Other Relevant

Country History Nature Challenges Prospects

Features
1. China  Modern vocational  The Law of Vocational  Due to limited input,  Speeding up the practice  China adopted the
education in China can be Education in the People’s China’s vocational and training vocational education
traced back to 1860s. It is Republic of China specifies education is infrastructure practices of other
believed that the Fujian that China’s vocational countries such as:
constrained from rapid construction for the
Shipment School, which education is an important  Create models of
progress. vocational education.
was built in 1867 in Mawei, reposition channel for systems at
Fujian Province, is the first students after they finished different stages
ever vocational school in their junior high school study.  The curriculum design  The education mode
of economic
China. It aims at establishing a of Vocational Education undergo significant
development.
 In 1917, the Zhonghua cohesive vocational programs is narrow. changes
Vocation Education Society education system that values
was founded, which the both vocational school  Build a
 Connections to  Exploring the new path
first vocational education education and vocational governance
organization was jointly training programs, and industry are weak of group-oriented
system that is
run by the education sector encourages the articulation development
substantially
and industries. across different education  Structural barriers
employer-driven.
 China launched the reform sectors.  Expanding international
and opening-up policies in  China’s vocational education  Faculty have limited exchange and
1978 and entered a new falls into three categories, i.e.  Address the low
experience in industry cooperation
historical era. Vocational junior secondary, senior public perception
education therefore has secondary, and tertiary level, of Vocational
been injected with which are conducted by  Standards and  Training more skilled- education.
tremendous vitality. vocational schools at the qualifications systems oriented talents t retain
 The development of
 The state council approved three levels respectively. need development human resources for
Chinese vocational
the Report on the  Vocational Education at new type education are uphold
Structural Reform of the junior secondary level is part  Issue of disparity industrialization. Deng Xiaoping Theory
Secondary Education in of China’s nine-year between secondary which to promote
1980, which marks the compulsory education
vocational education  Improve the further development of
start of the rectification in system. vocational education in
and general high school employment access
secondary education  Junior secondary school the new era, to train
structure across the graduates or equivalents are education. scheme, and build the
more skill-oriented
country with its priority put recruited at schools at senior national vocational
people, to provide
on making great effort to secondary level to receive  Dealing with education qualification more practical skills
develop vocational and training of 3 years. The employment framework. training for rural
technical education. courses include both general difficulties. migrants labors, and to
 The State Council held the courses for high school and  Strengthen the principle meet the new demand
National Vocational vocational technical courses of service-oriented and of the establishment of
Education Conference in and skill training designed for a well-off society.
employment-driven in
2002 and issued the the needs of workplace.  Reform of personnel
Decisions Concerning  There are 4 kinds of vocational education of
system in vocational
Promoting Vocational vocational schools at senior China. schools and colleges
Education Reform and secondary level in China. and build up a group
Development which put  Secondary Specialized of “Double Shi”
great emphasis on Schools, which mainly teachers, namely
accelerating the reform recruits junior teachers with both
and development of secondary school theoretical and
vocational education, and graduates. The study practical qualities.
proposed Vocational time varies from 3 to 4  China has established
Education and Training years. This kind of extensive links with
Innovation Project. school came up with international
training programs for organization such as
all kinds of skillful World Bank, UNESCO,
laborers. UNDP, the
 Artisan Schools, which International Labor
mainly recruits junior Organization, UNFPA,
secondary school The Food and
graduates. The length Agriculture
of schooling is three Organization of the
years. The training United Nations, and
targets are junior and UNICEF, and has
secondary artisans. conducted a number
 Vocational High of cooperation
Schools, which programs to develop
recruits junior vocational educations.
secondary school
graduates. The length
of schooling is varies
from 2-4 years, mostly
3 years. It cultivates
similar personnel as
the secondary
specialized schools
and artisan schools.
Most of the graduates
will become operators
in workplaces.
 Adult Secondary
Specialized Schools, it
is established
originally to train
adults or full –time
workers with
equivalent literacy of
junior secondary

2. Singapore  Early 19th to mid-20th
century, technical and
vocational education in
Singapore was
underdeveloped due to the
nature of the economy and
the colonial government’s
non-interference in
education.
 The first government trade
school in Singapore was
established by the British in
1930. Then, not much
happened until they built
two secondary Technical
Schools in 1956. That was it
until the political party that
continues to run Singapore
was first elected in 1959.
That election marked an
explosion of vocational and
school students to
medium-level
technicians. The
school mainly recruit
junior secondary
school graduates. The
length of schooling
varied from 2 to 3
years.
 Vocational education at
tertiary level, which mainly
recruit the regular high
school and secondary
vocational school graduates
to study for 2 to 3 years. It
pay special attention to
cultivating practice-oriented,
craft-oriented, and skill-
oriented personnel.
 Degree education and
vocational training are
equally emphasized.
 Responsive “One ITE System,  Focusing on career-  Workforce Skills  In 2014, the SkillsFuture
Three Colleges” based vocational and Qualifications (WSQ) national movement was
 Governance Model Unique technical education system for skills launched to focus
“Hands-on, Minds-on, Hearts-  Catering to lower 25% - upgrading of adult Singapore’s education on
on” College Education 30% of secondary school workers complements skills gained through job
 Practice-Oriented Curriculum cohort the formal education experiences. With this
Model  Responding to dynamic system. movement, a range of
 Process-Oriented Pedagogic changes and challenges  Deepen international initiatives aimed at
Model impacting VTE connections fostering skills mastery
 Integrated Communications  Difficulties in building a Singapore aims at pressing and lifelong learning was
and Marketing of VTE culture of innovation, on with trade liberalism, introduced.
 Creative Rebranding of ITE enterprise and deepening its knowledge
productivity. of markets and setting up
 Singaporean children start  Demand for greater a Global Innovation
their formal education at age inclusiveness, Alliance.
six. They generally spend six transparency, accounta-  Build strong digital
years in primary school, then bility and a more plural capabilities.
another four or five in political culture. Small and medium
secondary school. Then they enterprises need to be
sit, at the age of 16 or 17, for enabled to adapt to the
their General Certificate of rapid digitalization and
 technical education in
Singapore. From a standing  On completion of primary
start of 1,379 students in
1961, there was a 14-fold
increase in the number of
vocational students in the
system by 1967.
 In 1961, the
landmark Report of the
Commission of Inquiry into
Vocational and Technical
Education drew up a vocational
scheme for coordinating
and systematizing
vocational and technical
education in line with the
industrialization policy.
One outcome was the
conversion of the
government trade school
at Balestier Road into the
Singapore Vocational
Institute (SVI) in 1963. The
SVI was the first vocational
institute to specialize in
craft subjects.It provided
training in skills that were
directly relevant to
industry, such as carpentry,
plumbing, electrical fitting
and installation, welding,
mechanical drawing and
motor vehicle repairs.
 The National Industrial
Training Council (NITC) was
formed in April 1968 to
establish policies regarding
technical education and
industrial training in
Singapore. This was
followed by the
consolidation of all
vocational and technical
Education (GCE) exams. global technologies. This
also requires new
education, successful learning and teaching
students attend either an methods to better
academic secondary school, a prepare the learners for
secondary commercial or a emerging new
secondary technical school. technologies.
These schools offer four-year  Implement industry
courses. However, students transformation maps
may leave at the end of the There is a need to
second year to enter a develop tailored
institute. industry transformation
Secondary school students maps for each industry,
who successfully complete and maximize industrial
the four years can continue synergies. This could
for a two-year pre-university also include the
course which provides entry identification of relevant
to either the university or the skills that need
Singapore Polytechnic for to be taught and learnt
degree/professional courses. in order for graduates to
At the end of the fourth year, meet the requirements
students may proceed to the of the market.
Teachers' Training College or  Partner each other
to the Singapore Polytechnic Encouraging trade
for the technician courses. associations, chambers
Primary school students who and trade unions to
did not make the grade in the work together. Creation
Primary School Leaving of a regulatory
Certificate and who are over environment to support
fourteen years of age, receive innovation and risk-
two years additional taking.
education at a vocational
school. Successful students
from these schools may then
apply for admission to a
vocational institute.
 The secondary vocational
schools provide two years of
education, comprising 50 per
cent general subjects and 50
percent practical subjects like
woodwork, metalwork, art
and crafts, domestic science
(home economics), basic
 training initiatives at electricity and typewriting
the Ministry of and office practice. Three
Education (MOE) under a practical subjects are taken in
newly created Technical the first year and two taken
Education Department in the second year. At
(TED) in June 1968. present there is only one
 The increasing vocational institute in
convergence of continuing Singapore. This institute (the
education, vocational and Singapore Vocational
technical training, led to Institute) provides two years
the amalgamation of the of fulltime trade training,
ITB and AEB to form together with evening classes
the Vocational and and such past-trade and
Industrial Training special classes as may be
Board (VITB) in 1979. The warranted from time to time.
VITB aimed to prepare and Full-time courses are offered
train school-leavers for in electrical fitting,
employment and to engineering drawing,
provide working adults mechanical engineering
with opportunities for practice, motor mechanics,
continuing education and plumbing, radio, refrigeration
skills upgrading. It sought and air conditioning,
to make vocational training concrete- and brick-work,
more systematic and sheet metal, ship-building,
professional by setting welding and woodwork.
national standards, as well  Teachers of technical
as conducting tests, subjects for the secondary
examinations and technical and secondary
certification. vocational schools are
 In 1992, the VITB was trained in the technical
restructured and elevated department of the Teachers'
into a post-secondary College. The Teachers'
institution, the Institute of College, Singapore,
Technical Education (ITE), introduced in 1960, a two-
to provide higher-level year full-time course for the
vocational and technical Certificate in Education
courses. which included (Technical) which was
raising pedagogic and converted into one-year full-
professional competencies, time and two-year part-time
a rebranding campaign, courses. This provided for
and infrastructural more extensive practical
upgrading and expansion work and classroom practice.
to create a network of 10
modern campuses across
 Singapore
 In January 2014, the
Applied Study in
Polytechnics and ITE
Review (ASPIRE) committee
was formed to study and
propose how applied
education in the
polytechnics and ITEs could
be enhanced to help
students build a strong
foundation in skills that
would enhance their career
and academic prospects.
3. Canada  Formal vocational
education in Canada dates
back to the late
seventeenth century. To
make the fledgling colony
self-sufficient, the
intendant and bishop of
New France tried to
establish both secondary
industries and a trade
school. Their work affected
only a small percentage of
the population; most
people continued to see
education primarily as an
academic activity.
 By the end of the
nineteenth century, most
provinces had established
compulsory, tax-supported
elementary schooling.
Public interest in education
grew, and commercial and
industrial leaders
supported the drive toward
universal basic literacy.
Traditional interpretations
see these industrialists as
practicing a kind of
bourgeois “noblesse
 Vocational Postsecondary education  Canadians have  Ontario has a
education is offered at both in Canada exists in a historically considered comprehensive
the secondary and post- constantly changing vocational education to program called the
secondary levels in Canada. environment, which be preparation for “Specialist High Skills
 At the secondary, encompasses second-class citizenship Major”
courses are offered either globalization, increased  To survive in the modern  The Canadian
alongside academic courses population mobility, world, Canada must government passed the
in comprehensive school or technology advancements, ensure that its young Technical Education Act
occasionally in separate changing demographics, workers are equipped (1919). Under its terms,
vocational schools. and the steadily evolving with the best and the the federal government
 Ontario has a labour market. Three latest skills. was to provide $10
comprehensive program interconnected issues  The original intent of the million to the
called the “Specialist High arise from these trends: vocational education provinces, to be spent
Skills Major”  Postsecondary capacity; lobbyists was to increase over a ten-year period,
 Graduates of  Quality assurance; and the number of skilled to promote technical
secondary vocational  Internationalization and workers in Canada. education at the
programs may enter the mobility.  Since Canada can no secondary school level.
workforce, a post-secondary longer look to  The federal
program to expand and Reduced likelihood of immigration to solve its government responded
enhance their skills, or an traditional stable jobs and problems, the country to the need for more
apprenticeship in their increased participation in must develop a national Canadian
occupational area or trade higher-education co- system of vocational manufacturing by
 Although located with increased trainings. passing the Vocational
apprenticeship programs time doing non-standard, Training Coordination
were initially conceived for less stable jobs Act (1942), to federally
adults, students are choosing The marketing of VocEd as fund a variety of
apprenticeship through the a debt-free or back-up programs for
Apprenticeship Incentive plan for university servicemen, veterans,
Grant and Apprenticeship education the unemployed, and
supervisors in industry.
 oblige” because they Completion Grant Canada needs a system The programs ranged
recognized the need for an  The government which will ensure that from vocational courses
educated electorate in a also offers a business tax young people, both men in secondary schools to
democracy. credit equal to 10 % of the and women, will see apprenticeships. As
 The Canadian wages paid to apprentices vocational education as with previous federal
Manufacturers Association  Vocational challenging and funding arrangements,
(CMA), formed in 1887 to education and training is worthwhile, not just as the federal government
further the cause of regulated by the Red Seal ticket to second-class laid down conditions or
secondary industry, led this Program, an interprovincial status restrictions to
campaign. Assisted by such standard framework covering determine a province’s
groups as the Trades and 56 occupations and overseen eligibility for funding.
Labour Congress and the by the Canadian Council of  The Vocational Schools
Dominion Board of Trade, Directors of Apprenticeship Assistance Agreement
the CMA became the  Programs who (1945) went even
primary lobby force participated are recognized further by providing
pressuring the federal as having met industry federal, shared-cost
government to promote standards of excellence; assistance to create
vocational education. It students who have provincial composite
argued that to compete completed formal education high schools.
with other industrialized or apprenticeship can earn an
states, Canada needed endorsement and can be
more skilled workers. used as employment
 The Royal Commission was advantage, providing holders
Canada’s first federal with employment, higher
commission on education. wages and career
Its mandate was broad in advancement opportunities.
scope, concerned with all  Types of TVET
aspects of vocational programs offered in Canada
education at all levels. The are
Commission’s report  Vocational
emphasized the need for education and
massive federal funding for training
the broad field of  Apprenticeship
vocational education. Programs
 Workplace and
workforce learning

 Technical and vocational

institutions, community
colleges and institutes of
technology offer programs
for continuing education and
for developing skills for
career in business, the
 applied arts, technology,
social services and some
health sciences. Programs
vary in length
from six months to three-
years. There are also private
vocational or job-training
colleges in some provinces. In
general, colleges award
diplomas and certificates and
many also award bachelor
degrees.
 Specialized programs in high-
technology areas are offered
by many colleges in
collaboration with industry
and business partners. These
courses prepare students for
future employment in trades,
industry or agriculture or for
a job as a professional
technician or technologist.
Upon completion of a one-
year specialized program a
certificate is granted; two or
three-year specialized
programs lead to a diploma.
4. Australia The Australian VET system  articulated training  The division of Australia has a very well The typical intensity of
has evolved over a long arrangements matched to responsibilities between developed vocational each Australian Quality
period of time. Some of the career structures defined in the Commonwealth and education and training Framework qualification is
key developments and industrial awards; state and territory (VET) system, which as follows:
milestones are:  nationally regulated governments is unclear. enjoys a high degree of  Certificate I and
 early 1800’s—the occupational skills standards  Principles underpinning confidence. In particular: Certificate II
‘transportation’ of the craft set by industry and funding are not  Engagement of programs to be the
based apprenticeship maintained by a newly apparent and nor employers is equivalent of
system from England established National Training consistent with human strong. around half a year
 early 1800’s to 1960’s the Board capital policies and  The national of full-time study to
gradual expansion of  nationally consistent, principles. qualification complete
apprenticeships across competency-based modular The use of skills system is well  Certificate III and
different craft courses with opportunities forecasting creates established and Certificate IV
areas/occupations, but in a for students to progress at some difficulties. understood. programs typically
different way in different their own pace;  There are some  The VET system is take the equivalent
colonies or states and  integration between informal weaknesses and gaps in flexible and of one year of
territories the gradual the relevant data. allows for a fair fulltime study to
 establishment of and formal elements of TVET  Apprenticeships are rigid amount of local complete
‘mechanics institutes’, through greater recognition and seem to depend on autonomy and  Diploma and
technical colleges, and credit for training duration rather than innovation to Advanced Diploma
technical secondary undertaken in industry or competence. adapt learning to programs typically
schools and other private training institutions;  Training package local involve the
technical, vocational  more provision for the development and circumstances. equivalent of two
education and training assessment, recognition and implementation  Data and years of full-time
institutions in different certification of knowledge processes are inefficient. research on most study, although
ways in different and skills gained through  The ageing of the VET issues are some programs
jurisdictions (with little experience in the workplace, teacher labour force is a good. involve the
national government through self-study or through serious problem. equivalent of three
funding). study at institutions.  Registered Training  Graduates Employed years of full-time
 1970’s—the establishment Organizations (RTOs) are After Training study.
of the modern VET system constantly challenged to  Training Satisfaction
through the establishment provide training which is  Average Salary (of those  The Australian Technical
of a national system of applicable, relevant and employed full-time) Colleges Act provides for
publicly funded Technical Career Outcomes of Australian thorough, while  Higher earnings the establishment and
and Further Education VET Courses maintaining costs which  Retraining for a new operation of Australian
(TAFE) institutes and the Certificate I are affordable to their career Technical Colleges in
introduction of significant Duration - 4 to 6 months customers  Better learning order to provide trade
national government Career outcome - Competent  Inconsistencies in environment skills training, education
financial support for TAFE operator training.  Increase personal and mentoring for young
following the release of the Certificate II development and Australians. This includes
Kangan Report (Kangan Duration - About 1 year growth establishing an industry-
1975) the introduction of Career outcome - Advanced led governing council for
national government operator each Australian
subsidies for Certificate III Technical College that is
apprenticeships. Duration - About 1 year to set out strategic
 early1980’s—the National Career outcome - Qualified directions and
Centre for Vocational tradesperson or technician performance objectives
Education Research Certificate IV for the College and
(NCVER) is established, Duration - 12 to 18 months select the principal of
then it was called the TAFE Career outcome - Supervisor the College.
National Research and Diploma
Development Centre mid Duration - 18 to 24 months
1980’s—the establishment Career outcome - Para-
of the traineeship system professional
to compliment Advanced Diploma
apprenticeships following Duration - 24 to 36 months
the release of the Kirby Career outcome - Junior
Report in 1985 (Kirby 1985) manager
late 1980’s—the decision
to implement competency-
based training 1990—the
 number of apprentices
reaches a yet to be broken
record of just over 160,000
(but traineeships are still
less than 12,000 at this
time)
 1992—the Australian
National Training Authority
(ANTA) is established
 1992—the total number of
VET students in Australia
reaches 1 million for the
first time
 1995—the Australian
Qualifications Framework
(AQF) is established to
bring all post compulsory
education and training
qualifications into the one
national system of
qualifications
 early 1990’s—competition
to TAFE’s monopoly on VET
provision is gradually
introduced through some
tendering of publicly
funded VET to private
training providers mid
1990’s—the decision is
taken to start developing
National Training Packages
to be introduced across a
wide range of industries
and occupations
 1998—the New
Apprenticeship system
commences encompassing
the former apprentice and
traineeship systems,
including the
commencement of user
choice
 1998—the Australian
Recognition Framework
 (ARF) is established
 1998—the number of VET
students in Australia
reaches a record 1.5 million
 1999—the number of New
Apprentices (ie apprentices
and trainees) reaches
250,000
5. Finland  The development of  Establishment of a distinctive • The current government • to raise the level  In completing upper
Finnish VET started when VET system promoting has sought to save of education; secondary vocational
Finland became an national industries, networks money from education, • to offer equal qualifications, students
autonomous Grand Duchy between administration, which has increased the educational acquire and
of the Russian empire. In industry, schools, and civil pressure to enlarge the opportunities to all demonstrate the skills
those days Finland was an society; group sizes and buy citizens, regardless of and knowledge required
agrarian country with few  Combination of community fewer facilities. their place of residence, to achieve vocational
towns and poor and occupational citizenship • There is strong peer wealth, mother tongue proficiency and find
transportation in work and VET; and pressure in many Finnish or sex; employment in their
connections. The earliest  Defense of vocational schools schools which affects • to provide them chosen field while
forms of vocational against vocationally oriented the well-being of many with knowledge and obtaining extensive
education originated in the continuation school; VET as a school children. skills needed in life; basic skills needed in
1830s when ‘Sunday specific form of education. • The current government • to support pupils’ different positions
schools’ were set up to  First and foremost, equal has sought to save growth into humanity within the field and
teach urban industrial access to education is a money from education, and into ethically more specialized skills
workers. These schools, constitutional right. which has increased the responsible member of and professional
however, offered mainly  Approach to key pressure to enlarge the society; competence in one
general education in competencies in the Finnish group sizes and buy • to promote sector of the study
literacy, mathematics, and curricula is holistic and occurs fewer facilities. civilization and equality program.
religion to apprentices and through the study of • There is strong peer in society and pupils’  The qualifications are
journeymen in 1840–1870. individual subjects. pressure. prerequisites for based on competencies
 Institutional vocational  Finland’s vocational • They are a way of participating in required in working life
education was initiated at education falls into three limiting the amount of education and otherwise and consist of
the beginning of the 19th categories, i.e. primary students, and there are developing themselves qualification units in
century. Schooling for education, secondary faculties where only a during their lives; and keeping with the work
seafaring started in 1813, education, and tertiary level, few percent of the • to secure and functional units of
and schooling for health which are conducted by applicants are accepted. adequate equity in the world of work.
care and midwifery in vocational schools at the • diminishing labour force education throughout  The vocational skills
1816. The first business three levels respectively. owing to demographic the country; and requirements of
college was established in  Primary school and lower changes • Support the qualifications and units
1839, the first agricultural secondary are part of • changes in competence development of learners’ are defined in terms of
college in 1839, the first Finland’s nine-year requirements thinking skills, work and knowledge, skills and
technical real colleges in compulsory education • challenges in terms of interaction skills, crafts competences.
1847, and the first forestry system. the sustainability of the and expressive skills, Finnish vocational
college in 1861. The first  TVET starts at upper national economy participation and skills to qualifications:
schools for crafts and influence, as well as self-
 industry were established
by the Board of
Manufacturing on the basis
of the ‘Act on the training
of craftsmen and
manufacturers for the
country’ given in 1842 and
the ‘Act on technical
schools’ given in 1847. The
first vocational school was
established in Helsinki in
1899.
 In 1943, the continuation
school became obligatory
for applicants for other
schools. In the following
reform in 1958, this form
of schooling was renamed
the School for Citizenship.
The popularity of grammar
school exploded, and
vocational schools
expanded and gained
national recognition in the
modernizing of Finnish
VET. Folk school reform
and the reform of a system
of school-based VET were
integrated in the project of
developing Finland towards
a welfare state, Welfare
Finland.
 The administration of
vocational education and
training was dispersed
under several ministries
and central administrative
boards until the 1960s. In
1966, the Finnish National
Board of Vocational
Education was established
as part of the Ministry of
Trade and Industry, and in
1968 the Board was
secondary level and more knowledge and  Upper secondary
than 40 per cent of the responsibility. vocational
relevant age group starts • recognition of qualifications;
vocational upper secondary prior learning,  Further and
studies immediately after diversification of learning specialist
basic education. The Finnish environments, qualifications;
higher education system enhancing efficient and
consists of two application procedures,  Polytechnic
complementary sectors: reducing drop-out rates, degrees and
universities and polytechnics and increasing the master's
in which adults can study on attractiveness and degrees.
separate adult education appreciation of TVET  The Finnish Education
programs. Evaluation Council
(FEEC) has been
School-based program and established for the
apprenticeship training purpose of external
It is three years of study and evaluation of
each program includes at least education. The FNBE
half a year of on-the-job maintains a national
learning in workplaces. monitoring system of
Polytechnic education learning outcomes
The length of polytechnic based on vocational
degree studies is generally 3.5 - skills demonstrations
4 years of full-time study. This for the purposes of
education is arranged as national follow-up
degree program. The entry assessments on
requirement is a certificate learning outcomes.
from an upper secondary
school or the matriculation
certificate, a vocational
qualification or corresponding
foreign studies.
Vocational Special Education
(VSE)
It provides facilities and
services for students with
severe disabilities or chronic
illnesses. Instruction is given in
small groups and the main
emphasis is on practice rather
than theory.
 transferred to the Ministry
of Education. Finally in
1991, the general (the
Finnish National Board of
General Education) and
vocational (the Vocational
Board of Education) boards
were merged to form the
current the Finnish
National Board of
Education (FNBE).
6. Japan  The modern system of  There are different types of  Entrance Examination  In upper secondary  women are increasingly
education in Japan has educational institutions, Pressure schools, students demanding opportunities
developed over the period these includes Kindergartens  Difficulty of Curriculum enrolled in vocational for education, training
since the end of the 1939– (Yochien), Integrated Centers Change technical education were and advancement at
45 war into a single-track for Early Childhood Education  Technology Education required to take work, which will change
system substantially and Care (Yohorenkeigata- and Equal Opportunity fundamental subjects. their
influenced by the United ninteikodomoen), in Education and  The inclusion of a new traditional social roles
States of America. Elementary Schools  Lack of Resources for computer literacy course
 In 1994, Monbusho (Shogakko), Lower Secondary Technology Education. in technology education
developed the concept of Schools (Chugakko),  Making better use of program.
an integrated upper Compulsory Education evaluation and  Information technology
secondary course, offering Schools (Gimukyoiku-gakko), assessment results to equipment and training
both vocational and Upper Secondary Schools promote better student is future focused,
general education. The (Koto-gakko), Secondary achievement across the and the ground is being
initiative is intended to Education Schools (Chuto- system, particularly at laid for further
offer an alternative to the kyoiku-gakko), Schools for school level. developments as
overwhelmingly popular Special Needs Education etc.  There are very few technology
general courses, and to (Tokubetsu-Shien-gakko), links changes.
introduce learning styles, Institutions of Higher between educational  promotion of lifelong
with aims similar to those Education, Specialized provision and the learning for employees,
of the general national Training Colleges (Senshu- changing nature of the by giving grants to
vocational qualification gakko) and Miscellaneous labour market. employers so that they
(GNVQ) in England, which Schools (Kakushu-gakko). can give their employees
are intended to encourage paid education or
a more adaptable  Elementary and lower training leave, and by
workforce. The group secondary schools are part of giving grants to cover
visited a Tokyo Japan’s nine-year compulsory part of the fees of adult
Metropolitan High School, education system. workers at special
which offered this training schools
program. The school had  Japan’s TVET starts at upper
been formed from the secondary school. In terms of
amalgamation of one the content of teaching
general and one provided, the upper secondary
 commercial upper school courses may also be
secondary school. classified into three
 The Japanese higher categories: general,
vocational education specialized and integrated
system is a multilayer and courses. General courses
open one that is geared to provide mainly general
the economic development education suited to the needs
of Japan. The structure of of both those who wish to
public education in Japan is advance to higher education
largely based on the and those who are going to
American model of get a job but have chosen no
education which was specific vocational area.
adopted after World War Specialized courses are mainly
II. By 1899, agriculture, intended to provide vocational
fishery, forestry, and or other specialized education
industrial programs were for those students who have
established. In 1951, chosen a particular vocational
Vocational Education area as their future career.
Promotion Law was These courses may be
enacted. The national classified as agriculture,
government provided industry, commerce, fishery,
subsidies to upper home economics, nursing,
secondary schools for science-mathematics, physical
vocational technical education, music, art, English
education facilities and language and other courses.
equipment.
 Integrated courses were  In higher education Junior
introduced in 1994.  These Colleges, Professional and
courses offer a wide variety vocational universities
of subject areas and (Senmonshoku-daigaku) and
subjects from both the professional and vocational
general and the specialized junior colleges (Senmonshoku-
courses, in order to tanki-daigaku), and Colleges of
adequately satisfy Technology (Koto-senmon-
students' diverse interests, gakko) are the institutions
abilities and aptitudes, which give focus and offer
future career plans, etc. vocational courses.
 Pursuant to revisions in the
School Education law in
2017, a system was
instituted for the
establishment of
professional and vocational
universities and
 professional and vocational
junior colleges as new
types of universities and
colleges that will foster
specialists and
professionals through
practical and high-quality
vocational education, and
was established in April
2019.
7. USA  Vocational education was  Students ordinarily after  Quality assurance in  improve the  The National Skill
first established in private spending 6 to 8 years in the career-specific affordability of and Standards Act is to
high schools in the second elementary school continue a element of Career and access to college and supplement the School-
half of the 19th century. 4 to 6-year program in Technical Education is workforce training; to-Work Opportunities
However, vocational academic, vocational or weakly developed.  foster institutional Act that establishes a
education played only a technical secondary school.  Basic skills of US quality, accountability, framework based on
Students normally complete teenagers and high and transparency to three main components
minor role in high schools
the high school program school graduates are ensure that within which each state
until the beginning of the
through grade 12 by age 18. relatively weak. postsecondary can develop its own
1960s Education at the secondary school-to-work
 Federal support for
 The financial risks of education credentials
level is provided in a range of investing in represent effective transition program that
vocational education began institutional settings— preparation for is best suited to its local
postsecondary
with the Smith-Hughes Act including junior high schools, students to excel in a needs. These
education can be
of 1917. Two Democratic high schools, senior high higher in the US, global society and a components are: school-
lawmakers from Georgia, schools, and combined because costs changing economy; and based learning, work-
Senator Hoke Smith and elementary/secondary and returns are highly  Increase degree and based learning and
Representative Dudley schools variable. certificate completion activities that connect
Mays Hughes, were chiefly —that vary in structure from  Lack of connection and job placement rates both concepts to a
responsible for this historic locality to locality. The between TVET at in high-need and high- comprehensive strategy
average high school student secondary school and skilled areas. for all students, not just
bill, which established
takes more TVET credits than postsecondary or  Vocational education those in vocational
vocational education,
any other subject area except community college. and training at the education.
particularly agricultural
English. Relatively few  Current federal policy secondary level can  Tech-Prep combines
education, as a federal students, however, take a academic and vocational
thus encourages linking ease the transition from
program. The act reflected sufficient number of credits courses and through
secondary TVET to school to work while
the view of reformers who to lead to an industry- articulation agreements
postsecondary TVET to supplying employers
believed that youth should recognized credential. it links high school
labour-market with trained workers.
be prepared for entry-level  High school graduates who studies to advanced
jobs by learning specific decide to continue their  Dual vocational technical education in
occupational skills in education may enter a training, which community and
separated vocational technical or vocational combines structured technical colleges,
schools. According to institution, a two-year learning on-the-job apprenticeship program
Harvey Kantor and David B. community or junior college, with classroom training, or other post-secondary
or a 4-year college or leads to certified skills institutions. A key
Tyack, this brand of
vocationalism had its
critics, including the
American philosopher and
educator John Dewey, who
believed that such specific
skill training was
unnecessarily narrow and
undermined democracy.
The Smith-Hughes Act,
however, firmly supported
the notion of a separate
vocational education
system and supported
courses offered by
vocational schools. The act
called for specific skill
training, focused on entry-
level skills, and helped
establish separate state
boards for vocational
education. The Smith-
Hughes Act and its
successors until 1963 were
largely designed to expand
these separate vocational
education programs, in an
effort to retain more
students in secondary
education, and to provide
trained workers for a
growing number of
semiskilled occupations.
These acts focused on basic
support, providing funds
for teachers and teacher
training, and encouraging
state support for
vocational education
through extensive funds-
matching requirements.
university. A 2-year college that are relevant to feature of Tech-Prep
normally offers the first 2 employers and portable program is to apply
years of a standard 4-year in the labor market. academic instruction
college curriculum and a  Countries with strong through teaching
selection of terminal TVET vocational training academic subjects in a
program. Academic courses practical, hands-on way,
programs are in a better
completed at a 2-year college drawing on careers of
position to avoid rising
are usually transferable for interest as a context for
youth unemployment,
credit at a 4-year college or examples, assignments,
university. Post-secondary even in difficult times. and projects.
TVET also includes offerings
from proprietary post-
secondary schools, adult
learning centers, professional
associations or labour unions,
and government agencies.
 US TVET takes place in:
 a public education
system largely
limited to high
school;
 community or
technical colleges
serving a wide range
of public needs;
 various government
program;
 a miniscule
apprenticeship
system; and
 a large business-
based training
system disconnected
from all of the
others.
 By the 1960s, the
vocational education
system had been firmly
established, and Congress
recognized the need for a
new focus. As a result, the
1963 Vocational Education
Act, while still supporting
the separate system
approach by funding the
construction of area
vocational schools,
broadened the definition of
vocational education to
include occupational
programs in
comprehensive high
schools, such as business
and commerce. The act
also included the
improvement of vocational
education programs and
the provision of programs
and services for
disadvantaged and
disabled students.
 After World War II
vocational education and
apprenticeship were
opened for veterans by
passage of new laws. Due
to this institutional change
the apprenticeship system
was gradually transformed
from a youth-based into an
adult-based training
system. According to the
US Department of Labor’s
Bureau of Apprenticeship,
only about 2 million people
 have completed
apprenticeship since 1950.
 At the end of the 1970s
there were more than four
million two year college
students. This success was
due to two year colleges
filling the gap between
increasing demand for
skilled labour and a lack of
sufficient apprenticeship
program.
8. Germany  In Germany, mechanisation  Germany’s education system
of textile manufacture did
not begin until the mid
19th century. Afterwards,
however, development
occurred rapidly in the
textile, iron, steel and
mining industries. By the
end of the 19th century,
the electrical, chemical and
automobile industries were
becoming increasingly
important.
 Freedom of employment
began to spread from  At upper secondary level,
around 1811 in Germany,
and the guilds were
disbanded. This situation
did not last very long,
however. Traditional craft
education and training
were legally reinstated in
1897.
 In the course of the 19th
century, apprentices often
attended ‘continuation
schools’ in the evenings or
on Sundays. These
repeated the curriculum
taught at primary schools,
and imparted the  An alternative to full-time
 Globalisation,  Establishing stronger  It was introduced in
is compulsory schooling  increased personal links between the dual 2007 is called “Training
starts at the age of 6 and mobility, vocational education and modules” as part of the
covers 9 years of full-time  structural change in training system and BMBF
schooling (10 years in industrial life, institutes of higher program “Jobstarter
Berlin,Brandenburg and  technological advances education; Connect”. Its goal is to
Bremen). At lower secondary, and  Improving integration help young people who
vocational education is  demographic change into vocational training have been applying
offered both at Hauptschule  The evaluation of dual through basic skills and unsuccessfully for an
(open to all students) and system students at the permeability; apprenticeship place for
Realschule (selective). In end of their and a year or more. Training
both, apprenticeship is  Establishing national modules were
an introduction to the world dominated by the coverage of branch- developed
of work is compulsory. Chamber specific regional initial in 14 occupations within
exam. Because their and continuing training the dual system. They
students may enter the initial school performance centers. are supposed to help
VET system which starts at does not count in the  Postsecondary VET applicants to transfer to
upper-secondary level and is Chamber exam, programmes are well- regular dual training
offered either at full-time students may not take articulated with upper with previously acquired
vocational schools or within their secondary vocational learning outcomes
the dual system. Full-time schooling seriously, education and training accounted for in the
vocational schools include thereby limiting their (VET) providing avenues regular training period.
the Berufsfachschulen which ability to participate of progression attractive The final purpose is the
introduce their pupils to one successfully in some to students as well as award of full
of several recognized form of tertiary meeting labour market qualifications in the dual
occupations requiring formal education. demand. system.
training. The duration of  The regulation of exam  More and better  The dual-track VET’s two
training varies from 1 to 3 quality varies greatly in education components are:
years, depending on the Germany, and there is  Sustainably reducing classroom study in
specialization. limited evidence of poverty specialized trade schools
 Promoting Social and and supervised, on-the-
 theoretical knowledge
needed for particular
trades.
 By the end of the 19th
century, these schools had
developed into ‘vocational
schools’. In addition to
vocational education and
training, students were
also taught citizenship
skills. There was a similar
development in Austria,
where the vocational
education and training
system is very like the
German. Today, both
elements are still part of
apprenticeship: learning on
the job and in vocational
school. That is why it is
referred to as the ‘dual
system’ of training.
vocational schooling is the
dual apprenticeship system in
which the social partners
(employers and trade unions)
play a central role. This route
last for 2-3 years depending
on the occupation chosen
and is heavily dependent on a
long social and legal tradition
of highly structured employer
participation in TVET which
few countries can replicate.
The training is carried out
both at the workplace (3-4
days per week) and in
vocational schools (1-2 days
per week. The completion
certificate of full-time
compulsory education is the
only pre-requisite.
 At upper secondary level
the majority of students
choose vocational education
rather than general
education. This is mainly due
to the
importance of the dual
system.
 At the upper secondary level,
more vocationally-oriented
subjects are offered.
Berufsfachschulen are full-
time vocational schools
which offer training for
occupations related to
business, foreign languages,
crafts, home
economics and social work,
the arts, and health sector
occupations regulated by
federal law. Another type of
full-time vocational school,
Fachoberschule, offers
courses.
adherence to clear Societal development job work experience. 
standards.  Improving employability
 Finding Dual VET
training place
 Improving life- long
learning opportunities
 People have difficulty
entering Dual VET and
hence the labor market
and gainful employment
 Difficulty meeting
demand of employers
for skilled workers
 Dealing with future
nationwide lack of
skilled workers
projected
 Demographic change
leading to decrease in
number of young people
for labor market
 Countering trend of
more young people
choosing university over
Dual VET
 Dealing with strong
regional disparity with
regard to Dual VET
training place demand
and supply
  The dual system is especially
well-developed in Germany,
integrating work-based and
school-based learning
to prepare apprentices for a
successful transition to full-
time employment.
 State-regulated chambers of
craft trades, arranged by
profession
 In predetermined alternation
between companies and
vocational schools (‘dual
model’).
 Companies finance training
within the enterprise and can
set off the cost against tax.
Trainees are paid a
contractually determined
sum. Vocational schools are
financed by the state.
 The qualifications are
generally recognized as
entitling their holders to
work in the relevant
occupation and to go on to
higher courses
9. New Zealand  1980'S- The vocational  Primary education starts at  participation rates in  strong growth forecast in  Qualifications and
education system was the age of five and lasts until vocational education the number of jobs Qualifications
inflexible, slow to adapt to the sixth year of schooling. At and training requiring higher-level Frameworks
employers’ training needs secondary level students may  the changing role of vocational qualifications; The Credit Recognition
and there was disconnect specialize in technical and vocational education  skills utilization is and Transfer Policy is a
between on-job experience vocational subjects or choose and training in essential to retaining framework whereby
and off-job training. complementary TVET secondary schools skills in an open labor learners can receive
 1990- The National (including bridging  new initiatives in light of market credit
Qualifications Framework arrangements with tertiary youth unemployment  strong service sector for an existing
was developed. providers) as part of general and transition difficulties employment growth is qualification when
Qualifications were now secondary education.  recognition of forecast with mixed applying for a new
based off workplace  Tertiary education is competence implications for course of study. Credit
competencies and industry generally understood as  responsiveness of the productivity growth and transfer occurs on
standards, providing including all types of post- system to the need for higher levels of case-to-case basis or as
learners with transferable secondary education. The change qualifications required an agreement between
skills across industries. boundaries among  the ageing population training providers.
 1992- Government institutions and other will constrain labour
established a new system providers of post-school force and economic  Quality assurance
that was industry led, education and training growth The New Zealand
supported competency- are not rigidly imposed in  strong growth in the Qualification Authority
based training and New Zealand so TVET can be number of degree- (NZQA) is in charge of
provided flexibility for found in schools and in holders ensuring quality for all
employers. ITOs universities. tertiary education
(organisations like Skills) institutions other than
were set up to respond to universities. The quality
industry demand for skills, assurance system
instead of relying on comprises of four
student demand for components – quality
polytechnic courses. assurance of courses,
 1998- The Education and accreditation of
Training Support Agency institutions, quality
(ETSA) became Skills NZ. audits, and moderation
Each ITO had a different of
funding rate and the assessment against
system was cumbersome standards specified for
and impractical. qualifications
 2003- Skills NZ became TEC registered on the New
and established one Zealand
funding rate of $3200 per Qualifications
Standard Training Measure Framework.
(STM) for all ITOs. STM
funding proves it can
provide the flexibility
needed for learners
working in changing
environments.
 2008-There were 54 ITOs
and approx. 200,000
trainees. Many smaller
ITOs lacked the ability to
provide industry
leadership. An economic
downturn led to a dramatic
fall in trainee numbers and
a related 25% funding cut
for ITOs.
 2010-There were 38 ITOs
and approx. 105,000
trainees. New funding rules
were put in place to ensure
 better governance and
accountability from ITOs.
 2012- Disbanding of the
ITO sector was considered;
however, the benefits of
the system were found to
be compelling. ITO’s
consolidated through a
consultative process. The
resulting 11 stronger ITOs
gained the confidence of
the government.
 2014- Discussing the
vocational education
industry Minister Joyce
said, “We are well set up to
meet the industry needs of
an expanding economy in
the years ahead”.
 2017- 149,000 learners
(trainees) achieving around
80% credit and program
completions with 100%
employed.
10. Philippines  The Technical Education  Technical and According to TESDA, the TVET in Philippines will  In 2017, TESDA launched
vocational education Philippines are facing the follow a two-pronged the National TVET
and Skills Development
and training (TVET) in following challenges to the approach: TVET for Global Trainers Academy
Authority (TESDA) was the Philippines can be TVET system: competitiveness and (NTTA) to oversee the
established through the classified into four Provide workers with Workforce Job-Readiness, development of trainers
enactment of Republic Act types, school-based skills for Industry 4.0 and TVET for Social Equity. in the Philippines. The
No. 7796 otherwise known TVET, center-based  The Fourth Industrial Trainer Development
TVET, community- Revolution will TVET for global Program is a response to
as the “Technical Education based TVET, and competitiveness seeks to
accelerate the the demand for quality
and Skills Development Act enterprise-based convergence of ensure that the training trainers who will manage
of 1994”, which was signed TVET. industrial and regulations, curriculum, and implement the TVET
into law by President Fidel  TESDA is the sole information technology and school facilities and system in the
accreditation and and will pervade all equipment comply with Philippines. It will
V. Ramos on August 25,
certification body for facets of human global standards. The address the need to
1994. This Act aims to TVET. It encompasses activities. In addition, targeted beneficiaries upgrade the institutional
encourage the full two systems that seek the growing clamour include workers that need or organizational
participation of and to uphold the quality for 21st century skills skills upgrading, students competencies of
in TVET, namely the needs to be addressed of higher level technical and vocational
mobilize the industry,
Unified TVET Program by implementing a qualifications, overseas institutions (TVIs) as
labor, local government Registration and more sophisticated and Filipino workers, and the measured by the East
units and technical- Accreditation System advanced education unemployed. Similarly, Asia Summit TVET
(UTPRAS) and the and employment TVET can prepare senior Quality Assurance
vocational institutions in
Philippine TVET environment. high students under the Framework (EAS TVET
the skills development of Competency Skill workforce for TVL track. Grade 10 QAF), the TESDA Star
the country’s human Assessment and demand of priority graduates who fail to Rating System and the
resources. The merging of Certification System industries (NTESDP) complete senior high, as Asia Pacific Accreditation
the National Manpower (PTCACS). These  The eight priority well as out-of-school and Certification
systems provide a industries identified by youth are also targeted for Commission (APACC).
and Youth Council (NMYC) quality management workforce job-readiness The program shall
the NTESDP are
of the Department of Labor system for program forecast to generate by providing them with enhance the
and Employment registration, higher economic value the required competencies of
(DOLE). The Bureau of assessment and and much larger competencies to prepare administrators,
certification, and the employment markets. them for the world of supervisors, teaching
Technical and Vocational
development of They would require work. and non-teaching staff
Education (BTVE) of the Training Regulations roughly six million based on the
Department of Education, (TRs) as well as quality workers in the Secondly, TVET shall competency standards
Culture and Sports (DECS), Competency six years of the provide social equity. This defined by the Human
Assessment Tools planning period. TVET is based on the universal Resource Management
and The Apprenticeship
(CATs). UTPRAS program can support principle of social Division – Administrative
Program of the Bureau of provides a quality the goal of meeting the inclusion, and places Services (HRMD-AS) of
Local Employment (BLE) of assurance mechanism huge demand for a people, particularly those TESDA and the Philippine
the DOLE gave birth to through the skilled and who are socially excluded TVET Trainers’
TESDA. The fusion of the mandatory conscientious and displaced (such as Qualification Framework
registration of TVET workforce by providing informal workers, (PTTQF) Trainers’
above offices was one of program with TESDA, quality training and indigenous peoples, Methodology (TM) Level
the key recommendations which includes regular education in the farmers, fishers, drug I–IV.
of the 1991 Report of the compliance audits, required sectors. dependents, rebel  The TVET system is
Congressional Commission and the voluntary Include workers who returnees, persons with financed through public
accreditation of TVET were left behind disabilities, displaced and private funds.
on Education, which
program and  Deliberately and OFWs with low-level skills, Between 2006 and 2010,
undertook a national institutions by an affirmatively address the victims of abuse, human 46.5% of TVET funding
review of the state of accrediting body. The workforce who have trafficking, and disasters) originated from public
Philippine education and registration of TVET been excluded and left into the mainstream of and 53.5% from private
program signifies behind by a fast growing society. sources.
manpower development. It
compliance with the Philippine economy
was meant to reduce minimum requirement largely focused on major
overlapping in skills stipulated in the urban areas and the
development activities TESDA training formal employment
initiated by various public regulations. PTCACS sector. Workers from
determines whether the basic sectors have
and private sector
the graduate or not been able to take
agencies, and to provide worker can perform to advantage of the high
national directions for the the standards economic growth rate
expected in the because the leading
country’s technical- workplace based on industry employment
the defined generators did not
vocational education and
competency induce multiplier effects,
training (TVET) system. standards. meaning they had
Hence, a major thrust of Certification is limited linkages to the
TESDA is the formulation of provided to those who rest of the economy and
a comprehensive meet the competency produced little trickle-
standards, thereby down effects. TVET
development plan for ensuring the program will provide
middle-level manpower productivity, quality additional training for
based on the National and global these workers to
Technical Education and competitiveness of upgrade their skills.
middle-level workers.
Skills Development Plan.
 TVET in the
This plan shall provide for a
Philippines is being
reformed industry-based funded through
training program that various sources,
includes apprenticeship, such as:
dual training system and  National Government
other similar schemes. through the Annual
General
Appropriations Act
(GAA);
 Industry/Employers;
 Local government
units;
 Student fees;
 Contributions/Donatio
ns from ILO, ADB,
World Bank, etc.
 Students can obtain the
National Certification (NC)
I+II in TVET program. After
successfully graduating from
senior high school, they
receive certificates of
graduation or high school
diploma
(Katibayan/Katunayan) and
can proceed to technical/
vocational schools/institutes.
 Program vary from a few
 weeks up to 3 years.
Students can take TESDA
administered examinations
to receive a certificate or
diploma. After 1 year,
graduates receive a
certificate, after 2 years, the
qualification will be a
certificate of proficiency and
after 3 years, a diploma can
be achieved. If students
study for 4 years, they
receive a Bachelor’s degree.
Depending on the course and
workload, students can
obtain NC III-IV (Diploma).
With any of these
certifications, they can move
on to higher education and
the credit they have gained
throughout their TVET
education can count towards
the pursued degree.
 The 3 categories of the
enterprise-based program
aim to provide on-the-job
education for the workforce
in order to match the skills
required for the labour
market. Apprenticeship
program last 4-6 months,
learnership program last up
to 3 months and the
organizations who want to
hire apprentices or trainees
need to be accredited with
TESDA. The dual training
system (DTS) seeks to
institutionalize the
apprenticeship program and
the on the-job-training
 modalities to provide a TVET
based educational approach.
11. South Korea  Vocational education Korea’s education system is  Various indicators The Korean government  Conduct the
policies in Korea were structured; six years in suggest that there is a plans to unify standards "Employment First,
established in full-scale elementary schools (primary mismatch in terms of into National Competency College Later" policy
from the 1960s along the education), three years in skills and education Standard (NCS). Key effectively, the
implementation of the 5- middle schools and three years between postsecondary features of NCS are: following measures
year National Economic
in high schools (secondary
VET provision and  The national standard were taken:
education) and further years in system of knowledge,  Consistently
Development Plan. The labour market needs.
institutions for higher skills, and attitude increase the
government played a key While some of the
education. Major features which are required for number of
role in the development of include: origins of mismatch are
workplace. specialized high
VET since the economic  The first nine years is rooted in culture and
development plan was tradition, some features  Scientific and systemic school students.
compulsory education; from  Promote high-
established in the 1960s. of the Korean education standards to measure
primary to middle schools quality supportive
 Since 1980, Korea has and training system also the competency of
(which focus on teaching basic systems and
maintained a policy to contribute to the employee, such as
knowledge and curriculum). policies to
provide high school challenge. planning capability,
 In Korea, vocational professional knowledge, encourage
graduates with more education begins in high  Links between the VET
work performance, and students who
opportunities of higher schools. Middle school system and industry
ability of market want to go to
education. To promote the graduates can choose to go to and business are
analysis. college with a
rate of high school either general high schools or generally weak,
graduates advancing into including at national  Development of human certain job
vocational high schools. experience.
institutions of higher policy making level. This resources to satisfy
General high schools get
education, the following makes it harder to employers’ requirement
students ready to advance  In 2008, the Ministry of
measures were taken: develop policies that College Lifelong Learning
into institutions of higher Program Education and Science
 Regulations to education such as university, help the VET system to
 The Ministry of Technology (MEST)5 re-
restrict the while vocational high schools meet rapidly changing categorized existing
Education has been
establishment of train students to join the labor labour market needs. vocational high schools
implementing the
2- or 4-year market after graduation.  Junior colleges offer “College of Lifelong into specialized
colleges were  Among the institutions of program of variable and Education” policy (vocational) high schools
relaxed. higher vocational education, sometimes low quality. which provides on the basis of the major
 Existing there are vocational colleges, While the government financial support in courses they were
institutions were has introduced various order to open college specialized in. On the
poly-tech universities,
allowed to policy measures to to adult learners. The other hand, vocational
universities of technology and
increase their tackle this, some universities and high schools which lack
education, poly-tech colleges
student challenges remain such colleges provide competitiveness were
and corporate universities. turned into general high
enrollment. as weaknesses in program not only for
 The level of educational newcomers from high schools.
attainment among young quality assurance
school graduates, but According to relevant
people is very high: 97% of 25- mechanisms.
also for the adult domestic laws,
to-34-year-olds have  Junior college degrees specialized high schools
learners.
 completed upper secondary do not seem to Employment Success are defined as follows:
education and 53% have adequately signal skills Package Schools that provide
tertiary education. to employers, partly  The Employment education to foster
 Education is highly valued by due to the lack of Success Package is a workforce in specific
all parts of Korean society. rigorous assessments of comprehensive areas and experience
support program to based education such as
 15-year-olds perform very students before
assist disadvantaged field training etc. for
well in numeracy, literacy and graduation. National
job seekers with low students with similar
science, as illustrated by PISA (technical)
income in accordance talents, aptitudes, and
results. qualifications also face abilities (Article 91-1,
with their individual
 The government is a problem of plans for Enforcement Decree of
committed to increasing recognition in the employment. This the Elementary and
employer involvement in VET labour market. In systematic program Secondary Education
policy development and addition, degree includes research on Act).
implementation, as illustrated program are currently the actual condition
by the recent creation of not linked to national and path planning;
sector councils and Meister qualifications – a enhancement of
schools. challenge that has been motivation and
competency; and
 The tertiary VET sector is recognised by the
Korean government. intense job searching
well developed; around 32%
service. The job
of tertiary students are  Provision in junior
seekers who have
enrolled in junior colleges and colleges is driven by
succeeded in finding a
polytechnic colleges. student preferences job are given
and not systematically employment success
balanced by signals of allowance to enter
labour market needs. In the labour market.
addition, student
choices may not be
sufficiently well-
informed, as high-
quality information on
the labour market
prospects offered by
different options is
lacking.
 Participation in
workplace training is
optional in junior
college program.
Participation rates in
workplace training vary
and are often low.
 When workplace
training does take
place, arrangements to
assure its quality are
weak and students do
not always obtain
credits for the time
spent in companies.
12. Indonesia The emergence of vocational Public and private vocational The main challenges  Improving the  Integrating information
education in Indonesia can high schools (SMKs) and Islamic currently facing TVET in employability of and communications
be traced to Dutch colonial vocational schools (MAK) offer Indonesia can be vocational education. technology in
rule, when various types of three-year program to students summarized as follows:  Building New SMKs and Vocational Education.
specialist schools were that lead to secondary  Lack of sufficient Tertiary Vocational
introduced for the lower and certificate level qualifications. correspondence Institution
middle class Dutch nationals Apart from enrolling in the between the practical  Cultivating Public-
in Indonesia. Towards the program, TVET students are training and skills Private Partnership
end of Dutch rule (1942- encouraged to also pursue skills taught in TVET  Incentivizing the private
1945), there were 88 certificate courses from sector
institutions and the
vocational schools in industries while they are still in
demands of the labour  Facilitating long
Indonesia with 13,230 school to enhance their distance learning.
market; and
students enrolled. The employability skills. These  Revitalizing TVET (SMK)
 Uneven balance
vocational schools still vocational secondary certificate  Increasing more
remain in Indonesia today, level qualifications (SMK) between teachers with
practical skills than
albeit with changes to their entitle the learners to pursue academic and theoretical knowledge
names and curricula. further TVET at the tertiary practitioner  Shifting the enrolment
Recognizing the importance level to receive diploma background in TVET share of general
of vocational education in certificate one (D1). While the institutions, where the education to vocational
grooming employment-ready general duration of these latter are education
students, the Government of program is 3 years, some underrepresented.
Indonesia rapidly increased vocational schools extend it by  Poor interagency
the number of vocational one year. These program are coordination
schools and tertiary called SMK-Plus and the
 Lack of incentives for
vocational institutions learners graduate with a D1
industry
available following degree, and can directly access
independence. In 1973, the TVET at D2. Graduates of these  Shortage of funding
Swiss Mechanical Polytechnic program are also entitled to  Negative
– Bandung Technological access the labour market. stigmatization
Institute was established as Vocational secondary schools
the first polytechnic that focus on developing students’
offered D3 programs. expertise in these main sectors
Between 1982 and 1994, 25 or fields: technology and
polytechnics were built with engineering; information and
financial assistance from the communication technology;
 World Bank and the Asian
Development Bank, and with
technical assistance from
Australia, Germany, Japan,
New Zealand and
Switzerland. By 1995, 700
public SMK and 3,000 private
SMK had been established,
with a total of 1.57 million
students enrolled.
health; arts, crafts, and
tourism; agro-business
technology; and business and
management. However,
majority of the institutes
specialize primarily in
technology and industry (86%)
or business and management
program (76%). SMKs offer 144
competences, however, about
60% of the competency
proportion is filled only by 10
major competencies namely:
computer and network
engineering; accounting; office
administration; light vehicle
engineering; engineering
machinery; motor vehicle
engineering; multimedia;
marketing; and engineering
cooler. Upon completion of
three years of secondary
studies at the SMK, graduates
are awarded the national
secondary certificate. From
here on, they have different
options:
 Directly join the labour
market by filling job
vacancies available in
industries related to
their course of study;
 Work independently as
entrepreneurs;
 Pursue higher
education at tertiary
institutions.

13. Sri Lanka  Vocational and Technical  Sri Lanka has a 13-year system According to TVEC, Sri  creation of an The Skills Sector
Education in Sri Lanka of general education. The age Lanka is facing the integrated supervising Enhancement Program
commenced with the of admission to grade 1 is following challenges to the ministry (Ministry of supports the
establishment of the 5 years. Compulsory TVET system: Youth Affairs and Skills implementation of the
Government Technical education comprises grades  Low tertiary Development) and an government’s medium-
 College by the British in 1–9; the public sector enrolment rate apex body (TVEC); term development plan.
1893 in Maradana, initially accounts for about 93% of  Lack of labour market  establishment of the This plan intends to
to train the blue collar primary and secondary information national vocational transform the education
personnel to run the education and 95% of student  Negative perception qualification (NVQ) system into one that will
Railways and the Tea enrollment. Enrollment in of TVET system; provide the technological
Factories. In 1906 the primary education is 96%, and  Low quality of TVET  conversion of TVET skills, educational content,
name of this Institution retention at the end of program courses into and methods to promote
was changed to Ceylon primary education (grade 5) is  Enhancing the competency-based the development of
Technical College and this 99.5%. Each year, some relevance training; inquiring and adaptable
Institution became the 328,000 students enter the  adoption of procedures minds.
center for study of sciences education system in grade 1. and criteria for The Skills Sector
such as chemistry, physics, Students who complete the registration/accreditati Development Program
biology and all technical general certificate of on of non-state (SSDP) is to be
training and development education—ordinary level providers; implemented from 2014
specially in the areas of (GCE O/L) (i.e., grade 11)  improve the to 2020 and consists of
civil, electrical and generally proceed to GCE— employability of TVET two components.
mechanical engineering. advanced level (A/L) studies. graduates; Component 1 (i)
 Vocational Education in Sri In 2008, only 134,906 of the Strengthening governance
Lanka was neglected for 299,516 students who sat for and management of the
many years. Traditional the A-Level examinations TVET sector by applying a
forms of education, passed. Students who do not tighter and more intensive
academically oriented have complete A-Level often find focus on results and more
been the focus of some temporary employment efficient use of resources;
emphasis. It was only in while continuing to prepare and (ii) improving the
1971 when the enormity of for the next examinations. quality and relevance
the youth and Others enter the workforce or of the skills development
unemployment problem opt for TVET courses with program offered by all
came to light that reduced entrance institutions, including
educationists and the qualifications. public, private, and NGO.
nation took cognizance of Component 2.
the vast potential there is Strengthening the
for the development of capacity of MYASD and its
Vocational Education in Sri participating agencies and
Lanka and the need to help them to achieve the
meet the demands of SSDP objectives.
young people who are
anxious to educate
themselves for careers
which are remunerative
and nationally productive,
that the National
Apprenticeship Board was
established.
 The first revival of
Vocational Education took
place in 1995 during the
tenure of the then Minister
of Labour and Vocational
Training (Hon. Mahinda
Rajapakse). To effect this
revival he initiated that
Vocational Training (VT)
should be brought under
one Ministry and VT be
taken to the village
through a network of Rural
Vocational Training
Centres. He further
initiated the setting up of
the Vocational Training
Authority (VTA). Up to
1995 Vocational Education
was restricted to the City
of Colombo and its
Suburbs. It was in 2005
with the Mahinda
Rajapakse Government
taking over the reigns of
Governance that the
second revival of VT took
place. In 2005, Vocational
Education was in bits and
pieces with over 300
vocational training centers,
managed by 11 ministries,
providing courses of
varying quality, with
differing levels of
equipment and facilities
and wide variations across
urban and rural areas.

Comparative Status of Vocational Education in Developed and Developing Countries

Kevin Joe H. Cura