Wave Motion-2

Paper: PHHT 204

Lesson: Wave Motion-2

Author: Dr. V. S. Bhasin

College/Department: Retired as Professor of

Physics, Department of Physics & Astrophysics,
University of Delhi

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 Wave Motion-2

Table of Contents
Unit 4 : Waves Motion 2
 4.1 Introduction

 4.2 Velocity of Longitudinal Waves in a Fluid

 4.2.1 Longitudinal Waves in a Uniform Rod
 4.2.2 Normal Modes of Longitudinal Vibrations of the
Rod
 4.3 Longitudinal Waves in a Gas
 4.3.1 Newton’s Formula for the velocity of sound in a
gas
 4.3.2 Laplace’s Correction to Newton’s Formula:
 4.4 Acoustic Impedance / Impedance offered by gases to Sound
Waves
 4.5 Normal Modes of Longitudinal vibrations of the column of a Gas
 4.6 Beats
 4.6.1Value Addition: Animation on Beats
 4.7 Doppler Effect
 4.7.1 Source is Moving: Observer is Stationary
 4.7.2 Observer is Moving, Source is Stationary

 4.7.3 Both Source and Observer are Moving

 Summary
 Exercises/ Problems ( for Practice)
 Glossary
 References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading

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Learning Objectives

After going through this unit, you would be able to

 develop the wave equation for longitudinal waves in a solid elastic rod and show that
the speed of propagation of the waves is determined by Young’s modulus of elasticity
and density of the material of the rod
 determine the frequencies and shapes of normal modes of longitudinal vibrations
set up in the rod under different boundary conditions
 set up Newton’s formula for the speed of propagation of longitudinal waves in a
gas
 understand the limitations of this formula and appreciate the modifications
suggested by Laplace to introduce the necessary correction
 deduce the expressions for the acoustic impedance offered by the gas to the
propagation of longitudinal waves
 study the normal modes of longitudinal vibrations in a gas contained in a pipe at
different boundary conditions
 learn how beats are formed
 study Doppler effect

4.1 Introduction

This unit is devoted to the study of wave motion of longitudinal waves in

continuous systems such as solids and gases. Specifically, we develop the wave equation
for longitudinal waves in a solid elastic rod and show that the velocity of propagation is
determined by Young’s modulus of elasticity and density of the material of the rod. We
shall also study to determine the frequencies and shapes of normal modes of vibrations
set up in the rod when (i) it is rigidly fixed at one end and free at the other and (ii) it is
clamped in the middle and free at both the ends. The subsequent section deals with the
motion of longitudinal waves in a gas; derives Newton’s formula for the velocity of
propagation of these waves. Pointing out the limitation of this formula, we then
introduce the correction suggested by Laplace. In the next section, expression for the
acoustic impedance offered by the gas is derived. The normal modes of longitudinal
vibrations set up in a gas contained in a pipe when (i) it is closed at one end and (ii)open
at the other, are studied. We shall also study the situation when two sound waves of
slightly different frequencies moving in the same direction are superimposed to produce
the phenomenon of beats. Finally the last section of this unit is devoted to the study of
Doppler effect.

4.2 Velocity of Longitudinal Waves in a Fluid

A system of infinitely large number of particles which are located closely to each
other so that average inter-particle distance between the neighboring particles becomes
small, tending to zero, may then be imagined to behave as a continuous system. We
have earlier seen that when a wave is generated in a system, the speed of a wave is
determined by the interplay of two properties (i) elasticity and (ii) inertia of the medium.
Elasticity gives rise to the restoring force and inertia tells us how the medium responds.
Longitudinal waves can propagate in all states of matter- solids, liquids and gases in the
form of condensations and rarefactions.

4.2.1 Longitudinal Waves in a Uniform Rod

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In the unit on ‘Waves-2’, we discussed how the compressions and rarefactions

produce changes in the pressure as a longitudinal wave travels in a continuous medium.
By considering a column of fluid contained in a long tube we deduced the expression
relating the excess pressure to the bulk modulus of elasticity of the medium, viz.,

∆p=-E(∆V/V), (4.1)

where E denotes bulk modulus of the fluid, which is the ratio of force acting per unit area
to produce change in volume, ΔV, per unit volume. Here, in the case of a solid elastic
rod, changes take place along the length only, the volume remaining almost constant.
Therefore, the bulk modulus is replaced by Young’s modulus, defined as

Stress p
Y  (4.2)
Longitudin al Strain l / l

Following identically the same procedure as employed in Unit 2, we can write the
expression similar to Eq,(2.7), involving Young’s modulus of elasticity. Thus

 2
 p Y x (4.3)
 x2

Finally, the equation of motion, Eq.(2.8), for the column in the case of a linear rod gets
modified to
 2 Y  2
 , (4.4)
t 2  x 2
which is the equation of wave motion on the rod and the velocity of longitudinal wave is
given by
Y
v= (4.5)

Check that the quantity, Y / , has the dimensions of velocity. Note also that velocity,
v, is independent of the cross-sectional area of the rod.

4.2.2 Normal Modes of Longitudinal Vibrations of the Rod

Let us now proceed to determine the possible normal modes of longitudinal

vibrations in a rod under the given boundary conditions. Before specifying the boundary
conditions to be imposed, let us write a general mathematical representation of the wave
motion, assuming the existence of a normal mode at angular frequency ω and phase
constant φ. Thus, for a normal mode we have

 ( x.t )  A( x) cos( t   ) (4.6)

where the function, , represents the displacement at time t of a particle located at

x and A(x) is the amplitude of its motion. The amplitudes of all particles of the rod will
determine the shape of the mode. Differentiating Eq.(4.6) twice with respect to x and t,
we get

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 2 ( x, t ) d 2 A( x)
 cos(t   )
x 2 dx 2
(4.7)
2
  ( x, t )
and   2 A( x) cos(t   )
t 2
Since the amplitude, A(x), is by definition a function of x only, we have written the total
d 2 A( x )
derivative instead of a partial derivative. Using the wave equation
dx 2
 2 ( x, t )  2 ( x, t )
 v2
t 2 x 2
and substituting the above two derivatives in this equation, we get
d 2 A( x)
  2 A( x) cos(t   )  v 2 cos(t   )
dx 2
(4.8)
d 2 A( x) 2
or  A( x)  k 2 A( x)
dx 2 v2
where k=ω/v=2π/λ is the wave number of the wave. Equation (4.8), which determines
the shape of the mode, is the familiar second order differential equation of SHM in x. It
has a general solution given by
A(x)= C sin(kx) +D cos(kx), (4.9)
where C and D are the unknown constants to be determined by the boundary conditions.
Thus, Eq.(4.6), can be written in a general way as
 ( x, t )  [C sin( kx)  D cos(kx)]cos(t   ) (4.10)
Let us now apply the following boundary conditions to study the shapes and frequencies
of the normal modes of the longitudinal vibrations in the rod:

Case 1: Rod Clamped at One End.

Suppose the uniform rod of length L is rigidly fixed at x=0 and the end x=L
remains free . Since x=0 is rigidly fixed, there can be no particle displacement at this
end, i.e.,
(0,t)=0.
Imposing this condition on Eq.(4.10) means that the constant D for all t must be zero.
Eq.(4.10) thus reduces to
 ( x, t )  C sin( kx) cos(t   ) (4.11)

As the end, x=L, is free, the condition at this end must ensure that the particles at this
end are free to vibrate and are under no stress. This means that
Stress at x=L is
  
Y   0
 x  x  L

Differentiating Eq.(4.11), we have


 C k cos(kx) cos( t   ) (4.12)
x

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  
Imposing the second boundary condition, i.e.,    0 , for all t in Eq.(4.12)
 x  x  L
requires
C k cos(kL)=0
  
Or C cos(kL)  C cos( L)  0 , (4.13)
2 v v
Y
where v= ; here Y being the Young’s modulus of elasticity and ρ the density of the

rod. In order to satisfy condition in Eq.(4.13), choosing the constant C or the angular
frequency to be zero are obviously the trivial solutions. However, we can satisfy the
boundary conditions by considering
 L 
cos  0
 v 
L  3 5 1
which requires  , , ,.............(n  ) for n  1,2,3......
v 2 2 2 2
Thus the frequencies of the normal modes are determined by the equation
1 v
 n  (n  )
2 L
(4.14)
1  Y
or  n  (n  )
2 L 
The corresponding frequencies are given by
(n  1/ 2) Y
n  (4.15)
2L 
Eq.(4.15) enables to write the expression for the displacements of the particles of the
rod as
 1 x 
n ( x, t )  Cn sin (n  ) cos(nt   n ) (4.16)
 2 L 
For example, the lowest mode of the rod has the frequency

1 Y
1  (4.17)
4L 

and the particle displacements, which are longitudinal, are given by

 x 
1( x, t )  C1 sin  cos(1t  1) (4.18)
 2 L 
Notice that is zero at x=0 and maximum at x=L in conformity with the boundary
conditions imposed. At no other value of x in the range 0 to L is zero. Similarly, the
next mode, n=2, has particle displacements given by

 3x 
2 ( x, t )  C2 sin  cos(2t   2 ) (4.19)
 2 L 
3 Y
where , in this mode, frequency is 2   31 , (4.20)
4L 

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which is three times the frequency of the fundamental mode. Thus, according to
Eq.(4.19), particle displacement is zero at x=0 as well as at x=2L/3 and maximum at
x=L/3 and at x=L (but negative).

In Fig.(4.1), we depict the shapes of longitudinal modes of a uniform rod fixed at x=0
and free at x=L up to n=3.

Fig. 4.1 Longitudinal modes of a uniform rod fixed at x=0 and free at x=L for n=1 to 3.

Fig. 4.1 ( c) shows that for n=3, the mode for frequency  3  51 and there are two
nodes at x=L/3 and at x=2L/3 in addition to the one at x=0. Black- and blue- coloured
shapes depict the difference in the phase between the respective modes. It is also clear
that for a rod fixed at one end and free at the other, there are only odd harmonics of
frequencies 3, 5, 7 ……. times the fundamental frequency. All the even harmonics of
frequencies 2, 4, 6, .,…. times the fundamental frequency are absent.

Case 2. Rod Clamped in the Middle.

If we consider a uniform rod which is free at both the ends, i.e., at x=0 and x=L
but is clamped at x=L/2, the boundary conditions to be imposed are:
     
    0 (4.21)
 x  x  0  x  x  L
while at x  L / 2,  ( L / 2, t )  0 (4.22)
Differentiating Eq. (4.10) with respect to x, we have

 k (C cos(kx)  D sin( kx)) cos( t   )
x
Subject to the boundary condition at x=0, gives C=0. Therefore


 kDsin( kx)) cos( t   )
x
And the boundary condition at x=L can be satisfied if
Sin(kL)=0 or k L=n
L
Or  n
v

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where n is an integer having values 1, 2, 3,……… Thus, the angular frequencies of the
normal modes for longitudinal vibrations of a rod free at both ends are
n v n Y
n  
L L 
n Y
or the frequencies, n  (4.23)
2L 
The corresponding particle displacements in the nth mode are given by

 n x 
n ( x, t )  Dn cos cos(n t   n ) (4.24)
 L 
As the rod is clamped in the middle, we have  ( L / 2, t )  0 for all t. This condition is
satisfied for the values of n=1, 3, 5, etc. only and the values of n=2, 4, 6, etc. will not
be allowed.

Fig. 4.2 Longitudinal normal modes of a uniform rod clamped in the middle

Figure 4.2 shows the first three normal modes of the rod clamped in the middle.
Note that higher modes have frequencies 3 …… . Red- and blue- colored
shapes depict the difference in phase between the respective modes.

4.3 Longitudinal Waves in a Gas

In unit 2 on ‘Waves-2’, we deduced the wave equation cf., Eq.(2.8) for

propagation of longitudinal waves in a column of a gas. We showed that the
displacement  ( x, t ) of the molecules of the gas is given by

 2 E  2
 ,
 t 2   x2
where E is the bulk modulus of the gas and ρ its density. Comparing this with the
standard wave equation, viz., Eq.(2.3), we find that the velocity of longitudinal waves
(i.e., sound ) in a gas is given by
E
v= (4.27)


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4.3.1 Newton’s Formula for the velocity of sound in a gas:

The theoretical expression of the velocity of sound wave in a gas was given for
the first time by Newton. He assumed that as sound waves travel through a gaseous
medium, the temperature variations in the region of compressions and rarefactions can
be neglected. In other words, he assumed the validity of Boyle’s law under isothermal
conditions. The formula obtained by him can be easily explained in the following way.
Consider, for example, a gas having volume V at pressure P. When a sound wave
travels through it, suppose a change in pressure is ΔP and the corresponding change in
volume is ΔV. From Boyle’s law, we know
P V=constant (when T is constant, i.e., isothermal change)
Differentiating partially we have

P ΔV+V ΔP=0
P
Or P
V / V
Excess Pr essure
=  E (by definition)
Volume Strain
Thus, under isothermal conditions, Eq.(4.27) can be rewritten as

P
v= (4.28)

which is Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound in a gas. Applying this formula for air
at standard temperature and pressure (STP), we know that density of air, ρ=1.29 kg
and air pressure, Pa  1.01105 Nm  2 . Using this data, velocity of sound given by
Newton’s formula is obtained as

1.01 10  5 Nm  2
v  280 ms 1
1.29kgm  3

Experimentally, the velocity of sound at STP is observed to be 332 m/s, which is found
to be considerably higher (about 16%) than that given by Newton’s formula. This
discrepancy was later resolved by a French scientist, Laplace in 1816.

4.3.2 Laplace’s Correction to Newton’s Formula:

Laplace pointed out that when sound wave travels through a gas (air), the
regions of compressions get heated up while the regions of rarefactions get cooled down.
The compressions and rarefactions are formed so rapidly that the heat generated in the
regions of compressions does not get sufficient time to conduct into the regions of
rarefactions in order to attain uniform temperature. In other words, when sound travels
through a gas, the temperature no longer remains constant. The pressure-volume
changes are thus adiabatic, obeying
PV   cons tan t ,
where   C P / CV , C P and CV being the specific heats of gas at constant pressure
and at constant volume respectively. Differentiating partially the above equation,
PV  1V  PV   0
PV   P
or P     Ea
V  1V V / V

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where the subscript a in volume elasticity refers to the adiabatic change. Introducing
this correction, Newton’s formula Eq.(4.28), gets modified to
P
v= (4.29)


Now, for air γ=1.4. Thus using Laplace’s correction, the velocity of sound in air at STP
works out to be 331 m/s. This value is in good agreement with the experimental value.
The above Eq.(4.29) may also be expressed in a more useful form. Using the
relation between pressure P and volume V of an ideal gas of mass m and molecular
m
weight M, i.e., PV  RT ,
M
where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature of the gas and
where the density, ρ= m/V, we have
m RT
P RT 
VM M
This enables us to write, Eq.(4.29) as
 RT
v= (4.30)
M
From this relation it is clear that velocity of sound in a gas (i) is independent of pressure
or density of the gas and (ii) is directly proportional to the square root of absolute
temperature; (iii) is inversely proportional to the square root of molecular weight and
(iv) depends on the value of γ of the gas, i.e., whether the gas is monatomic or diatomic
in nature.

4.4 Acoustic Impedance / Impedance offered by gases to Sound Waves

While describing propagation of transverse waves on a string in the unit on

‘Wave Motion-1’, we defined characteristic impedance offered by the medium in terms of
the force applied on the string. In sound waves propagating in a gas, excess pressure
due to the longitudinal waves has a role analogous to that of applied force in the case of
transverse waves. Thus acoustic impedance is defined as
Excess pressure due to sound wave
Z (4.31)
particle velocity
The excess pressure experienced by the gas when a longitudinal wave propagates, i.e.,

p   E , (4.32)
x
where the particle displacement for the wave travelling in the +x-direction is given by
 2 
 ( x, t )  A sin  (v t  x )  (4.33)
 
Differentiating it with respect to x, we get
 2  2 
  A cos (v t  x)
x   
(4.34)
 2   2 
 excess pressure , p  EA  cos (v t  x)
    
To get particle velocity, we differentiate with respect to t to have
  2 v   2 
 A  cos (v t  x) (4.35)
t     

Substituting Eqs.(4.34) and (4.35) in Eq.(4.31), we get

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E
Z  E  v , (4.36)
v
E
where we have used the relation, v  . From Eq.(4.36) it is clear that characteristic

impedance depends directly on the mass density and the bulk modulus E. This, in turn,
means that it is basically governed by inertia and elasticity of the medium

4.5 Normal Modes of Longitudinal vibrations of the column of a Gas:

A column of gas, in fact, represents a system almost equivalent to a

solid rod. Both are continuous systems and both have elastic properties. While in the
case of a rod we deal with Young’s modulus of elasticity, in the case of a gas, however,
the relevant modulus of elasticity is the bulk modulus. For studying the normal modes of
longitudinal vibrations in a column of a gas, we, therefore, follow a procedure analogous
to the one used for studying the normal modes in a solid rod ( See Sec.4.2.2 ). Thus, in
this mode, the variation in pressure along the pipe is given by
 ( x, t )
P   E ,
x
where the function represents the particle displacements in a normal mode of
longitudinal vibrations of angular frequency ω and phase constant φ satisfying Eq.(4.10).

Case I: Pipe closed at one end and open at the other

Consider a gas enclosed in a uniform cylindrical pipe of length L, lying on the

x-axis. Let the end x=0 be open while the end x=L be closed. Clearly the open end
represents a condition of zero pressure variation during the oscillation and maximum
movement of gas particles, implying that at open end

ΔP=0 or 0 (condition I)
x
That is to say that particles at the open end undergo no strain and are therefore free to
move. On the other hand, at the closed end displacement is zero and has maximum
pressure variation. Accordingly,
=0 at the closed end (condition II)
Applying the boundary condition I by differentiating Eq.(4.10) with respect to x requires
constant C=0 ,
which reduces Eq.(4.10) to
 ( x, t )  D cos(kx) cos(t   ) (4.37)
The frequencies of the normal modes are determined by imposing the boundary
condition II in Eq.(4.37). This requires
D cos(kL)=0,
which is satisfied when

kn L  (n 1/ 2) for n=1,2,3…….. (4.38)

This condition is expressed in terms of frequencies by using the relation

2
kn  n,
v
E
where for velocity v, use the exp ression , v  ,

we finally get

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(n  1/ 2) E
n  (4.39)
2L 

Notice that a pipe closed at one end has only odd harmonics of frequencies 3, 5, 7 times
the fundamental frequency. The first three modes in the pipe are shown in Fig.(4.3). All
the even harmonics are absent.

Fig. 4.3 First three normal modes of longitudinal vibrations in a pipe open at one end

The frequency of the fundamental mode is given by

1 E
1 
4L 

Case 2 Pipe open at both ends:

For a pipe open at both the ends, the boundary conditions to be imposed are

  
  0
 x  x  0
  
  0
 x  x  L
Differentiating Eq.(4.10) with respect to x, we get


 k (C cos(kx)  D sin( kx)) cos( t   )
x
These conditions are satisfied if C=0 and
sin kL=0 or kL=n ,
which gives
n E n E
n  or n  (4.40)
L  2L 
for n=1, 2, 3,…… .

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The first three modes of longitudinal vibrations in a pipe open at both the ends are
shown in Fig.(4.4).

Fig. 4.4 First three normal modes of longitudinal vibrations in a pipe open at both ends.

4.6 Beats
So far you studied the superposition of two waves of same frequencies and
wavelengths moving in the opposite directions to obtain stationary wave patterns in a
given medium. Another interesting phenomenon you must have come across when two
sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling along the same path in the same
direction in a medium superpose upon each other, you may have noticed that the
intensity of the resultant sound at any point increases and decreases periodically with
time. In particular, you may have noticed that if two tuning forks of slightly different
frequencies are struck, you hear a sound of pulsating intensity. These periodic variations
in the intensity of sound caused by the superposition of two sound waves of slightly
different frequencies are called beats. The number of beats produced per second is called
beat frequency:
 beat  1  2 (4.41)
The maximum beat frequency that the human ear can detect is about 20 beats/s. For
beat frequency exceeding this limiting value, it gets mixed up with the sounds producing
the beats and cannot easily be detected.

Let us consider, for simplicity, superposition of two harmonic waves having the same
amplitude A, but different frequencies 1 and  2 such that 1 > 2 . Since the phases,
1 and 2 , which are constant in time and therefore do not play any significant role in
the present discussion, we assume that the initial phase of the two waves is zero. The
displacements of the two harmonic waves can then be written as
1(t )  A cos 1 t  A cos 2 1t (4.42(a))
2 (t )  A cos 2 t  Asin 2 2t (4.42(b))

The superposition of these two gives the resultant displacement

 (t )  1(t )  2 (t )  A (cos 1t  cos 2t )

  2   2
 2 A cos( 1 t ) cos( 1 t) (4.43)
2 2
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 1  2 
This is an oscillatory motion with angular frequency   and amplitude
 2 
   2 
2 A cos 1 t , which is clearly time-dependent. Let us define an average
 2 
angular frequency

 1   2 
 av    (4.44)
 2 
 1   2 
and a modulated angular frequency  mod    . We find that the modulated
 2 
amplitude
Amod (t )  2 A cos( mod t ) (4.45)
    2 
varies with frequency  mod  mod   1  (4.46)
2  4 
Thus, in one complete cycle, the modulated amplitude has the values 2A, 0 , -2 A, 0 and
2 A when mod t  0,  2,  , 3 2 and 2 respectively. The resultant displacement

 (t )  Amod (t ) cos av t (4.47)

is periodic but not simple harmonic.
The amplitude of the resultant wave will be maximum when
cos 2 mod t  1
or 2 mod t  n
or  (1  2 )t  n
n 1 2
or t  0, , ,.........
 1  2  1  2  1  2
1
Therefore, time interval between two successive maxima = (4.48)
(1   2 )
Similarly, the amplitude will be minimum when

cos 2 mod t  0

or 2 mod t  (2n  1) / 2
or  (1  2 ) t  (2n  1) / 2
(2n  1) 1 3 5
or t  , , ,.............
2(1  2 ) 1  2 2(1  2 ) 2(1  2 )
1
And the time interval between two successive minima= . (4.49)
1   2

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 Wave Motion-2

Thus both maxima and minima of intensity occur alternately. Hence the time interval
1
between two successive beats i.e., the beat period is tbeat  , or number of
 1  2
1
beats produced per second, beat frequency,  beat    1  2 . (4.50)
tbeat

tim e
Fig (a)

Fig (b)

Fig (3.7)
Fig.(4.5) Formation of beats by the superposition of two sound waves of nearly same
frequency

The displacement-time graph depicting the resultant of two harmonic waves

of different frequencies (shown in Fig.4.5(a) by red and green dotted curves) is
obtained and shown in Fig.4.5(b). It is clear from the graph that at the instant when two
waves are exactly out of phase, they produce minimum sound intensity whereas at the
instants when they meet in the same phase, they reinforce each other to produce
maximum sound.
You encounter many physical phenomena involving beats, especially in sounds. You
must have noticed musicians making use of beats in tuning their instruments. A piano
tuner, while comparing the frequency of the string of his instrument with that of a
standard tuning fork would hear beats when the two differ in frequency. He would adjust
the tension in the string and would match it with the fork. Sometimes in a particular
section of an orchestra, beats can be deliberately produced to generate a pleasing note
to the resulting sound.

Value Addition: Animation on Beats

The reader is recommended to view the following animations on beats given in

http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/ClassMechanics/Beat
s/
Beats.html
You will observe:
1. Two tuning forks producing oscillations of slightly different frequencies;
2. Two drums are being hit at slightly different rates;
3. Two oscillations whose periods are double the times between the striking of the two
drums in the previous activity;
4. Visualizing the sum of two oscillators as being the amplitude of two sound waves.

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 Wave Motion-2

4.7 Doppler Effect

It is a common observation that when you stand on a platform and watch a
train coming towards the station, the pitch of the whistle of the moving train appears to
rise as it approaches you and as it passes by the pitch begins to decrease. This apparent
change of frequency due to the relative motion between the source (i.e., the engine of
the train) and the observer (or the listener) is known as Doppler Effect.
Doppler effect is, in fact, a general wave phenomenon: it holds not only for
sound waves but also for electromagnetic waves such as radio waves and visible light
waves. It is, however, noticeable only when the relative velocity between the source and
the observer is a comparable fraction of the wave velocity. For sound waves which
require a medium for their propagation, the apparent frequency depends on three
factors: (i) velocity of the source, (ii) velocity of the observer and (iii) velocity of the
medium.
To study the effect on the change in apparent frequency, let us analyze it for the
following different situations:
4.7.1 Source is Moving: Observer is Stationary
Let us consider a situation when a source is moving with speed v s towards an observer
who is stationary in a frame in which medium is at rest. Suppose the speed of the wave
of angular frequency ω and period T both measured by the observer at rest with respect
to the medium is v. Assume that the observer has a detector to record the counts every
time a wave crest reaches it.
At time t=0, suppose the source is at a distance L from the observer and emits
a crest as shown in the figure(4.6). It reaches the observer at time t1  L / v .

Fig. 4.6: A source of sound is moving towards a stationary observer

If the source is moving with speed v s , then at time t=T, the source has moved a
distance v s T towards the observer and is located at a point distance ( L- v s T ) from the
observer. The second compression pulse from the source reaches the observer at time
L  v sT
t2  T 
v
The time interval between two successive compression pulses or period of the wave as
detected by the observer is
L  v sT L
T   t 2  t1  T  
v v
 v  v  vs
 1  s T  T
 v  v
Therefore, the apparent frequency of the sound as heard by the observer is
1 v 1
 
T  v  vs T
(4.51)
v
or    
v  vs

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 Wave Motion-2

It is clear from the above expression that     , showing that pitch of the sound
appears to increase when the source moves towards a stationary observer.
For the source receding from the observer, same procedure can be used to show that
the observed frequency is given by
v
  (4.52)
v  vs
which means that the apparent frequency now decreases as the source recedes the
observer.

4.7.2 Observer is Moving, Source is Stationary

To derive the expression for the Doppler shift when the observer is moving
with velocity towards the source which is at rest, we work in the reference frame of
the moving observer. In this frame, the observer is obviously at rest and the source and
the medium both are approaching at speed and the speed with which the wave
approaches is . Keeping these changes in mind, we can now follow the same
procedure as used above. Thus we would now have
t1  L /(v  v0 )
L  v0T
and t2  T 
v  v0
Therefore, the time interval between two successive compression pulses or the period of
the wave as detected by the observer is
L  v0T L
T   t 2  t1  T  
v  v0 v  v0
 v   v 
 1  0 T   T (4.53)
 v  v0   v  v0 
 v  v0 
or the apparent frequency ,    
 v 
It is clear from the Eqn.(4.53) that in this case too, the pitch of the sound appears to
increase when the observer moves towards the source.

4.7.3 Apparent Frequency when both Source and Observer are Moving

Let the source and the observer are moving with speeds v s and v0
respectively towards each other as shown in the Fig.(4.7) and the speed of a wave of
angular frequency ω and period T, both measured by the observer at rest with respect to
the medium be v. If ν is the frequency of the source, it sends out compression pulses

Fig. 4.7 Source and observer both moving towards each other

through the medium at regular intervals of period, T=1/ν.

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 Wave Motion-2

At time t=0, the observer is at O1 and the source at S1 and the distance between
them is L when the source emits the first compression pulse. Since the observer is also
moving towards the source, the speed of the wave relative to the observer is (v+ v 0 ).
The observer will receive the first compression in time
L
t1 
v  v0
At time t=T, both the source and the observer have moved towards each other covering
distances vS T and v0T respectively. Therefore new distance between the source and
the observer is
S 2O2  L  (vS  v0 )T
The second compression pulse reaches the observer at time
L  (vS  v0 )T
t2  T 
v  v0
Thus the time interval between two pulses or the period of the wave as recorded by the
observer is
L  (vS  v0 )T L
T   t 2  t1  T  
v  v0 v  v0
(4.54)
 v v   v  vS 
 1  S 0  T    T
 v  v0   v  v0 
Therefore, the apparent frequency of the sound heard by the observer is
1  v  v0 
   (4.55)
T   v  vS 
Note that here we have considered the case when both source and the observer are
moving towards each other. One could also study the situations when the motion of the
observer or source is away from the other. It is not difficult to verify that in such
situations it will only flip the signs of v0 or v S .

Thus a more general expression for the Doppler effect can be written as

 v  v0 
     (4.56)
 v  vS 
The choice of the plus or minus sign is set by the rule that when the motion of observer
or source is towards the other, the sign on its speed must be such to give an increase in
frequency. On the other hand, when motion of the observer or source is away from the
other, the sign on its speed must be such to give a decrease in frequency. In case
observer or source is stationary, we substitute 0 for v0 or v S to get the apparent shift
in frequency.

Summary
In this unit you study to
 the develop the wave equation for longitudinal waves in a solid elastic rod and show
that speed of propagation of the waves is determined by Young’s modulus of
elasticity and density of the material of the rod
 determine the frequencies and shapes of normal modes of longitudinal vibrations
set up in the rod under different boundary conditions

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 Wave Motion-2

 set up Newton’s formula for the speed of propagation of longitudinal waves in a

gas
 understand the limitations of this formula and appreciate the modifications
suggested by Laplace to introduce the necessary correction
 deduce the expressions for the acoustic impedance offered by the gas to the
propagation of longitudinal waves
 analyze the normal modes of longitudinal vibrations in a gas contained in a pipe
at different boundary conditions
 learn the phenomenon of Beats produced when two waves (sound) of slightly
different frequencies having same amplitude moving in the same direction are
superimposed on each other.
 understand how an apparent shift in frequency of sound occurs when a source or
the listener or both are moving relative to each other – the so-called Doppler
effect.

Problems/ Exercises (for Practice)

A Short answer questions based on concepts

1 Which two properties of the fluid determine the speed of propagation of
longitudinal waves in the medium? What are their functions?
2 Define the term ‘acoustic impedance’ offered by an elastic medium to the
propagation of sound.
3 Why is it that we can send messages from one ship to another faster via water
than air? Explain.
4 The speed of sound in air is 350 m/s. The fundamental frequency of an open pipe
50 cm long will be
(1) 175 Hz (2) 350 Hz (3) 700 Hz (4) 50 Hz

5 An open pipe is suddenly closed with the result that the second overtone on the
closed pipe is found to be higher in frequency by 100 Hz than the first overtone of
the original pipe. The fundamental frequency of open pipe will be
(1) 100 Hz (2) 300 Hz (3) 150 Hz (4) 200Hz

6 Complete the following statements:

(a) The speed of sound in air increases with temperature as……….but is………. of
pressure.
(b) The velocity of sound in a perfectly rigid rod will be ……………….. .
(c) A pipe closed at one end has only…………. harmonics of frequencies ………. times
the fundamental frequency.
7 Tube A has both ends open while tube B has one end closed. Otherwise both the
tubes are identical. What is the ratio of fundamental frequency of the tubes A and
B?
8 Give one use of the phenomenon of beats.

9 In what way is Doppler effect in electromagnetic waves different from that

observed in sound?

B Questions Based on Text:

10 Develop the wave equation for longitudinal waves in a solid elastic rod and show
that the velocity of propagation is determined by Young’s modulus of elasticity and
density of the material of the rod.
11 Determine the frequencies and shapes of normal modes of longitudinal vibrations
set up in the rod under the boundary conditions when the rod is (i) fixed at one
end and (ii) when it is clamped in the middle.

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 Wave Motion-2

12 Set up Newton’s formula for the speed of sound in a gas. What are its limitations?
Explain how these limitations are corrected by the modification suggested by
Laplace.
13 Deduce the expression for the acoustic impedance offered by the gas to the
propagation of longitudinal waves
14 Analyze the normal modes of longitudinal vibrations in a gas contained in a pipe at
the boundary conditions when (i) the pipe is open at both the ends and (ii) when it
is closed at one end.
15 What are Beats ? How are they produced? Define the term ‘Beat Frequency’. What
is the maximum number of beats produced per second that human ear can detect?
16 What is Doppler effect? Give an example. Derive the expression for the apparent
frequency of sound as heard by the observer (i) when the source is moving
towards the observer who is stationary in a frame in which medium is at rest and
(ii) when the observer is moving towards the source which is at rest.
17 Derive the expression for the apparent frequency when the source and the
observer are both moving towards each other. What would be the effect if either
the observer or the source is moving away from the other?

C Questions Based on Numerical Problems

18 An open pipe is closed at one end. The frequency of the 5th harmonic of the closed
pipe is found to be higher by 150 Hz than the fundamental frequency of the open
pipe. What is the fundamental frequency of the open pipe?
19 A longitudinal disturbance created by an earth quake travel 1.5 103 km in 2.5
3 3
minutes. Given that the average density of the rock is 2.5 10 kg m , calculate
the bulk modulus of elasticity of the rock.

20 Calculate the ratio of the velocity of sound in hydrogen gas ( =7/5) to that in
helium gas ( 5/3) at the same temperature. Given that molecular weights of
hydrogen and helium are 2 and 4 respectively.

21 A pipe 35 cm long is open at both the ends. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 1.5 kHz source? Will resonance with the same source be
observed if one end of the pipe is closed? Take speed of sound in air as 350 m/s.

22 A tuning fork produces 4 beats when sounded with a tuning fork of frequency 256
Hz. The same tuning fork when sounded with another tuning fork of frequency of
258 Hz produces 2 beats. Determine the frequency of the tuning fork.

23 In an experiment it is found that a tuning fork of unknown frequency produces 4

beats when it is struck with a sonometer wire of length 1 m and also the same
number of beats when struck with a wire of length 1.02 m. Calculate the frequency
of the tuning fork.

24 A man standing at a railway crossing receives frequencies of 2.5 kHz and2.0 kHz
when the train approaches and recedes from the man. Find the velocity of the
train; given the velocity of sound in air is 300 m/s.

25 A car and a railway engine are moving on parallel tracks in opposite directions with
speed of 25 m/s and 50 m/s respectively. The engine is continuously sounding a
whistle of frequency 500 Hz. The velocity of sound is 350 m/s. Calculate the
frequency of sound heard in the car when (i) the car and the engine are
approaching eachother and (ii) the two are moving away from each other.

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 Wave Motion-2

Answer 1 : (i) elasticity and (ii) inertia. Elasticity gives rise to the restoring force and
inertia tells us how the medium responds.
Answer 2: Acoustic impedance is defined as the ratio of pressure due to sound wave to the
particle velocity of the medium.
Answer 3: This is because for water elasticity, E= 2.22 109 Nm  2 and density is
  103 kgm3 , which is about times less. From this wave velocity in water is about
1500 m/s, whereas in case of sound its speed at STP it is 332 m/s.
1 E v 350
Answer 4: Using the formula 1     350 Hz . Correct choice is
2 L  2 L 2  50 10  2
(2).
(n  1/ 2) E
Answer 5: In the case of closed pipe, the nth harmonic is given by  n  ,
2L 
n E v
whereas in the case of open pipe, n  , giving the first overtone, 1  .
2L  2L
3 E 3v v
Now the second overtone for closed pipe is 2    100  . This gives
4L  4L 2L
v v
 100 or 1   200 Hz . Therefore the correct choice is (4).
4L 2L

Answer 6: (a) is independent of pressure. (b) infinite (c) odd harmonics, (2n+1)
times the fundamental frequency.
v
An swer 7: The fundamental frequency for tube A with both ends open is  A  while
2L
v
the fundamental frequency for tube B is  B  . Therefore, A / B  2 .
4L
Answer 8: The phenomenon of beats is used in tuning two musical instruments.

Answer 9: The basic difference is that in sound or mechanical waves velocity of the waves is
relative to the medium through which they travel whereas light or em waves travel
independent of the medium.

Answer 10: See Sec.4.2.1 of the Text

Answer 11: See Sec. 4.2.2 of the Text

Ansswer 12: See Sec. 4.3.1 and Sec. 4.3.2 of the Text.

Answer 13: See Sec.4.4 of the Text.

Answer 14: See Sec. 4.5 of the Text.

Answer 15: See Sec. 4.6 of the Text.

Answer 16: See Sec. 4.7.1 and Sec.4.7.2 of the Text.

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 Wave Motion-2

Answer 17: See Sec. 4.7.3 of the Text.

v
Answer 18: Fundamental frequency of the open pipe is o  .T
2L
5v  5
Frequency of the 5th harmonic of closed pipe,  c  ,  c 
4L o 2
5 5
This gives  c   o . Given that  c   o  150 or  o   o  150
2 2
From this we get  o  100 Hz .
Answer 19: Speed of longitudinal wave generated by earth quake
1.5 103 103
v=  10 4 m / s
2.5  60

or E   v 2  2.5 103 108  2.5 1011 Nm  2

E
Since v=


RT
Answer 20 : The velocity of sound in a gas is given by v . At constant
M
temperature,
vH  H M He 7/5 4 42
  .   1.3
v He  He M H 5/3 2 25

Answer 21: Length of the tube, L= 35 cm; Speed of sound, v= 350 m/s.
Fundamental frequency of the open pipe,
v 350
1    500 Hz
2l 2  0.35
Second harmonic,  2  21  1000 Hz
Third harmonic,  3  31  1500 Hz
Clearly, a source of 1.5 kHz will resonantly excite the third harmonic of the open pipe.
If one end of the pipe is closed, the fundamental frequency becomes
v 350
1    250 Hz
4l 4  0.35
Since only odd harmonics are present in a closed pipe, so
 3  31  750 Hz
 5  51  1250 Hz
 7  71  1750 Hz

Since no frequency matches with source frequency of 1.5 kHz, so no resonance will be
observed with the source when one end of the pipe is closed.

Answer 22: Suppose the frequency of the tunings fork =ν.

It produces 4 beats/s with a tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz, therefore
ν=256 Hz
It also produces 2 beats/s with a tuning fork of 258 Hz. Therefore

These equations show that the common frequency is 260 Hz. Therefore,
ν=260 Hz.

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 Wave Motion-2

Answer 23: Given length of the wire, L1  1.0m, and L2  1.02m .

 L
Beat frequency= 4 /s. Now  1 / L  1  2
 2 L1
Since L1  L2 1   2 . If ν is the frequency of the tuning fork ,
  4 1.02
then 1    4 and  2   4  
  4 1.00
This gives the frequency of the tuning fork, ν=404 Hz

Answer 24: When the train approaches the stationary observer, the apparent
frequency is
v
 
v  vs
300
i.e., 2.5  
300  vs

When the train receds from the stationary observer, the apparent frequency is
v 300
    ; i.e., 2.0  
v  vs 300  vs
Dividing these two equations, we have
2.5 300  vs 5 300  vs
 or 
2.0 300  vs 4 300  vs
100
This gives vs   33.3 m / s
3
Answer 25 : Here the velocity of the source (engine), vs  50 m / s and velocity of the
observer (car) is vo  25 m / s ; the frequency of sound, ν=500Hz and v=350 m/s.
(i) When the car and the engine approach eachother,
vs  50 m / s vo  25m / s
and
v  vo 350  25
    500   500  625 Hz
v  vs 350  50
(ii) When the car and the engine are moving away from each other

vs  50 m / s vo  25m / s
and
v  vo 350  25
    500   500  406.25 Hz
v  vs 350  50

Glossary
 The speed of propagation of the waves is determined by Young’s modulus of
elasticity and density of the material of the rod
 Frequencies and shapes of normal modes of longitudinal vibrations set up
in the rod under different boundary conditions
 Newton’s formula for the speed of propagation of longitudinal waves in a
gas
 Laplace correction to Newton’s formula

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 Wave Motion-2

 Acoustic impedance offered by the gas to the propagation of longitudinal

waves
 Beats are produced when two waves (sound) of slightly different
frequencies having same amplitude moving in the same direction are
superimposed on each other.
 Doppler Effect: an apparent shift in frequency of sound occurs when a source or
the listener or both are moving relative to each other .

References ( Suggested for further reading):

1. Vibrations and Waves by A.P French. (CBS Pub. & Dist.,1987)

2. Waves: Berkley Physics Course (SIE) by Franks Crawford (Tata McGraw-

Hill,1987)

3. The Physics of Waves & Oscillations by N. K. Bajaj (Tata McGraw-Hill, 1988)

4. Fundamentals of Waves & Oscillations by K. Uno Ingard, (Cambridge University

Press, 1988).
5. The Feynman Lectures on Physics, R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton & M. Sands
(B. I. Publications. 1964).

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