Nptel: Chemical Process Instrumentation

CHEMICAL PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
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Pressure Measurement: Moderate and High
Pressure Measuring Instruments
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(WEEK – 5: LECTURE - 21)
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Dr. Debasis Sarkar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
1
Pressure Measurement
Today’s Topic:
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 Classification of Pressure Measuring Instruments
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 Manometers
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2
The Units of Pressure
• Pressure is “force per unit area”
• Common units for pressure include: For instrumentation/control: 3 to 15 psi is a
common pressure range
 Pounds per Square Inch (psi)
3 psi ≈ 21 kPa
 Square Meters 15 psi ≈ 105 kPa
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 Newton/m2 (=Pa) : SI unit
 KiloPascals (kPa)
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• Other units: 1 Pa = 1Newton/m2 = 1kg-m/s2 = 10 dynes/cm2
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1 atm = 1.01325 bars
 Inches (or mm) of water (or Hg)
= 75.97 cm of Hg
 Bar
=29.92 in Hg = 10322 kg/m2
 Atmosphere (1 atm = 760 mm Hg)
 Torr (1 mm of Hg)
3
Gage, Absolute and Atmospheric Pressures
• Pressure above atmosphere
is called (positive) gage
pressure (psig)
• Pressure below atmosphere
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is a vacuum (negative gage
pressure)
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• Absolute pressure (psia) is
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measured from a perfect
vacuum
Note: Differential Pressure has no reference to either absolute vacuum or atmospheric pressure
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Static/Dynamic/Impact Pressure
Static pressure is the pressure of fluids
or gases that are stationary (Point: A)
Dynamic pressure is the pressure
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exerted by a fluid or gas when it
impacts on a surface or an object due
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to its motion or flow (Point: B − A)
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Impact pressure (total pressure) is the
sum of the static and dynamic pressures
on a surface or object (Point: B)
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Pressure Measurement: Classification-I
We can easily convert pressure to force. A force can then be measured by
balancing it against a known/standard force.
Pressure can be measured by:
balancing against a column of liquid of know density:
Various manometers
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balancing against a known force:
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Piston type, Ring balance, Bell type gage
balancing the force produced on a known area against the stress in an
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elastic medium:
Bourdon tubes, Diaphragm types, Bellows
High vacuum requires specialized instruments
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Classification of Pressure Measuring
Instruments: Classification - II
Another possible classification is based on the range of pressure measurement:
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• Moderate Pressure Measurement
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• Very High Pressure Measurement
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• High Vacuum (very low pressure) Measurement
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Classification of Pressure Measuring Instruments
Moderate Pressure Measurement
Liquid Mechanical Elastic pressure Electrical pressure transducer
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column displacement transducer • Resistance-type
elements type • Bourdon tube • Potentiometer devices
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• Ring balance • Diaphragm type • Inductive type
manometer
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•Barometer • Bellows gages • Capacitive type
• Bell-type
•Various • Piezoelectric type
manometers manometer
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Classification of Pressure Measuring Instruments
Very High Pressure Measurement High Vacuum Measurement
McLeod gage
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Electric gauges based on Thermal conductivity gage
change of resistance of
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Manganin or gold-chrome wire
Ionization gage
Knudsen gage
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Indicative Range of Instruments
Below 1 mm of Hg Between 1mm of High vacuum High pressure

• Manometers Hg to 1000 atm (up to 10-9 torr) (1000 atm and above)
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and low • Bourdon tube • McLeod gage • Electrical resistance
pressure gauges • Diaphragm • Thermal type
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gauges conductivity
gauge
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• Bellows
• Ionization gauge
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Barometer
The simplest mercury barometer consists of a long glass tube of
uniform cross-section with one end sealed. It is filled with
mercury and then inverted and placed vertically in a reservoir
of mercury.
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Mercury in the tube will adjust itself until the weight of the
mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the
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reservoir. The mercury in the tube will have a vacuum above it.
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The height of the mercury indicates the atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, this height of mercury column is 76 cm (30 inches)
i.e., 1.033 kg/cm2 (14.7 psi).
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U-tube Manometer
It consist of U-shaped glass tubes partially filled with a
liquid known as manometer liquid. P1 P2
When two sides are connected to two different pressure

sources, the liquid rises higher in the lower pressure
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h
side, so that the difference in the heights of the two
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columns of liquid compensates for the difference in
pressure. P1 > P2
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A scale graduated in pressure units is attached to read h. P1 - P2 = ρgh
Source of error: difficult to read the meniscus level.
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Manometers
• Manometers can be used to measure gage pressure, differential pressure, and
absolute pressure
P1 P2
Some manometer liquids: Manometer fluid should :
Water (evaporation loss) not wet the wall
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Aniline not absorb gas
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carbon tetrachloride not react chemically h
Bromoform have low vapor pressure
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Mercury move freely
transformer oil P1 > P2
Manometer
fluid P1 - P2 = ρgh
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Various Types of Manometers
High Low Various types of
High High manometers:
Low
Low  U-tube
manometers
 Well-type or
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Reservoir
manometer
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 Inclined
manometer
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 Float-type
manometer
U-tube manometer Well (Reservoir) Inclined manometer
manometer
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Well-Type Manometers
• In a well-type manometer, one leg is replaced by a large diameter well.
Since the cross-sectional area of the well is much larger than the other leg,
when pressure is applied to the well, the manometer liquid in the well
lowers only slightly compared to the liquid rise in the other leg.
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PT
• As a result of this, the pressure difference can be indicated only by the
height of the liquid column in one leg.
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• This makes the instrument easier to use than the U-tube manometer.
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Well-Type Manometers
Volume balance: A2 ∆h =A1h A1 = area of vertical leg P1
A1 A2 = area of well
⇒ ∆h = h
P2 > P1
For static balance, A2
h
P2= P1 + ρ g (h + ∆h)
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P2
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 A  A
⇒ P2 - P1 = ρ g 1 + 1  h If 1 << 1, then P2 - P1 = ρ gh
 A2  A2
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∆h
If the area of well is 500 or more times larger than the area of
vertical leg, the error involved in neglecting the area term is
negligible Zero level
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Inclined-Tube Manometers
The inclined manometer or draft gauge is a variation on the well-type manometer

in which one leg of the tube is inclined to increase measurement sensitivity.
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Inclined manometers can measure low pressures. The low pressure arm is
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inclined, so that the fluid has a longer distance to travel than in a vertical tube
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for the same pressure change. This gives a magnified scale and thus increases
sensitivity of the manometer.
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Inclined-Tube Manometers
For static balance, P1
PP22 P2 > P1
 A 
P=
2 - P1 ρ g 1 + 1  Rm Area (A1)
 A2  Area (A2)
 A  Zero line
⇒ P2 - P1 = ρ g 1 + 1  R1 (sinα )
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Rm
 A2 
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A R1
If 1 << 1,
A2
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then P2 - P1 = ρ gR1 (sin α ) α
The scale of the manometer can be extended greatly by decreasing the angle of the inclined leg
α to a small value.
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Float-type Manometers
High Low
• This is another variation of well-type

manometer
• Recording type manometer
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• Span of the measurement can be
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changed by changing the diameter of
the leg
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• A large float can be placed to
generate enough force Flexible
connection Mercury Float Manometer
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End of Lecture -21
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20
EL
PT
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Dr. Debasis Sarkar
1
Today’s Topic:
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 Piston type (Dead weight pressure gage), Ring balance,
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Bell type gage
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 Numerical examples on manometer
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Dead Weight Pressure Gage
1. Gage is attached to the stem (B).
A 2. Place a weight on vertical piston (A).
3. Move the adjusting piston C to insure
B
that the weight and piston are
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supported by oil and it is floating freely.
5. Record the gage reading and the
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weight.
6. Repeat steps 2 through 5 for
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C
increasing and decreasing order of
weights.
3
Ring Balance Manometer
Split and Sealed P1
• A tube bent into a ring is supported at the center by
a pivot.
• The tubular chamber is divided into two parts by
splitting, sealing, and filling with a suitable light
liquid such as kerosene or paraffin oil for isolating
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the two pressures. This liquid is called sealing liquid.
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P1 -P2 = 2wR sin φ / (α d)
Paraffin
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α = cross-sectional area of the tube
d = ring diameter
NOTE: The equation does not include any property w
related to sealing liquid.
4
Bell Type Manometer
Bell type manometer consists
of an inverted container
immersed in a sealing liquid.
Sealing liquid forms two
chambers. The pressure to be
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measured is applied to the
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inside of the bell, the motion
of which is opposed by a
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restricting spring . Bell type differential-
pressure gage
Bell type pressure gage In differential pressure gage, pressures are applied to both
the outside and the inside of the bell.
5
Well Type Manometer
Problem-1
A mercury well manometer is to have a float in A2 30 kN/m2
the right-hand chamber. An electrochemical
h2=?
transducer is used to measure the motion of the
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fluid. The float motion is 7 mm for a gauge A1
pressure of 30 kN/m2. If the diameter of the float
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chamber is 50 mm, what is the required diameter h1 =7 mm
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for the left-hand chamber? For mercury, density ρ
= 13600 kg/m3. Assume that the other end of the
manometer is open to the atmosphere.
6
Manometer
Solution
At the reference line, 30000 − ρ gh1 =
ρ gh2
⇒ ρ g ( h1 + h2 ) =
90000
A2
⇒ 13600(9.81) ( 0.007 + h2 ) =
30000
h2 30 kN/m2
⇒ h2 =
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0.218 m
We have, h1 A1 = h2 A2 A1
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π  π 
⇒ 0.007  D12  = 0.218  D22 
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h1
4  4 
π 2 π 
⇒ 0.007  ( 0.05 )  = 0.218  D22 
4  4 
⇒ D2= 8.959 ×10−3 m =8.959 mm
7
Problem-2
Manometer
Consider the inclined manometer containing mercury as shown in the figure. Pipe
A has water flowing through it, and oil is flowing in pipe B. The pressure in pipe A
is 10 kPa. Find the pressure in pipe B.
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PT
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Manometer
Solution
We have,
PA=10000 Pa; ρA=1000 kg/m3; ρB=870 kg/m3;
ρM=13600 kg/m3; hm = (0.09)sin 40o
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PT
PA + ρ A ghA = PB + ρ B ghB + ρ m ghm
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10000 + 1000(9.81)(0.07) = PB + (870)(9.81)0.1 + 13600(9.81)(0.09) sin 40 o
PB = 886.33 Pa
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Barometer
Problem-3
The height of the mercury barometer is h when Vacuum
the atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa. Find the hA
pressure at point A. A
h
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Solution h 2h/3
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Patm = hρg = 101325 Pa
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hA = h – (2h/3) = h/3
PA = (h/3)ρg = hρg/3 = 101325/3 = 33775 Pa
10
EL
PT
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Dr. Debasis Sarkar
1
Pressure measurement
Today’s Topic:
 Bourdon tubes (Elastic Element Type Pressure Gage)
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PT
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2
Bourdon Tubes
Inventer: Eugene Bourdon(France, 1849)
Bourdon tube pressure gages find wide
range of application. It provides consistent,
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inexpensive measurement of static
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pressure in industries and laboratories.
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It usually measures gage pressure of both
gaseous and liquid fluids.
3
Bourdon Tubes
• The C shaped Bourdon tube has a hollow, elliptical cross section. It is
closed at one end and the fluid pressure is applied at the other end.
• When pressure is applied, its cross section becomes more circular, causing
the tube to straighten out until the force of the fluid pressure is balanced
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by the elastic resistance of the tube material.
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• Since the open end of the tube is fixed, changes
in pressure move the closed end.
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4
Bourdon Tubes
• A pointer is attached to the closed end of the tube
through a linkage arm and a gear and pinion
assembly, which rotates the pointer around a
graduated scale.
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• A hair spring is used to fasten the spindle of the
frame of the instrument to provide necessary tension
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for proper meshing of the gear teeth and thereby
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freeing the system from the backlash.
• The deflection can also be measured by a
displacement transducer such as
LVDT/Potentiometer/Capacitive type etc.
5
Bourdon Tubes
Kθ Pα R 0.2
∆δ = 0.33 0.6
Eβ t
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θ = angular length, P = applied pressure,
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E = modulus of elasticity, t= thickness,
α = major axis, β = minor axis,
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Δδ = angular deviation, R = radius of curvature
K = constant
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Bourdon Tubes
A typical C-type Bourdon tube has:
• Radius = 25 mm, Tube wall thickness = 0.254 to1.27 mm
• Maximum displacement travel = 4 mm
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• Error = 1% full-scale deflection
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• Typical range: 0.1 MPa to 700 MPa
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• Materials used: Bronze, Beryllium-copper, Steel, Alloy-steel,
NiSpanC.
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Spiral and Helical Bourdon Tubes Kθ Pα R 0.2
∆δ = 0.33 0.6
Eβ t
To increase sensitivity, Bourdon tube elements can
be extended into spirals or helical coils. This increases
their effective angular length and therefore increases the
movement at their tip, which in turn increases the
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sensitivity and resolution of the Bourdon tube. Spiral
PT
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These both give a much greater
deflection at the free end for a
given applied pressure.
Helical
8
Bourdon Tubes
• However, this increased measurement performance is gained
at the expense of a substantial increase in manufacturing
difficulty and cost compared with C-type tubes, and is also
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associated with a large decrease in the maximum pressure
that can be measured. In other words, range of instrument is
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decreased.
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• Helical and spiral types: maximum pressure measurable = 700
bar.
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Bourdon Tubes
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PT
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Bourdon Tubes: Measurement of Differential
Pressure
We can measure differential pressure also with Bourdon-tube gages. Two
Bourdon tubes are connected with one pointer in such a way that they
indicate the pressure difference, rather than either of two actual pressures.
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PT
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Bourdon Tubes: Temperature Compensation
Ambient temperature will affect the reading of a metallic elastic pressure element, such as a
Bourdon tube, bellows or diaphragm. Modulus of elasticity decreases with increase in
temperature. Thus under a constant input pressure, as the ambient temperature increases,
the element will deflect more resulting in erroneous readings.
Kθ Pα R 0.2
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∆δ = 0.33 0.6
To compensate for the affects of ambient temperature deviations
Eβ t
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upon the Bourdon tube, a bimetallic link can be incorporated into the
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movement.
Note that the temperature compensation option is designed to compensate for

ambient temperature only, not the temperature of the process medium.
12
Bourdon Tubes: A Note About Calibration
• Usually, air is used to calibrate a Bourdon tube during manufacture
and the pointer of Bourdon tubes is normally set at zero when no
pressure is applied.
• If a different fluid (particularly a liquid) is subsequently used with a
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Bourdon tube, the fluid in the tube will cause a non-zero deflection
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according to its weight compared with air, resulting in a reading
error of up to 6%.
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• This can be avoided by calibrating the Bourdon tube with the fluid
to be measured (instead of using air).
13
End of Lecture – 23
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PT
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14
EL
PT
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Dr. Debasis Sarkar
1
Today’s Topic:
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 Bellows Pressure Gauge (Elastic element)
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 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge (Elastic element)
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2
Elastic Pressure Transducer: Bellows Pressure Gauge
• A bellows element is a one piece expansible, collapsible, and axially flexible
member. Bellows are essentially thin walled cylindrical shells with deep
convolutions and are sealed at one end. The sealed end will undergo axial
displacement when pressure is applied at the open end.
EL
PT
• Bellows are made of materials with good elastic property such as: brass,
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phosphor bronze, beryllium copper etc. Stainless steel (not highly elastic) is
also sometimes used for its anti-corrosive property. Carbon steel is easily
corroded and difficult to machine.
3
Bellows Pressure Gauge
• Bellows are used for measuring
lower pressures.
• Nominal range: 5 in of water to
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100 psi
• Spring can be used to
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determine the range.
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• Bellows are more sensitive
than Bourdon type gauge.
4
Bellows Pressure Gauge
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PT
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Differential pressure measurement Absolute pressure measurement
5
Elastic Pressure Transducer: Diaphragm Pressure
P1 Gauge Diaphragm is a flexible disk,
usually with concentric
corrugations. A diaphragm
converts pressure to deflection.
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P2 A diaphragm usually is
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designed so that the
deflection-versus-pressure
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relationship is linear or nearly
linear over a specified
pressure range
6
Elastic Pressure Transducer: Diaphragm Pressure
Gauge
• Diaphragm pressure gages are based on the deflection of a flexible membrane
that separates regions of different pressures.
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• The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in
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pressure between its two faces.
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• The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures, so the pressure
can be determined by using suitable calibration.
7
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
• Two types: Metallic diaphragm and Non-metallic diaphragm
• A metal-diaphragm pressure gage uses a thin flexible diaphragm of materials
like brass , phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, Monel, Hastelloy, Ni Span C,
titanium, tantalum, stainless steel, etc.
EL
• The force of the pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm causes a
PT
deflection of the diaphragm. The motion of diaphragm is a measure of
pressure and the motion of diaphragm operates an indicating or recording
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type instrument.
• Diaphragm can also be made of nonmetallic elements: rubber, plastic, leather.
8
• Diaphragm gauges are typically spring-loaded so that the range and sensitivity
can be varied.
• Diaphragm element can measure both absolute and differential pressures.
EL
PT
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Differential pressure measurement Absolute pressure measurement
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• An approximate relation between the pressure differential (P2-P1) and the
normalized deflection of the diaphragm at the center is given by:
P1 P2 − P1 =
(
256 Et 4 r + 0.488r 3 )
(
3D 4 1 − µ 2)
EL
PT
E = Elastic modulus
t = thickness of diaphragm of
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diameter D
P2 d = deflection at center
r = d/t (normalized deflection)
For a linear relation ship , the requirement is 0.488r3 << r μ = Poisson’s ratio
10
Diaphragm Capsule
• A capsule is formed by joining two diaphragm at the
periphery
• The sensitivity of the pressure gage can be increased
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by cascading several capsules
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• When a pressure is applied to the capsule assembly
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by an Differential Pressure inlet pipe passing through
the center of all the capsules, the deflection of the
gage will be the sum of the individual capsules
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Diaphragm Capsule
For N number of capsules, following empirical relation gives an estimate of
the deflection d:
d kN ( P2 − P1 ) D nt m
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=
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N
For most practical cases,
m=4
n = -1.5
k = constant for the gage
12
Diaphragm Capsule
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PT
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The linearity and sensitivity are determined
mainly by the depth and number of corrugations
13
Indicative Range of Elastic Elements
Indicative Range of Elastic Elements
Pressure gage Application Min Range Max Range
Bourdon Tube Pressure 0 to 5 psig 105 psig
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Vacuum 0 to 30 in Hg vacuum
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Capsule Pressure 0 to 0.2 in water 1000 psig
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Vacuum 0 to 0.2 in water
Bellows Pressure 0 to 5 in water 2000 psig
Vacuum 0 to 5 in water
14
End of Lecture – 24
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PT
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15
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PT
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Dr. Debasis Sarkar
1
Today’s Topic:
 Electrical Pressure Transducers
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 Very High Pressure Measurement
PT
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2
Electrical Pressure Transducers
Input Displacement
Primary
Sensor Transducer Electrical
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Output
PT
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• Electrical pressure transducers can be inductive, resistive and
capacitive.
3
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Inductive Type
Inductive type consists of an LVDT where core is positioned by the pressure
through a diaphragm, Bourdon tube, or a bellows element.
EL
e0
PT
P Typical range:
0 to 100 kPa
N
P2
LVDT
P1 LVDT
4
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Inductive Type
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PT
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5
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Resistive Type
• In resistive transducers, the pressure operates the primary
sensors as in a bourdon tube, a diaphragm or a bellows.
• Mechanical movement of this primary sensors is converted to
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electrical signals by resistance variations.
PT
• Resistance may be between 2k ohm and 40k ohm and current
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ranges from 3 to 10 mA
• Pressure range: 0 to 35 kg/cm2
6
Potentiometer Type:
Spring
To Pivot
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Wheatstone
bridge
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Bellows
(Bourdon tube
or
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Diaphragm can
also
Range: 5 to 10,000 psig be used)
Accuracy: 0.5 % to 1 % of full scale deflection
P
7
• Resistance strain gauge:
– Used as secondary element in pressure measurement.
– Conveniently used in conjunction with bellows element and
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diaphragms.
PT
– Unbounded strain gauges can also be adopted for measuring strain
and pressure with a diaphragm.
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8
Strain gauge on bellows and diaphragm:
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PT
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9
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge
• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Wide range, 7.5kPa to – Unstable due to bonding
1400MPa. material
– Inaccuracy of 0.1% – Temperature sensitive
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– Small in size – Thermo elastic strain causes
PT
– Stable devices with fast hysteresis
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response
– Most have no moving parts
– Good over range capability
10
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Capacitive Type
Use a thin diaphragm
C1
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Pressure is detected
based on change in the
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capacitance between the
C2 diaphragm and the
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electrode
11
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Piezoelectric Type
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PT
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12
Electrical Pressure Transducers: Optical Type
The movement of a diaphragm or a bellows
element are detected by optical means. Here an
opaque vane is attached to a diaphragm that covers
and uncovers an irradiated photo diode with
changing pressure. Received light indicates the
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position of diaphragm.
PT
N
Advantages Disadvantages
 Temperature corrected  Expensive
 Good repeatability
 Negligible hysteresis
13
High Pressure Measurement
• Wire coil in bellows:
– Measurement of pressures above 7000 bar is normally
carried out electrically by monitoring the change of
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resistance of wires of special materials.
PT
– Materials having resistance-pressure characteristics that
N
are suitably linear and sensitive include manganin and
gold–chromium alloys.
14
• For manganin, the
sensitivity is 2.5×10-11
Ω/Ω-pa while for gold-
chrome, the same is
EL
9.85×10-12 Ω/Ω-pa.
PT
• Gold-chrome preferred
N
more as it is less
temperature sensitive.
15
• A coil of such wire is enclosed in a sealed, kerosene filled,

flexible bellows. The unknown pressure is applied to one end
of the bellows, which transmits the pressure to the coil.
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• The magnitude of the applied pressure is then determined by
PT
measuring the coil resistance. Pressures up to 30 000 bar can
N
be measured by devices like the manganin-wire pressure
sensor, with a typical inaccuracy of ±0.5%
16
End of Week – 5
High Pressure
Topics covered: Moderate Pressure Measurement Measurement
Liquid Mechanical Elastic pressure Electrical pressure transducer
EL
column displacement transducer • Resistance-type
elements type • Bourdon tube • Potentiometer devices
PT
• Ring balance • Diaphragm type • Inductive type
manometer
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•Barometer • Bellows gages • Capacitive type
• Bell-type
•Various • Piezoelectric type
manometers manometer
17

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CHEMICAL PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION

Dynamic pressure is the pressure

Another possible classification is based on the range of pressure measurement:

Liquid Mechanical Elastic pressure Electrical pressure transducer

Very High Pressure Measurement High Vacuum Measurement

Below 1 mm of Hg Between 1mm of High vacuum High pressure

When two sides are connected to two different pressure

Source of error: difficult to read the meniscus level.

The inclined manometer or draft gauge is a variation on the well-type manometer

• This is another variation of well-type

PA = (h/3)ρg = hρg/3 = 101325/3 = 33775 Pa

 Bourdon tubes (Elastic Element Type Pressure Gage)

Note that the temperature compensation option is designed to compensate for

• The sensitivity of the pressure gage can be increased

 Electrical Pressure Transducers

Use a thin diaphragm

• A coil of such wire is enclosed in a sealed, kerosene filled,

Liquid Mechanical Elastic pressure Electrical pressure transducer

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