

D = |X1-X2| + |Y1-Y2| …….where D is the rectilinear distance

(when the street is laid out in grids, as in urban setting)

2. Transportation methods of linear programming

• Linear programming is a mathematical means for providing
management with a basis for resolving complex operational
alternatives.
E.g. 2. Suppose the Metal manufacturing company e.g.1 has
narrowed its choice of locations to two-manufacturing region M3 or
Manufacturing region M4. assume further that the costs of
manufacturing and distribution to the various warehouses can be
calculated as shown in the table below in which information was
obtained through careful examination of forecast and production
and distribution costs.
To formulate this as a transportation linear programming problem,
it has to be first realized that there are two alternatives:
a) Locate the plant in Manufacturing region M3 or
b) locate the plant in Manufacturing region M4
 Table. Production and distribution costs per metal product

Warehouse Weekly Production

capacity cost

W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

M1 5.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 7000 75.00

Manufacturing

M2 6.50 5.00 3.50 1.50 0.20 5500 70.00

M3 1.50 0.50 1.80 6.50 5.00 12000 70.00

facilities

M4 3.80 5.00 8.00 7.50 8.00 12500 67.00

Forecasted 5000 6000 4000 7000 3000

weekly
demand
Consider the cost of production and distribution. If a manufacturing plant M1 produced
and shipped a metal product to warehouse W1, then the total cost would be: M1-W1
combination

Total cost per unit = cost of production + cost of distribution

80.00 = 75.00 + 5.00
Similarly, the other combination total cost looks like s follows

Warehouse Plant
capacity
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
Manufacturi

M1 80.00 78.00 77.00 78.00 77.00 7000

ng facility

M2 76.50 75.00 73.50 71.50 70.20 5500

M3 71.50 70.50 71.80 76.50 75.00 12,500
Demand 5000 6000 4000 7000 3000 Total
(weekly) 25,000

There are several ways of solving this problem

 Heuristic
 Optimal seeking
• A heuristic method yields very fast, good but not necessarily optimal
solutions with relatively low cost
• Optimal seeking method gives optimal solution with a relatively high
cost of time and effort
 Heuristic method
 Is a least cost assignment routine, just pick the least costly element and assign
as much as possible to that combination considering demand or capacity
cannot be exceeded
 For example, the combination M2-W5 is least expensive at 70.20 per unit. M2
can produce 5500 units, but W5 only needs 3000, so 3000 units should be
assigned to this combination. Now W5 has 0 units of demand and M2 has 5500
– 3000 = 2500 units capacity. Since W5 does not need any more metal products
this column can be dropped from next consideration.
 The next cheapest combination is M3-W2……
 Following some manner the final solution would be as shown in the next table
Table solution to transportation problems using least cost assignment for
manufacturing plant M3

Warehouse Plant capacity

W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

M1 80.00 78.00 77.00 78.00 77.00 7000

Manufacturing

2500 4500

M2 76.50 75.00 73.50 71.50 70.20 5500

2500 3000
facility

M3 71.50 70.50 71.80 76.50 75.00 12,500

5000 6000 1500

Demand 5000 6000 4000 7000 3000 Total

(weekly) 25,000

The total cost of this solution is

= (2500x77) + (4500x78) + (2500x71.5) + (3000x70.20) + (5000x71.5) + (6000x70.50)
+ (1500x71.80)
= 1,821,050 Birr
Similarly for the plant located in manufacturing plant M4

Table solution to transportation problems using least cost assignment for

manufacturing plant M4
Warehouse Plant capacity

W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

M1 80.00 78.00 77.00 78.00 77.00 7000

Manufacturing

4000 3000

M2 76.50 75.00 73.50 71.50 70.20 5500

2500 3000
facility

M4 70.80 72.00 75.00 74.50 75.00 12,500

5000 6000 1500

Demand 5000 6000 4000 7000 3000 Total

(weekly) 25,000

The total cost of this solution is

= (4000x77) + (3000x78) + (2500x71.5) + (3000x70.20) + (5000x70.80) +
(6000x72.00) + (1500x75.00)
= 1,829,100 Birr
So, choosing manufacturing plant M3 is 8,050 birr more economical
  Basics of Plant Layout
• Layouts can take many different forms.
Process layout
Product layout, and
 xed-position layout
hybrid layouts:
oCellular layouts,
o exible manufacturing systems, and
omixed-model assembly lines.
  Process layout/functional layout

group similar activities together according to the

process or function they perform.
Is characteristic of:
 intermittent operations,
 service shops,
 job shops, or
 batch production,
Which serve different customers with different needs.
A Process Layout in Manufacturing
 …con’d

Volume of customer’s order is low, and the

sequence of operations required to complete a
customer’s order can vary considerably.
General purpose equipment used in a process
layout, and the workers are skilled at operating
the equipment in their particular department.
The advantage of this layout is exibility. &
It’s disadvantage is inef ciency.
 …con’d
• No orderly flow of jobs and backtracking is
common
• Movement from department to department can
take a considerable amount of time, and queues
tend to develop.

• In addition, each new arrival may require that an

operation be set up differently for its particular
processing requirements.
 …con’d

• Material storage and movement are directly

affected by the type of layout.
• Storage space in a process layout is large to
accommodate the large amount of in-process
inventory.
• The factory may look like a warehouse, with work
centers strewn between storage aisles.
• In-process inventory is high because material
moves from work center to work center in
batches waiting to be processed.
 …con’d

• Finished goods inventory, on the other hand, is

low because the goods are being made for a
particular customer and are shipped out to that
customer on completion.

• Process layouts in manufacturing rms require

exible material handling equipment (such as
forklifts, carts or AGVs) that can follow multiple
paths, move in any direction, and carry large loads
of in-process goods.
 …con’d
• Process layouts in service rms require large aisles
for customers to move back and forth and
• ample display space to accommodate different
customer preferences.

• The major layout concern for a process layout is

where to locate the departments or machine
centers in relation to each other
  PRODUCT LAYOUTS/Assembly lines
arrange activities in a line according to the
sequence of operations for a particular product
or service.
Each product has its own “line” speci cally
designed to meet its requirements.
The ow of work is orderly and ef cient, moving
from one workstation to another down the
assembly line until a nished product comes off
the end of the line.
Product Layout
Product layouts are suitable for mass production
or repetitive operations in which demand is stable
and volume is high.

The product or service is a standard one made for

a general market, not for a particular customer.

Because of the high level of demand, product

layouts are more automated than process layouts.

 Workers perform narrowly de ned assembly

tasks.
• Advantage:- its ef ciency and ease of use.
• Disadvantage:- in exibility
• Signi cant changes in product design may require
that a new assembly line be built and new
equipment be purchased.

• The major concern in a product layout is

balancing the assembly line so that no one
workstation becomes a bottleneck and holds up
the ow of work through the line.
Comparison of Product and Process Layouts
  FIXED-POSITION LAYOUTS
are used for projects in which the product cannot
be moved.
E.g. Ships, houses, and aircraft.
In this layout, the product remains stationary for
the entire manufacturing cycle.
Equipment, workers, materials, and other
resources are brought to the production site.

Equipment utilization is low because it is often

less costly to leave equipment idle at a location
where it will be needed again in a few days,
than to move it back and forth.
ERGONOMICS
 What is ergonomics ?

 The word ergonomics comes from two Greek words:

 ERGO: meaning work

 NOMOS: meaning laws

Therefore, ergonomics is the law of work.

 Ergonomics is a science focused on the study of human
fit, and decreased fatigue and discomfort through
product design.
 Meaning of Ergonomics

 Ergonomics is the science of

designing the job to fit the B
F
worker, rather than physically A

forcing the worker’s body to

fit the job.
W2

 What do you say about the W1

fitness of this person and his
work?

W1 > W2
 Understanding Ergonomics
Dimension of chair << worker’s body dimensions.
 Ergonomics puts people first, taking into

account their capabilities and limitations.

 Ergonomics aims to make sure that

tasks, equipment, information and the

environment suit each worker.

 At work, school, home, when job fit

the user, the result can be more comfort,

higher productivity, and less stress.

 Ergonomics is defined as the design of the workplace, equipment, machine, tool, product,
environment, and system, considering human’s capabilities and optimizing effectiveness
and productivity of work systems while assuring safety, health, and wellbeing of workers.

- Safety Work systems:

- Health - Effectiveness and
- Wellbeing of workers - Productivity
Assuring

Ergonomics Optimizing

Is

Design of: - workplace Human’s capabilities like:

- Equipment - Physical
- Machine/ tool - Physiological
- Product Considering - Biomechanical
- Environment and - Psychological
- System
 Ergonomics Approaches

According to IEA, ergonomics broadly divide into three domains:

1. Physical ergonomics: is concerned with human anatomical,
anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical
characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
2. Cognitive ergonomics: is concerned with mental processes, such
as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they
affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.
3. Organizational ergonomics: is concerned with the optimization
of socio-technical systems, including their organizational
structures, policies, and processes.
Ergonomics system Dimensions

People

Tasks

Tools/Equipment

Workplace Design

Work Environment

Work culture
Work Organizations

Work culture
 People consider points about physical capacities,
psychological drivers, expectations and individual differences.

 Task Analysis considers points about performance measures,

quality requirements & what, how, when details.

 Tools & Equipment considers points about design of tools to

suit (Persons and Tasks).

 Workplace design consider points about layout of workplace,

workstation design, adjustability / adaptability and storage /
transport of items.
Work Environment considers points about physical,
psychological, chemical and biological.

Work Organization consider points about job design,

team based requirements, working hours / shift work,
rest breaks and task specialization.

Workplace culture consider points about management

commitment / leadership, communication / consultation
processes and feedback / performance management.
 Noise
Vibration
Physical Illumination
Climate
Ventilation

Toxic gases
Chemical Toxic liquids
Odors
Chemical compounds
Working
Environment Fungus
Bacteria
Biological
Viruses
Insects

Team work
Command structure
Pay and welfare
Psychological Shift work
Risk & Stress
Socio-psychological aspects
Goal of Ergonomics
 Reduced error
 Fewer injuries or illness
 Fewer health problems
 Increased productivity
 Higher quality

Effects of poor Ergonomics

 Discomfort
 Accidents and injuries
 Fatigue
 Errors
 Illness
 Annoyance
 Productivity down
 Anthropometry

The science of measuring the human body as to height,

weight, and size of component parts, including skin fold
thickness, to study and compare the relative proportions
under normal/abnormal conditions and for the purposes
of understanding human physical variation.
Static measurements
Functional dimensions
The ten most important human engineering dimensions

1. Height
2. Weight
3. Sitting height
4. Buttock-knee length
5. Buttock-popliteal length
6. Breadth across elbows
7. Breadth across hips (seated)
8. Knee height
9. Popliteal height
10.Thigh clearance height
 Percentile Humans

Anthropometric dimensions for each population are

ranked by size and described as percentiles.

It is common practice to design for the 5th percentile

(5th%) female to the 95th percentile (95th%) male.

The 5th% female value for a particular dimension

(e.g. sitting height) usually represents the smallest
measurement for design in a population.
Conversely, a 95th% male value may represent the largest
dimension for which one is designing.
The 5th% to 95th% range accommodates approximately
90% of the population.
To design for a larger portion of the population, one
might use the range from the 1st% female to the 99th%
male.
Figure below shows comparisons of percentile males and
females.
FIG: The relative sizes of different percentile humans.
 Human Measurement Editor (HME)
• HME allowed the
designer to
personalise the
manikin dimensions
and to select its work
position.
• After establishing
the manikin’s type
and dimension, the
user must choose the
work position by
correct manipulation
of the object.
 Human Measurement Editor

 Users can amend all

103 anthropometric
variables on the
manikin.

 The HME also has

the capacity to define
the mean and
standard deviation of
all anthropometry
variables.
 Common Workplace Postures

There are common postures found in working

environment that can be considered when designing
workplace products or space. This section reviews
guidelines for these postures:

• Standing

• Sitting

• Reaching

• Moving
 1- Standing

Some users may need or want to stand while at their

workstations.

If this is the case, an appropriate desk can be designed

and selected for the type of work being performed.

Desk height for a standing operator can range from

28-43"(Grandjean, 1997) depending on whether the
desk is for precision, light, or heavy work.
Different work-surface heights can be used depending on
the type of work performed.
 2-Sitting

• Knowing what parameters to design for while the

user is seated can help increase the comfort of the
user. Common seated anthropometric
measurements can be seen in Figure below.
Common anthropometric measurements for the seated position

A- Sitting Height

B- Sitting Eye Height

C- Waist Depth

D- Thigh Clearance

E- Buttock-to-Knee

F- Knee Height

G- Seat Length/Depth

H- Popliteal Height
 3- Reaching
• While sitting or standing, an individual at work will
usually have to reach for something.
• The workstation, and parts that go with workstations
(such as overhead storage and pedestals), should allow
the majority of movement of the user’s body joints
within healthy zones.
• When designing products, consider how much
individuals will have to reach in order to minimize
awkward or unhealthy positions.
 4- Moving

• Users will move around in their environment to file

papers, answer a phone, or stretch. An occasional
break from sitting is encouraged because it helps to
stimulate muscles, and increases blood flow, which
decreases fatigue.