ASANSOL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

VIVEKANANDA SARANI, KANYAPUR, ASANSOL-713305

RENEWABLE ENERGY- DESIGN A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

PROJECT: PART II (ME881)

A Report

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirement for the award

of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (2016-2020)

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BY
NAME ROLL

VIVEK KUMAR 10800716025

UJJWAL KUMAR 10800716027

UDAY PAL 10800716028

TUHIN SEN 10800716029

MD AFTAB ALAM 10800716098

Under the Guidance of

Dr. SARNENDU PAUL, ASST. PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASANSOL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

I
 ASANSOL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

VIVEKANANDA SARANI, KANYAPUR, ASANSOL -713305

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “RENEWABLE ENERGY-

DESIGN A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE” has been carried out by VIVEK KUMAR,
UJJWAL KUMAR, UDAY PAL, TUHIN SEN and MD AFTAB ALAM to the
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad university of Technology, West Bengal in partial
fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering
Department is bona fide record of the project work carried out by them under my
supervision during the year 2019-2020.

Prof. (Dr.) Debashis Sarkar Dr. Sarnendu Paul

Head of the Department Assistant Professor

Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering

Asansol Engineering College Asansol Engineering College

DATE: 51
PLACE:

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our heartiest gratitude and thanks to all who gave us this
great opportunity to complete our project. We would like to thank everyone who
helped us and made this experience such memorable one.

We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. (Dr.) Debashis Sarkar H.O.D,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Asansol Engineering College for permitting us
to undergo the academic project.

To our project guide Dr. Sarnendu Paul, Astt. Professor for being so helpful and
taking keen interest in our progress and always helped us when we faced any kind of
technical problem.

Further our thanks goes to all respected faculty member and staffs of the department
of Mechanical Engineering, Asansol Engineering College as they remained keenly
attached to us in every aspect for the completion of our project. We express our
sincere thanks to all our friends and families who directly or indirectly helped us in
the accomplishment of this project work.

..............................................................

VIVEK KUMAR (10800716025)

...............................................................

UJJWAL KUMAR (10800716027)

.............................................................

UDAY PAL (10800716028)

..............................................................

TUHIN SEN (10800716029)

.............................................................

MD AFTAB ALAM (10800716098)

III
 ABSTRACT

When the earth is tethering forth with the problem of climate change and pollution,
when it is known that the natural resources on which the conventional sources of
energy operate will be exhausted completely in the coming three to four decades, the
need for shifting towards the sustainable energy arise. Designing a sustainable future
and a better place to live in for the coming generations to come is the need of the
hour. In that context, this project- Renewable Energy: Design a Sustainable Future
can prove to be a game changer in understanding and analyzing the energy usage
pattern in different field, help in increasing the energy efficiency and give us cheaper
and reliable methods to increase the use of renewable energy sources. We will have
an engineering approach towards achieving a transition to 100% renewable energy
and come to know and discuss the pros and cons in the whole process.

This project reviews the renewable energy scenario of India as well as extrapolates
the future developments keeping in view the consumption, production and supply of
power. There are ample opportunities with favorable geology and geography with
huge customer base and widening gap between demand and supply. Technological
advancement, suitable regulatory policies, tax rebates, efficiency improvement in
consequence to R&D efforts are the few pathways to energy and environment
conservation and it will ensure that these large, clean resource bases are exploited as
quickly and cost effectively as possible. This project gives an overview of the
potential renewable energy resources in Indian context while evaluating the present
status, the energy demand of the country and forecast consumption and production,
with the objective to evaluate and assess whether India can sustain its growth and its
society with renewable resources.

Keywords

Renewable Energy; Solar; Wind; Biomass; 100% renewable energy; Smart energy
systems; Energy scenarios; Energy systems analysis.

IV
 CONTENTS

Abstract IV

List of abbreviations VI

List of figures VIII

List of tables IX

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3
CHAPTER 3 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA 5
3.1 Solar Energy 8
3.2 Wind Energy 10
3.3 Biomass and Biogas 12
3.4 Small hydropower 13
3.5 Tidal Energy 15
3.6 Geothermal Energy 17
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY 19
CHAPTER 5 ENERGY USES PATTERN IN INDIA 21
CHAPTER 6 TECHNOLOGY ASPECTS OF RES 23
6.1 Solar Energy 23
6.2 Wind Energy 26
6.3 Biomass and Biogas 32
6.4 Imbibing and Storing Energy 38
CHAPTER 7 ENERGY POLICIES 52
7.1 Existing Government Policies 52
7.2 Suggestions in Policy Making 58
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 60
CHAPTER 9 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK 62

REFERENCES 63
PUBLICATION 69

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AR 6th assessment report of the IPCC

BECCS bio energy carbon capture and storage

BECCU bio energy carbon capture and utilization

CO2 carbon dioxide

CSP concentrating solar thermal power

DACCS direct air carbon capture and storage

DACCU direct air carbon capture and utilization

ESM energy system model

IAM integrated assessment model

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

NA North Africa

PV solar photovoltaic

R&D research and development

RE renewable energy

RES renewable energy systems

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SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

SR1.5 special report on Global warming of 1.5 °C

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

UN United Nation

VII
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Title Page No.

1 Share of various sources in energy mix of India. 21

2 Share of electricity consumption by Utilities. 22
3 Comparison of life cycle emissions 24
4 Comparison of life cycle emissions 31
5 Classification of available biomass resources in India. 32
6 Total installed capacity and share of large scale 50
EES in India
7 Total installed capacity and share of large scale EES 51
under development in India

VIII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Table Title Page No

1 Energy demand projection in India. 6

2 Estimated Potential at 80 m and 100 m height (MW) 27
3 State wise wind power capacity (MW) 29
4 Cumulative installed wind power capacity(kW) of 30
North Eastern states
5 Source wise and state wise estimate potential of 36
bio-energy in India as on 31.03.2013
6 Advantages and Disadvantage of different large 41
scale EES system
7 PSH Plants in India 44
8 PSH Plants in investigation stage 45
9 PSH Plants in ideation stage. 46
10 Grid scale Battery storage Systems in India 47
11 Grid scale Battery storage Under Planning and 48
Development
12 Grid scale Thermal storage Under Planning and 49
Development
13 Generation based Policy Instruments 56
14 Finance based Policy Instruments 57

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The World Energy Forum has predicted that fossil-based oil, coal and gas reserves
will be exhausted in less than another 10 decades. Fossil fuels account for over 79%
of the primary energy consumed in the world, and 57.7% of that amount is used in the
transport sector and are diminishing rapidly [1]. The exhaustion of natural resources
and the accelerated demand of conventional energy have forced planners and policy
makers to look for alternate sources. Renewable energy is energy derived from
resources that are regenerative, and do not deplete over time. Renewable energy offers
our planet a chance to reduce carbon emissions, clean the air, and put our civilization
on a more sustainable footing. It also offers countries around the world the chance to
improve their energy security and spur economic development. Renewable energy
sources (RES) that use indigenous resources have the potential to provide energy with
negligible emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases [2]. Renewable energy
technologies produce marketable energy by converting natural phenomena/resources
into useful energies. The usage of renewable energy resources is a promising prospect
for the future as an alternative to conventional energy.

In order to achieve energy independence, the dependency on imported oil

has to be reduced by developing alternate energy sources. The average per capita
consumption of energy in India is still much lower than that of developed countries.
However, the same is expected to rise sharply due to high economic growth and scope
for rapid industrialization. The sustainable renewable energy can be a vital link in
industrialization and development of nation. In the near-term, total fossil energy
demand will likely increase even faster because of steady industrial and economic
growth. Apart from augmenting the energy supply, renewable resources will help
India in mitigating the climate change. The competitiveness of alternate energy source
is further enhanced due to rise in oil price and the added yields from carbon emission
reduction credits under clean development management. The alternate energy
technologies will create of sustainable energy sources for independence from
politically sensitive fossil fuel imports and also reduce hazardous greenhouse gas
emissions. The fluctuation of oil price due to increased geopolitical turmoil demands

1
a transparent integrated energy policy for accelerated growth of domestic energy
resources.

2
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Traditionally, sustainability has been framed in the three-pillar model: Economy,

Ecology and Society are all considered to be interconnected and relevant for
sustainability (BMU, 1998). The three-pillar model explicitly acknowledges the
encompassing nature of the sustainability concept and allows a schematic
categorization of sustainability issues. The United Nations General Assembly aims for
action to promote the integration of the three components of SD—economic
development, social development and environmental protection—as interdependent
and mutually reinforcing pillars (UN, 2005a). This view subscribes to an
understanding where a certain set of actions (e.g., substitution of fossil fuels with RE
sources) can fulfil all three development goals simultaneously. The three-pillar model
has been criticized for diluting a strong normative concept with vague categorization
and replacing the need to protect natural capital with a methodological notion of
trans-sectoral integration (Brand and Jochum, 2000). Within another conceptual
framework, SD can be oriented along a continuum between the two paradigms of
weak sustainability and strong sustainability. The two paradigms differ in
assumptions about the substitutability of natural and human-made capital (Hartwick,
1977; Pearce et al., 1996; Neumayer, 2003). Weak sustainability has been labelled
the substitutability paradigm (Neumayer, 2003) and is based on the idea that only the
aggregate stock of capital needs to be conserved— natural capital can be substituted
with man-made capital without compromising future well-being. As such, it can be
interpreted as an extension of neoclassical welfare economics (Solow, 1974;
Hartwick, 1977). For example, one can argue that non-renewable resources, such as
fossil fuels, can be substituted, for example, by renewable resources and technological
progress as induced by market prices (Neumayer, 2003). Weak sustainability also
implies that environmental degradation can be compensated for with man-made
capital such as more machinery, transport infrastructure, education and information
technology. Whereas weak sustainability assumes that the economic system flexibly
adapts to varying availability of forms of capital, strong sustainability starts from an
ecological perspective with the intent of proposing guardrails for socioeconomic
pathways. Strong sustainability can be viewed as the non-substitutability paradigm

3
(Pearce et al., 1996; Neumayer, 2003), based on the belief that natural capital cannot
be substituted, either for production purposes or for environmental provision of
regulating, supporting and cultural services (Norgaard, 1994). As an example,
limited sinks such as the atmosphere’s capacity to absorb GHG emissions may be
better captured by applying the constraints of the strong sustainability concept
(Neumayer, 2003; IPCC, 2007b). In one important interpretation, the physical stock
of specific non-substitutable resources (so-called ‘critical natural capital’) must be
preserved (not allowing for substitution between different types of natural capital)
(Ekins et al., 2003). Guardrails for remaining within the bounds of sustainability are
often justified or motivated by nonlinearities, discontinuities, non-smoothness and
non-convexities (Pearce et al., 1996). As a typical correlate, natural scientists warn of
and describe specific tipping points, critical thresholds at which a tiny perturbation
can qualitatively alter the state or development of Earth systems (Lenton et al.,
2008). The precautionary principle argues for keeping a safe distance from guardrails,
putting the burden of proof for the non-harmful character of natural capital reduction
on those taking action (Ott, 2003). RE can contribute to the development goals of the
three-pillar model and can be assessed in terms of both weak and strong sustainability.
Consumption of non-RE sources, such as fossil fuels and uranium, reduces natural
capital directly. RE, in contrast, sustains natural capital as long as its resource use
does not reduce the potential for future harvest.

4
 CHAPTER 3 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA

India's population of more than 1351 million is growing at an annual rate of 1.58%.
As fossil fuel energy becomes scarcer, India will face energy shortages significantly
due to increase in energy prices and energy insecurity within the next few decades.
Increased use of fossil fuels also causes environmental problems both locally and
globally. The economy of India is the second fastest big emerging economy, after
China, in the world. There is a very high demand for energy, which is currently
satisfied mainly by coal, foreign oil and petroleum, which apart from being a non-
renewable, and therefore non-permanent solution to the energy crisis, it is also
detrimental to the environment. Thus, it is imperative that India obtains energy
security without affecting the booming economy, which would mean that the country
must switch from the nonrenewable energy (crude oil and coal) to renewable energy.

For these reasons the development and use of RES & Technologies are
becoming vital for sustainable economic development of India. Expert consultation at
the Asia Energy Vision 2020, organized under the World Energy Council agreed on
energy demand projection in India up to 2020 as given in Table 1[3]. The Expert
Committee on Integrated Energy Policy in its Report (IEPR 2006) has estimated that
by 2032, i.e., 25 years from now primary commercial energy requirement in the
country would need to go up 4–5 times the current level, electricity generation
installed capacity 5.6–7 times the current level and oil requirement by 3–6 times the
current level.

5
 Table-1.

Energy demand projection in India.

Sl. No. Source Unit 1991–1992 2009–2010 2020–2021

1 Electricity TWh 231 725 1300

2 Coal Mt. 229 690 1345

3 Petroleum products Mt. 57 165 335

4 Natural gas b cum 18.6 65 130

Energy is a basic requirement for economic development and in every

sector of Indian economy. It is thus necessary that India quickly look towards new
and emerging renewable energy and energy efficient technologies as well as
implement energy conservation laws. Against this background, the country urgently
needs to develop a sustainable path of energy development. Promotion of energy conservation
and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of a sustainable energy
supply. Fortunately, India is blessed with a variety of renewable energy sources, like biomass,
the solar, wind, geothermal and small hydropower and implementing one of the world's
largest programs in renewable energy.

India is determined to become one of the world's leading clean energy

producers. The Government of India has already made several provisions, and
established many agencies that will help it to achieve its goal. India has seen an
annual growth rate of about 22% for renewable energy in the last decade. The
production from non-conventional sources in India during 2013–2014 is about
53.22 billion units and the major contributors are wind and solar with 31.26 billion
units and 3.35 billion units respectively (Barpatragohain, 2015). Alternate energy
also payback to investment in the form of carbon credit for clean development
mechanism. Wind and solar power do not produce waste and so no investment for
waste management is needed during the lifecycle in such power facilities. Other
potential resources are hydropower, tidal energy, geothermal energy and biomass/bio-
waste.

6
 The major contribution to renewable energy investment comes from
private sector participation. This is due to the support from the government, which
leverages the private investment.

7
 3.1 Solar Energy

Theoretically, solar might seem an ideal energy source, as it is free and virtually
limitless. The solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface in one year provides more
than 10,000 times the world’s yearly energy needs. Furthermore, harnessing just one-
quarter of the solar energy that falls on the world’s paved areas could meet all current
global energy needs comfortably. India is densely populated and has high solar
insolation, an ideal combination for using solar power. Because of its location
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator, India has an average annual
temperature ranging from 25 °C to 27.5 °C. Therefore India has huge solar potential
(Khanna et al., 2008). Driven by an increasing demand for electricity and widening
gap between demand and supply, India has targeted 20 GW of Solar Power by 2022.
With about 300 clear, sunny days in a year, India’s theoretical solar power reception,
on only its land area is about 5000 PW h/year or about 600,000 GW (Sharma, 2011).
The daily average solar energy incident over India varies 4–7 kW h/m2with about
1500–2000 sunshine hours per year (depending upon location), which is far more than
current total energy consumption. India has an expanding solar energy sector: 9 solar
cell manufacturers, 22 PV module manufacturers, and 50 PV systems manufacturers.
India has been ranked 7th worldwide for solar photovoltaic cell production and secure
9th rank in solar thermal power generation (Parikh and Ghosh, 2009). This capacity
is growing rapidly due to the entry of various private players in manufacturing of
solar energy equipment.

Solar power systems can only use direct beam radiation and need to be
positioned in regions with high direct solar radiation. The feasibility of solar energy
system at any location depends on meteorological data on sunlight conditions for that
region. It also depends on the summer highs & winter lows and variable local weather
conditions. Solar thermal technology use solar energy to generate heat energy and is
used in residential and manufacturing applications. A basic system consists of a solar
thermal collectors and circulation fluid and pump. Whereas, in solar PV system,
typical silicon based solar photovoltaic cells are grouped together into a solar module
which converts the sunlight into electricity directly (Khanna et al., 2008).

8
Technological development has opened up a huge new market for solar power as vast
numbers of people in remote areas don’t have access to grid electricity. In reality,
people have to pay more for lighting due to inefficient kerosene lamps. Although solar
power usually costs more than electricity from conventional power plants, but it
makes economic sense as the cost of lighting is half in comparison to kerosene. Also,
the declining cost of LED-based lighting, storage batteries, and solar panels have
made it possible for millions of households to switch from crude kerosene lamps to
cleaner and safer electric lighting.

From economic point of view, the tapping of solar energy is still

considered as expensive due to high initial investments, difficulties to integrate with
grid due to intermittent nature, storage problem, conversion efficiency, component
price sensitivity, limitations in power evacuation and transmission and lack of public
awareness, etc. Solar power also suffers in those areas which remain often cloudy and
sunlight is available only for a small part of the year. Besides, solar power
installations require large area. Gujarat came up with an innovative way to put PV
arrays up on canals and waterways to reduce space (Sharma, 2011). The solar power
generation system has intrinsic advantages like free & abundant, inexhaustible and
free from geopolitical risks. As the international consensus on climatic change has
been growing toward a clean energy system, the solar power turns out to be a major
choice as an affordable and feasible global energy source in the sun belts. Although,
the cost of solar energy is significantly higher in comparison to conventional fuels, the
declining trend of solar energy cost due to invention of thin-film technology, mass
production of solar panels and improved conversion efficiencies, automatic trackers
for panel orientation will make it on par with conventional energy. Also, utility
rebates and government tax incentives, consideration of cost for carbon emissions will
formulate a level playing field for solar energy.

9
 3.2 Wind Energy

Wind energy is a clean alternative energy source as compared to conventional fuel

and has the advantage of being harnessed in rural and remote areas. In order to tap the
potential of wind energy sources, the scientific wind mapping has been done
extensively. Presently, India has an installed power generation capacity of a little over
207.8 GW, of which renewable resources account for about 25 GW and wind makes
up a majority of this installed capacity (Barpatragohain, 2015, Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE), 2009). There is huge activity in wind power, pan-India
with the installed capacity increasing to 10,000 MW. India today has the fifth largest
installed capacity of wind power in the world with 11087 MW installed capacity and
potential for on-shore capabilities of 65,000 MW. High quality wind energy sites, at
80 m hub-height with a minimum capacity factor of 25%, have a potential between
253 GW (no farmland included) and 306 GW (all farmland included). However the
plant load factor (PLF) in wind power generation is very low, often in the single digits
(Hossain, 2011).

Ministry of New and Renewable Resources (MNRE) has declared in its

official website that under National Wind Resource Assessment programme, Ministry
through National Institute of Wind Energy, Chennai (erstwhile Centre for Wind
Energy Technology (C-WET)) and State Nodal Agencies had installed and monitored
794 dedicated Wind Monitoring Stations (WMS) of height ranging from 20 m to
120 m (20 m, 25 m, 50 m, 80 m, 100 m, and 120 m) throughout the country as on
31.12.2014 (MNRE Website – www.mnre.gov.in). Initially the wind monitoring was
carried out only in known windy areas. Now it is extended to new/uncovered areas
which are not explored in earlier projects to complete the Indian Wind resource
mapping. Further hundreds of private winds monitoring stations are also operational
in the country. In its official website, MNRE has declared that based on the analysis
on the data collected from these 700 plus wind monitoring stations, it has been found
that 237 stations have economically preferable wind power potential greater than
200 W/sq m.

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 In India, winds are influenced by the strong south-west summer monsoon,
which starts in May–June, the weaker north-east winter monsoon, which starts in
October and during the period March to August, the winds get stronger over the
whole Indian peninsula except the eastern coast (Hossain, 2011). Wind speeds during
November to March are comparatively weak, though higher winds are available in the
Tamil Nadu coastline (Hossain, 2011). Wind turbines are mounted on tower to
capture the most energy with less turbulent wind. Wind turbine converts kinetic
energy from the wind into electrical power. The combination of lift force (which pulls
the blades toward it) and drag force (which acts against front side of blades) causes
the rotor to spin like a propeller and spins the generator to make electricity. Wind
turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or connected to a utility power grid
or even combined with a hybrid system. Wind farms, the arrays of large turbines are
becoming significant source of renewable energy as part of a strategy to reduce
dependency on fossil fuels.

The economics of wind energy is more encouraging than many other

alternate energy sources. Unlike solar, the wind energy is available continuously and
cost of power generation is cheaper at site. The wind power has emerged as a highly
commercially viable and competitive energy source due to increased R&D activities
and intrinsic strengths like non-polluting and sustainability. The generation cost of
wind energy is mainly determined by the parameters like investment cost (production,
transportation and erection cost), land-cost, operation and maintenance cost, average
wind speed, and hub height and financial parameters like interest rate. (Lu et al.,
2009). With new technology innovation and economies of scale production, the wind
turbines (which influence the major investment cost) are becoming cheaper and more
powerful. Thus, the cost of wind power generation per kW h shows a decreasing trend
with time.

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 3.3 Biomass and Biogas Energy

India is predominantly an agricultural economy, having huge quantity of biomass

available in the form of husk, straw, jute, cotton, shells of coconuts wild bushes, etc.
Biomass is produced in nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy
conversion. Biomass fuels used in India account for about one third of the total fuel
used in the country, being the most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural
households and about 15% of the urban households. Despite advancements in biomass
energy technologies, most bioenergy consumption in India still remains confined to
traditional domestic uses. The modern technologies offer possibilities to convert
biomass into synthetic gaseous or liquid fuels (like ethanol and methanol) and
electricity.

An estimated production of 350 million tons of agricultural waste every

year, biomass is capable of supplementing coal to the tune of about 200 million tons
producing of power. The large quantities of cattle dung can be used in bio energy
technologies viz., biogas, gasifier, biomass combustion, cogeneration, etc., to produce
energy thermal or electrical energy. Biomass energy co-generation program is being
implemented with the main objective of promoting technologies for optimum use of
biomass resources of India. The biomass power generation potential in India is
estimated at 30,000 MW. It results in a saving of about Rs. 20,000 crores every year.
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh are
the states with very high biomass/bioenergy potential. Land supply, development of
cheap and reliable combustion techniques, enhanced biomass productivity; economic
operations of plantations and logistics infrastructure are critical areas which shall
determine future of biomass in India.

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 3.4 Small Hydropower

Energy from small hydro is the oldest. It is most reliable of all renewable energy
sources. The development of small scale hydropower in India started almost in the
pace with the world’s first hydroelectric installation in 1882 at Appleton USA
(Dhillon and Sastry, 1992). The 130 KW installations in Sidrapong (Darjeeling) in
the year 1897 was the first installation in India. The other installations were
Shivasamundram at Mysore (2000 kW), and Bhoorisingh in Chamba (40 kW) in
1902, Galogi at Mussoorie (3000 kW) in 1907, Jubbal (50 kW) in 1911 and Chhaba
(1750 kW) at Shimla in 1913 (Palit, 2003). These plants were used primarily for
lighting in important towns and are still working.

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), 2009 has been vested
with the responsibility of developing Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects up to
25 MW station capacities. The estimated potential for power generation in the country
from such plants is about 20,000 MW (MNRE official website). Most of the potential
is in Himalayan States as river-based projects and in other States on irrigation canals.
The SHP programme is now essentially private investment driven. Projects are
normally economically viable and private sector is showing lot of interest in investing
in SHP projects. The viability of these projects improves with increase in the project
capacity. The Ministry’s aim is that at least 50% of the potential in the country is
harnessed in the next 10 years. It has been recognized that small hydropower projects
can play a critical role in improving the overall energy scenario of the country and in
particular for remote and inaccessible areas (Kumar, 2008). The Ministry is
encouraging development of small hydro projects both in the public as well as private
sector. Equal attention is being paid to grid-interactive and decentralized projects.
Hydro power projects are generally categorized in two segments i.e. small and large
hydro. In India, hydro projects up to 25 MW station capacities have been categorized
as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects. While Ministry of Power, Government of India
is responsible for large hydro projects, the mandate for the subject small hydro power
(up to 25 MW) is given to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), 2009.
Small hydro power projects are further classified as Micro hydro up to 100 kW plant
capacities, Mini hydro from 101 kW to 2000 kW and Small hydro up to 25,000 kW

13
plant capacities. The Ministry’s aim is that the SHP installed capacity should be about
7000 MW by the end of 12th Plan. The focus of the SHP programme is to lower the
cost of equipment, increase its reliability and setup projects in areas which give the
maximum advantage in terms of capacity utilization. An estimated potential of about
20,000 MW of small hydro power projects exists in India. Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE), 2009 has created a database of potential sites of small
hydro and 6474 potential sites with an aggregate capacity of 19,749.44 MW for
projects up to 25 MW capacity have been identified (MNRE official website). The
Administrative Approval for the year 2014–2015 and remaining period of 12th Plan
for Small Hydro Power Programme (up to 25 MW Capacity) has already been
circulated vide letter No. 14(03)2014-SHP dated 2nd July 2014 (MNRE official
website). Under the SHP Programme Central Financial Assistance is provided for:

(A) Resource Assessment and Support for Identification of new sites.

(B) Setting up new SHP Projects in the private/co-operative/Joint sector, etc.
(C) Setting up new SHP Projects in the Government sector.
(D) Renovation and Modernization of existing SHP projects in the Government
sector.
(E) Development/upgradation of Water Mills (mechanical/electrical output) and
setting up Micro Hydel Projects (up to 100 KW capacity).
(F) Research and development.

Hydroelectricity enjoys several advantages over most other sources of

electrical power. These include a high level of reliability, proven technology, high
efficiency, very low operating and maintenance costs, and the ability to easily adjust
to load changes. Because many hydropower plants are located in conjunction with
reservoirs, hydropower projects often provide water, flood control, and recreation
benefits. In addition, hydropower does not produce waste products that contribute to
air quality problems, acid rain, and greenhouse gases. Disadvantages of
hydroelectricity include high initial costs of facilities; dependence on precipitation (no
control over amount of water available); changes in stream regimens (can affect fish,
plants, and wildlife by changing stream levels, flow patterns, and temperature);
inundation of land and wildlife habitat (creation of reservoir); and displacement of
people living in the reservoir area.

14
 3.5 Tidal Energy

India has a great potential for uncapping this huge renewable and sustainable resource
for power generation. India has a long coastline of about 7500 km and about 336
islands in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea with the estuaries and gulfs where tides are
strong enough to move turbines for electrical power generation. The Gulf of Cambay
and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum tidal range of
11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively
(Barpatragohain, 2015, Ravindran and Raju, 1997). The Ganges Delta in the
Sundarbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The
identified economic power potential is about of 8000 MW with nearly 7000 MW in
the Gulf of Cambay, 1200 MW in the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat and about 100 MW in
the Gangetic delta in the Sunderbans region of West Bengal.

The total available potential of wave energy in India is estimated to be

about 40,000 MW – these are preliminary estimates. This energy is however less
intensive than what is available in more northern and southern latitudes. In 2000
NIOT Goa, launched a programme to conduct study on technologies for producing
high quality clean drinking water and energy from the ocean. The objective was to
generate 2–3 lakh litres per day freshwater using the Low Temperature Thermal
Desalination technology by 1 MW OTEC Power Plant. But it was dropped due to
difficulties in installations. In 2010 Kalpasar Tidal Power Project at The Gulf of
Khambhat was identified as a promising site for tidal power generation by UNDP
Expert (MNRE official website). In Jan 2011, the state of Gujarat announced plans to
install Asia’s first commercial-scale tidal current power plant; the state government
approved the construction of a 50 MW project in the Gulf of Kutch. None at the
moment, but India’s Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), 2009 said in
Feb 2011 that it may provide financial incentives for as much as 50% of the cost for
projects seeking to demonstrate tidal power. In 2014 Atlantis Energy proposed to
install and develop 50–200 MW Tidal stream based power plant at Gulf of Chambey.

Tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and
limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus

15
restricting its total availability (Ravindran and Raju, 1997). However, many recent
technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal
power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, triple-helix
turbines cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be
much higher than previously assumed and that economic and environmental costs
may be brought down to competitive levels. There is significant room for innovation
and more routine engineering development in energy harvesting and conversion
devices as well as in the entire infrastructure required to support the construction,
installation, maintenance and decommissioning of these systems.

16
 3.6 Geothermal Energy

A number of geothermal power plants, which generate more than 10,000 MW power
are operational in 24 countries of the world. Besides, geothermal energy is being used
directly for heating in at least 78 countries (Axelsson et al., 2005). The largest
producer of this energy is USA generating about 3086 MW of electricity (Monastero,
2002). India has huge potential to become a leading contributor in generating
geothermal power. But, the power generation through geothermal resources is still in
nascent stages in India. 340 geothermal hot springs have been identified in India.
Most of them are in the low surface temperature range from 37 °C to 90 °C which is
suitable for direct heat applications (Parikh and Ghosh, 2009). These springs are
grouped into seven geothermal provinces – Himalayan (Puga, Chhumathang), Sahara
Valley, and Cambay Basin, Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament belt, West Coast, Godavari
basin and Mahanadi basin. Some of the prominent geothermal resources include Puga
Valley and Chhumathang in Jammu and Kashmir, Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh,
Jalgaon in Maharashtra and Tapovan in Uttarakhand. A new location of geothermal
power energy has also been found in Tattapani in Chhattisgarh.

For harnessing Geothermal energy in the country the Ministry of New &
Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been supporting R&D on exploration activities and
Resource Assessment during last 25 years. This includes formation of expert groups,
working group, core group and committees in addition to providing financial support
for such projects and for resource assessment. MNRE is targeting for deployment of
Geo-thermal capacity of 1000 MW in the initial phase till 2022. Resource Assessment
is being planned in 2016–2017 for public domain.

But yet geothermal power projects has not been exploited at mass scale,
owing to a variety of reasons, the chief being the availability of plentiful coal at cheap
costs. If harnessed incorrectly, geothermal energy can sometime produce pollutants
resulting in environmental hazards. Deep drilling is another issue. However, with
technological development, better understanding of reservoir characteristics,
increasing environmental problems and widening gap between energy demand and

17
supply India will need to start depending on clean and eco-friendly energy sources in
future; one of which could be geothermal.

18
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Applications of renewable energy are broadly classified as “on-grid” and “off-grid”.

A grid is basically an integration of generation, transmission and distribution system
which supplies energy to several consumers. On-grid and off-grid are the terms which
describe the way electricity is delivered. On- grid deals with power stations which are
directly connected to grids such as wind farm and solar panels. Off- grid applications,
in general, serve only one load, such as a small home or a village house. Off-grid
applications can take many forms, from photovoltaic (PV) modules for an individual
village home to centralized windmills to power a village water pump or a commercial
battery charging facility. These off-grid applications are most generally used in
remote or rural settings. A major on-grid application is to generate electricity in mass
amounts. The most important application of wind energy is the wind turbine. The
wind turbine can convert the energy in the wind to mechanical power which, in turn,
can be fed into a generator to generate large amounts of electricity. This electricity
may be used to charge batteries or pump water. Wind energy can also be used in
wind-powered vehicles. This can save a lot of fuel and can provide increased
performance and efficiency. Similarly, solar energy can be used to power photovoltaic
panels which are an excellent way of producing electricity at small scales, especially
for rural and remote areas, where transmission lines cannot reach. Due to their little
maintenance and high reliability, they are ideal to use in isolated and far-flung places.
Offices can employ glass PV modules for reliable supply of electricity. Solar energy
is also widely utilized in solar water heaters, solar calculators and solar lights. They
work on the principle of storing energy from the sun during the day and utilizing it at
night time. Geothermal energy is most common amongst farmers. They use this
energy to heat their greenhouses which enable them to grow various fruits and
vegetables all around the year. In some countries, the heat produced from this energy
is also utilized to heat pedestrian walkways and bicycle lanes in order to prevent
them from freezing in extreme winters. Solid biomass can be burnt in incinerators to
produce heat that can be used to produce steam for electricity generation. Biomass can
also be converted to bio-fuels like ethanol for transportation needs. A widely used

19
application of hydropower is in a compressor. Specially designed compressors can be
used for adjusting turbine blades and governor valves. They can also be used to blow
out the water to eliminate the load during starting.

20
 CHAPTER 5 ENERGY USAGE PATTERN IN INDIA

India is mainly depending on the fossil fuels for its electrical energy needs. Coal
based power plants serve 61% of total demand [4]. In order to reduce economic
burden, pollution, oil imports and to promote RES utilization, Government of India
(GoI) has launched several programmes and policies. RES capacity of the country
increased from 6 MW in 1985 to 57260 MW in 2017 [5], [6]. Total installed capacity
of the country is 334399.83 MW as on 31st January 2018, and it is comprised of Coal
(193821.50 MW), Gas (25150.38), Diesel (837.63 MW), Nuclear (6780.00 MW),
Hydro (44963.42 MW), RES (62846.90 MW) [7]. Total installed capacity and share
of various sources are depicted in Fig. 1. Share of electricity consumption by utilities
in India as on 31.03.2017 is shown in Fig. 2[8].

Figure 1- Share of various sources in energy mix of India.

21
 Figure 1- Share of electricity consumption by utilities

Indian Electricity act 2003, National Electricity Policy-2005 and National Solar
Mission of GoI acted as the catalyst for RES development in India.

22
 CHAPTER 6 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF RES

6.1 Solar Energy

India, being a tropical country, has an abundance of solar energy.

Its geography allows many regions to receive a vast amount of solar radiation
throughout the year. Forecasting done throughout the country based on satellite and
then authenticated by ground data shows that 500000 TWh of electrical energy is
being received by India's lands, with most regions receiving 4–7 kWh/m2/day [9]. The
maximum global horizontal irradiance is received in the states of Rajasthan and
Gujrat.

The technology for solar power plants can be broadly classified to.
1. Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) plants
2. Solar thermal Power plants.

Solar Photovoltaics technologies can be further classified

into monocrystalline Si solar cells, multi-crystalline Si solar cells and thin film solar
cells. Crystalline Si solar cells currently occupy 85–90% of the global PV market
while thin film technologies occupy a minority section of the PV market, with most
technologies becoming next to obsolete [10]. Each solar cell technology has its own
merits and demerits but PV is the key to decarbonize the energy supply. This is of
utmost importance in the Indian energy context considering India is currently the third
largest emitter of CO2 (after USA and China). Studies show that the CO2 emitted by
solar photovoltaics throughout lifetime of the plant is far less than the conventional
power plants i.e. coal. This can also be attributed to the fact that most CO2 equivalent
emissions from solar power plants occurs during the manufacturing stage [11]. Fig-3
clearly shows the comparison between the life cycle emissions of various sources of
energy in tons of CO2 equivalent per GWh.

23
 Figure 2- Comparison of life cycle emissions

The technological aspect of PV technology that has improved

significantly over the years, is the efficiency, ranging from 8 to 9% in the 1980's to
almost 20% in the last few years. This can be seen as a tremendous achievement
considering the efficiency of PV cells was 1% at the time of conception of the
technology. Along with improvement in performance of PV cells, the costs per peak
watt have also declined [12, 13].

6.1.1 Technological Barriers

Although the solar photovoltaic technology has taken enormous leaps when it comes
to technology, it still hasn't proven to be enough. Research suggests that the
low conversion efficiency of solar photovoltaic technology compared to conventional
systems remains to be the biggest technological challenge in development of solar
energy systems [14]. Another barrier is that PV plants are rarely able to provide an
immediate response to load demand. This problem does not arise in conventional

24
power plants and thus makes them more effective [15]. Although the use of storage
mechanisms like battery banks helps deal with this challenge but autonomy can only
be provided for so many days without increasing cost and size of plant. As it has been
mentioned in earlier sections, a different variety of solar PV technologies are
available in the market. But the efficiencies of each of these technologies looks
considerably low in comparison to conventional power plants. Several studies also
depict various other technological barriers in the development of solar energy
generation like the intermittent nature of solar radiation which hampers the ability of
the PV system to meet the consumers demand, difference in the standard conditions
and real time conditions also effect the performance. Component failure often leads to
inability of solar PV system to generate electricity until the component is replaced
[16]. Operation in high temperature and mismatch in output from individual panels in
a PV array often leads to the creation of hotspots which reduce the efficiency of the
solar PV plant. These hotspots in the long run cause severe deterioration of the PV
panel thus increasing the cost of maintenance and repair. To avoid the formation of
hotspots, quality check is a must for PV module developers. Standards must be set for
the manufacturer to improve the quality and lifetime of the PV modules.

25
 6.2 Wind Energy

The growth of wind energy in India is enormous and proves to be an option to migrate
the challenges to meet electricity demands, environmental pollution, greenhouse gas
emission and depleting fossil fuel etc. India has the second largest wind market
in Asia after China and fourth amongst the global cumulative installed countries of
the world after USA and Germany [17]. During this year, 4148 MW wind projects
were commissioned. Wind Energy contributes the major portion of 64.09% of
total renewable energy capacity of the country [18].

The Indian government is also focusing on policy development to attract

investor in wind energy sector. Recently in October 2015, the Government of India,
along with the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) formulated and announced
the policy framework for the first offshore wind development in India. National
Institute of Wind Energy, formerly known as Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-
WET) located in Chennai serves as a research focal point in the improvement and
development in the entire spectrum of the wind energy sector in India [19]. NIWE
also coordinate wind energy assessment program and initially estimated 49 GW of
wind potential at 50 m hub-height and on further survey, at 80 m hub-height, wind
potential grows as much as 102 GW assuming 2% land availability for all states
except Himalayan states, North-eastern states and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
where 0.5% of land availability was assumed for energy estimation at both heights,
however land availability significantly effects the potential in windy area and recently
in 2015, using the advanced meso-micro coupled numerical wind flow model, and
with the corroboration of almost 1300 actual measurements spread all over India,
NIWE announced estimated wind potential at 100 m hub-height i.e. 302 GW
assuming actual land availability [19]. Table 2 below shows the state-wise estimated
potential at 80 m and 100 m hub-height.

26
 Table 2.

Estimated Potential at 80 m and 100 m height (MW)

S.No. State/UTs 80 m 100 m

(#$)
RANK I RANK II RANK TOTAL
III

1. Andaman & 365 4.12 3.43 0.88 8.43

Nicobar

2. Andhra Pradesh 14497 22525.5 20538.1 1165 44228.6

3. Arunachal 236 – – – –
Pradesh*

4. Assam* 112 – – – –

5. Bihar 144 – – – –

6. Chhattisgarh* 314 3.24 57.03 16.31 76.59

7. Diu Damn 4

8. Gujarat 35071 52287.59 32037.83 105.09 84431.33

9. Goa – 0 0.08 0.76 0.84

10. Haryana 93 – – – –

11. Himachal Pradesh* 64 – – – –

12. Jharkhand 91 – – – –

13. Jammu & 64 – – – –

Kashmir*

14. Karnataka 13593 15202.36 39802.59 852.4 55857.36

15. Kerala 837 332.63 1102.56 264.38 1699.56

16. Lakshadweep 16 3.5 3.4 0.77 7.67

27
S.No. State/UTs 80 m 100 m
(#$)
RANK I RANK II RANK TOTAL
III

17. Madhya Pradesh 2931 2216.39 8258.55 8.93 10483.88

18. Maharashtra 5961 31154.76 13747.43 492.15 45394.34

19. Manipur* 56 – – – –

20. Meghalaya* 82 – – – –

21 Nagaland 16 – – – –

22. Odhissa 1384 1666.2 1267.06 160.22 3093.47

23. Pondicherry 120 69.43 79 4.4 152.83

24. Rajasthan 5050 15414.91 3342.62 12.96 18770.49

25. Sikkim* 98 – – – –

26. Tamil Nadu 14152 11251.48 22153.34 394.82 33799.65

27. Uttarakhand* 534 – – – –

28. Uttar Pradesh 1260 – – – –

29. West Bengal* 22 – – – –

30. Telangana – 887.43 3347.52 9.34 4244.29

Total (MW) 102788 153019.59 145742.59 3489.31 302251.49

Note: For 80 m ∗Wind potential has yet to be validated with actual measurements.
#
Estimation is based on meso scale modelling (Indian Wind Atlas).
$
As actual land assessment is not done on a conservative consideration 2% land
availability for all states except Himalayan & North eastern states, Andaman Nicobar
Islands and Poor windy states has been assumed. In other area 0.5% land availability
has been assumed.

28
 Table 3.

State wise wind power capacity (MW)

S. State 2014 2015 2016 2017 % Tentative by

No (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) Share 2020
2017

1. Tamil Nadu 7276 7515 7694 7970 24.2 11,900

2. Maharashtra 4098 4638 4666 4778 14.5 7600

3. Gujarat 3414 3877 4441 5537 16.8 8800

4. Rajasthan 2820 3866 4217 4282 13.0 8600

5 Karnataka 2409 2872 3154 3793 11.5 6200

6 Andhra 753 1155 2092 3835 11.6 8100

Pradesh

7 Madhya 439 1126 2288 2498 7.6 6200

Pradesh

8 Kerala 55 35 43 51 0.15 –

9 Telangana - – 99 101 0.31 2000

10 Others - 4 4.30 4.30 0.013 600

Total 21,264 25,088 28,700 32,848 100 60000

29
 Table 4.

Cumulative installed wind power capacity (kW) of North Eastern states

S. No State Cumulative
Installed Capacity

1. Arunachal Pradesh 7

2. Assam 6

3. Manipur 140

4. Meghalaya 201

5. Sikkim 16

6. Tripura 2

7. Nagaland 20

8. Mizoram 21

6.2.1 Advancement in Technology

With the modern technology incorporated in the wind turbines, wind power
generation limits have been uplifted. Hence, penetration level of wind power has
become more significant and is leading to more complex, sophisticated and
reliable interconnection requirements. Initially, wind power did not have any serious
impact on the power system control, but now due to its size, wind power has to play a
much more active part in grid operation and control. The unit size of machines has
gone up to 3.00 MW. Over 50 different models of wind turbines are being
manufactured by more than 20 different companies in India. The technology used in
wind turbines is based on a squirrel-cage induction generator connected directly to the
grid. Power pulsations in the wind were almost directly transferred to the electrical
grid by this technology. The top 10 WT manufacturers in 2015 and
their priority generator technologies are illustrated in Fig. 4

30
Figure 3- - Comparison of life cycle emissions

31
 6.3 Biomass and Biogas

Biomass is defined as bio residue available by water based vegetation, forest

or organic waste, by product of crop production, agro or food industries waste.
Various biomass resources are available in India in different form. They can be
classified simply in the way they are available in nature as: grasses, woody plants,
fruits, vegetables, manures and aquatic plants. Algae and Jatropha are also now used
for manufacturing bio-diesel. Core distinct sources of biomass energy can be
classified as residue of agricultural crop, energy plantation and municipal and
industrial waste [20]. Fig. 5 shows the various classification of biomass available in
India.

Figure 4- Classification of available biomass resources in India

32
Large quantities of various biomass wastes are available in India. These wastes can be
converted to the energy fuels called bio-fuels by bio-chemical as well as thermo-
chemical conversion process [21].

Wastewaters and industrial wastes: Sewage and other wastes generate

problems of water and soil pollution. Dumping has serious outcomes. In Organic
decomposition of wastes on land, organic matter filters into the ground water or
escape to surface waters spawning pollution which leads to health problems and fish
mortality. Discharge from the industries such as black liquor from paper and pulp
industry, milk processing units, breweries, vegetable packaging industry, and animal
manure [22].

Food industry wastes: The hotel, restaurants and community kitchens

produce a lot of waste such as vegetable flay, stale food e.g. uneaten bread, rice,
vegetables, etc., from dish washer, fruit and vegetable rejects. Similarly, a large
amount of wastes are produced from confectionary industry.

Solid wastes obtained from these industries are fruits and vegetables
scrap, non-standard food, pulp and fiber obtained from extraction of sugar and starch,
filter sludge, etc. All these solid wastes make a potential feedstock
for biogas generation by anaerobic digestion. These wastes are usually disposed off in
landfill dumps [23].

Liquid wastes are generated by fruit and vegetables, meats washing

process, cleaning of poultry and fish, wine making process. The wastewater contains
dissolved organic matters like sugar, starch, etc. These industrial wastes are
anaerobically digested to produce biogas and fermented to produce ethanol. Several
commercial examples of waste-to-energy conversion already exist using these feed-
stocks [24], [25].

Animal wastes: Animal manure is principally composed of organic

material, moisture and ash. Decomposition of animal manure can occur either in an
aerobic or anaerobic environment. Under aerobic conditions, CO2 and stabilized
organic materials (SOM) are produced, while extra CH4 is also produced

33
under anaerobic conditions. Potential of CH4 production is notable in India due to the
more production of animal manure, which enables the huge energy potential [26].

Municipal solid waste: Millions of tones of household waste are collected

each year with the vast majority disposed off in open fields. Major compositions of
Municipal solid waste (MSW) are paper and plastic in India which are 80% of total
MSW. Municipal solid waste can be converted into energy either using anaerobic
digestion or direct combustion [27].

On the landfill sites the methane and carbon dioxide are produced by
natural decomposition in 1:1 ratio. These gases are collected from the stored material
and are swabbed and cleaned before feeding into IC engines or gas turbines to
generate energy. The organic fractional part of MSW can be stabilized anaerobically
in a high-rate biomass digester to obtain biogas for generation of steam and
electricity [28], [29].

Sewage: Sewage is also a source of biomass energy which is similar to the

other animal wastes. Energy can be withdrawn from sewage by using anaerobic
digestion process for the production of biogas [30].

There are some agencies and industries practicing the conversion of

different biomass waste to energy in India and reported huge benefits from these. This
clearly shows the enormous potential of conversion of various biomass wastes to
energy in Indian scenario. Many of these technologies have profitably been
implemented and are being used by industries by in-house energy saving, which
increases their profits. Similar industries are adapting these technologies with the help
of various government agencies e.g. MNRE (formerly known as MNES), academic
institutions like Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and Indian Institutes of Technology
(IITs), as well as certain non-government organizations [31].

There is large scope exists for the exploitation of bio-crops for their
conversion to bio-fuels e.g. ethanol and bio-diesel, by thermos conversion as well
as bio-chemical conversion routes. Apart from these energy crops, a huge potential
exists for energy generation from the various industrial wastewaters by bio-chemical
routes. Similarly other biomass wastes e.g. wood wastes, crop residues, animal

34
manures, and municipal wastes also bear a large potential for energy generation using
bio-chemical as well as thermo-chemical routes. Thus biomass conversion to energy
and fuels may be a quite rewarding in Indian scenario.

India has high potential of biomass about 500 metric tons per year
availability. As per MNRE around 17,500 MW power can be generated by this
available biomass and additional power about 5000 MW can be produce by surplus
available biomass which is around 120–150 MT. Table 5 shows the state wise
estimated potential of biomass as on 31.03.2013.

35
 Table 5.

Source wise and state wise estimated potential of bio-energy in India as on

31.03.2013 [32].

Waste
Biomass Cogeneration- Biomass Cogeneration
to Waste to
States/UTs power bagasse States/UTs power bagasse
energy energy[MW]
[MW] [MW] [MW] [MW]
[MW]

Andhra
578 300 123 Nagaland 10 0 0
Pradesh

Arunachal
8 0 0 Odisha 246 0 22
Pradesh

Assam 212 0 8 Punjab 3,172 300 45

Bihar 619 300 73 Rajasthan 1,039 0 62

Chhattisgarh 236 0 24 Sikkim 2 0 0

Goa 26 0 0 Tamil Nadu 1,070 450 151

Gujarat 1221 350 112 Tripura 3 0 2

Haryana 1333 350 24 Uttar Pradesh 1,617 1250 176

Himachal
142 0 2 Uttarakhand 24 0 5
Pradesh

Jammu &
43 0 0 West Bengal 396 0 148
Kashmir

Andaman &
Jharkhand 90 0 10 0 0 0
Nicobar

Karnataka 1131 450 151 Chandigarh 0 0 6

36
 Waste
Biomass Cogeneration- Biomass Cogeneration
to Waste to
States/UTs power bagasse States/UTs power bagasse
energy energy[MW]
[MW] [MW] [MW] [MW]
[MW]

Dadar &
Kerala 1044 0 36 0 0 0
Nagar Have

Madhya Daman &

1364 0 78 0 0 0
Pradesh Diu

Maharashtra 1887 1250 287 Delhi 0 0 131

Manipur 13 0 2 Lakshadweep 0 0 0

Meghalaya 11 0 2 Puducherry 0 0 3

All India
Mizoram 1 0 2 17,538 5000 2707
total

This surplus biomass can be collected from waste of various industries such as
baggase in sugar mills. As on today around 550 sugar mills are available in India.
Based on existing combustion technology in biomass, 4.5 EJ (105 Mtoe) of direct heat
from the industrial and residential sectors, and 2 to 3 EJ (47 to 70 Mtoe) of heat
from combined heat and power (CHP) plants are obtained [30]. As per MNRE, it is
expected that 73,000 MW energy will be produce by 2032 using biomass as well as
baggase cogeneration.

37
 6.4 Imbibing and Storing Energy

Backed by various promotional schemes and policies of the government, share of

renewable energy sources (RES) is increasing in a faster way in India. Country has to
promote the exploitation of renewable resources for a sustainable power system and
economy. Increased penetration of intermittent RES affects the grid stability.
Electrical Energy Storage (EES) systems are promising solution for grid stability
issues. Different types of EES systems are developed all over the world and a number
of storage technologies are under experimentation. Without a capacity addition, EES
contributes greatly to power system in the following contexts. [33, 34]

6.4.1 Balancing generation and demand fluctuations

In a power system, both the electrical demand and generation are fluctuating in
nature. Demand fluctuation depends on the end user consumption
characteristics. Renewable energy penetration is one of the primary sources of
generation fluctuation because of their intermittent nature. Frequent fluctuation of
demand and generation affects the stability of the grid and makes the system control
complicated. During the peak electrical demand hours generally hydel or gas plants
are operated due to their fast synchronizing capability. But availability of hydel plants
is limited due to many reasons and operating gas plants for peak demand hour
requirements will result in practical difficulties and added cost. Thermal plants
exhibits lower efficiency for low load factors and results in uneconomic operation.
Therefore there is a minimum demand requirement to maintain the economic
generation. EES can act as a load without wasting energy during excess generation
hours and can act as a generator during peak demand hours so that generation
and load balance can be achieved.

38
 6.4.2 Balancing intermediate renewable energy penetration

Usage of RESs is increasing expeditiously. Intermittent nature of RES leads to

intermittent generation and affects grid stability. EES can store the energy whenever it
is available and discharge it to make the generation continuous. EES can act as buffer
between RES and grid so that the grid is less affected by intermittency of generation.

6.4.3 Grid utilization

EES can support the power system during peak hours with stored energy and reduce
transmission congestion due to overloading. This will increase the life of transmission
infrastructure and reduce transmission capacity investments.

6.4.4 Market operations

In a decentralized system the generating companies (Gencos) will be penalized for

deviating from scheduled generation. Gencos are forced to purchase high cost energy
from gas plants to avoid this penalty imposed by regulatory authority. Higher RES
penetration will increase grid frequency and higher demand will decrease grid
frequency. Gencos must maintain grid frequency in specified band to avoid penalties
from regulatory authority. One of the main contributions of EES is the lowering of the
power purchase cost during high demand hours. This aids Gencos to maintain
economical operation of power system during peak demand hours. Costs of energy
storage services can be accounted in a similar way of ancillary services.

6.4.5 Scheduling flexibility

EES can reduce unscheduled interchange by providing instant energy during high
demand hours. This reduces the complexity of scheduling. Also by minimizing
unscheduled interchanges market operation can be made more effective. EES can

39
support gencos by providing “time shifting” and thereby more freedom in scheduling.
EES can contribute optimal utilization of available generation.

6.4.6 Supports peak shaving

Reducing energy purchase during peak hours is called “Peak Shaving”. This can be
achieved by imposing more cost per unit during peak hours and discouraging energy
usage during peak hours. Peak demand is usually met with the help of high cost power
from gas plants and it requires lot of coordination and planning. On the other hand
EES installed at genco level can discharge the stored energy during high demand
which can reduce energy purchase.

6.4.7 Enhances power quality

By balancing load and demand fluctuation in the grid, EES can provide better voltage
and frequency regulation. It can also maintain control over tie-line power flow and
area control error.

6.4.8 Reducing carbon emission

As EES can provide energy for peak demand hours, operation of peak hour gas/diesel
plants can be minimized. Also EES can support large RES penetration and reduce
dependency on fossil fuels. These can reduce carbon emission up to some extent.

6.4.9 Enhancing reliability of service

By providing spinning reserve for high demand time, EES can reduce
energy curtailment. EES can enhance the reliability of the power by maintaining the
continuity of power supply at consumer end.

40
 6.4.10 Providing emergency and black start assistance

EES can provide instant energy with minimum start time so that they can help during
emergencies and black start situations.

Table 6.

Advantages and disadvantages of different large scale EES systems [35]

EES System Advantages Disadvantages

Fast response time Low cycling times

Small daily self

Low energy density
−discharge

Lead Acid Relatively high cycle

Low specific energy
efficiencies

Performance at low
Low capital cost
temperature is poor

Fast response time High cost

Battery storage Compact and light

DoD affect Life
systems Lithium-ion weight

Needs on-board
High cycle efficiency
computers

High energy densities High operating cost

Needs temperature
Low self-discharges
Sodium-Sulphur control systems

High rated capacity

High recyclability

Nickel-Cadmium Robust Environmental hazards

41
EES System Advantages Disadvantages

Reliable Memory effect

Quick response High operating cost

Vanadium Redox Low electrolyte stability

High Efficiency
flow Battery and solubility

Low energy density

High energy density Metal corrosion

Deep discharge
Zinc-Bromine
capability and Dendrite formation
flow Battery
reversibility

Low cycle efficiency

Needs geographical
Higher capacity
specialties

Pumped storage No toxic products Low energy density

hydro Long life Long construction time

Mature and proven

technology

Fast response Idling loss is present

Relatively high self-

Easy maintenance
Flywheel energy discharge

storage Relatively high cycle It cannot serve as a

efficiency backup system

Capital cost is high

Relatively high response

Compressed air
No self-discharge time
energy storage
Relatively low round

42
EES System Advantages Disadvantages

trip efficiency

Need for geographical

specialties

Low capital cost Low cycle efficiency

Thermal energy
High energy density
Storage
Low self-discharge

43
 6.4.11 Large scale ESS in India [35]

Table 7.

PSH Plants in India.

Installed Capacity
Project State
(MW)

1 Srisailam Pumped Hydro Storage Andhrapradesh 1670

2 Sardar Sarovar Pumped Storage Power Station Gujarath 1450

3 Tehri PSH Plant Uttarakand 1000

4 Purulia PSH Station West Bengal 900

5 Nagarjun Sagar PSH Project Andhrapredesh 700

Kadamparai Hydroelectric Pumped Storage

6 Tamilnadu 400
Power Plant

Purulia Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power

7 Maharashtra 250
Plant

8 Kadana Hydel Power Station Gujarath 240

9 Bhira PSH Plant Maharashtra 150

10 Panchet Hill PSH Scheme West Bengal 40

11 Poithan Hydro Station Maharashtra 12

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 Table 8.

PSH Plants in investigation stage.

Project State Status Installed Capacity (MW)

1 Lugupahar Jharkhand S&I 2800

2 Warasgaon Maharashtra S&I 1200

3 Turga West Bengal DPR 1000

4 Malshej Ghat Maharashtra DPR 700

5 Chikhaldara Maharashtra S&I 400

DPR-Detailed project report prepared/submitted.

S&I-Survey and Investigation.

45
 Table 9.

PSH Plants in ideation stage.

Project State Installed Capacity (MW)

1 Sholayar I Kerala 810

2 Sholayar II Kerala 390

3 Kodali Maharashtra 220

4 Porigalkuthu Kerala 80

5 Kali Karnataka 600

6 Varahi Karnataka 700

7 Sharavathy Karnataka 450

46
The total capacity of developed PSH is around 6.8 GW. Some of them are not
operational due to technical problems and delay in construction works.

Grid scale battery storage systems are new comers to the Indian power
industry. Only a few projects are set up till date. A detailed list of battery storage
systems are listed in the Table 10.

Table 10.

Grid scale Battery storage Systems in India.

Power Rating
Project Technology State
(MW)

1 POWERGRID Corp. of India Lithium Ion Puducherry 0.50

2 POWERGRID Corp. of India Lead Acid Puducherry 0.50

Flow
3 POWERGRID Corp. of India Puducherry 0.25
Battery

Khareda Lakshmipura
4 Lead acid Rajasthan 0.040
Micro grid

Sun-carrier Omega Net Zero Flow

5 Madhyapredesh 0.045
Building Battery

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 Table 11.

Grid scale Battery storage Under Planning and Development.

Power Rating
Project Technology State
(MW)

1 Central Electronics Limited Lithium Ion Uttar Pradesh 1

Solar Energy Corporation of Himachal

2 Lithium Ion 5
India Pradesh

4 Tata Power Delhi Distribution Lithium Ion New Delhi 10

5 Panasonic BESS – AES Lithium Ion Haryana 10

6 L&T/eCamion-Anna University Lithium Ion Tamilnadu 0.125

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Development of thermal storage plants are in infant stage. There are a number of
thermal storage plants under developing stage. Concise information about off grid and
grid connected thermal storage plats across the country are given in Table 12.

Table 12.

Grid scale Thermal storage Under Planning and Development.

Project Technology Power Rating (MW)

1 India One Solar Thermal Plant-Rajasthan Thermal 1

2 KVK Energy Solar Project Molten Salt 100

3 Gujarat Solar One Molten Salt 25

4 Diwikar –Lanco Infratech Molten Salt 100

5 Clique Solar- Solar Thermal HVAC System Thermal 0.175

49
Total installed capacity and share of large scale EES in India is depicted in Fig. 6 and
capacity of large scale EES projects under development is depicted in Fig. 7.

Figure 5- Total installed capacity and share of large scale EES in India

50
Figure 6- Total installed capacity and share of large scale EES under
development in India

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 CHAPTER 7 ENERGY POLICIES

7.1 Existing Government Policies

The ultimate objective of the renewable energy policy framework is to significantly

increase the share of renewable energy source in India's energy mix [36]. These
energy policies are set by government.

7.1.1 National Electricity Policy, 2005

The National Electricity Policy aims at achieving the following objectives; access to
electricity, availability of power demand (to be fully met by 2012), energy and
peaking shortages to be overcome and spinning reserve to be available, supply of
reliable and quality power of specified standards in an efficient manner and at
reasonable rates, per capita availability of electricity to be increased to over 1000
units by 2012, financial turn around and commercial viability of electricity sector and
protection of consumers’ interests.

7.1.2 The Electricity Act 2003

The Electricity Act contains the following provisions pertaining to non-conventional

energy sources.

Under Sections 3(1) and 3(2), it has been stated that the Central
Government shall, from time to time, prepare and publish the National Electricity
Policy and Tariff Policy, in consultation with the state governments and authority for
development of the power system based on optimal utilization of resources such as
coal, natural gas, nuclear substances or material, hydro and renewable sources of
energy. Section 4 states that the Central Government shall, after consultation with the
state governments, prepare and notify a national policy, permitting stand-alone

52
systems for rural areas. Section 61, 61(h) and 61(i) state that the appropriate
commission shall, subject to the provision of this Act, specify the terms and
conditions for the determination of tariff, and in doing so, shall be guided by the
following, namely, the promotion of cogeneration and generation of electricity from
renewable sources of energy; and the National Electricity Policy and Tariff Policy.
Section 86(1) and 86(1)(e) state that the state commissions shall discharge the
following functions, namely, promote cogeneration and generation of electricity from
renewable sources of energy by providing, suitable measures for connectivity with the
grid and sale of electricity to any person, and also specify, for purchase of electricity
from such sources, a percentage of the total consumption of electricity in the area of a
distribution license.

7.1.3 Tariff Policy, 2006

The Tariff Policy announced in January 2006 has the following provisions:

1. Pursuant to provisions of section 86 (1) (e) of the Act, the Appropriate

Commission shall fix a minimum percentage for purchase of energy from
such sources taking into account availability of such resources in the region
and its impact on retail tariffs.

2. It will take some time before non-conventional technologies can compete with
conventional sources in terms of cost of electricity. Therefore, procurement by
distribution companies shall be done at preferential tariffs determined by the
Appropriate Commission.

3. Such procurement by Distribution Licensees for future requirements shall be

done, as far as possible, through competitive bidding process under Section 63
of the Act within suppliers offering energy from same type of non-
conventional sources.

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 4. The Central Commission should lay down guidelines within three months for
pricing non-firm power, especially from non-conventional sources, to be
followed in cases where such procurement is not through competitive bidding.

7.1.4 Integrated Energy Policy Report (Planning Commission)

2006

Suggest a path to meet energy needs of the country in an integrated manner up to

2031–2032. It recommended special focus on renewable energy development.

7.1.5 National Action Plan on climate change

Recognizing that climate change is challenge that needed immediate attention, India,
in collaboration with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
introduced the National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008. The aim
of the NAPCC was primarily to address the urgent and critical concerns of the country
as well as to promote the development objectives without compromising the
environment. One of the most successful plans of NAPCC was the National Solar
Mission which aimed to increase the share of solar energy in the total energy mix of
the country. The National Solar Mission also aimed to launch major R&D
programmes in order to create more affordable and convenient solar systems with
provisions for long term storage options. Many research works have recognized the
numerous schemes that have been introduced under the National Solar Mission that
have assisted in electrifying remote areas which earlier had next to zero access to
electricity. Under these schemes Dharnai has become the first village to achieve 100%
installed solar capacity with 100 kW lighting around 450 homes. Along with that,
aggressive R&D has also been initiated empowering the domestic manufacturing
sector and creation of intra-state transmission lines in states like Gujrat, Himachal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra Section
54
 7.1.6 Policy instruments/incentives: generation based and
financial

A number of published works validate numerous policy instruments and incentives

that have been employed by the Government under various policies to improve the
solar energy generation capacity in the country. Timilsina et al. enlist certain key
instruments namely feed-in-tariff, investment tax credits, subsidies, favorable
financing etc. Rohankar et al. reiterate the various financial incentives under various
policies of the Government like long term power purchase agreements, renewable
purchase obligations, renewable energy certificates etc. The following tables (Table
13, Table 14) categorizes different policy instruments that the Government has
employed to promote the development of solar power in the country.

55
 Table 13.

Generation based Policy Instruments [37,38].

Feed-in-tariff FIT is a benchmark tariff issued by the Central Electricity

Regulatory Commission for purchase of solar energy and other
renewable energy.

Renewable This scheme was introduced in the NAPCC by the MNRE. This scheme
Energy Credits provides a predetermined quota for solar. It was introduced with the aim
of enhancing the demand for solar energy based electricity.

Renewable This policy instrument mandates State and private distributors to purchase
Purchase solar generated electricity.
Obligation

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 Table 14.

Finance based Policy Instruments [37,38].

Tax Benefits Under this scheme, the Central Government provides tax benefits
for solar power projects. Under this scheme, the project developers
are exempted from paying taxes on earnings by selling the power
produced from solar energy for a period of 10 years.

Power Purchase As part of the National Solar Mission in NAPCC, developers are
Agreement permitted to sign a long term power purchase agreement with special
tariff for a period of 10–25 years. This incentive intends to cover the
high capital cost of solar power installations.

Concessional This incentive was introduced to exempt the developers from customs
custom and excise and excise charges on the export of certain parts of solar plants to avoid
duty the developer pulling out of the project thus leading to incomplete
projects.

A number of capacity building instruments have also been assigned in

certain policies like tax holidays, increasing the amount of foreign investment to
100%, viability gap funding to reduce the upfront costs of installations.

57
 7.2 Suggestions in Policy Making

7.2.1 Solar Energy

Policies for • Stringent Rooftop policies are the need of the hour.
Rooftop
Generation •Need to create awareness among residential consumers and provide clear
and credible information about various factors regarding rooftop
generation like market for PV, availability, service and maintenance, net
metering benefits.

•Rooftop generation has many advantages like no land requirements,

reduction of transmission costs as it directly supplies electricity to
household.

Funding for •Banks need to be more flexible in regard of loans for PV installations for
Solar PV small and medium enterprises and residential consumers.
installations
•Limiting stages of approvals required to obtain net metering benefits.

•Government should introduce use of a credit guarantee mechanism

which provides a third party credit risk mitigation to lenders which will
cover the risk for the lender and help the borrowing party pay back in
case of a default.

•Removing duties on imports of panels to bring about a reduction in the

high capital costs of PV plants.

58
 7.2.2 Wind Energy

Streamlining Permit Processes: Policy makers can support wind investment through
centralizing review and permitting of wind projects. Streamlined permitting involves
limiting the number of agencies engaged to reduce the burden on developers to
contact and receive permits from many different agencies. Further, to support
streamlined permitting and approvals, fully informing and integrating local
communities into wind development decision-making processes is critical, even when
conducted at the regional or national level

Hybrid Technologies: The interconnection of wind energy with other renewable

energy (like solar energy) and storage technologies in line with the policy issued by
state/central government may result in efficient utilization of
transmission infrastructure and may increase capacity utilization factor.

7.2.3 Creating an ambient atmosphere and robust market

Creating an ambient atmosphere and robust market for investors to invest in RES is
mandatory as we know that at the end of the day everything is driven by economy.

59
 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

State-of-the-art in 100% RE modelling applies a full hourly methodology with the aim
to capture the various forms of flexibility to achieve optimized energy system
solutions. This is increasingly complemented by a broad portfolio of energy
technologies. An increasing number of articles cover several energy sectors,
overcoming the limited view of only the power sector. This reflects
the integration of future energy systems and the increasingly important role of
electricity in all energy sectors. More emphasis is required in 100% RE research on
the full transport sector, industrial feedstock, power-to-X technologies, carbon
dioxide removal options, and sector coupling.

Several energy system models have been established for modelling global
100% RE research, but only few models have yet been developed to such extent that
they can describe all required sectors and features in a sufficient level of detail and
they have not been applied to the global level. Energy system models may be further
progressed to be coupled with integrated assessment models for a more
comprehensive and multi-disciplinary understanding of defossilisation pathways to
the benefit of all involved communities and stakeholders.

Though we started off with an approach to design a plan to achieve 100%

transition to renewable energy in India, we realized gradually that it is completely a
counter-productive logic to absolutely do away with the conventional energy sources
like thermal power plants, which are operating. Therefore, the focus should be on
obtaining a proper mix of renewable and non-renewable sources of clean energy for
fulfilling the energy requirements till 2030 and thereafter gradually shifting
completely towards renewable energy systems by 2040-2050.

This project reviews the renewable energy scenario of India as well as

extrapolates the future developments keeping in view the consumption, production
and supply of power. This project gives an overview of the potential renewable
energy resources in Indian context while evaluating the present status, the energy
demand of the country and forecast consumption and production, with the objective to

60
evaluate and assess whether India can sustain its growth and its society with
renewable resources.

61
 CHAPTER 9 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

In the world’s second-most populous country, it is unsurprising that the topic of

energy supply should be a key issue – and, in particular, its sustainability. This
column completes a series on India’s energy challenges. It argues that sustainable
energy supply and continued rapid economic growth of India can be compatible.

India is facing an acute energy scarcity which is hampering its industrial

growth and economic progress. Setting up of new power plants is inevitably
dependent on import of highly volatile fossil fuels. Thus, it is essential to tackle the
energy crisis through judicious utilization of abundant the renewable energy
resources, such as biomass energy, solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy.
Apart from augmenting the energy supply, renewable resources will help India in
mitigating climate change. India is heavily dependent on fossil fuels for its energy
needs. Most of the power generation is carried out by coal and mineral oil-based
power plants which contribute heavily to greenhouse gases emission

The scope for improvement in India’s energy system is vast. Renewable

energy currently makes up a negligible share (0.36%) of total primary commercial
energy supply while 96.9% of such supplies come from fossil fuels and 2.76% from
hydro and nuclear resources. The non-commercial combustible biomass and wastes
which contributes to the extent of 24.5% of the total energy supplies are excluded in
this balance.

The average per capita consumption of energy in India is around 500 W,

which is much lower than that of developed countries like USA, Europe, Australia,
Japan etc. However, this figure is expected to rise sharply due to high economic
growth and rapid industrialization. The consumption of electricity is growing on the
worldwide basis. Energy is a necessity and sustainable renewable energy is a vital link
in industrialization and development of India. A transition from conventional energy
systems to those based on renewable resources is necessary to meet the ever-
increasing demand for energy and to address environmental concerns.

62
 Development in the use of the renewable energy sources has, until now at
least, been poor. The lack of entrepreneurship in the deployment of such capital and
technology, lack of institutional support at the grass-root level, poor focus on training
and management for using and maintaining such new technologies and the lack of
awareness of the rural community – on top of the high cost – have been key barriers.

63
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 PUBLICATION

CONFERENCE DETAILS

ICRESG-2020

International Conference on Renewable Energy Integration Into Smart Grids: A

Multidisciplinary Approach To Technology Modelling And Simulation

Place: C.V. Raman College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar

Date: 14-15 February 2020

CONFERENCE PAPER TITLE

Renewable Energy-Design a Sustainable Future(Paper ID- ICREISG-2020_paper_12)

AUTHORS

Vivek Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- vivekkumarsinha89@gmail.com

Ujjwal Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- ujjwalkumar9199@gmail.com

69
Uday Pal
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- udaypaul400@gmail.com

Tuhin Sen
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- sentuhin207@gmail.com

Md Aftab Alam
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- aftabalamjnr@gmail.com

Dr. Sarnendu Paul

Asst. Professor in Department of
Mechanical Engineering,
Asansol Engineering College
Asansol-713305, India
Email ID- sarnendupaul1989@gmail.com

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