Math 132:Applied Mathematics II

Applied Mathematics

School Of Humanities And

Natural Science

Adama University

Prepared By Eteaching Team Based on the Script

Written By: Ato Legesse Lemecha

Edited By : Ato Tamirat Temesgen

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1. Real Sequences
Introduction
In this unit we shall study a function whose domain is the set of natural number and range
a set of real numbers. A function whose domain is the set of natural number and range a
set of real number is said to be a sequence. According to dictionary definition, a sequence
is ‘the following of one thing after another.’ Here we shall rigorously treat the formal
definition of sequences, limit of a sequence, convergence and divergence, bound ness,
and monotonicity of a sequence.

Objectives:
At the end of this unit the students will be able to:
 give formal definition of a sequence
 evaluate limit of a sequence
 state convergence property of a sequence
 master the concept subsequence and its application in proving the convergence of
a sequence.
 evaluate limits of a sequence defined recursively
 apply bonded monotonic property of sequence to deduce convergence or
divergence of a given sequence.

Definition 1.1: A sequence of real numbers is a function f whose domain is the set of
natural number. The values taken by the function are called terms of the sequence. A
sequence whose range is a subset of is called a real sequence. In other words we can
define a sequence as an ordered set of real numbers whose members can be put in a one
to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers.
Note: A sequence can be written as:
a(1), a(2), a(3) , , a (n) or
a1 , a2 , a3 ,  , an ,  or .
f (1), f (2), f (3),  , f (n), 

In the above representation of a sequence: a1 -first term, a2 - second term, a3 - third term,

 , an -nth term, and an 1  (n  1)st term and so on.

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Remark: The subscript n+1 denotes the next term to an in the sequence not one plus the

nth term. That is

an 1  an  1

The functional value f (n) or an is called the nth term of the sequence and the numbers

a1 , a2 , a3 ,  , an ,  are called elements of the sequence.

If the n th element is an , then the sequence is the set of ordered pairs of the form

(n, an ) or (n, f (n)) where n = 1, 2, 3, 

Notation: Since the domain of every sequence is the same we can use the nation

ann1 ,  an  .or a1 , a2 , a3 ,  , an 1 , an  2 , 

But if the starting point is not important, we can write a sequence as an  and there is

no reason that a sequence will start at n  1 . It may start where ever it needs to start.

Example1.1 The following are sequences of real numbers:

2n  3   en 
a) an    2  b) an     c) an   cos n  sin n
 n 1   n!
Example1.2 Find the first five terms of the following sequences.
 3n   2n 
a) an    n 
1  3 
b) an    2
n 1
c) an   (1) n1 2 
 n 1

Solution: a) The first five terms of this sequence are

3 9 27 81 243
a1  , a2  , a3  , a4  , a5 
4 10 28 82 244
b) an  n 1 2 and the first five terms are a1  2 , a2  3 2, a3  4 2 , a4  5 2, a5  6 2

c) The terms of this sequence alternate in sign because of the factor (1) n1 .
4 3 8 5
The first five terms are a1  1, a2  , a3  , a4  , a5 
5 5 17 13

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Examples 1.3 Find the general term an of the following sequences

a) an   {1, 1,  1, 1,  1 ,}

1 2 3 4 5
b) {an }   , , , , 
, 
 3 5 7 9 11 
Solution: a) Here we see that a1  1, a2  1, a3  1, a4  1, 

1 if n is odd
Hence an  
 1 if n is even.
A more concise way to write this term is an  (1)n .

1 2 3 4
b) We observe that a1  , a2  , a3  , a4  ,  and the denominator is odd natural
3 5 7 9
n
number start from 3. Hence the formula for the n th term an  and the sequence is
2n  1

  n 
given by an n1    .
 2n  1 n 1
Now we are at position to see few points about the graph of a sequence. Can you sketch
the graph of a sequence?

 n 
Example 1.4 Sketch the graph of the sequence an    2  .
 n  1 n1

Solution: To sketch the graph of a sequence an  we plot the points  n, an  as n ranges

over all possible values on a graph. The first few points on the graph are,
 1  2  3   4   5 
 1,  ,  2,  ,  3,  ,  4,  ,  5,  , 
 2   5   10   17   26 

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From this graph we observe that as n increases the nth term of the sequence closer and
closer to zero and eventually become zero for large values of n. This idea leads us to the
concept of convergence of a sequence.
Do ever sequences converge? Can you define convergence of a sequence?

Activity 1.1
1. Sketch the graph of the following sequences

  n 1   1 
a) an n0   b) an    
 2n  1  n 0  n 1 

 n !  (1)n n 
c) an     d) an    
n  n 1 
2. Is the concept of continuity applicable for a sequence?
3. Find a formula for the n th term of the sequence
 1 3 7 15 31 
 , , , , 
 2 4 8 16 32 

1.1 CONVERGENCES
In this section we extend the concept of limit to that of sequence in order to decide
whether or not the term an tends to finite limit or not as n   .

Definition1.2: A sequence an  is said to have a limit L if for every   0 there is a

natural number N such that

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if n  N , then an  L   .

And we write
lim an  L or an  L as n   .
n 

If L exists, we say that the sequence an  converges to L or lim an exists. If such a
n 


number L does not exist, we say that an n 1
diverges or that the lim an does not
n 

exists. The graph of a sequence is help full to visualize and understand the philosophy
of the above definition. Suppose that the sequence an  converges to L. Now look at the

graph of the sequence an  and give its geometrical meaning.

The fact that L is a limit of the sequence implies for any   0 , there is a natural number
N such that to the right of N, all the values of the sequence lie in the strip of width 2
centered at L.
Examples1.5 Let c be any number, and let an  c for n  1 . Show that lim an  c .
n 

Solution: For   0 , let N 1 . If n  N , then an  c  c  c  0   .

Thus, by formal definition of limit, lim an  c

n 

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
 3n  1 
Example1.6 Show that the sequence   is convergent and
 2  5n n 1
3n  1
lim
n  2  5n

Solution: Let   0 be given. We need to find a natural number N such that if n  N ,

then an  L   .

3n  1 3
If n  N , then  
2  5n 5
But
3n  1 3 15n  5  6  15n 11 11 11
      .
2  5n 5 10  25n 10  25n 10  25n 25n
11 11
Now solving this inequality implies n  . Now choose N 
25 25
11
Thus N  n implies N   n as a result
25
11 11
   . Since 25n  25n  10
25n  10 25n
From above
3n  1 3 11
  
2  5n 5 10  25n

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3n  1 3
Hence, if n  N , then    . Now using definition we can deduce that the
2  5n 5

 3n  1  3n  1 3
sequence   is convergent and lim 
 2  5n n1 n  2  5n 5

 n2  1  1
Example 1.7 Show that the sequence  2  converges to .
 2n  1  2

Solution: Let   0 be given. We need to find a natural number N  0 such that

n2  1 1
   for all n  N .
2n 2  1 2

n2  1 1
Considering  for all n  we see that
2n 2  1 2

n 2  1 1 2n 2  2  2n 2  1 3 3
2
  2
 2  2  .
2n  1 2 2(2n  1) 4 n  2 4n  2

1 3 
Solving for n from the inequality implies n    2  . Why?
4 
13  13 
Now choose N    2  . Then, form n  N    2  , we scratch work back to
4  4 
determine the suitability of our choice to conclude the convergence of the sequence. Thus
3
multiplying both sides by 4 and subtracting 2 from both side implies 4n  2 

Or
3
4n 2  2  Since 4n  2  4n 2  2 for each n in .

Dividing both sides by 3 and taking reciprocal implies.
3
2

4n  2
But from above we know that
n 2  1 1 2n 2  2  2n 2  1 3 3
2
  2
 2  2  .
2n  1 2 2(2n  1) 4 n  2 4n  2
Hence, by definition

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n2  1 1
lim 
n  2 n 2  1 2
2
 n 1  1
Thus, the sequence  2  is convergent and it converges to .
 2n  1  2

 en 
Example 1.8 Show that the sequence  n 
converges to 1.
1  e 
Solution: Let   0 be given. We must find a natural number N  0 such that

en
 1   for all n  N . But
1  en

en en  1  en 1 1
n  1  n  n  n  .
1 e 1 e 1 e e

Or
1
en 

1
This implies n  ln   for 0    1 . Why this interval?
 
1
Now choose N  ln   . Then n  N implies
 
1
n  ln   or
 
1
en 

1 1
n  n   Since e n  e n  1 and taking reciprocal.
1 e e
Finally, from above see that

en en  1  en 1 1
n
 1  n
 n
 n 
1 e 1 e 1 e e

 en  en
Therefore, by definition  n 
converges and lim 1
n  1  e n
1  e 
Example 1.9 Show that the sequence n is divergent.
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Solution: Assume that lim n  L for some L  .

n 

For every   0 there exists a natural number N such that n  L    n  N . That is

L    n   L  n  N
In particular for   1,  N  0such that L  1 n  1  L  n  N .
The last statement says that every value of n lies between L  1 and 1  L which is

contradiction. Thus the sequence n is divergent.

Example 1.10 Show that the sequence  1n is divergent.

n
Solution: Assume that lim  1  L for some L  .
n 

n 
Let 0    1. For   0  N  0 such that  1  L   n  N
2
Now we consider
n1 n n1 n n1 n
2   1   1   1  L  L   1   1  L  L   1 .

n1 n  
From this we find that 2   1  L  L   1      1 .This is
2 2

contradiction since 2 is not less than one. Hence, the sequence  1  is divergent.
n


Definition 1.3 The sequence an n 1 is said to be divergent to  . If for every natural

number M there is an integer N such that

If n  N , then an  M .
and we write
lim an  
n 

Similarly, if for every number M there is an integer N such that

If n  N , then an  M .

We say that an n 1 diverges to  and we write

lim an   
n 

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Example1.11 Show that lim e n   .

n 

Solution: Let M > 0 be given. We want to find N > 0 such that

en  M n  N .
But en  M implies n ln e  ln M .
Or
n  ln M .
Choose N  ln M . Then n  N implies n  ln M and so

en  M
Hence the above definition implies, lim en  .
n 

The sequence in example 10 diverges since the numbers in the sequence alternate
between -1 and 1 that is the limit is not unique. Further more the sequence in example
11 diverges because the number in the sequence growth arbitrarily large. Thus to
avoid using definition to show convergence or divergence we state the following
theorem.


Theorem: 1.1 Let an n m be a sequence, L  , or L   or L   and

f a function defined on [m, ) such that f (n)  an for n  m.


If lim f ( x)  L , then an n  m converges and lim an  L .
x  n 


If lim f ( x)   (or lim f ( x)    ), then an n  m diverges and
x  x 

lim an   (or lim an   )

n  n 

Thus lim an  lim f ( x).

n  x 

Proof: Assume that lim f ( x)  L . Let   0 be given, then there is some integer N such
x 

that
if x  N , then f ( x )  L  

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This implies that

if n  N , then an  L  f (n)  L  

So by definition, lim an  L . If lim f ( x)   , then for any M there is an integer N

n  x 

such that
if x  N , then f ( x )  M
so that if n  N , then an  M . Again by definition lim an   . Similarly,
n 

lim f ( x)    implies that lim an    .

x  n 

This theorem is basically telling us that we take the limit of sequences like we take the
limit of functions. In fact, we will treat the limit as if it were a limit of a function and
evaluate the limit as we did in Applied Mathematics I.
1
Example 1.12 Show that lim r  0 , r  0
n  n

1 1
Solution: Let f ( x )  r , x  1, then f ( n)  r , n 1 .
x n
1
lim f ( x)  lim r  0
x  x  x

1
By theorem 1.1 we deduce that lim 0.
n  n r


Example 1.13 Let r be any number. Then show that the sequence r n 
n 1

i) diverges for r 1 and r   1 and ii) converges for r  1and r  1 with

1 for r 1
lim r n   .
n 
0 for r 1

Solution: Case 1: Let r be non negative and f ( x)  r x for x 1, then f (n)  r n

for n 1 .

0 for 0  r  1
x 
lim r  1 for r 1 .
x 
 for r  1


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By theorem 1.1 this means that

0 for 0  r  1
n 
lim r  1 for r  1 (1)
n
 for r  1


Thus r n n1 diverges for r 1 and converges for 0  r 1
Case: 2 Let r be negative real number.
 
If r   1, then r n
   (1)n  
this is divergent by the result of example: 1.10.
n1 n1

If r   1, then r n  r
n . Now using (1) we have

n 0 for  1 r  0
lim r n  lim r  
n  n 
 for r   1
In this case we have lim r n  0, for 1 r  0 and lim r n do not exist for r   1 .
n  n 


Hence, the sequence r n  diverges for r 1 and r   1 but converges in either case.
n 1


For any number r, the sequence r n  is called a geometric sequence, because for each
n 1

n, r n is the geometric mean of r n1 and r n1 .

n
 1
Example 1.14 Show that lim  1    e
n 
 n
x n
 1  1
Solution: Let f ( x)  1   for x 1 . Then f (n)  1   for n 1 .
 x  n
x
 1
lim f ( x)  lim  1   has indeterminate form of type 1 .
x  x 
 x

ln1 1x 
 
x
ln 1 1x  x ln1 1x 
     
lim lim lim
x  x 
x 
1x
lim f ( x)  e
x 
 
e  
= e

0
Still indeterminate form of type . Now we apply L’Hopital’s Rule I so that
0

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d  ln 1 1    
lim
dx   x   
 1 

lim
x
d  1  x   
 1 1 
x
dx    e  x   e
lim f ( x)  e
x 

Consequently by theorem 1.1

n
 1
lim  1    e
n 
 n

Example1.15 Show that lim n n 1 .

n 

Solution: Let f ( x)  x1 x for x 1 , then f (n)  n1 n for n 1 .

lim f ( x)  lim x1 x has indeterminate form of type  0 . So we have to express in either

x  x 

0 
form of or to apply L’Hopital’s Rule. Thus with simple algebraic manipulation
0 
ln x
lim f ( x) = e x now indeterminate form of type  .
lim
x

x  
Applying L’Hopital’s Rule I we have
1
lim f ( x)  e x x  e0  1
lim

x 

Thus theorem 1.1 implies

lim n n 1 .
n 

Can we apply L’Hopital’s Rule on the sequence term with out replacing n by x? Why?
k 
 1  
Example1.16 Does the sequence  1    converge or diverge?
 3k  k 1
x k
 1   1 
Solution: Let f ( x)   1   for x 1 , then f (k )   1  for k 1
 3x   3k 
x
 1
lim f ( x)  lim 1   has indeterminate form of type 1 .
x  x 
 3x 

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ln 1 1 
 

lim x ln 1
 1 

lim  3x 
x 
3 x  x
1x 0
lim f ( x)  e 
 e 
indeterminate form of type .
x  0
By L’Hopital’s Rule and simplifying we get

d  ln 1 1    
 
dx   3 x    
lim    1 lim  1 
x 
d  1  3 x 1 1 
 x 
lim f ( x)  e dx    e  3 x   e1 3
x 

Thus theorem 1.1 implies

k
 1
lim 1   3e .
k 
 3k 
k 
 1  
Therefore the sequence  1    converges.
 3k  k 1

1.2 CONVERGENCE PROPERTIES OF SEQUENCES

The basic limit theorem discussed in Applied Mathematics I are equally valid for
sequences and reduce the need to use the definition in most limit problems. For
convenience, we state the following theorem for sequences.

Theorem 1.2: If an  and bn  are convergent sequences with lim an  a and lim bn  b ,
n  n 

c is constant, then
i) can  is convergent and lim  can   ca .
n 

ii) an  bn  is convergent and lim  an  bn   a  b .

n 

iii) an  bn  is convergent and lim  an  bn   ab .

n 

a  a  a
iv)  n  is convergent and lim  n   , b  0.
 bn  n  b
 n b

The proof of this theorem is similar to the corresponding for limit theorem for function of
one variable and hence omitted.
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Example1.17 Evaluate the following limits.

  n 2  3n  2   1 
a) lim ln  2   cos  
n 
  2n  4n  2   n 
4
 2n  3 n3  n 2  1 
b) lim   3 
n  3n  1 4n  3n  2 


 3n 2  
 
c) lim  sin   
n  2 n  1
  n 

  n 2  3n  2   1    1  3 / n  2 / n2   1 
Solution: a) lim  ln  2   cos     lim  ln  2   cos  
  2n  4n  2   n   n    2 / n  4 / n  2   n 
n 

 1  3 / n  2 / n2   1 
 ln  lim   cos  nlim 
n  2 / n 2  4 / n  2  n
  

 1 0  0 
 ln    cos 0  1  ln 2
002
4
 3 1 1 
 2n  3 n3  n2  1  
4 2 1  3   2 1 4 121
 3 n  lim n n
b) lim 
n  3n  1
   lim 1 3 2     
 4n  3n  2   n 
3
n 
4 2  3   3 4  144

 n n n 
by (iii) and (iv) of theorem 1.2
  
 3n 2     3n   3n  sin  n  
c) lim  sin     lim  n sin     lim lim    
n  2 n  1
  n  n 
 2n  1  n  n  2n  1 n  1 n 
 
 

   
sin   sin  
Let f ( x )   x  for x 1 , then f (n)   n  for n 1 .
1x 1n

   
sin   sin  
But lim  n   lim  x  has indeterminate form of type 0 . Then by L’Hopital’s
n  1n x  1x 0
Rule we have

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  d    
sin   sin  
 x dx   x    
lim  lim   lim cos    
x  1x x  d x 
x
1 x 
dx
And so
  
 3n 2
   3n  sin  n    3  3
lim  sin     lim lim      lim      .
n  2 n  1
  n   n  2n  1 n  1 n  n   2  1 n 2
 
 

Theorem 1.3 (Squeezing theorem for sequences)

  
Let an n m , bn n m and cn n  m be sequences with lim an  lim bn =L.
n  n 


If an  cn  bn for all n  m , for some m>0, then cn n m converges and

lim an  lim cn  lim bn  L.

n  n  n 

 
Proof: Given any   0 . Since an n m and bn n m converges to L, there exists N1 and N2

such that an  L   for all n  N1 and bn  L   . Let N = max { N1, N2 }. Then for

n  N we have
  an  L   and   bn  L  

L    an    L and L    bn    L

Thus
L    an  cn  bn    L or cn  L   .

By definition we have lim cn  L and hence the result.

n 

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n
Example 1.18 Show that lim
 1 cos n
 0.
n 
n 2

Solution: From (1)n cos n  1 we have

1  (1)n cos n 1

Dividing by n2
n
1  1 cos n 1
  .
n2 n2 n2
n
Let an 
1
, cn 
 1 cos n
and bn 
1
.
n 2 n 2 n2
1 1
lim an  lim  0  lim  lim bn .
n  n  2 n  2 n 
n n
Thus by squeezing theorem we can conclude that
n
lim cn  lim
 1 cos n
0
n  n 
n 2

ln n
Example 1.19 Show that lim
n  n
 0.

2
Solution: For n 1 , first we show that 0  ln n  .
n
1 1
For t 1 , we have  , integrating we have
t t
n1 n 1 n
ln n  1 dt  1 dt   2 t   2  n  1  2 n .
t t 1
ln n 2 2 n
Dividing by n and rationalizing implies 0   
n n n
ln n 2 n
Let an  0, cn  and bn  . Then we have
n n
2 n
lim an  lim 0  lim  lim bn .
n  n  n  n n 

Thus squeezing theorem implies

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ln n
lim cn = lim  0.
n  n  n

 1 1 1
Example 1.20 Show that lim  1  1        e .
n 
 2! 3! n! 
n
 1
Solution: we know that lim  1    e . Applying binomial theorem yields
n 
 n
n
 1 n  n 1  n 1 n  n  1  n  n  1 1
 1   1       2  .
 n 1  n  2  n n! nn

1 n(n  1) 1 n  n  1  n  n  1 1
 1 n    
n 2! n2 n! nn

1  1  1  1  2  1  1  2   n  1 
 11 1     1   1      1  1    1  
2!  n  3!  n  n  n !  n  n   n 
1 1 1
 11   
2! 3! n!

 1 1 1 4
e  1  1        , n3
 2! 3! n !   n  1!

4 1 4 1
Thus, 0   . Let an  0 , cn  and bn  .
 n  1! n (n  1)! n
1
lim an  lim 0  0  lim  lim bn
n  n  n  n n 
4
Therefore by squeezing theorem, lim  0 . This implies that
n   n  1 !

 1 1 1
e  1  1        0
 2! 3! n! 
 1 1 1
This shows that lim  1  1        e . Why?
n 
 2! 3! n! 

1.3 BOUNDED MONOTONE SEQUENCES

Definition 1.4 A sequence an  is said to be

i. decreasing if an  an 1 for all n  1, 2,3

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ii. increasing if an  an 1 for all n  1, 2,3

iii. monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing

iv. strictly increasing if an  an 1 for all n  1, 2,3

v. strictly decreasing if an 1  an for all n  1, 2 ,3

vi. strictly monotonic if it is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
The above definition confirms that a sequence that increase for few terms and then
decrease for the rest of the terms is not a decreasing sequence or vice versa.
Note that a monotonic sequence must always increase or it must always decrease.


1 
Example 1.21 Show that   is decreasing.
 n 1
1 1
Solution: Let an  and an 1  . Then
n n 1
1 1 n 1 n 1
an  a      0for all n  .
n1 n n  1 n(n  1) n(n  1)

That means
an  an 1 for all n.

1 
Hence by definition   is a decreasing sequence.
 n 1

 n 1
Example1.22 Show that   is increasing sequence.
 n  1 1
n 1 n
Solution: Let an  and an 1  .
n 1 n2
n 1 1 2
an  an 1    0 for all n  .
n  1 n  2 (n  1)  n  2 

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
 n 1
Consequently, an  an 1 . Thus,   is strictly increasing sequence.
 n  1 1
Definition 1.5 If n is a positive integer, n factorial, written n!, is defined as
n!  1 2  3  n
0!  1
This definition implies that
 n  1!   n  1  n!
A better approximation to n ! is known as Stirling’s formula given by

n
n
n !  2 n  
e

This Stirling’s formula has many applications in engineering and sciences.

Example1.23 Determine whether the following sequences are increasing, decreasing or

neither.
 2n  n n 1 1 
an      an    1
n
a) an     b) n c) an    1 d) dx 
 n!  e  n x 

2n 2n1
Solution: a) Let an  and an 1  .
n!  n  1!
2n1 2n 2n (1  n)
But an 1  an     0 for all n  . This implies
 n  1! n!  n  1!
an1  an for all n in .

Thus the sequence an  decreases.

n
b) Let an  n . Since the domain of an  it is impossible to use the technique of
e
calculus to decide the monotonicity of an . But modifying the domain of definition of

an in combination with theorem 1.1 it is possible to apply derivative techniques.

x n
Let f ( x )  x for all x in [1, )  . Then f (n)  n  an for all n  .
e e

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1 x
f '( x)   0 for all x in [1, ) .
ex
We can see that the first derivative is always negative and so from applied mathematics I
we know that f must be decreasing function. How does this help us?
n n 1
For n  n  1 we have f (n)  n  an  f (n  1)   an1
e en1
This implies
an  an 1 for all n 

Therefore the sequence an  decreases.

c) The terms of the sequence an  alternate between 1 and -1and so the sequence is

neither increasing sequence nor decreasing sequence. Since the sequence is neither an
increasing nor decreasing sequence it is not a monotonic sequence.
1 1   ln n  ln x
an    1
n
d) dx     . Let f ( x )  for all x  [1, ) . Then
n x   n  x
ln n
f (n)   an for all n  1, 2,3,
n
1
 x  ln x
1  ln x
f ( x)  x 2  . Thus f ( x )  0 for all x  [e, ) and f ( x )  0 x  [1, e] .
x x2
This implies f is increasing on [1, e] and decreasing on [e, ) . Consequently f (n)  an is
increasing for n = 1, 2, and decreasing for all n = 3, 4, 5 … Hence an is neither
increasing nor decreasing sequence on its domain.

Definition 1.6 A sequence an  is said to be

i. bounded from above if and only if there exist M such that

an  M n  .
ii. bounded from below if and only if there exist m such that
m  an n  .
iii. bounded if there is a number k such that an  k for all n .

A sequence is said to be unbounded if it is not bounded.

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1 
Example 1.24 Let a) an     , then
n
 1 1 1 

1 2 3 
a , a , a ,  , an ,   1, , , , , .
 2 3 n 
From this we observe that 0  an  1 . Thus an  is bounded since it is bounded above by
1 and below by 0.

b) an   2n  . The elements of the sequence an  are

2, 22 , 23 , 2 4 ,  , 2n ,  .
The sequence is bounded below since 2  2n for all n.
c) an   a1 , a2 , a3 ,  , an ,   n 2     ,  n 2  , 9, 4,  1  .
Since n 2  1 for all n  . Multiplying both side by  1 we get
 n 2   1 for all n  .
For every natural number n the sequence an  is bounded from above by  1 .

 
d) an    1 3n . Then a1 , a2 , a3 ,  , an ,  =   , (1)n 3n  , 27, 3, 9,81,
n
.
The given sequence decreases to infinite when n is odd and tends to positive infinite
when n is even. Therefore it is neither bounded above nor below and thus an  is
unbounded sequence.

Definition1.7 The number l is called a lower bound of a sequence an n 1 , if l  an for all
n and the number u is called an upper bound of a sequence an  , is an  u for all n.
1 
Example1.25 For the sequence   , 1, 2, 3.5… are upper bounds and 0, -0.5, -2, -3 …
n 
are lower bounds.
Definition1.8 If L is a lower bound of a sequence an  with the property L  l for all
lower bound l of an  is called greatest lower bound (glb). If u is an upper bound of a
sequence an  with property u  U for all upper bound of an  , then u is called a least
upper bound (lub) of an  .
Example 1.26The least upper bound and greatest lower bound for the sequence

 n 1
  respectively are 1 and 0.
 n  1 n1

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Theorem 1.4
i) If a sequence is increasing and bounded from above then it is convergent
(to the least upper bound of its range)
ii) If a sequence is decreasing and bounded from below, then it is convergent
(it converges to its greatest lower bound). This means
A monotonic bounded sequence is convergent.

Proof: Case 1) suppose {an} is a bounded and increasing sequence and so

an  an 1 and | an |  M n  N .

Let S= {a1,a2, a3…}  . Since an  | an | M n  , then M is an upper bound for S.

Then by completeness property of , S has a least upper bound say l

Claim: lim an = l
n 

Let  0 be given. Then     is not an upper bound for S.

Thus there exist n  such that l    an  l

Hence n  no implies an  a (Since an is increasing)

no

  an  an     for all n  no

This implies that

 an    
Or
an   

Hence, an  converges and lim an  

n 

Similarly prove when {an} is decreasing and bounded. 

Theorem 1.5 A monotonic sequence converges if and only it is bounded

Proof: Suppose that {an} is increasing sequences such that it converges to real number a.

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To prove that {an} is bounded. Since {an} is increasing we have

a1  a2  a3    an  

Here a1 is a lower bound of {an}.Now we need only to show that it is bounded from
above. Since lim an  a, then  > 0  N > 0 such that a n - a <  n  N.
n 

From this inequality we have

a   an  a   n  N

It follows that a  is an upper bound of an  . Therefore an  is bounded.

Conversely assume that the given sequence is bounded. We need to prove that the
sequence an  is convergent.

Claim: an  is convergent.

Let S={a1, a2, …an}. We shown that {an} is bounded. Consequently, S has an upper
bounded since {an} is bounded sequence for each n. By completeness property, S has a
least upper bound.
Let l be a least upper bound of S. Next we show that
lim an  l .
n 

Let  0 be given. Since l is a l.u.b of S, then l  can’t be an upper bound. Therefore,

there exists N  S such that l   a N  l  l .

But an  is an increasing sequence and so

l  an  l   n  N
Finally from this inequality we deduce that
an  l  n  N
Thus, lim an  l
n 

The case when {an} decreases left as exercise for the reader. 
 3n 
Example1.27 Prove that the sequence   is convergent.
  n  1 !
Proof: i) Monotone

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3n 3n 1
an  and an 1 
 n  1!  n  2 !
3n 3n 1 3n  n  2   3n 1
an  an 1   
 n  1!  n  2 !  n  2 !
3n  n  2  3 3n  n  1
   0 n  1, 2,3,...
 n  2 !  n  2 !
It follows by definition
an  an 1 n 

 3n 
Hence, the sequence   is monotonically decreasing
  n  1 !
i) Bound ness
 3n  3
Since   is nonnegative decreasing sequence for each n, the first term a1  is
  n  1 ! 2

the upper bound and 0 is the lower bound i.e.

3n 3
0  n  1, 2,3...
 n  1! 2
 3n   3n 
Thus   is bounded and theorem 1.6 implies the sequence   is
  n  1 !   n  1 !
convergent.

Theorem1.6 If a sequence is convergent, then its limit is unique.

i.e. if an  a and an  b, then a = b

a b
Proof: Suppose a  b, then a  b  0 . Since an  a and an  b, for   0 there
2
a b | a b |
exist N1, N2 >0 such that an  a  n  N1 and an  b  n  N 2
2 2
Now, let N= max {N1, N2}, then
a b a b
an  a  and an  b  n N.
2 2
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Now consider the following.

a b a b
a  b  a  an  an  b  an  a  a n  b    a b
2 2

This is contradiction. I.e. a=b. 

Theorem1.7 If a sequence converges, then it is bounded.

Proof: Let {an} be a sequence converging to a. To prove that {an} is bounded.

Since {an}  a, for  1 N  0 such that an  a < 1 n  N .

But from property of absolute value we know that

| an |  | a || an  a | 1 n  N

We then have
for  1 N  0 such that | an || a | 1 n  N

Let M= max {|a1|, |a2|…|an+1|, |a|+1}>0, then an  M n  1, 2,3,...

Therefore by definition {an} is bounded. 

Remark: The converse of the above theorem is not always true i.e. Bound ness do not
imply convergence.
Example1.28 Let {an} = {(-1) n}. Show that {an} is not convergent.
Bound ness
an   1,1,  1,1,  1,1, , 
 1  an  1

Thus, the sequence {an }is bounded above by 1 and below by -1.

But
1, n odd
lim(1) n  
n 
0, n even
Hence the limit does not exist since it is not unique
As a result {an } is not convergent.

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Remark: If an  0 and bn  is bounded, then lim anbn  0 .

n 

 1  1  (1) n1  
Example 1.29 Show that the sequence an    2 ln  1    converges to 0.
 n  n!  
1 1
Solution: Let cn  2
. Since 0  2  1 for all n, then cn  is a bounded sequence.
n n
 1  (1) n1 
Let bn  ln  1   .Then
 n! 

 1  (1)n 1   1  (1) n1 

lim bn  lim ln 1    ln lim1
 n    ln1  0
n  n 
 n!   n! 

1  1  (1) n1 
Therefore by the above remark, lim an  lim ln  1  0
n  n  n 2 n!
 
 
Definition1.9 Let an n 1 be any sequence and let nk k 1 be a strictly increasing

sequence of natural numbers i.e. n k < n k+1 kN , then the sequence of composites
 
a 
nk
k 1
 
 ank
k 1


is called a subsequence of the sequence an n1 .
1 
Example1.30 a) Let {an} =   and nk  k 2 , then
n
 
1  1   1 
ank  2 . Hence  2   is sub sequence of   .
k  k  k 1  n n 1

1   1 1  1  1 1 1   1  
i.e.   = 1 , , , and  2  = 1, , ,  . Hence  2   a is sub
n  2 3   k   4 9 16   k  k 1

1 
sequence of  
 n n 1

b) If an    1  and n

n
k  2k  1, then ank    1
2 k 1
 1n 

 
Hence ank k 1  1, 1, 1... is a subsequence of an k 1

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
  n 
c) Let {an} = sin   .
  2  k 1

  
i. if nk = 4k-2, then ank k 1  sin  4k  2    0, 0, 0...
 2 k 1
 
The sequence ank k 1 is a subsequence of an n 1

    
ii. if nk = 2k -1, then ank k 1  sin  2k  1   = {1, 1,1, 1...}
  2  k 1
 
ank k 1 is a subsequence of an n1

iii. an k 1 is a subsequenceof it self .
What is the relevance of studying subsequence?

Now we state the following theorem with out proof.

Theorem 1.8
a) If the sequence an  converges to L, then every subsequence of an  also converges

to L.
b) If the sequence an  has two subsequences which converge to different limit points,

then the sequence an  itself diverges.

c) If the sequence an  has a subsequence which is divergent, then an  is also

divergent.

Now what can you conclude about the convergence of the sequence in example 1.29?
Definition1.10 If the sequence an  diverges but does not diverges to  or   , then the

sequence an  is said to be Oscillating sequences.


Example 1.31 a) an    1 n

n 1
is an oscillating sequence.

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
  1 n 
b) an     is not an oscillating sequence as it converges.
 n n1

Definition 1.11 A sequence an  is said to be defined recursively if a1 is defined and an 1

is defined in terms of an for all n  .

Example 1.32 Let the sequence an  be defined recursively by a1  2 , a2  1 and

an  2  an1  an for all n  1, 2, 3 . Then find an , and lim an .

n 

Solution: We are given that a1  2 and a2  1 . Now we calculate the remaining terms

using the formula an  2  an1  an .

a1 2  a11  a1

a3  a2  a1 = 1  2  1

a4  a3  a2  1  1  2

a5  a4  a3  2  (1)  1

a6  a5  a4  1  (2)  1

a7  a6  a5  1  (1)  2

a8  a7  a6  2  1  1

The terms cycle through 1, -1… and eventually return to 1, -1. So lim an does not exist.
n 

Can we find an explicit formula for an  ?

Solved Problems
1
Example1.33 Let an   3n  4n  n .

a) Show that an  is convergent.

b) Find its limit.

1
Solution: a) an   3  4
n

n n

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Bound ness
1 1 1 1
4  (4 )   3  4
n n n n n
  4 n
4 n n
 42 . n

The first inequality follows from 4n  3n  4n and the second inequality follows

from 3n  4 n .
1
4   3n  4n  n  8 for all n  .

Thus the sequence an  is bounded.

Monotone:
1 1
an   3  4 n

n n
, and an 1   3 n 1
4 
n 1 n 1
.

Now we consider the sequence

n 1  1 1 1 1
 1 
3 n
 4n  n   3n  4 n   n   3n  4n  3n  4 n  n  3n  3n  4 n  n  4n  3n  4n  n
1 1
 3 (3 )  4n  4n  n  3  3n  4  4n  3n 1  4n 1
n n n

n 1

3 n
 4n  n  3n 1  4n 1

1
Multiplying the exponent by and simplifying we get
n 1
1 1

3n 
 4n  n   3n 1  4n 1  n 1
 
an an 1

The sequence an  is decreasing sequence since an  an 1 n  .

Thus by the bounded monotone sequence property the sequence an  is convergent.
1 1 1 1
b) 4  (4 n ) n   3n  4n  n   4n  4n  n  4  2 n
1 1
Let an  4 , cn  3n  4 n   n
and bn  4  2 n
1 1
 
lim an  4  lim  4  2 n   4 lim 2 n  lim bn
n  n  n  n 
 
Therefore, by squeezing theorem

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1
lim cn  lim 3  4
n  n 
 n

n n
4

Example1.34 Let an  be the sequence defined recursively by

a1  2 and an1  2  an , for n  1.

a) Show that an  is convergent.

b) Find lim an
n 

Solution
a) Bound ness

a1  2 , a2  2  2  2  a1  a1  2

a3  a2 1  2  a2  2  2  2  a2  2  2

If the sequence an  has a limit a, then an would seen to be the natural interpretation of

the value of the infinite expression.

2  2  2  2 
Can you state Principle of Mathematical Induction?

Since a2  2  2  2  a1  a1  2 , the statement is true for the first two natural

numbers.
Since a1  2 , assume inductively that an  2 for some n  1
Then we want to show that the statement is true for n  1
an  2 .

2  an  2  2  4 adding 2 to both side

2  an  4  2 taking square root

This implies that

an 1  2

By Principle of Mathematical Induction an  2 n  .Thus the sequence an  is

bounded above by 2. Further more

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2  an  2

Hence, the sequence an  is bounded.

Monotone
From (i) above

a1  2 , a2  2  2  2  a1

a3  a2 1  2  a2  2  2  2


Since a2  2  2  2  a1  a1  2 , the statement is true for the first two natural

numbers. Assume inductively that an  an 1 for some n >1. Then we want to show that

the statement is true for n .

an  an 1 Induction assumption

2  an  2  an 1 adding 2 to both sides

2  an  2  an 1 taking square root


   
an1 an

By Principle of Mathematical Induction an 1  an for all n  1 .

By definition the sequence an  is increasing sequence. The bounded monotone property

of a sequence implies that the sequence an  is convergent.

b) From (a) above the sequence an  is convergent i.e. the limit exists.

Say
lim an  L
n 

But if the sequence an  converges to L, then every subsequence of an  also converges

to L and hence
lim an  lim an 1  L
n  n

lim 2  an  2  lim an  2  L
n  n 

L  2L

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L2  2  L squaring both side

Solving we get
L  1  L  2
But L=-1 is not in the range since an  0 n  . Therefore, lim an  2
n 


Example 1.35 Let an n1 be the sequence defined recursively by
an
a1  2 and an 1   2

a) Show that an n1 is convergent. B) Find lim an
n 

Solution: Bound ness

2
a1 2 a2  2
a1  2, a2      2  2 , a3     
2  2 ,

Since a1  2  2 , assume inductively that an  2 for some n  1 .

an  2 induction assumption
an 2
 2    2  =2 Why?

an
an1  2 since an 1   2
By Principle of Mathematical Induction an  2 for all n  1 .

Therefore, the sequence an  is bounded above by 2 and below by 2 .

Monotone
We list a few terms to understand the pattern of the sequence.
2
a1 2 a2  2
a1  2, a2   2   2 , a3   2   2 ,

a1  a2  a3  

Now assume inductively that

an  an1 for n  1
an an1

2   2
 
why?
an1 an

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By Principle of Mathematical Induction an 1  an for all n. and so an  is increasing

sequence.
Therefore, an  converges.

b) From above a) we have shown that the sequence converges. Suppose it converges to L.
But if the sequence an  converges to L, then every subsequence of an  also converges

to L that means
lim an  lim an 1  L
n  n 

an lim an L
L= lim
n 
 2   2 n
  2
1 1
LL  2 2
We know that two exponential equations are equal if and only if they have the same base
and the same exponents. Consequently, lim an  2
n 

Example 1.36 Suppose a rabbit colony begins with one pair of adult rabbits. Assume that
every pair of adult rabbits produces two offspring every month (one male and one
female) and that rabbits become adults at the age of 2 months and live forever. The
problem is to find how many pairs of adult rabbits there are after n months. If we let
an be the number of pairs of adult rabbits after n months have passed, then we have

a1  1, a2  1 and

an 1  an  an1 for n  2 .

The sequence an n1 is called the Fibonacci sequences, after the Italian Mathematician

known as Fibonacci who posed the described problem and solve for the first time.
a) Find an explicit formula for the Fibonacci sequence.
an 1
b) Let bn  for n  1 . Assume that lim bn exists and that lim bn  b show
an n  n 

1 5
that b  .
2
Solution: Let an  r , then we have

r2  r 1
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Solving this equation we get

1 1 4
r or
2
1 5 1 5
r1  and r2 
2 2
Then the Fibonacci sequence becomes
n n
 1 5  1 5 
an  c    d   c, d 
 2   2 
Initial conditions
1 5   1 5 
a1  c    d    1
 2   2 
2 2
 1 5  1 5 
a2  c    d    1
 2   2 
Solving for b and c we obtain
1 1 1 1
c  and d  
2 2 5 2 2 5
Substituting and simplifying the required formula becomes
n n
1  1  5   1  5  
an      
5  2   2  
 
Using this formula we can see that the first 14 terms of the sequence are
1, 1, 2, 3, 5,8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377 check it!
an 1
b) an 1  an  an1 and bn  for n  1
an
Substituting and simplifying we obtain
an  an 1 a 1
bn   1  n1  1 
an an an
an1
Computing limit

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   
 1   1 
lim bn  lim 1    1  
n  n 
 an   an 
 a   lim n  a 
 n 1   n 1 
1
b  1 Why?
b
Since each terms are positive, solving we get

1 5
b .
2
Example 1.37 Suppose the number of bacteria in a culture is growing exponentially, with
a doubling time of 10 hours. Suppose also that there are initially 1000 bacteria in the
culture. Find a formula for the number an of bacteria in the culture after n hours.

Solution: Let f (t )  f (0)e kt for t  0 , then f (n)  an  a0e kn for n  0 where a0  1000

and doubling time 10 hours.

Then from exponential growth we know that
2 f (0)  f (0)e kt

2  e10k
 1
k  ln  210 
 
Thus substituting yields
 1  t
ln  210 t




 1 1
t
f (t )  f (0)e  f (0)  210   1000  210
 
Therefore, by theorem 1.1 we get
1
n
an  1000  210

1 1 1 1
Example 1.38 Show that the sequence   2  3    n  is bounded.
3 3 3 3 
1 1 1 1
Solution: Here an   2  3    n and
3 3 3 3

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1 1 1 1 1
an  2  3  4    n1
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 
an  an    2  3    n    2  3  4    n1 
3 3 3 3 3  3 3 3 3 
2 1 1
an   n1
3 3 3
1 1
an  
2 2  3n
1 1
Since n
 0 for all n, then an  and
23 2
1
0  an 
2
Therefore, the sequence an  is a bounded sequence.

 nn 
Example 1.39 Show that the sequence  n  is a decreasing sequence. Is the
 n !e n1
sequence converges? Find the limit.
n 1 n n

Solution: Here an 
nn
, an1 
 n  1 
 n  1  n  1   n  1 and
n 1
n !e n (n  1)!e  n  1 n ! e n 1  n ! e n 1
n n
an1  n  1 n !e n 1  1 
   1 1
an  n ! en1 n n e  n 

 nn 
For each n  n  1 , we have an 1  an . So by definition  n  is a decreasing sequence.
 n !e n1

 nn 
Further more, for each n,  n  is nonnegative sequence with
 n !e n1
nn 1
0 n

n !e e

 nn 
Since  n  is bounded and decreasing sequence, then it is convergent and it
 n !e n1
converges to the greatest lower bound and hence

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nn
lim 0
n  n !e n

Check this limit using Stirling’s formula.

Example 1.40 Determine whether the sequence with n th term an is bounded, monotonic

and convergent. Where

1 1 1 1
an     
n 1 n  2 n  3 2n
Find lim an
n 

1 1 1 1
Solution: an     
n 1 n  2 n  3 2n
Bound ness
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
            
2 n 2 n 2n 2n n  1 n  2 n  3 2n n  1 n  1 n  1 n 1
1  1  1  1 1 1 1 1 1  1  1  1
     
2n n 1 n  2 n  3 2n n 1
n n
 an  1
2n n 1
It follows that
1
 an  1
2

Hence, the sequence an n1 is bounded.

Monotonicity
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
an      and an 1     
n 1 n  2 n  3 2n n2 n3 n4 2n  2
 1 1 1 1   1 1 1 1 
an 1  an            
 n2 n3 n4 2n  2   n  1 n  2 n  3 2n 
1 1 1 1 1 1
=      why?
2n  1 2n  2 n  1 2n  2 2n  2 n  1
2 1 1 1
    0
2n  2 n  1 n  1 n  1

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From this we can deduce that an 1  an for all n. Therefore, the given sequence is strictly

increasing. By bounded monotone property of a sequence, an n1 is convergent.

Finally we evaluate its limit using Riemann sum

 1 1 1 1 
lim an  lim     
n  n  n  1 n2 n3 2n 

   
1 1 1 1 1  n
1 1  1 1
k  n 
=   dx why?
k  0 1  x
   lim  
n  1  1 1  2 1 3 1  n 1 n 
  1 
 n n n n  n
1 k k 1
First we express the given series in terms of  n f  n  , then we replace n
by x ,
n
by

dx and lim  by  . The lower and upper limits of integration are the limiting values
n

k
of for the first and the last term of k respectively.
n
1 1 1
lim an =  dx  ln 1  x   0  ln 2  ln1  ln 2
n  0 1 x
 1 1 1 1 
Hence, lim an  lim         ln 2 .
n  n  n  1 n2 n3 2n 


√ Check list

Mark a tick (√) against each of the following tasks that you can perform. I can

 Give definition of a sequence --------------------------------------

 Check whether a given sequence is convergent or divergent ----------

 Evaluate limit of a sequence ----------------------------------------------

 State and proof bounded monotone theorem ----------------------------

 Define subsequence ---------------------------------------------------------

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 Apply the knowledge of bounded monotone property of a sequence to

determine convergence or divergence------------------------------------

 Define monotonic sequence ------------------------------------------------

 Define least upper bound and greatest lower bound----------------------

Summary
A sequence is an infinite list of numbers given in a specific order such as
an   a1 , a2 , a3  , an , an1 , Where an is called the n th term of the sequence.

The sequence an  converges to a real number L if the value of an get closer to L as

n growths larger and larger and we write lim an =L. Formal we define as follows:
n 

For every   0 , there exists a natural number N such that an  L   for all n >N.

One way to evaluate lim an is to find a real function f ( x ) such that f (n)  an for all n . If
n 

lim f ( x )  L, then lim an . But the converse is not true.

n  n 

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A sequence is said to be monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing sequence for all

n, this means a monotonic sequence must always increase or it must always decrease. A
sequence that increases for few terms and then decrease for the rest of the terms is not a
monotonic sequence. It is neither increasing nor decreasing sequences.
A sequence is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.
If an  is bounded and monotonic, then an  converges. The converse of this statement is

not necessarily true. This means a convergent sequence need not be monotonic.
 
Let an n 1 be any sequence and let nk k 1 be a strictly increasing sequence of natural

numbers i.e. n k < n k+1 kN , then the sequence of composites

 
a 
nk
k 1
 
 ank
k 1


is called a subsequence of the sequence an n1 .

Exercise
1) Let the sequence an  be defined recursively by

1
a1  2, an 1  (an  4) for n  1
2
a) Show that an  is convergent.
b) Find lim an
n 


 1  n 
2) Prove that the sequence an   1    is convergent and its limit lies
 n  n 1
between 2 and 3.

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3) Using the definition, prove that

 3n 2  1  3n 2  4
a)  2  Converges to 3. b) lim
n  5n 2  1
 n 1 

c) lim
n 
 n 1  n  0 
4) Determine whether the given sequence with the nth term an is

i) Monotonic ii) bounded iii) in case if it converges evaluate the limit.

1 1 1 1
an  sin   b) an  ln  
n n n n
2n
 2 n
c ) an   1   d ) an  4 n  5n
 n
1 1 1
e) an    
2n  1 2n  2 6n
5) Find lim an if exists for the following sequences.
n 

a) an  3 n  2  3 n  1
n 2 (n !)
b) an 
 n  2!

6) Determine the convergence or divergence of the sequence an  if

1  3  5    (2n  1)  3n 
a ) an  b) an  ln  
n2  n 1 
3n
 4 
c ) an   1  2 
 n 
1 3  5   (2n  1)
d) an   n1 n  e) an 
2  4  6  (2n)
7) Where possible find subsequences that are monotonic and subsequences that are
convergent for the following sequences.

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  
 n   n 1  n    n 1 
a) (1) n  b)  sin   c)  1  2   
 n  2 n 1  2 n  1  8  n  0   n  n1

1
8) Let the sequence an  be defined recursively by a1  1 and an1  1  if n  1 .
1  an

The limit of the sequence an  is the value of the continued fraction

1
1
1
2
1
2
2 
Assume that lim an  L exists. Prove that L  2 .
n 

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