NOTES OF CHEMISTRY XI

ATOM  
  Smallest particle of an element which shows all properties of element is called atom.
  Some characteristics of "atoms" are as follows:
  Atom takes part in chemical reactions independently.
  Atom can be divided into a number of sub-atomic particles.
  Fundamental particles of atom are electron, proton and neutron.

CATHODE RAYS-DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON-DISCHARGE TUBE EXPERIMENT-

CROOK’S TUBE EXPERIMENT
INTRODUCTION  
Gases are bad conductors of electricity. However under reduced pressure and at high potential difference
  gases conduct electric current.
DISCHARGE TUBE  
Discharge tube is a glass tube fitted with two electrodes placed opposite to each other. The tube is sealed
and contains a vacuum pump. The function of vacuum pump is to reduced or change the pressure inside
the tube. The two electrodes are connected to a high voltage battery.

 
In discharge tube experiment, at low pressure and at very high potential difference, electric current is passed
through the gas.
 
OBSERVATION  
Under different pressure different observations were noted; 

 At 1cm Hg pressure:

When pressure inside the tube is reduced to 1 cm of Hg, at a potential
difference of a few thousand volts causes a spark to pass like a flash of
light.
 At 1 mm Hg:
At 1 mm Hg, the tube is mostly filled with a glow extending from the
positive electrode. This is known as "positive column".

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 NOTES OF CHEMISTRY XI

 At 0.001 mm Hg:

At 0.001 m Hg, the glow disappears and the walls of the glass tube
begin to glow with a brilliant green light.
 RESULT  
These observations indicate that some radiation or rays are emitted
from cathode. These rays are known as "Cathode Rays"
 
Passage of electricity through the gases at low pressure also resulted
in the discovery of proton.During the discharge tube experiments, a
famous scientist Gold Stein observed that if a perforated cathode is
used, some radiations appear behind the cathode. Since radiations are
coming from anode, therefore, it was assumed that they must carry a
positive charge. These rays are known as Anode Rays.
  PROPERTIES OF ANODE RAYS  
 Anode rays travel in straight line.
 They consist of material particles.
 These rays contain positive charge.
 These rays actually consist of positive ions of various gases
  used in the experiment.
 Their positive charge is either equal to electronic charge
(e) or some multiple of it.
 These particles which have a mass 1836 times that of the
electron are known as protons.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
CHADWICK
EXPERIMENT
 
Chadwick in an experiment bombarded Be with a-particles. In his experiment
he observe that some very penetrating radiations coming out from Be. These
radiations consist of material particles. Mass of these particles was nearly
  equal to the mass of one hydrogen atom. Since these particles were not
deflected by magnetic or electric field ,therefore they are named as Neutrons.
Be9 + 2H4  6C12 + 0n1
4

 
All the elements having atomic number greater than 82 emit invisible radiation all the time.
The phenomenon of emission of these powerful rays is called "Natural Radioactivity" and the
element that emits such rays is called "Radio Active Elements".
SPECTROSCOPY
  SPECTROSCOPY  
The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of absorption or emission of
radiation is called Spectroscopy.
SPECTRUM  

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 NOTES OF CHEMISTRY XI

When a ray of light consists of different wave lengths is passed through a

spectrometer or a prism, it is dispersed into component wave lengths and a band of
different colors is obtained which is known as spectrum.
SPECTROMETER  
Spectrometer is an instrument used for spectroscopic studies. When radiation are
passed through the prism of spectrometer, they are separated in to component
wavelengths. In this way an image of different colors is formed which is known as
spectrum.

  TYPES OF SPECTRA  
 Emission Spectra.
 
 Absorption Spectra.
  EMISSION SPECTRUM  
When an element absorbs sufficient amount of energy from an electric arc or by
  heating, it emits radiation. These radiation when passed through spectrometer,
spectrum so obtained is called Emission Spectrum.
There are two types of emission spectra.
   Continuous Spectrum.
 Line Spectrum.
CONTINUOUS
  SPECTRUM
 
When white light from sun or any incandescent body or lamp is passed through a
prism, it disperses into its component colors and a spectrum is obtained known as
  Continuous Spectrum.A continuous spectrum is one in which colors are diffused in
one another without any line of demorcation.

QUANTUM NUMBERS
QUANTUM NUMBERS  
For complete description of an orbital in an atom, few constant numbers are necessary. These constant
numbers are necessary to describe the position, spin, energy and orientation of an orbital in space.
These are the numbers that complete behavior of an electron in an orbital. These numbers are known
as quantum numbers.
There are four quantum numbers:
   Principle quantum number (n)
 Azimuthal quantum number (l)
 Magnetic quantum number (m)
 Spin quantum number (s)
PRINCIPLE QUANTUM
NUMBER
 
Principle quantum number represents the energy level of an electron. It is denoted by 'n' .The values
of principle quantum number are from 1 to n (where n is a positive whole number i.e. n =
1,2,3,4,.........). Principle quantum number also describes the energy of electron. It also describes the
size of orbit.
AZIMUTHAL OR SUBSIDIARY
 
QUANTUM NUMBER
 

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 NOTES OF CHEMISTRY XI

Azimuthal quantum number describes the shape of orbital. It is denoted by  . Values of   are from
 
zero to n-1.
 For s-orbital                 = 0
 For p-orbita                 = 1
 For d-orbital                = 2
 For f-orbital                = 3
With the help of the value of azimuthal quantum number we can determine the total number of energy
sub levels in a given energy level.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER
 
Magnetic quantum number indicates the orientation of an orbital in space in an applied magnetic field .
It is denoted by ‘m’.
Values of ‘m’ are from (- ) to (+ l) through zero.
Orbital l m
s 0 0
p 1 -1, 0, +1
d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
  f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3.
 
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER  
Spin quantum number describes the spin of an electron in an orbital.

 It is denoted by ‘s’.

 It has only two possible values.

 s = +1/2 , S = -1/2

 s = +1/2 for clockwise spin.

 s = -1/2 for anti-clockwise spin.

 An electron spinning clockwise is indicated by ( ) and anti-clockwise by ( )

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