Hydrograph Separation and Development of Empirical

Relationships Using Single-Parameter Digital Filters

Stephen Boon Kean Tan1; Edmond Yat-Man Lo, A.M.ASCE2; Eng Ban Shuy3; Lloyd Hock Chye Chua4;
and Wee Ho Lim5
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Abstract: A reliable hydrograph separation method is necessary for surface runoff modeling and hydrological studies. This paper
investigates and compares the separation characteristics of two single-parameter digital filters, which are herein referred to as the
one-parameter algorithm and the conceptual method. The application of the one-parameter algorithm was found to be restricted to low and
medium baseflow separations, with a maximum separation limit of 50% of the total runoff hydrograph. The one-parameter algorithm was
also observed to produce unrealistic sharp peaks under the peaks of the measured hydrograph when recession constant is smaller than
0.96. On the other hand, the conceptual method is applicable even for catchments fed largely by groundwater discharge. However, a
reliable estimation of recession constant is a prerequisite for applying the conceptual method for large baseflow separations. Based on the
hydrograph separation results, useful empirical relationships were developed for a partially urbanized watershed to estimate total runoff
and direct runoff from the measured rainfall depth. The relationships between rainfall depth and total runoff depth and rainfall depth and
direct runoff depth were found to be well represented by linear equations. The empirical relationships were then applied to estimate the
long-term contribution of baseflow and surface runoff to total runoff at the study site. Baseflow was found to contribute about 58–61% of
the annual total runoff.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1084-0699共2009兲14:3共271兲
CE Database subject headings: Hydrographs; Filters; Base flow; Empirical equation; Runoff.

Introduction different concentration characteristics for baseflow and surface

A reliable hydrograph separation method is essential for separat-
ing baseflow from total hydrograph to yield direct runoff, which
is necessary for surface runoff model calibration and unit hy-
drograph derivation 共Chow et al. 1988兲. The sensitivity of the
model parameters and predictions to the separation procedure
chosen depends on the magnitude of the storm events and the
degree of nonlinearity 共Bates and Davies 1988兲. A reliable pro-
portioning between baseflow and direct runoff is also a prerequi-
site for accurate estimations of long-term nutrient loading 共Muller
et al. 2003; Schilling and Zhang 2004兲. Nutrients could exhibit
1
Research Fellow, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological Univ., Block N1, #3b-28, 50 Nanyang Ave., Sin-
gapore 639798.
2
Associate Professor, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological Univ., Block N1, #01a-28, 50 Nanyang Ave.,
Singapore 639798.
3
Associate Professor, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological Univ., Block N1, #01a-23, 50 Nanyang Ave.,
Singapore 639798.
4
Assistant Professor, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological Univ., Block N1, #01c-70, 50 Nanyang Ave.,
Singapore 639798 共corresponding author兲. E-mail: chcchua@ntu.edu.sg
5
Project Officer, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological Univ., Block N1, #3b-28, 50 Nanyang Ave., Sin-
gapore 639798.
Note. Discussion open until August 1, 2009. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. The manuscript for this paper
was submitted for review and possible publication on January 11, 2007;
approved on July 6, 2008. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydrologic
Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 3, March 1, 2009. ©ASCE, ISSN 1084-0699/
2009/3-271–279/$25.00.
runoff.
Although there is an effort 共Szilagyi and Parlange 1998兲 to
reduce the subjectivity associated with traditional graphical meth-
ods, application of graphical methods is restricted to well-defined,
single-peaked, and isolated hydrographs 共Chow et al. 1988兲.
However, hydrographs recorded in humid regions are generally
continuous and consist of multiple peaks. In recent years, recur-
sive digital filters have been developed and applied for hy-
drograph separations. The recursive digital filters are based on the
principle used in signal processing by regarding baseflow and
direct runoff as low- and high-frequency signals, respectively.
The digital filters provide an effective alternative to the graphical
methods, as digital filters could be easily automated and are ca-
pable of providing reproducible results.
Chapman 共1999兲 compared the reliability of one-parameter
共Chapman and Maxwell 1996兲, two-parameter 共Boughton 1993兲,
and three-parameter 共Jakeman and Hornberger 1993兲 digital filter
algorithms for stream hydrograph separation. The one-parameter
algorithm was found to have an upper bound value of 0.5 for
baseflow index 共BFI兲, implying that the algorithm is unrealistic
for streamflow fed largely by groundwater discharge. Although
the three-parameter algorithm could have a higher flexibility at-
tributed to having a higher number of parameters, the algorithm
produced baseflow hydrographs with sharp peaks. The two-
parameter algorithm was found to be the best algorithm for pro-
viding plausible separation results 共Chapman 1999兲. However, the
C parameter could not be optimized by minimizing the differ-
ences between the modeled and the measured flows. In the opti-
mization process, the C parameter simply increased up to 1 until
the modelled flows coincided with the measurements over the
entire total runoff hydrographs, interpreting all measured flows as

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J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

 baseflow 共Chapman 1999兲. Therefore, the selection of the param-
eter C for the two-parameter algorithm is rather subjective, where
some studies 共for example, Chapman 1999兲 recommended the
fitting to be carried out mainly on the ending of the surface run-
off, instead on the entire runoff hydrograph. For the same reason,
the three-parameter filter algorithm could not be fitted for its pa-
rameters C and ␣q 共Chapman 1999兲.
Eckhardt 共2005兲 developed a recursive digital filter with reces-
sion constant and BFImax as its parameters. Similar to the two-
and three-parameter algorithms, the BFImax value remains subjec-
tive, though typical BFImax values have been recommended for
different classes of catchments, distinguished by their hydrologi-
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Qb,i 艋 Qi 共3兲
Eq. 共2兲 is herein referred to as the one-parameter algorithm. It can
be applied for hydrograph separation once the value of recession
constant k has been determined from recession analysis.
Two-Parameter Algorithm
The two-parameter algorithm 共Boughton 1993兲 was developed by
introducing an additional parameter C into the “one-parameter”
algorithm. Replacing the term 1 − k in Eq. 共2兲 with the parameter
C yields the two-parameter algorithm

cal and hydrogeological characteristics. As the typical BFImax val- k C

ues were developed from a limited number of catchments, these Qb,i = Qb,i−1 + Qi 共4兲
1+C 1+C
recommended values are thus still far from being complete. Ad-
ditional data, for example from tracer experiments, are required where
for further verification. Therefore, digital filter algorithms with
Qb,i 艋 Qi 共5a兲
more than one parameter are generally associated with subjectiv-
ity in determination of their parameters values. In general, it is not possible to determine the parameter C in Eq.
Mugo and Sharma 共1999兲 proposed a digital filter with a single 共4兲 by minimizing the differences between the modeled and the
parameter to separate baseflow from stream hydrographs for measured flows, as the C value will simply be increased until the
humid tropical forested catchments. This digital filter algorithm is modeled flows coincide with the measured flows. The fitting of
herein referred to as the conceptual method. Similar to a “one- parameter C is hence rather subjective for the two-parameter al-
parameter” algorithm, the conceptual method uses the recession gorithm 共Chapman 1999兲. Chapman 共1999兲 found that the two-
constant as its sole parameter. As the value of recession constant parameter algorithm provides plausible separation results
could be determined easily and reliably through recession analy- compared the one- and three-parameter algorithms for 11 streams
sis, digital filter algorithms using recession constant as the sole serving catchments with sizes ranging from 3 to 2500 km2.
parameter remain as the most widely used algorithms for hy- Eckhardt 共2005兲 proposed another form of the two-parameter
drograph separation. algorithm. He proposed that the C parameter in Eq. 共4兲 could be
This paper compares the hydrograph separation characteristics approximated by
between the conceptual method 共Mugo and Sharma 1999兲 and the
one-parameter algorithm 共Chapman and Maxwell 1996兲 for a par- 共1 − k兲BFImax
C= 共5b兲
tially urbanized watershed. The filter algorithm providing the 1 − BFImax
more reliable separation result was then adopted to separate the where BFImax = maximum value of BFI, i.e. the long-term ratio of
baseflow from the total runoff hydrograph. Empirical relation- baseflow to total runoff. Substituting Eq. 共5a兲 and 共5b兲 into the
ships were developed for the study site, based on the results of two-parameter algorithm 关Eq. 共4兲兴, Eckhardt 共2005兲 derived a
hydrograph separation. These empirical relationships relate total new digital filter with two parameters
runoff depth or direct runoff depth to total rainfall depth on both
event and monthly basis. These relationships are useful for pre- 共1 − BFImax兲kQb,i−1 + 共1 − k兲BFImaxQi
dicting direct runoff depth and total runoff depth from the mea- Qb,i = 共6兲
1 − kBFImax
sured rainfall depth. Using the empirical relationships, the long-
term contribution of baseflow and surface runoff to total runoff where
was investigated for the study site. Qb,i 艋 Qi 共7兲
The BFImax value cannot be measured and remains subjective.
Review of Recursive Digital Filter Algorithms Typical BFImax of 0.80, 0.50, and 0.25 were proposed by Eckhardt
共2005兲 for perennial streams with porous aquifers, ephemeral
streams with porous aquifers, and perennial streams with hard
One-Parameter Algorithm rock aquifers, respectively. However, these typical BFImax are
Chapman and Maxwell 共1996兲 proposed a digital filter by pre- generally site-specific. Global application of these BFImax values
suming that the baseflow is a weighted average of the direct run- needs further verification.
off and the baseflow at the previous time interval
Three-Parameter Algorithm
Qb,i = kQb,i−1 + 共1 − k兲Qd,i 共1兲
The three-parameter algorithm is shown below
where Qb and Qd = baseflow and direct runoff, respectively; i
= time interval; and k = recession constant during periods where k C
Qb,i = Qb,i−1 + 关Qi + ␣qQi−1兴 共8兲
there is no direct runoff. By substituting Qd = Q − Qb, where Q 1+C 1+C
= total runoff, Eq. 共1兲 could be reformulated into
where
k 1−k Qb,i 艋 Qi 共9兲
Qb,i = Qb,i−1 + Qi 共2兲
2−k 2−k
␣q is known as the quick flow filter parameter. The detailed deri-
where vation of Eq. 共8兲 can be found in Chapman 共1999兲. Similar to the

272 / JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2009

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

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Fig. 1. Study site and channel cross section at CP1

two-parameter algorithm, the fitting of parameters C and ␣q is not Qb,i 艋 Qi 共12兲

obtainable through minimizing the differences between the mod-
eled and measured flows 共Chapman 1999兲. Eq. 共11兲 is herein referred to as the conceptual method. The re-
cession constant k is the sole parameter of this algorithm. Mugo
and Sharma 共1999兲 showed that the algorithm is capable of pro-
Conceptual Method ducing promising separation results for three humid tropical for-
Mugo and Sharma 共1999兲 adopted the conceptual method of hy- ested catchments with areas from 0.36 to 0.65 km2.
drograph separation proposed by Nathan and McMahon 共1990兲
for baseflow separation
Study Site and Data Collections
1 + ␤d
Qd,i = ␤dQd,i−1 + 关Qi − Qi−1兴 共10兲
2 A partially urbanized watershed, situated near to the northwestern
part of the Singapore island, was used as the study site. The total
where ␤d = direct runoff filter parameter. Further analysis showed
area of the watershed is about 5.6 km2, where 32.6% 共about
that ␤d = k. Replacing Qd with Q - Qb and ␤d with k yields
1.8 km2兲 of its area is residential. The other areas of the water-
1−k shed remain undeveloped and are mainly covered by vegetation.
Qb,i = 共Qi + Qi−1兲 + kQb,i−1 共11兲 Runoff in the study site is served mainly by a concrete-lined
2
drainage system. Location CP1 共Fig. 1兲 is the final discharge point
where of the watershed. The runoff discharging from CP1 is conveyed

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J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

 through a concrete-lined drain to a downstream reservoir. The Table 1. Recession Constant Values for Eight Individual Hydrograph
layout of the land use and the detailed channel cross section at Recessions
CP1 are shown in Fig. 1. Peak flow, Q ␣
A Sigma 950 共Hach Company兲 submerged pressure area ve- 共m3 / s兲 共5 min−1兲 k = e−␣
locity flow meter was installed at the invert of the trapezoidal
3.1 0.013 0.988
channel at location CP1 for flow measurements. The sensor probe
4.9 0.008 0.992
of the flow meter was located at the center of the dry weather
9.4 0.010 0.990
channel 共Fig. 1兲, measuring the depth-averaged flow velocity 共UZ兲
and the flow depth at the centerline of the channel. Flow measure- 15.1 0.015 0.985
ments were logged at 5-min intervals. A short time interval 20.5 0.017 0.983
共5 min兲 for the measurements is necessary to capture the rapid 23.6 0.007 0.993
response of the small watershed to rainfall events. 34.9 0.010 0.990
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For symmetrical and straight channels, the depth-averaged ve-
locity profile shows a maximum value at the centerline of the
channel 共Chow 1959兲. Due to the drag force exerted by the chan-
nel side walls, the depth-averaged flow velocity decreases from
its maximum value at the channel centerline to zero at the side
walls of the channel. Therefore, flow rates computed directly
from the measured depth-averaged flow velocity are larger than
the mean flow rates across the entire cross section. To obtain the
mean flow rate, the mean flow velocity 共UO兲 needs to be esti-
mated from the depth-averaged velocity 共UZ兲 measured at the
centerline of the channel. This study applies the UZ / UO relation-
ship proposed by Wilkerson and McGahan 共2005兲 for estimating
UO
UZ ⫾兩z − ztoe兩
= 共1 + 0.104Z兲 − 共0.125Z兲exp共2.24Z−0.582兲 ·
UO YZ
共13兲
where Z = cotangent of bank slope; ⫾兩z − ztoe兩 = lateral distance
from the toe of slope to the point of interest 共for centerline: ⫾兩z
− ztoe兩 = −B / 2, where B = bottom is the bottom width of the chan-
nel兲; and Y = flow is the flow depth over the channel bed. The
UZ / UO ratio was found to be 0.906 and 0.828 for the dry weather
flow channel 共for Y less than 0.30 m兲 and the main channel 共for Y
larger than 0.30 m兲, respectively. The mean flow velocity 共UO兲
was then multiplied by the flow area to obtain the mean flow rate
for the channel. The flow area was computed from the measured
flow depth.
Time series of rainfall depths were required for developing the
empirical relationships. Five-min interval rainfalls were measured
using a tipping bucket rain gauge 共Model 2458, Hach Company兲
equipped with an automatic logger. The rain gauge is factory
calibrated, and was installed at CP1 as shown in Fig. 1.
A time series of flows and rainfall depths collected within the
period from December 2004 to May 2006 共an 18-month period兲
was used in the present study. This time series of flows consists
of 56 single-peaked hydrographs and 38 multiple-peaked
hydrographs.
Results and Discussion
Estimation of Recession Constant
To separate the measured hydrographs using single-parameter
digital filters, the recession constant k of the study site needs to be
estimated. Baseflow recession is represented by
Qt = Q0e−t/␶ = Q0e−␣t = Q0kt 共14兲
during period where there is no recharge, where Q0 and Qt
= baseflows at time 0 and t; ␶ = turnover time of the groundwater
45.5 0.018 0.982
Mean 0.012 0.988
storage; and k = recession constant. Eq. 共14兲 assumes a linear re-
lationship between the groundwater discharge and groundwater
storage, S
Q = ␣S 共15兲
Taking the natural log on both sides of Eq. 共14兲 yields
ln共Qt兲 = ln共Q0兲 − ␣t 共16兲
The traditional approach which uses the semilogarithmic plot
of a single recession segment is widely applied in estimating the
recession constant. This approach plots the natural log of the mea-
sured runoff against time and takes ␣ as the minimum slope cor-
responding to the baseflow portion of the hydrograph 关i.e., the
linear portion of the ln共Q兲-t plot兴. For channels penetrating par-
tially in the aquifer, a straight line approximation for the baseflow
portion is applicable 共Bowen 1986兲. Vogel and Kroll 共1996兲 found
that the traditional approach is able to provide a reliable ␣ esti-
mate by averaging the recession constant values obtained for an
ensemble of individual hydrograph recessions. Sujono et al.
共2004兲 found that the semilogarithmic approach produces reason-
able and comparable estimates with those obtained from the more
complicated methods such as the master recession curve method
共Nathan and McMahon 1990兲 and the wavelet transform method
共Grossmann and Morlet 1984; Morlet et al. 1982兲. Once the ␣
value is obtained, the recession constant k could then be estimated
through
k = e−␣ 共17兲
To ensure that the k estimate is unbiased to a particular mag-
nitude of storm, a correlation analysis was carried out to elucidate
the inter-relation between the storm magnitude and k estimate for
the study site. Using the traditional approach, recession constants
were estimated for eight hydrographs with peak flow ranging
from 3.1 to 45.5 m3 / s, as shown in Table 1. This peak flow range
covers almost the entire peak flow range 共0.90– 50.8 m3 / s兲 during
the study period. The estimated k values are fairly consistent
among the hydrograph events, and no significant correlation was
observed between their storm magnitudes k estimates. This indi-
cates that the k estimate appears to be independent of the storm
events selected. On the other hand, this implies that the k estimate
is more dependent on watershed characteristics than storm char-
acteristics. This is mainly because the baseflow recession constant
of a drainage basin is more a function of the overall topography,
drainage patterns, soil type, and geology of the watershed 共Fetter
1994兲 and varies directly with the extent of the entrenchment of
the stream in the aquifer 共Bowen 1986兲. The average 共Vogel and

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J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

 Kroll 1996兲 recession constant of 0.988 was thus used for both Table 2. Separation Results for 94 Hydrograph Events
the one-parameter algorithm and conceptual method. VBF / VT
Peak flow
Event Type 共m3 / s兲 “One”c “Con”d
Comparison of Separation Characteristics between
December 16, 2004 Ma 5.8 0.344 0.355
One-Parameter Algorithm and Conceptual Method
December 17, 2004 Sb 14.4 0.372 0.383
The one-parameter algorithm and the conceptual method were December 18, 2004 S 2.1 0.500 0.583
applied for separating the 94 recorded hydrographs. The separa- December 30, 2004 S 5.8 0.330 0.345
tion results are summarized in Table 2. For the purpose of illus- December 31, 2004 M 5.0 0.433 0.504
tration, the separation results for a single-peaked hydrograph are January 1, 2005 S 10.4 0.430 0.461
shown in Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 presents separation results for a January 2, 2005 M 12.0 0.412 0.472
multiple-peaked hydrograph. From the ratio of baseflow 共BF兲 vol-
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January 5, 2005 M 4.9 0.478 0.594

ume to total runoff volume 共herein referred to as the “BF ratio” in January 8, 2005 M 1.2 0.470 0.588
Table 2兲 and the estimated baseflow hydrographs for the 94 hy- February 4, 2005 S 1.3 0.433 0.472
drographs, the conceptual method was observed to provide higher February 18, 2005 S 2.0 0.359 0.393
baseflow separations compared to the one-parameter algorithm.
February 24, 2005 M 2.9 0.301 0.316
However, this difference is not significant for the study site, as the
February 26, 2005 S 1.8 0.397 0.423
baseflow hydrographs estimated from these two methods are
February 27, 2005 S 1.6 0.393 0.423
close to each other.
To further elucidate the separation characteristics of these two March 2, 2005 M 9.8 0.331 0.344
methods, sensitivity of baseflow separation to recession constant March 10, 2005 S 4.1 0.317 0.332
k was carried out for the eight single-peaked hydrographs given in March 12, 2005 M 6.3 0.287 0.300
Table 1 where BF ratios were computed for the selected hydro- March 23, 2005 S 2.3 0.355 0.379
graphs, using different k values. The BF ratio was plotted against March 26, 2005 M 1.6 0.345 0.368
the k value for each hydrograph for both the separation methods. March 27, 2005 M 2.8 0.330 0.349
The BF ratio-k plots of these hydrographs were found to be quite March 31, 2005 M 2.6 0.370 0.388
similar to each other 共not shown兲. Fig. 4 shows the average BF April 16, 2005 S 22.3 0.351 0.370
ratio of the eight hydrographs against recession constant k. May 6, 2005 S 14.1 0.323 0.334
From Fig. 4, no significant difference in baseflow separation May 8, 2005 M 9.4 0.435 0.494
results could be observed between the two methods when the k May 16, 2005 S 20.5 0.393 0.410
value is larger than 0.98, where BF ratios between the two meth- May 21, 2005 S 43.7 0.377 0.390
ods are close to each other. This explains the insignificant differ- May 24, 2005 S 9.4 0.428 0.454
ence in baseflow separation results between the two methods for
May 25, 2005 S 13.3 0.458 0.508
the study site 共Figs. 2 and 3兲, which has k value of 0.988. As the
May 26, 2005 S 9.4 0.435 0.474
k value decreases, the difference in BF ratio between the two
May 29, 2005 S 35.0 0.367 0.380
methods increases 共about 10% differences at a k value of about
0.96兲. For a k value smaller than 0.90, the BF ratio of the “one- June 1, 2005 M 10.8 0.386 0.412
parameter” algorithm attains its maximum value of 50%. In other June 8, 2005 S 7.5 0.339 0.362
words, the one-parameter algorithm is only capable of separating June 15, 2005 M 2.6 0.397 0.435
a hydrograph up to 50% of the total measured hydrograph. This June 25, 2005 S 1.7 0.385 0.429
further implies that the algorithm is not applicable for catchments July 4, 2005 S 16.5 0.316 0.322
fed largely 共more than 50% of the total runoff兲 by groundwater. July 17, 2005 S 6.0 0.408 0.430
Unlike the one-parameter algorithm, the conceptual method does July 18, 2005 S 12.3 0.384 0.407
not have this limitation of baseflow separation. The conceptual July 19, 2005 M 13.8 0.417 0.447
method appears to be able to provide a large baseflow separation July 25, 2005 M 9.7 0.357 0.373
without an upper bound to the BF ratio, as shown in Fig. 4. Figs. July 26, 2005 S 15.5 0.416 0.450
5 and 6 show the baseflow hydrographs for different k values for July 30, 2005 S 18.0 0.376 0.398
the one-parameter algorithm and the conceptual method, respec- August 2, 2005 S 6.5 0.400 0.432
tively. The one-parameter algorithm tends to produce an unreal- August 4, 2005 S 50.8 0.372 0.381
istic sharp peak of baseflow right under the peak of the measured
August 20, 2005 S 9.5 0.316 0.330
hydrograph for a k value smaller than 0.96. No significant delay
August 21, 2005 S 6.7 0.381 0.405
between the measured hydrograph peak and baseflow peak was
August 23, 2005 S 23.6 0.390 0.406
observed in Fig. 5. This implies that both baseflow and surface
runoff reach the outfall point CP1 simultaneously, although there September 4, 2005 M 2.8 0.444 0.485
should be a delay between the total runoff and baseflow peaks, as September 8, 2005 M 2.6 0.399 0.444
surface runoff generally propagates much more rapidly than sub- September 11, 2005 S 4.9 0.283 0.290
surface flow. Conversely, a delay between baseflow peak and September 18, 2005 S 7.6 0.329 0.345
measured hydrograph peak was observed for the conceptual September 22, 2005 M 10.3 0.408 0.433
method 共Fig. 6兲 for all k values. September 30, 2005 S 9.4 0.299 0.309
In summary, the conceptual method could probably be applied October 5, 2005 S 13.1 0.377 0.403
to separate hydrographs for catchments fed largely by groundwa- October 8, 2005 S 7.6 0.363 0.380
ter, compared to the one-parameter algorithm which has the limi- October 16, 2005 M 37.1 0.393 0.427
tation of a maximum BFI value of 0.5. However, a reliable

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J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

 Table 2. 共Continued.兲
VBF / VT
Peak flow
Event Type 共m3 / s兲 “One”c “Con”d
October 24, 2005 S 5.2 0.328 0.341
November 4, 2005 M 3.4 0.391 0.436
November 6, 2005 S 2.1 0.454 0.494
November 16, 2005 S 3.1 0.310 0.319
November 17, 2005 M 4.3 0.361 0.380
November 23, 2005 M 8.5 0.368 0.392
November 30, 2005 M 1.3 0.461 0.538
December 8, 2005 S 14.1 0.360 0.379
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December 22, 2005 S 4.4 0.345 0.366

December 24, 2005 S 34.9 0.305 0.309 Fig. 2. Separation results for single-peak hydrographs for events on
December 25, 2005 M 10.4 0.407 0.430 July 25, 2005
December 31, 2005 S 15.1 0.336 0.345
January 1, 2006 M 4.4 0.478 0.549
January 2, 2006 S 4.8 0.443 0.491 Subtracting the estimated baseflow hydrograph from the mea-
January 4, 2006 S 15.6 0.397 0.425 sured hydrographs, the direct runoff hydrographs could be ob-
January 5, 2006 M 28.1 0.414 0.447 tained. Applying the trapezoidal rule of approximate integration
January 1–10, 2006 M 33.3 0.471 0.585 共Stroud 1997兲, the total runoff depth 共DT兲 and direct runoff depth
January 11–13, 2006 M 24.0 0.463 0.573 共DDR兲 were computed for each event through Eqs. 共18兲 and 共19兲,
January 17, 2006 S 9.4 0.345 0.360 respectively
January 21, 2006 M 3.1 0.404 0.434
January 22, 2006 S 10.9 0.367 0.386 共0.5QS + QS+1 + QS+2 + . . . . . . + Qe−1 + 0.5Qe兲⌬t
DT共mm兲 =
February 9, 2006 S 18.4 0.308 0.319 A ⫻ 103
February 16, 2006 S 5.7 0.266 0.273 共18兲
February 17, 2006 M 40.6 0.299 0.301
March 20, 2006 M 8.0 0.313 0.326
March 29, 2006 S 16.0 0.301 0.304
April 6, 2006 M 13.6 0.322 0.331
April 8, 2006 S 13.5 0.392 0.420
April 14, 2006 S 11.0 0.378 0.400
April 15, 2006 S 45.5 0.333 0.339
April 17, 2006 M 5.8 0.401 0.429
April 18, 2006 S 22.5 0.391 0.406
May 11, 2006 M 7.5 0.366 0.383
May 19, 2006 M 0.9 0.475 0.526
May 23, 2006 S 1.3 0.446 0.499
May 25, 2006 M 1.4 0.405 0.430
May 26, 2006 M 5.9 0.364 0.395
May 28, 2006 S 6.6 0.409 0.450
Fig. 3. Separation results for multiple-peak hydrographs for events
May 30, 2006 S 2.4 0.491 0.556
a on December 31, 2004
M = multiple-peaked event.
b
S = single-peaked event.
c
“One” = one-parameter algorithm.
d
“Con” = conceptual method.
e
VBF = baseflow volume 共m3兲.
f
VT = total runoff volume 共m3兲.

estimation of recession constant k is necessary for the application

of the conceptual method, as the baseflow separation results ap-
pear to be sensitive to the k value for large baseflow separations,
as shown in Fig. 6.

Development of Empirical Relationships

In this study, the relationships of rainfall depth-total runoff depth
and rainfall depth-direct runoff depth were developed for the Fig. 4. Sensitivity of baseflow separation results to recession
study site for both event and monthly bases. constant

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J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

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Fig. 5. Baseflow hydrographs estimated using one-parameter algo-
rithm for different k values
DDR共mm兲
共0.5Qd,S + Qd,S+1 + Qd,S+2 + . . . . . . + Qd,e−1 + 0.5Qd,e兲⌬t
=
A ⫻ 103
共19兲
where Q = total runoff rate 共m / s兲; Qd = direct runoff rate 共m / s兲;
3 3
⌬t = time interval 共300 s, as time interval is 5 min兲; S = time step
at which direct runoff starts; e=time step at which direct runoff
ends; and A = watershed area 共m2兲.
Figs. 7 and 8 are the event-based rainfall depth-total runoff
depth and rainfall depth-direct runoff depth relationships. The
empirical relationships were found to be represented best 共with
the highest R2 values兲 by linear equations, after fitting the data
Fig. 6. Baseflow hydrographs estimated using conceptual method for
different k values
Fig. 7. Rainfall depth-total runoff depth relationship 共event-based兲
JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2009 / 277
J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279
Fig. 8. Rainfall depth-direct runoff depth relationship 共event-based兲
points to different forms of regression equations. From Fig. 8, the
linear plot with a slope of about 0.26 implies that an average of
74% of the rainfall is lost within the study site. This value is close
to the percentage of undeveloped area 共i.e., 67.4% of the water-
shed area兲 covered densely by bushes and trees. As the in situ
soils are mainly loams with low permeability, this significant ini-
tial rainfall loss could probably be attributed to high interception
and depression losses contributed by the dense vegetations and
the uneven land surface of wooded areas, respectively.
The monthly total runoff depth and direct runoff depth were
obtained through estimation of the areas below the measured hy-
drograph and the estimated direct runoff hydrograph on a monthly
period. Figs. 9 and 10 show the relationships of rainfall depth-
total runoff depth and rainfall depth-direct runoff depth 共the
graphs are plotted the other way兲, respectively, on a monthly
basis. The monthly relationships were fitted best with linear equa-
tions, with R2 values higher than 0.90. These equations could be
used for estimating monthly runoff depth and monthly direct run-
off depth from the measured monthly rainfall depths.
As direct runoff could not be negative, the X intercepts of the
rainfall depth-total runoff depth and rainfall depth-direct runoff
depth relationships represent the threshold value of rainfall that is
required to initiate direct runoff and total runoff, respectively. The
empirical equations in Figs. 7 and 8 are thus subject to a lower
bound of rainfall value, where direct runoff is zero when rainfall
depth is lower than this threshold value of rainfall, as shown in
Eqs. 共20兲–共23兲 below
The event-based rainfall depth—total runoff depth relationship
Fig. 9. Rainfall depth-total runoff depth relationship 共monthly basis兲
 Table 3. Flow Components from December 2004 to May 2006
DT DDR DBF
Month 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲
December 2004 44.14 19.25 24.89
January 2005 82.61 26.80 55.80
February 2005 33.87 6.33 27.54
March 2005 66.35 22.96 43.39
April 2005 77.17 32.84 44.33
May 2005 246.55 100.85 145.70
June 2005 55.71 14.99 40.72
July 2005 146.10 61.78 84.33
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August 2005 129.96 53.27 76.69

September 2005 70.55 28.41 42.14
Fig. 10. Rainfall depth-direct runoff depth relationship 共monthly October 2005 133.36 51.59 81.77
basis兲 November 2005 65.60 23.57 42.03
December 2005 101.78 46.46 55.32
January 2006 344.24 135.09 209.15
DT = 0.5386Idepth − 6.2644; I ⬎ 11.63 mm
February 2006 80.58 35.96 44.62
March 2006 36.23 15.21 21.02
DT = 0; 0 艋 I ⬍ 11.63 mm 共20兲
April 2006 141.40 66.44 74.96
The event-based rainfall depth—direct runoff depth relationship May 2006 58.04 18.70 39.33
Total contribution 共%兲 1,914.25 760.00 1,153.75
DDR = 0.2571Idepth − 1.2081; I ⬎ 4.70 mm
39.7 60.3
DDR = 0; 0 艋 I ⬍ 4.70 mm 共21兲
The monthly rainfall depth—total runoff depth relationship was then estimated by subtracting the direct runoff depth from the
total runoff depth. The contributions 共in terms of percentage兲 of
DT = 0.6014Idepth − 21.726; I ⬎ 36.13 mm baseflow to the annual total runoff are shown in Fig. 11.
The 95% confidence intervals of the annual baseflow and sur-
DT = 0; 0 艋 I ⬍ 36.13 mm 共22兲 face runoff contribution to the annual total runoff were estimated
using the central limit theorem 共Montgomery and Runger 2003兲.
The monthly rainfall depth—direct runoff depth relationship
Baseflow was observed to contribute about 58–61% of the annual
DDR = 0.2502Idepth − 11.033; I ⬎ 44.10 mm total runoff, while surface runoff only contributed about 39–42%
of the annual total runoff.
DDR = 0; 0 艋 I ⬍ 44.10 mm 共23兲
As the empirical relationships were developed based on a large Conclusions
number of hydrograph events 共94 hydrograph events over a pe-
riod of 18 months兲 and found to have R2 values higher than 0.90, A reliable hydrograph separation method is important for surface
these relationships could hence be used to reliably estimate total runoff model calibration, unit hydrograph derivation, and hydro-
runoff depth and direct runoff depth from the measured rainfall logical studies.
depth for the study site. These relationships are generally more This paper elucidates the separation characteristics of the one-
efficient to provide fast estimations of total runoff depth and di- parameter algorithms and the conceptual method. The one-
rect runoff depth compared to rainfall-runoff modeling that in- parameter algorithm was found to have a maximum BFI value of
volves a substantial amount of computational effort and time.

Contribution of Baseflow and Surface Runoff to Total

Runoff
Based on the separation results, the monthly baseflow and surface
runoff depths were estimated for the study period, as summarized
in Table 3. During the period from December 2004 to May 2006,
baseflow was observed to contribute almost 60% of the total run-
off at the study site.
To have a more representative estimate for baseflow and sur-
face runoff contributions, the estimation needs to be carried out
using long-term baseflow and surface runoff data. However, these
long-term data are not readily available. Based on 10 years
共1994–2003兲 of monthly rainfall data from the Changi Meteoro-
logical Station, the monthly total runoff and direct runoff depths
were estimated for the study site using the empirical relationships Fig. 11. Estimated monthly baseflow depths and contribution from
developed 共Figs. 9 and 10, respectively兲. Monthly baseflow depth January 1994 to December 2003

278 / JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2009

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2009, 14(3): 271-279

 0.50, and hence is not applicable for catchments fed largely 共more
than 50% of the total runoff兲 by groundwater. For a k value
smaller than 0.96, the one-parameter algorithm tends to produce
an unrealistic sharp peak of baseflow right under the measured
hydrograph peak. On the other hand, the conceptual method was
observed to be able to provide realistic baseflow hydrographs for
large baseflow separation. However, the conceptual method re-
quires reliable estimation of recession constant, as the method
was found to be sensitive to recession constant for large baseflow
separations.
In addition, useful empirical relationships were developed for
the study site to estimate total runoff depth and direct runoff
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depth from the measured total rainfall depth. The relationships of
rainfall depth—total runoff depth and rainfall depth—direct run-
off depth could be represented well with linear equations with
high R2 values. Using the empirical relationships developed, the
contribution of annual baseflow and surface runoff to annual total
runoff was estimated. Baseflow was found to contribute about
58–61% of annual total runoff of the study site.
Instead of empirical equations, the accuracy of the relation-
ships of rainfall depth—total runoff depth and rainfall depth—
direct runoff depth could probably be further improved through
application of artificial intelligence techniques such as artificial
neural network 共ANN兲, fuzzy logic, or genetic algorithm 共GA兲.
These techniques are generally capable of capturing both linear
and complicated nonlinear relationships 共Haykin 1999兲. Applica-
tion of these artificial intelligence techniques in solving numerous
water resources issues can be found in literature such as Chau
共2006兲, Chau et al. 共2005兲, Cheng et al. 共2005, 2002兲, and Cheng
and Chau 共2002兲.
Although the empirical equations are effective tools for esti-
mating the long-term contribution of annual baseflow and surface
runoff to annual total runoff, these equations are generally site-
specific. The coefficient values of the equations could vary among
study sites, depending on land cover, soil types, and percentage of
impervious areas. The development of the empirical equations
requires gauged flow data. A study of the relationships between
the coefficient values and the catchment physical characteristics
共such as catchment slope, impervious area, and depression stor-
age兲 would therefore be very useful for predicting the coefficient
values for ungauged catchments.
Acknowledgments
The writers thank Mr. Yee Woon Kang, Ruby Tok Hui Yin, and
Mr. Lim Lai Wan for their efforts in collecting the data for the
study.
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