COMS 5483

Neuronal Pathways of Communication

Session 3: Central Nervous System: 2 of 2

June Levitt, Ph.D., LDT, CCC-SLP

 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
3
 Our plan for today
ü Identify three protective layers of the brain.
ü Outline the structures and functions under
the cortical areas.
ü Explore some problems due to the
dysfunctions of the subcortical areas.
ü Examine if our sensation and perception are
identical.
ü Assess our brain’s plasticity.
4
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
5
 Meninges-Coverings of CNS
Dura Mater, Arachnoid, and Pia Mater

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meninges
 Meninges (HO pp. 460-461)

• Three connective tissue membranes that lie just

external to the CNS organs.

– Cover and protect the CNS

– Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses

– Contain cerebrospinal fluid

– Form partitions in the skull

 Brain Coverings (Meninges)

dura mater
arachnoid mater

pia mater

https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS660US661&biw=1181&bih=659&tbm=isch&sxsrf=ACYBGNSopq8Adv4mmpzlqSeY2uBr0jcxAg%3A1578092731408&sa=1&ei=u8g
PXpi9GImttQbGzrRw&q=meninges&oq=meninges&gs_l=img.3..0i67l3j0l7.672813.674755..674904...0.0..0.84.585.9......0....1..gws-wiz-img.......35i39.atHn2-
4N5ng&ved=0ahUKEwjYhrbFxejmAhWJVs0KHUYnDQ4Q4dUDCAc&uact=5#imgrc=9PGmCGYymwmuwM:
 Meninges - Coverings of CNS

• Dura Mater
• Arachnoid
• Pia Mater

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/cover.html
 Three meninges layers from inner most to
the outer most

https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS660US661&biw=1181&bih=659&tbm=isch&sxsrf=ACYBGNSopq8Adv4mmpzlqSeY2uBr0jcxAg%3A1578092731408&sa=1&ei=u8g
PXpi9GImttQbGzrRw&q=meninges&oq=meninges&gs_l=img.3..0i67l3j0l7.672813.674755..674904...0.0..0.84.585.9......0....1..gws-wiz-img.......35i39.atHn2-
4N5ng&ved=0ahUKEwjYhrbFxejmAhWJVs0KHUYnDQ4Q4dUDCAc&uact=5#imgrc=9PGmCGYymwmuwM:
 • Cerebral hemispheres
with arachnoid mater as
seen from above.
• Note small area near
longitudinal fissure on
the right where
arachnoid was torn due
to adhesion to overlying
dura mater.

Copyright 1989 by Department of Audiology & Speech Pathology

Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee
From the W.R. Zemlin Memorial Web Site http://zemlin.shs.uiuc.edu
Used with permission
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
13
https://www.basecone.com/en/blog/looks-do-matter/
http://www.nibb.ac.jp/brish/Gallery/cortexE.html
 Overview
• The structures of limbic system are located at the
“limbus” (edge) of the brain hemispheres.
• They play critical roles in learning, memory and
emotion.

https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/shocking-origin-procrastination-biological-point-view.html
 Limbic System? Subcortical Structures?
• The components of the Limbic System are not clearly defined.
It depends on who you ask.
• Generally agreed-upon major structures of the limbic system:
– Hippocampus
– Entorhinal cortex
– Cingulate
– Amygdala
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
• Some neuroanatomists include Basal Ganglia and other
structures. Some others classify them simply as “subcortical
structures.”
 Thalamus
Cingulate gyrus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary
Amygdala Hippocampus
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Subcortical structures

Thalamus
Cingulate gyrus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary
Amygdala Hippocampus
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Hippocampus
Essential structure for learning and memory

http://brainmadesimple.com/hippocampus.html

https://knowingneurons.wordpress.com/2013/02/27/the-
amygdala-a-full-brain-integrator-in-the-face-of-fear/

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=hippocampus.gif&title=Special%3ASearch&go=Go&ns0=1&ns6=1&ns12=1&ns14=1&ns100=1&ns106=1
How much do Animals Sleep?
Average Total Sleep Time
Species
(out of 24 hours/day)
Human (infant) 16.0 hours
Tiger 15.8 hours
Lion 13.5 hours
Rat 12.6 hours
Cat 12.1 hours
Rabbit 11.4 hours
Dog 10.6 hours
Chimpanzee 9.7 hours
Human (adult) 8.0 hours
Human (elderly) 5.5 hours
Sheep 3.8 hours
Horse 2.9 hours

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chasleep.html
https://dementiasos.wordpress.com/2014/10/14/brain-atrophy-what-is-normal/
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimers_entorhinal_cortex.PNG
 Entorhinal cortex: BA28 (and BA34)

As a major component
of the hippocampal
system, the Entorhinal
cortex relays
information to and from
the Hippocampus.

By Misty Hora at the English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=44358651

 Smell, Emotion, and Memory

http://www.diy-stress-relief.com/smell.html; https://www.istockphoto.com/illustrations/grandma-cookies?sort=mostpopular&mediatype=illustration&phrase=grandma%20cookies
 Subcortical structures

Thalamus
Cingulate gyrus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary
Amygdala Hippocampus
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 amygdala
Emotional control center. Responsible for autonomic
responses to fear and anxiety.

http://www.fearofflying.com/library/the-cortex-and-the-
amygdala.html
https://knowingneurons.wordpress.com/2013/02/27/the-
amygdala-a-full-brain-integrator-in-the-face-of-fear/
 Subcortical structures

Thalamus
Cingulate gyrus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary
Amygdala Hippocampus
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 cingulate gyrus
Located above the Corpus Callosum, the Cingulate
Gyrus coordinates sensory input with emotions,
controls emotional responses to pain and regulates
aggressive behavior.

https://www.memorangapp.com/flashcards/240234/C2T3L09+The+Limbic+System/ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cingulate_gyrus_animation_small.gif
https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/phylo.html
Diencephalon
 Diencephalon: Main parts

• Thalamus
Function: Integrates sensation in the nervous
system by organizing sensory information
• Hypothalamus
Function: Controls emotional behaviors like rage,
aggression, escape, fight or flight instinct, regulates
body temperature, food and water intake, sex
drive, sleep patterns, and the pituitary gland which
regulates the release of hormones
 Diencephalon

thalamus

hypothalamus

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 563: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
Diencephalon

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 563: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
http://cnsvp.stanford.edu/atlas/thalamus.html; http://cnsvp.stanford.edu/mri/mri-pictures/hypothalamus.jpg
Thalamus: Grand Central Station of our Sensory System

https://www.annevanrossum.com/blog/2015/04/29/whats-the-thalamus/
Contribution of Thalamus to Communication

• Thalamus = “relay station.”

– NOTE: not a simple relay, but a regulated relay
mechanism.
• Subcortical aphasias
– Nature
• Due to damage of subcortical structures:
– Left thalamus, or
– Left caudate
– Symptoms
• Impaired language production
• Dysarthria: dysfunction of mouth and
larynx muscle control
 Thalamic Lesions
Nadeau and Rothi (1997)
• Thalamus is involved in normal language
functioning by regulating the engagement of
certain neural networks in different
association cortices to participate in lexical
semantic access.
• Role in naming
 Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus.gif thalamus

hypothalamus

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 563: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Hypothalamus
“CEO” of the body’s homeostatic regulatory systems.

Amygdala Hippocampus

Circulation
(Physical, Hypothalamus Thalamus
Chemical, and
Hormonal states)

Brainstem
ANS Modulatory
Centers
Basal ganglia (Basal nuclei)

https://movementis.com/clinical-motor-and-cognitive-neurobehavioral-relationships-in-the-basal-ganglia/
 Major Neurotransmitters
Major Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Role in the Body

A neurotransmitter used by the spinal cord neurons to
Acetylcholine control muscles and by many neurons in the brain to
regulate memory. In most instances, acetylcholine is
excitatory (at junctions with skeletal muscle), but
inhibitory in cardiac muscle.
GABA The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
(gamma-
aminobutyric acid)
Glutamate The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
The neurotransmitter that produces feelings of pleasure
Dopamine when released by the brain reward system. Dopamine has
multiple functions depending on where in the brain it acts.
A neurotransmitter involved in many functions including
Serotonin mood, appetite, and sensory perception. In the spinal cord,
serotonin is inhibitory in pain pathways.
NIH Publication No. 00-4871
 Lenticular (Lentiform) nucleus
= putamen + globus pallidus
Function
Maintenance of the muscular tone of the body. Assistance in
controlling movement, mainly of the limbs of the human body.
Support to make precise movements by reducing any extraneous
or unwanted movements.

putamen

globus pallidus
(lateral and medial parts)
 Striatum
= putamen + caudate
Function
It facilitates proper movements and contributes in controlling cognition
and reward perception.

putamen
Caudate (nucleus)
 Mesocortical
Negro Pathway
Striatal
Pathway

Mesolimbic
Pathway Tubero-
infundibular
Pathway

http://slideplayer.com/slide/3368503/
 Lenticular nucleus

• involved in (1) maintaining the muscular tone of the

body and assisting in controlling movement, and (2)
reducing any extraneous or unwanted movements.
 Substantia nigra
Function
It facilitates proper movements and contributes in controlling cognition
and reward perception.

Substantia nigra
sagittal observation
Substantia Nigra of Parkinson’s patient
Substantia nigra

Penn State University: Milton S. Hershey Medical Center

Orbitofrontal cortex
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
51
 Brain Stem
Function
Brain stem takes care of subconscious or automatic control
mechanisms that we are usually unaware. The medulla houses
groups of nuclei that are centers for respiratory, cardiac, and
vasomotor (blood pressure) monitoring and control.

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology
from p. 564: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Brain Stem
Function
Brain stem takes care of subconscious or automatic control
mechanisms that we are usually unaware. The medulla houses
groups of nuclei that are centers for respiratory, cardiac, and
vasomotor (blood pressure) monitoring and control.

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 564: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 More about Brain Stem

• The brainstem contributes to the functions of all

cranial nerves that involve sensory and motor
functions of the head and neck.
• The brainstem provides a path for the ascending
sensory tracts from the spinal cord, the sensory
tracts for the head and neck, the descending motor
tract from the forebrain, and local pathways that link
eye movement centers.
 Cerebellum “little brain”
Function
Provides fine motor coordination to body, important for
coordination of rapid and precise movements needed
for normal articulation of speech.

cerebellum

Pons

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 564: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Cerebellum “little brain”
Function
Provides fine motor coordination to body, important for
coordination of rapid and precise movements needed
for normal articulation of speech.

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 564: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Cerebellum— “little brain”
• Function:
o Provides fine motor coordination to body, important
for coordination of rapid and precise movements
required for normal articulation of speech.
• Location:
o At the rear of the brain,
below the base of the cerebrum
• Damage results in:
o Ataxia, lack of motor
coordination
http://cnsvp.stanford.edu/atlas/cerebellum.html
Spinal Cord
 The Spinal Cord
• Spinal Cord—the cord is the structure
inside the vertebrae, not the bones.
o Functions:
– Posterior or dorsal portion mediates
sensory input from the spinal cord.
– Anterior or ventral portion of the cord
mediates motor output
o Location: comes out of the skull,
posterior/dorsal portion runs up the back,
anterior/ventral portion runs down the
back on frontal side.
 The Spinal Cord cont.
Major Nerve Pathways of Spinal Cord

Cross-section of the Spinal Cord

Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, et al. (2001)
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
62
 Sensation and perception
Sensation:
• Sensory information that is detected by
sensory receptors.
Perception:
• A brain’s function that interprets sensations.
 Mind/Brain: Our Perception
• Internalize the physical world.
– Light
– Sound
– Chemical
– Mechanical energy
– Temperature
– Gravity, acceleration
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
 Brain: Plasticity

• Ability to reorganize itself by forming new

connections between brain cells.
• Plasticity exists throughout our lives with
different types/degrees of plasticity across the
lifespan.
• The environment plays a key role in influencing
plasticity.
 Topics
q Review
q Protective layers of the brain
q Limbic System/Subcortical structures
q Brain Stem, Cerebellum, and the Spinal Cord
q Sensation vs. Perception
q In-Class Activity 3 - Brain: Plasticity
q Summary
67
 Now we know…
• Meninges
• Subcortical structure
• Basal ganglia
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
• Difference between sensation and perception
• Brain’s plasticity