Table of Contents

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................... 1

2.STRATEGIC PLAN AND FOCUS ........................................ 4
2.1 Vision Statement ......................................................................................... 5

2.2 Mission Statement ....................................................................................... 6

3. Goals and Objectives ................................................................

3.1 Goals ...............................................................................................................

3.2 Objectives .......................................................................................................

3.3 Core Competencies / Competitive Advantage ............................................

4. SITUATION ANALYSIS .................................................................

4.1 Evaluation of Marketing Tools and Techniques ...............................

5. SWOT ANALYSIS: ................................................................

6. MARKETING AUDIT ...........................................................
6.1 Internal Audit .....................................................................
6.1.1 PROMOTION .............................................................
6.1.2 PRICE .......................................................................

6.1.2.1 Pricing Method ..........................................

6.1.3 Penetration Pricing .................................................
 6.1.4 SALES PROMOTION ...........................................
6.1.5 DISTRIBUTIONS .....................................................

6.2 External Audit ..................................................................

7. MARKET-PPRODUCT FOCUS ....................................
7.1 Marketing and Product Objectives .......................
7.2 Market Segmentation & Target Market ..............
7.2.1 Geographic Segmentation ......................................
7.2.2Demographics Segmentation ...................................
7.2.3Psychographics Segmentation: ..................................
7.2.4Behavioral Segmentation ..........................................

7.3 Positioning ..............................................................

8.0 Company Analysis ......................................................
8.1Market share ...............................................................

9. SWOT Analysis ..............................................................

10. Industry Analysis ........................................................
10.1 Competitor Analysis ..................................................
10.1.1Market position........................................................
10.2 Collaborators ...............................................................
10.3 Customer Analysis ..........................................................

10.4 Climate/Environmental Analysis .................................

11. Porter’s Five Forces ....................................................

12.Point of Difference .......................................................

13.Conclusion ....................................................................

............................................................................................
1.Executive Summary
Animal husbandry is the science of farming of animal livestock. It includes caring,
breeding and management of livestock. Animal husbandry is a large scale business
where animals that provide us food are reared, bred, sheltered and cared in a farm
or regions which are specially built for them. Animal husbandry was initiated with
cattle farming. Under the cattle farming, livestock such as cows, goats, buffalo,
sheep, etc. are reared. Later, animal husbandry was even extended to poultry
farming, fisheries, apiculture, etc. And this extends a helping hand to increasing
needs of the generations.

Cattle Farming
Cattle farming involve rearing and management of two types of animals- one
group for food requirements like milk and another for labour purposes like
ploughing, irrigation, etc. Animals which provide milk are called milch/dairy
animals. For example, goats, buffalo, cows, etc. Animals which are used for labour
are called draught animals.
Since dairy animals are cared and bred for milk, we need to improve the milk
production to meet the requirements. The period after the birth of a calf, when a
cow starts to produce milk, is called lactation period. We can enhance milk
production by increasing this lactation period. But along with milk production,
quality must also meet. Dairy farm management is the management of the milch
animals with the goal of enhancing the quantity and quality of the milk produced.
For this reason, high yielding and disease resistant breeds are developed.

Goat Rearing
Goat is a multi functional animal and plays a significant role in the economy and
nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers in the country. Goat rearing is an
enterprise which has been practiced by a large section of population in rural areas.
Goats can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in adverse harsh
environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can be grown. In pastoral
and agricultural subsistence societies in India, goats are kept as a source of
additional income and as an insurance against disaster. Goats are also used in
ceremonial feastings and for the payment of social dues. In addition to this, goat
has religious and ritualistic importance in many societies.
 1.1 Rationale of study
Dairy cow farming project advantages

1. Dairy farming useful for milk processing business.

2. Dairy and milk products have excellent throughout the world.
3. You no need to advertise products and marketing of milk is very easy. You
can sell the milk even at the farm gate.
4. Dairy cow farming eco-friendly does not cause any pollution.
5. With good dairy farming business plan and management, dairy cow
business results in the highest profits.
6. You can use or sell cow dung to other farmers or use in your own field for
growing other crops.
7. Cow urine and dung have excellent value in the organic farming sector.
8. Dairy cow farming provides an opportunity for unemployed labor.
9. Dairy cow farming has significant importance in the national economy.
10. There are NABARD subsidies and bank loans available for commercial
dairy cow project.

The advantages of goat rearing are :

1. The initial investment needed for Goat farming is low.

2. Goats are prolific breeders and achieve sexual maturity at the age of 10-12
months gestation period in goats is short and at the age of 16-17 months it
starts giving milk. Twinning is very common and triplets and quadruplets
are rare.
3. In drought prone areas risk of goat farming is very much less as compared to
other livestock species.
4. Unlike large animals in commercial farm conditions both male and female
goats have equal value.
5. Goats are ideal for mixed species grazing. The animal can thrive well on
wide variety of thorny bushes, weeds, crop residues, agricultural by-products
unsuitable for human consumption.
6. No religious taboo against goat slaughter and meat consumption prevalent in
the country.
 7. Slaughter and dressing operation and meat disposal can be carried without
much environmental problems.
8. The goat meat is more lean (low cholesterol) and relatively good for people
who prefer low energy diet especially in summer and sometimes goat meat
(chevon) is preferred over mutton because of its "chewability"
9. Goat milk is said to play a role in improving appetite and digestive
efficiency. Goat milk is non allergic as compared to cow milk and it has
anti-fungal and anti bacterial properties and can be used for treating
urogenital diseases of fungal origin.
10. Goats are 2.5 times more economical than sheep on free range grazing under
semi arid conditions.
11. Goat creates employment to the rural poor besides effectively utilising
unpaid family labour. There is ample scope for establishing cottage
industries based on goat meat and milk products and value addition to skin
and fibre.
12. Goat is termed as walking refrigerator for the storage of milk and can be
milked number of times in a day.

2. STRATEGIC PLAN AND FOCUS

2.1Vision Statement
• To protect, promote & propagate our Desi cows and create better yielding Desi
cow breeds at our very own farm
• Our vision is to become a leading farm in the livestock farming industry all
over TN Our hope is also to be among leading livestock farming brands in
country.

2.2 Mission Statement

• To spread awareness of the benefits of Desi Cow Milk and make it readily
available for customers to enjoy this pure & natural milk, every day.
• The company’s goal is to raise, breed, and sell top quality cattle
(தூய நாட்டு மாடுகள்), while teaching others how to tend and take care of
them.
• Our mission is to provide quality products and services to all our customers
where ever they may be. We want to make assure we sell in commercial
quantities our goats processed goat’s meat and several other goats’ byproducts
to our customers
3. SITUATION ANALYSIS

3.1 General Objectives

Milk is a staple in our diets and irrespective of what the season or the place is, milk
is always in demand. Due to the increase in population, the demand for milk has
also increased. Milk production in India is expected to grow at 3-4% every year.
Both small scale dairy farms and commercial dairy farms contribute significantly
to the total milk production of milk and the economy in the country.

Develop a Business Plan

A dairy farm is essentially a business despite the perception people usually have
about it. The first critical step for the success of a dairy farm or any other business
is the development of a detailed business plan. A business plan acts as a guideline
and reference for the future of business.. This will help you assess the risks of your
business and might save you any unpleasant surprises in your business. Also,
include the resources you have available to you for the dairy farming business
plan. Answer questions like:

• How many cows will you milk?

• Where will you sell your milk?
• Will you hire employees?
• Funds you will require to start and maintain your dairy farm?

Consult the Experts

Before you ask yourself how to start a dairy farm? you should consider consulting
the experts and experienced. A word or two from the experts will help you in your
journey. No matter what experience you have, it’s important to consult experts in
the concerned industry while developing a business plan. Talk to fellow producers,
specialists, veterinarians, bankers and people with hands-on experience. You can
attend workshops and seminars in your area. Remember that experiences may vary
so don’t be shy to ask a lot of questions- what works for one dairy farm may not
work for your dairy farm so get as much insight into the business as possible.

Select a Suitable Location

Before starting, select a suitable location for your farm. While choosing suitable
land for your farm, ensure all types of facilities are available in your location. A
suitable clean and fresh water source is a must. Select the land near by the village
so that you can easily find labor for your farm. Select the land with easy
transportation facilities. It will be better if you select a place which is far from
naxalite areas. Always be sure that, sufficient veterinary service is available in the
selected area. You can also check if other producers are available in the selected
area or not.

Plan Your Infrastructure

Let your animals breathe. Keep them healthy and happy. Good infrastructure plays
an important role in keeping the animals healthy and disease-free. You should be
able to give your animals requisite space inside the farm. Generally, 40 square feet
of a shed and 80 square feet of open space is required per animal.

For a small scale dairy production, you have to ensure the availability of a
minimum of 1-acre of land approximately. Ensure the availability of all types of
essential facilities on the farm such as proper ventilation, ample flow of clean,
fresh air and sufficient, well-maintained space.

Create a Feeding and Waste Management Program

Healthy cows will naturally give healthy milk. Consult a nutritionist to understand
what the best rations are for lactating cows, dry cows, and heifers, as well as for
calves buffaloes and goats. Whether you plan to feed mixed ration, graze cattle or
use a combination of both, dairy cows require certain nutrients to produce milk and
so do growing calves.

The overall production and health of goats mostly depends on fresh and good
quality food. So, always try to feed your animals fresh and high quality food. In
case of providing supplementary feed, never buy the fully prepared food which are
available in the market. Instead, buy high quality each ingredients separately and
prepare them in your farm. This will ensure high quality and availability of all
nutrition in the food. That also directly increase your total production.

Apart from the milk, the animals will produce other resources which can be
useful. Dairy cattle produce a lot of manure, which, if managed properly can be a
great resource to the farm. Manure management will be tied closely to the feeding
plan. You can use manure for your farmland if you have a farm or can use it as
biogas or give to farmers who need natural fertilizers. Every farm will need a
manure management plan, but depending on the size of your farm, you might also
need a nutrient management plan.

Get Funding and Licenses

Now that you know the basics of how to start a dairy farm? you can move to the
next step, i.e legal licenses and funding. Once you are done with the preliminary
work of research, location and other such things, you should shift your focus on the
legalities of your business. A farm requires a large one-time expenditure to get
started. Hence, buying an existing dairy farm makes the task easier and can save
money if you can do the repairs yourself: also you will save time on the set-up of
the dairy farm. Whether you plan on buying a farm or starting it all by yourself
from scratch, you will need the following facilities:

• A sterile facility for storing milk and for pasteurizing

• Sheds or barns protected from weather
• Milking parlour
• Feed storage and manure storage
• Equipment
• Well for watering cattle
• Irrigation system for pasture

Ensure Veterinary Service Available

Goats are very strong livestock. Generally, they suffer by diseases less than any
other animals. But you have to sure about the veterinary service in your farm area.
It will help to prevent loss if something goes wrong with your goat farming
business.

Market Your Products

If everything goes well and if you follow the instructions mentioned above, then
it’s time to market/sell your products. Make a plan for marketing your products. It
will be better if you can sell your products during an occasion or festival. For
example, if you produce goat meat then you can sell your products during any
religious festivals like PUJA or EID. This will bring you maximum rate of your
products. Along with local market, you can also try international market. Because
Indian products has a great demand in the international market.

3.2 BREEDS
BREEDS OF CATTLE

INDIGENOUS BREED
Indigenous Breeds are classified under three groups based on utility / purpose.
a) Milch breeds / Milk breeds
b) Dual Purpose breeds
c) Draught breeds

Milch Breeds / Milk Breeds:

The cows of these breeds are high milk yields and the male animals are slow or
poor work animals. The examples of Indian milch breeds are shahiwal, Red
Sindhi, Gir and Deoni The milk production of milk breeds is on the average more
than 1600 kg per lactation

Dual Purpose Breeds:

The cows in these breeds are average milk yielder and male animals are very
useful for work. Their milk production per lactation is 500 kg to 150 kg. The
example of this group is Ongole, Hariana, Kankrej, Tharparker, Krishna valley,
Rathi and Goalo Mewathi.

Draught Breeds:
The male animals are good for work and Cows are poor milk yielder are their milk
yield as an average is less than 500 kg per lactation. They are usually white in
color. A pair of bullocks can haul 1000 kg. Net with an iron typed cart on a good
road at walking speed of 5 to 7 km per hour and cover a distance of 30 - 40 km per
day. Twice as much weight can be pulled on pneumatic rubber tube carts. The
example of this group Kangayam, Umblacherry, Amritmahal, Hallik

Milch Breed
Red Sindhi

• Hailing from the Kohistan, Sindh province in present Pakistan, this breed is
one of the most distinctive cattle breeds of india.
• Mainly available in Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Orissa.
 Red Sindhi

• Under good management conditions the Red Sindhi averages over 1700 kg
of milk after suckling their calves but under optimum conditions there have
been milk yields of over 3400 kg per lactation.

Sahiwal

• Originally Belonging to the Montgomery district of Present Pakistan

• Mainly found in Punjab, Haryana, U.P, Delhi, Bihar and M.P.
• Milk yield – Under village condition :1350 kg
• Milk yield – Under commercial farms: 2100 kg
• Age at first calving -32-36 months
• Calving interval – 15 month

Sahiwal
Gir
• Mainly found in Gir forest areas of South Kathiawar
• Gir Cows are good Milk – yielder
• Milk yield – Under village condition : 900 kg
• Milk yield – Under commercial farms: 1600 kg

Milch and Draught breeds

Hariana
• Mainly found in Karnal, Hisar and Gurgaon district of Haryana, Delhi and
Western M.P Milk yield –1140 -4500 kgs
• Bullocks are powerful for road transport and rapid ploughing
Tharparkar

• Mainly found in Jodhpur, Kutch and Jaisalmer

• Milk yield – Under village condition :1660 kg
• Milk yield – Under commercial farms: 2500 kg

Kankrej

• Mainly found in Gujarat

• Milk yield – Under village condition :1300 kg
• Milk yield– Under commercial farms : 3600 kg
• Age at first calving -36 to 42 months
• Calving interval – 15 to 16 months
• Bullocks are fast, active and strong. Good for plough and cart purpose
Draught Breeds
Kangayam

• This breed, in its native area, is also known by other names of Kanganad and
Kongu though the name Kangayam is well-known. These cattle are bred in
the southern and southeastern area of the Erode district of Tamilnadu in
India.
• Mainly found in Coimbatore, Erode, Namakkal, Karur and Dindigul districts
of Tamil Nadu.
• Best suited for ploughing and transport. Withstands hardy conditions.

Umblacherry

Origin: Tanjore district in Tamilnadu.

Distinguishing characters:

• This breed has similar characters as kangayam.

• Bulls are fearly temperament. They are used for ploughing in Thanjore delta
area.
• Calves are red in colour when born and become grey in colour after 6
months of age.
• Cows are poor milker with average milk yield of 300 kg/lactation.
• Male animals are good for hard work.
EXOTIC BREEDS

Jersey

Origin: This breed was developed from the island of jersey in the English channel
off the coast of France.

Distinguishing Characters:

• The Jersey is one of the oldest dairy breeds, having been reported by
authorities as being purebred for nearly six centuries
• The color in Jerseys may vary from a very light gray or mouse color to a
very dark fawn or a shade that is almost black. Both the bulls and females
are
• commonly darker about the hips and about the head and shoulders than on
the body.
• Age at first calving : 26-30 months
• Intercalving – 13-14 months
• Milk yield – 5000-8000 kg
• Dairy milk yield is found to be 20 liter whereas cross bred jersey, cow gives
8-10 liter per day.
• In India this breed has acclimatized well especially in the hot and humid
areas

Holstein Friesian

Origin: This breed is originated in Holland.

Distinguishing Characters:

• Holsteins are large, stylish animals with color patterns of black and white or
red and white.
 • Holstein heifers can be bred at 15 months of age, when they weigh about
800 pounds. It is desirable to have Holstein females calve for the first time
between 24 and 27 months of age.
• Milk yield - 7200-9000 kg.
• This is by far the best diary breed among exotic cattle regarding milk yield.
On an average it gives 25 liter of milk per day, whereas a cross breed H.F.
cow gives 10 - 15 liter per day.
• It can perform well in coastal and delta areas.

3.3 CROSS BREEDING:

It is mating of animals of different breeds. Cross breeding is followed for breeding
animals for milk production and meat production. In India zebu breeds of cows and
nondescript cows are crossed with exotic breeds like Holstein Friesian, Brown
Swiss and Jersey bulls or their semen, to enhance the milk production potential of
the progeny.

a. As selection is a slow process of genetic improvement cross breeding has

been taken up as the national breeding for improving milk production in
 India . Cross breeding word was initiated at NDRI Bangalore, Live Stock
farm and Allahabad Agricultural Institute. At present cross breeding work is
going on at Military dairy farms, NDRI Karnal, All India coordinated
Research project son Cattle, Collaboration projects like Indo-Swiss, Indo
Australian, Indo-Danish, projects and also in the field in farmer’s he. The
feeding and management of the crosses would be better, to enable them to
express their production potential.
b. In general the cross breeds were found to have higher birth weight, faster
growth rate, earlier age at first calving, higher weight ; at first calving,
higher lactation yield, longer lactation period) shorter service period, dry
period and milk production and breeding efficiency.
c. There are several exotic breeds being used in cross breeding programme,
namely Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss and Reddane Holstein
Friesian is found to be best suited for fluid milk supply in cities, and where
higher feed inputs can be provided and where the temperature is temperate
or sub-tropical. In contrast Jersey crosses are ideal when the milk is meant
for product manufacture and where feed inputs are limited and the climate is
trop.

Advantage:

1. The desirable characters of the exotic parent are transmitted to the progeny
which the indigenous parent does not have.
2. In India Cross-breeding and cows is done by using the exotic bulls and the
progeny inherit the desirable characters of the parent like high milk yield
early maturity, higher birth weigh of calves, better growth rates, better
reproductive efficiency and indigenous parents characters like, heat
 tolerance, disease resistance ability to thrive on scanty feeding and coarse
fodder etc.
3. In pairs the way to evolve new breeds with desirable characters. Hybrid
vigour is made use of in the progency.
4. Results are seen more quickly in characters like milk yield in the crossbred
progeny.

Disadvantages:

1. The breeding merit of cross breed animals may be slightly reduced.

2. Cross breeding requires maintenance of two or more pure breeds inorder to
product the cross breeds.

(Source: http://bieap.gov.in/DairyAnimalManagementTheory.pdf)

Cross-breed cattle
The crossbreeds are having exotic inheritance from Jersey, Brown Swiss or
Holstein Friesian or a combination of these different breeds. Jersey breed is known
for the milk fat percent and Holstein for the high quantity of milk.

4. Operational Requirements ( cow/cattle rearing)

Modern and well established scientific principles, practices and skills should be
used to obtain maximum economic benefits from goat/cow rearing. Some of the
recommended practices are given here under

1. Housing management
2. Feeding management
3. Selection of breeding and stock management
4. Milking of Animals

Dairy Farming ( cow/cattle rearing)

Dairying is an important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and
agricultural labourers. The manure from animals provides a good source of organic
matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gober gas from the dung is
used as fuel for domestic purposes as also for running engines for drawing water
from well. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilised for
feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and
transportation is supplied by bullocks. Since agriculture is mostly seasonal, there is
a possibility of finding employment throughout the year for many persons through
dairy farming. Thus, dairy also provides employment throughout the year.

4.1 Housing management

1. Construct shed on dry, properly raised ground.

2. Avoid water-logging, marshy and heavy rainfall areas.
3. The walls of the sheds should be 1.5 to 2 meters high.
4. The walls should be plastered to make them damp proof.
5. The roof should be 3-4 metres high.
6. The cattle shed should be well ventilated.
7. The floor should be pucca/hard, even non-slippery impervious, well sloped (3
cm per metre) and properly drained to remain dry and clean.
8. Provide 0.25 metre broad, pucca drain at the rear of the standing space.
9. A standing space of 2 x 1.05 metre for each animal is needed.
10. The manger space should be 1.05 metre with front height of 0.5 metre and depth
of 0.25 metre.
11. The corners in mangers, troughs, drains and walls should be rounded for easy
cleaning.
12. Provide 5-10 sq. metre loaf space for each animal.
13.Provide proper shade and cool drinking water in summer.
14.In winter keep animals indoor during night and rain.
15. Provide individual bedding daily.
16. Maintain sanitary condition around shed.
17.Control external parasites (ticks, flies etc.) by spraying the pens, sheds with
Malathion or Copper sulphate solution.
18. Drain urine into collection pits and then to the field through irrigation channels.
19.Dispose of dung and urine properly. A gobar gas plant will be an ideal way.
Where gobar gas plant is not constructed, convert the dung alongwith bedding
material and other farm wastes into compost.
20.Give adequate space for the animals.

4.2 Selection of breeding and stock management

Selection of Animal :

1.Immediately after release of the loan purchase the stock from a reliable breeder or
from nearest livestock market.
2.Select healthy, high yielding animals with the help of bank's technical officer,
veterinary/animal husbandry officer of State government/ Zilla Parishad, etc.
3.Purchase freshly calved animals in their second/third lactation.
4. Before purchasing, ascertain actual milk yield by milking the animal three times
consecutively.
5.Identify the newly purchased animal by giving suitable identification mark (ear
tagging or tattooing).
6.Vaccinate the newly purchased animal against disease.
7.Keep the newly purchased animal under observation for a period of about two
weeks and then mix with the general herd.
8. Purchase a minimum economical unit of two milch animals.
9. Purchase the second animal/second batch after 5-6 months from the purchase of
first animal.
10.As buffaloes are seasonal calvers purchase them during July to February.
11. As far as possible purchase the second animal when the first animal is in its late
stage of lactation and is about to become dry, thereby maintaining continuity in
milk production vis-a-vis income. This will ensure availability of adequate funds
for maintaining the dry animals.
12.Follow judicious culling and replacement of animals in a herd.
13.Cull the old animals after 6-7 lactations.

4.3 Feeding of Milch Animals

1 Feed the animals with best feeds and fodders. (Feeding schedule is given in
Anneuxre VIII).
2. Give adequate green fodder in the ration.
3. As far as possible, grow green fodder on your land wherever available.
4. Cut the fodder at the right stage of their growth.
5. Chaff roughage before feeding.
6. Crush the grains and concentrates.
7. The oil cakes should be flaky and crumbly.
8. Moisten the concentrate mixture before feeding.
9.Provide adequate vitamins and minerals. Provide salt licks besides addition of
mineral mixture to the concentrate ration.
10. Provide adequate and clean water.
11.Give adequate exercise to the animals. Buffaloes should be taken for wallowing
daily. In case this is not possible sprinkle sufficient water more particularly during
summer months.
12. To estimate the daily feed requirement remember that the animals consume
about 2.5 to 3.0 percent of their body weight on dry matter basis.

4.4 Milking of Animals

1. Milk the animals two to three times a day.
2. Milk at fixed times.
3.Milk in one sitting within eight minutes.
4. As far as possible, milking should be done by the same person regularly.
5. Milk the animal in a clean place.
6. Wash the udder and teat with antiseptic lotions/luke-warm water and dry before
milking.
7. Milker should be free from any contagious diseases and should wash his hands
with antiseptic lotion before each milking.
8. Milking should be done with full hands, quickly and completely followed by
stripping.
9. Sick cows/buffaloes should be milked at the end to prevent spread of infection.

5. Reproduction management
Reproduction is an important consideration in the economics of cattle production.
In the absence of regular breeding and calving at the appropriate time, cattle
rearing will not be profitable. A healthy calf each year is the usual goal. This is
possible only by increasing the reproductive efficiency of the animals.

Successful reproduction encompasses the ability to mate, the capacity to conceive

and to nourish the embryo and deliver the viable young ones at the end of a normal
gestation period. In fact, interruption in this chain of events leads to failure of the
cow either to conceive or the embryo to die or to have a premature delivery of the
foetus.

The reproductive efficiency is a complex phenomenon controlled by both genetic

and non-genetic factors, the non- genetic factors being climate, nutrition, and level
of management. The reproductive efficiency varies not only between species and
breeds but also among the animals within the same breed. Even the best feeding
and management can not coax performance beyond the genetic limit of an inferior
animal. Improving the genetic merits of livestock populations is important at all
levels of management. A sound breeding programme is a necessary part of the total
animal production system.
5.1 Breeding Efficiency
Factors Affecting Breeding Efficiency

The factors which influence the breeding efficiency of cattle are as follows:

1. Number of ova

The first limitation on the breeding efficiency of fertility of an animal is the

number of functional ova released during each cycle of ovulation. Ovulation is the
process of shedding of ovum from the Graffian follicle. In the case of cow, usually
a single ovum is capable of undergoing fertilization only for a period of 5-10
hours. Therefore, the time of mating insemination in relation to ovulation is
important for effective fertilization.

2. Percentage of fertilization

The second limitation is fertilization of ova. Failure to be fertilized may result from
several causes. The spermatozoa may be few or low in vitality. The service may be
either too early or too late. so that the sperms and eggs do not meet at the right
moment, to result in fertilization.

3. Embryonic death

From the time of fertilization till birth, embryonic mortality may occur due to a
variety of reasons. Hormone deficiency or imbalance may cause failure of
implantation of fertilized ova which die subsequently. Death may occur as a result
of lethal genes for which the embryos are homozygous. Other causes may be
accidents in development, over-crowding in the uterus, insufficient nutrition or
infections in tile uterus.

4. Age of first pregnancy

Breeding efficiency may be lowered seriously by increasing the age of first

breeding. Females bred at a lower age are likely to appear stunted during the first
lactation, but their mature size is affected little by their having been bred early.

5. Frequency of pregnancy

The breeding efficiency can be greatly enhanced by lowering the interval between
successive pregnancies. The wise general policy is to breed for the first time at an
early age and to rebreed at almost the earliest opportunity after each pregnancy. In
this way the lifetime efficiency is increased. Cows can be rebred in 9-12 weeks
after parturition

6. Longevity

The length of life of the parent is an important part of breeding efficiency, because
the return over feed cost is greater in increased length of life. Also, it affects the
possibility of improving the breed. The longer the life of the parents, the smaller
the percentage of cows needed for replacement every year.

5.1.1 Management Practices to Improve Breeding Efficiency

Some of the management suggestions which will tend to improve breeding
efficiency of cattle are listed below.

1. Keep accurate breeding records of dates of heat, service and parturition. Use
records in predicting the dates of heat and observe the females carefully for
heat.
2. Breed cows during near the end of mid heat or heat period.
3. Have females with abnormal discharges examined and treated by
veterinarian.
4. Call a veterinarian to examine females not settled after three services.
5. Get the females checked for pregnancy at 45 days to 60 days after breeding.
6. Buy replacements only from healthy herds and test them before putting them
in your herd.
 7. Have the females give birth in isolation, preferably in a parturition room and
clean up and sterilize the area once parturition is over.
8. Follow a programme of disease prevention, test and vaccination for diseases
affecting reproduction and vaccinate the animals against such diseases.
9. Practice a general sanitation programme.
10.Supply adequate nutrition.
11.Employ the correct technique.
12.Provide suitable shelter management.
13.Detect silent or weak heat, by using a teaser bull.

5.2 Selection and Culling

Selection and culling are the two sides of the same coin. Selection is the process in
which certain individuals in a population are included for becoming the parents of
the next generation. Automatically some are excluded for the purpose which are
culled. Natural selection has been going on since ages where animals which were
stronger, which had better survivability and which were in more unison with the
environment around them, found a better chance to reproduce.

Thus certain genes for certain characters got more chance to be selected to form
individuals in the subsequent generations. Since domestication of cattle, man has
been looking for superior phenotypes in traits useful to him and selecting such
animals to form the parental generation. This is man made artificial selection. Now
man has progressed one step further in making estimates of genotypes from the
study of phenotypes and making use of that information (in artificial) selection.

A.Selection methods C. Progeny testing

B.Pedegree selection D.Show ring selection

A. Selection methods

There is only one way to select and that is to "keep the best and cull the poorest.
The various selection methods are techniques for identifying or estimating the
genetic values of individual candidates for selection. The procedure discussed here
apply to selection for quantitative trails.

1. Performance testing
Performance test is a measure of the phenotypic value of the individual candidates
for selection. Since the phenotypic value is determined by both genetic and
environmental influences, the performance test is an estimate, not a measure of the
genetic value. The occurrence of this estimate depends upon the heritability of the
trait i.e. on the degree to which the genetic value is modified by the environmental
influences.

Advantages

• Among simple procedures, the performance test is the most accurate.

• Environmental influences can be minimised by testing candidates for
selection in the same pen or in similar environmental conditions.
• The measure is direct, not on a relative basis.
• All candidates for selection can be tested in contrast to progeny
testing where only a parent can be tested.
• Generation intervals are usually short.
• Testing can usually be done on the farm under normal management
conditions.

Disadvantages

• Accuracy become low when heretability is low.

• Phenotypes are not available for one sexor in sex limited traits such as
milk yield.
• Traits which are not expressed until maturity may become expensive
or difficult to manage by performance tests since most selection
decisions must be made before maturity.
• Performance tests should be the backbone of most selection
programmes. Although much publicity has been given to other
selection methods, it remains a fact that most of the progress in
livestock improvement to date has been due to selection on the
individual's own phenotype i.e. performance test.

B. Pedegree selection
A pedegree is a record of an individual's ancestors including its parents. This
information is valuable because each individual possesses a sample half of the
genes from each parent. If we can precisely know an individual's phenotype, little
is gained by considering pedegree in selection. Pedegree considerations are useful
when we do not have sufficient accurate records of production of the individual.
Also, it is useful in the early selection when the traits in question might not have
expressed themselves. It is also useful for selection of males when the traits
selected for are expressed only by the female such as milk production in dairy
cattle.

Advantages

• It provides information when performance tests are not available for

the candidates.
• It provides information to supplement performance test information.
• It allows selection to be completed at a young age. Pedegree records
may be used to select animals for performance or progeny testing in
multi-stage selection scheme.
• It allows selection of bulls can be selected on the milk records of their
female relatives.

Disadvantages

• Accuracy, relative to alternative selection procedures is usually low.

• Too much emphasis on relatives, especially remote relatives, greatly
reduces genetic progress.
• Progeny of favoured parents are often environmentally favoured.
• Relatives often make records under quite different environments, thus
introducing non random bases into the selection system.

C. Progeny testing
In this method we evaluate the breeding value by a study of the expression of the
trait in its offsprings. Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be, his
pedegree tells us what he ought to be, but the performance of his progeny tells us
what he is. Progency testing is, of course, a two-stage selection system because
some preliminary selection determines which animals first produce progeny
followed by further culling of these which produce poor progeny.

Advantages of progney testing

o High accuracy when many progeny are obtained.

Disadvantages progney testing

o Long generation interval.

o Requires high reproductive rate.
o Low selection intensity.

D. Show ring selection

Selection on the basis of show ring performance has had considerable value in the
past. Essentially this selection has been directed towards bringing the conformation
of the animal to some ideal conformation.

This improvement has been based on two goals:

(i) improvement conformation, and

(ii) correlated response.

Improvement of conformation has economic value because a part of the sale price
is determined by the conformation of the individual. The ideal type was chosen so
that, in the opinion of the judges, the animal possessing this conformation was
most likely to be a profitable producer. In other words, the judges were attempting
to stress traits of conformation which are corrected with productive ability.

With the advent of record keeping it was found that direct selection for
performance traits resulted in much faster progress than selection through
correlated conformation traits. Also, when subjected to intensive study, many of
the correlations between performance and show ring were found to be of non-
genetic origin.

If the correlations are of genetic origin, direct selection for performance should
improve conformation as well as the reverse situation. The show ring has been a
good forum for discussion of what constitutes ideal type and good management
and has produced dramatic changes in the conformation of some species.

This has resulted primarily from education of the breeders, however, for most
animals which are presented in the ring are good and selection differential among
these animals is usually so small as to produce little change.

Advantages of show ring selection

 ▪ It enables breeders to exchange ideas and experience.
▪ It allows comparisons among superior animals both within and
between breeds.
▪ It allows new breeders to make contact with established
breeders.

Disadvantages of show ring selection

▪ Emphasis is usually placed on traits of little economic

importance.
▪ Clever fitting and showmanship can mask defects of various
kinds.
▪ Differences between exhibited animals are usually small.
▪ Conformation and production traits usually have low genetic
correlations.

5.3 Choosing Traits for selection

Many factors enter into the choice of traits to be selected for. The following ones
are the most important.

1. The goal of the selection programme

2. The habitability of the traits
3. The economic value of improvement in each trait.
4. The range in variation of each trait.
5. Correlation among the traits.
6. The cost of the selection programme.

a. Selection goals

Often the goal of the selection programme makes the choice of traits quite obvious.
The breeder of the race horses must select for speed if he is to be successful and his
choice of traits are limited to alternative ways to measure speed. Similarly, the
breeder of dairy cattle generally sets out to breed cows with superior milk
production characteristics. Thus, his choice of traits is specified by his selection
goals.

b. Heritability
Heritability is defined to be the fraction of the superiority of parents which is, on
the average, transmitted to their off-springs. To explain habitability in simpler
words: Heritability tells us how much of the observable differences in the animal is
caused by genes and how much by environment.

Heritability for the same characteristics may vary from one population to another
and also may vary from one characteristic to another even ink the same population.
The ability to recognise the breeding values or transmitting abilities of animals is
closely associated with heritability. If the heritability is high for a trait, we can
proceed straight way to adopt a system of mass selection of superior animals, with
little attention to pedegree information, collateral relatives, progeny test or
inbreeding and genetic improvement in that trait is low, genetic progress may be
disappointing with mass selection and greater attention should be paid to pedegree
records, family information and use of progeny tests.

c. Variability of the trait

Selection operates on the variability in expression of the trait uniform for a trait.
there will be little selection response because any selected groups of parents will
not be much better than those not selected. Some traits are much more valuable
than others. thus the innate variation of the traits should be carefully considered in
choosing traits for selection.

Variation can be increased by improving exotic types and sometimes this can result
in new combination of genes which are superior to either parent type.

d. Correlated traits

Sometimes traits tend to be inherited together. These correlations may arise in

several ways.

The traits may be of different measures of some underlying trait. For example.
weight and height are both measures of body size. thus taller animals are usually
heavier and these two traits are said to be correlated.

If the same genes produce response in several traits. those traits will be correlated.
This condition is referred to as pleiotrophy.

Correlated responses are common. Selection for increased milk yield produces a
correlated decrease in the per cent of fat in the milk of dairy cows. Thus. both
direct and correlated responses result from selection and some correlated responses
are positive while others negative.

Correlated response may be advantageously used in selection programme. For

example feed efficiency is expensive to measure because it requires both weight
gain and feed intake on each individual, whereas weight gain requires neither feed
weight nor individual feeding.

In summary. definite goals are essential for a successful selection programme.

5.4 Systems of Breeding

The ultimate aim of the breeder is to evolve outstanding and improved type of
animals which can render better service to man. Selection and system of breeding
constitute the only tools available to the breeder for improvement of animals. Since
new genes can not be created though they can be recombined into more desirable
groupings.

Systems of breeding has been broadly divided as under

1. In breeding -breeding of the related animals.

2. Out breeding -breeding of the unrelated animals.

A. lnbreeding

Inbreeding is a mating system in which individuals mated are more closely related
than the average of the population from which they come. It means the mating of
males and females which are related. Animals deemed to be related only when they
have one or more ancestors in common on the first 4-6 generations of their
pedegree. The intensity of inbreeding depends upon the degree of relationship.
Close inbreeding denotes mating of closely related individuals like dam to son
(mother x son) or sire to daughter (father x daughter) or full brothers to full sisters.

In breeding makes more pairs of genes in the population homozygous. Wherever

there is inbreeding, there will be one or more common ancestors from which, part
of the gene samples (gametes) have arisen.

Heat detection in buffaloes

• ows do mount over other cows when they are likely to come in heat and stand for mounting
when they are in good heat. This is not seen in buffaloes. Buffaloes neither mount on other
buffaloes nor other buffaloes mount on buffaloes in heat.In buffaloes copious ropy hanging
discharge is not seen on the contrary it gets suddenly dropped and is not noticed by the owner
and the discharge is scanty.Some buffaloes do not bellow and show silent heat, especially high
yielding buffaloes.
• The main heat symptoms of buffaloes are as follows.The vulva becomes edematous, swollen.
The lower portion of vulva looks oily. The gap is seen between vulvar lips and slight opening is
seen. The wrinkles which are present in anoestrus buffalo become shallow or vanish.
• The mucous membrane of vulva becomes reddish, moist and glossy.
• Mucus discharge which is not seen normally can be seen before or after oestrus spontaneously.
• The colour, consistency and fern pattern of mucus help in determination of correct oestrus.
• Engorgement of teats in lactating buffaloes which is due to holding of milk following increased
estrogen level in blood is seen when they are in heat.
• Frequent urination. The urine coming in spurting action wetting the part of skin below vulva and
above udder (perineum). The drying of the urine leaves white mark on skin.
• Buffaloes in heat remain restless, off feed, raising head in a typical fashion.
• Local non descript buffaloes bellow, become restless and remain off feed. Milk yield is reduced.
The bellow is sharp and for longer duration.
• The buffaloes expose their teeth while bellowing which is very characteristic.
• The mucus discharge, in buffaloes is seen in about 49% cases. It is thin on the day of heat,
become thick as the time passes and changes the colour from clear to white.
• 60-70 % of the buffalo come in heat from 6 pm to 6 am (after sunset and before sunrise) and this
should be borne in mind and attendant should watch the buffaloes in the evening and early
morning for expression of heat symptom.
• Teaser bull (Vasectomised bull), can be used for parading in buffalo barn for detection of heat

5.5 Improvement of Dairy Cattle in India

The dairy farming business in many tropical and subtropical countries are
characterized by large number of cattle and low yield of milk. For example, India
possesses over 230 million heads of cattle and buffaloes, which comes to more
than one-fifth of the total world population of cattle and buffaloes. The average
annual production of an Indian cow is only 173 kg as against an average yield per
milking cow of 3,710 kg in Denmark, 3,250 kg in Switzerland and 3280 kg in the
U.S.A.

Twenty six breeds of cattle and seven breeds of buffaloes have been recognised at
present in India. However, only a small proportion of the cattle and buffaloes
belong to these purebred breeds. The vast majority (more than 75%) are intermixed
 and do not belong to any specific breed. They are classed as nondescript.

Cattle remain the draught animals in many of these regions. As a result selection
over the past many centuries has been to meet the requirements of draught and
agriculture. Selection pressure was applied for better capacity and fitness. This has
resulted in producing excellent draught animals. Unfortunately, milk production
and draught capacity are traits which are genetically negatively correlated. When
milk yield capacity goes up, draught capacity goes down and vice versa. As a
result attempts to develop and improve some of the dual purpose breeds which are
useful for both milk and work, could not progress very far. We could have only a
compromise in dual purpose breeds with medium milk production and medium
work capacity. If further genetic improvement of either of the two traits is
attempted, a set back with respect to the other should be expected.

In India, at present many milch cows yield less than one kg. milk per day.
Buffaloes are better milk producers. About 18 -20% of the milch buffaloes yield
more than 2 kg per day and only 19% yield less than one kg per day. The reasons
for such a low level of production are listed below.

• Acute shortage of feed and fodders.

• Excess cattle numbers.
• Poor genetic potential for milk production.
• The smallness of land holdings and consequently small dairy units make them
economically unviable. It also acts against introduction of advanced techniques.
• Adverse climatic conditions of the tropics.
• Poor grazing and environmental factors.
• Inadequate marketing facilities for the products.

The diversity of the breeding stock and the variation available in economic traits of
cattle and buffaloes in the country offer greater challenge and scope for their
improvement for the animal breeder. At the same time, the task of improving the
genetic make up of a large number of extremely diverse, non-descript low
producers is a colossal one. Anyone system of breeding can not be applied
uniformly to all the animals in all the areas.

6. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
Introduction
Artificial insemination is the technique in which semen with living sperms is
collected from the male and introduced into female reproductive tract at proper
time with the help of instruments. This has been found to result in a normal
offspring. In this process, the semen is inseminated into the female by placing a
portion of it either in a collected or diluted form into the cervix or uterus by
mechanical methods at the proper time and under most hygienic conditions. The
first scientific research in artificial insemination of domestic animals was
performed on dogs in 1780 by the Italian scientist, Lazanno Spalbanzani. His
experiments proved that the fertilizing power reside in the spermatozoa and not in
the liquid portion of semen. Few further studies under research station conditions
helped this technique to be used commercially allover the world including India.

Artificial insemination is not merely a novel method of bringing about

impregnation in females. Instead, it is a powerful tool mostly employed for
livestock improvement. In artificial insemination the germplasm of the bulls of
superior quality can be effectively utilized with the least regard for their location in
far away places. By adoption of artificial insemination, there would be
considerable reduction in both genital and non-genital diseases in the farm stock.

SYMPTOMS OF HEAT

The various symptoms of heat are

• The animal will be excited condition. The animal will be in restlessness and
nervousness.
• The animal will be bellow frequency.
• The animal will reduce the intake of feed.
• Peculiar movement of limbo sacral region will b observed.
• The animals which are in heat will lick other animals and smelling other
animals.
• The animals will try to mount other animals
• The animals will standstill when other animal try to mount.. This period is
known as standing heat. This extends 14-16 hours.
• Frequent maturation (urination) will be observed.
• Clear mucous discharge will be seen from the vulva, sometimes it will be
string like the mucous will be seen stick to the near the pasts of valva.
• Swelling of the valva will be seen.
• 11 Congestion and hyperemia of membrane.
• The tail will be in raised position.
 • Milk production will be slightly decreased.
• On Palpation uterus will be turgid and the cervix will be opened.

A.I. ADVANTAGES – DISADVANTAGES

Advantages and disadvantages:

Artificial insemination (A.I.) is deposition of semen into the female genital
tract by means of instruments.

ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION:

There are several advantages by artificial insemination over natural mating or
servicing.

• There is no need of maintenance of breeding bull for a herd; hence the cost of
maintenance of breeding bull is saved.
• It prevents the spread of certain diseases and sterility due to genital diseases.
• Eg: contagious abortion, vibriosis.
• By regular examination of semen after collection and frequent checking on
fertility make early detection of interior males and better breeding efficiency
is ensured.
• The progeny testing can be done at an early age.
• The semen of a desired size can be used even after the death of that particular
sire.
• The semen collected can be taken to the urban areas or rural areas for
insemination.
• 7 It makes possible the mating of animals with great differences in size
without injury to either of the animal.
• It is helpful to inseminate the animals that are refuse to stands or accept the
male at the time of oestrum.
• It helps in maintaining the accurate breeding and cawing records.
• It increases the rate of conception.
• It helps in better record keeping.
• Old, heavy and injured sires can be used.

Disadvantages of A.I:
 • Requires well-trained operations and special equipment.
• Requires more time than natural services.
• Necessitates the knowledge of the structure and function of reproduction on
the part of operator.
• Improper cleaning of instruments and in sanitary conditions may lead to lower
fertility.
• If the bull is not properly tested, the spreading of genital diseases will be
increased.
• Market for bulls will be reduced, while that for superior bull is increased.
• SEMEN COLLECTION METHODS AND EVALUATION:
• Various methods of collection of semen have been devised from time to time.
The older unsatisfactory methods have gradually replaced by the new modern
techniques.

There are three common methods.

• Use of artificial vagina
• By Electro-stimulation method.
• By massaging the ampulae of the duct us differences through rectal
wall.
The ideal method of semen collection is use of artificial vagina which is safe for
sire and the collector also.
Pest Management
External Parasites of Dairy Cattle

Flies
Flies are characterized by having one pair of wings. They have complete
metamorphosis with egg, larva, pupa and adult stages in their life history. About 20
families of flies are of veterinary importance. One of the most challenging
characteristics of flies is their behavior of being in contact with livestock for only
short periods of time. Adequate control can sometimes be difficult since measures
must apply at precisely the right time.

Blood-Sucking Flies

Black Flies
Black flies are small, dark, stout-bodied flies with a humpbacked appearance. The
adult females blood feed mainly during daylight hours and are not host specific. It
hovers about the eyes, ears and nostrils of animals, often alighting and puncturing
the skin with an irritating bite. Large numbers of bites may cause weakness from
blood loss, anaphylactic shock or death.

The black fly life cycle begins with eggs being deposited on logs, rocks or solid
surfaces in eddies of flowing streams. Larvae attach themselves to rocks or
vegetation with a posterior sucker or threads. The length of the larval period is
quite variable depending on the species and the larval environment. The adults,
which emerge after pupation, are strong fliers and may fly 7 to 10 miles from their
breeding sites.

Horn Flies
The horn fly causes pain, annoyance and interference with feeding, resting and
other normal activities. The fly pierces the skin to blood feed and is a persistent
biter. With high summertime populations, they cause cattle to lose weight and
lower milk production. Horn flies may cause open sores on the head and underline,
which can predispose the animals to secondary infection. Flies tend to cluster at
preferred sites on the host (primarily the withers and back). Because of their
piercing and sucking mouth parts, they are suspected of mechanically transmitting
anaplasmosis and other diseases within the herd.
Horn fly numbers of 50 or more per animal are considered to be of economic
importance, although 10,000 to 20,000 per animal have been reported. Blood loss
in these extreme cases can be considerable.

Eggs are laid exclusively in fresh (within 10 minutes of dropping) cattle manure.
Larvae hatch in about 18 hours and feed on the dung, passing through 3 stages in 3
to 5 days. The pupal stage lasts 3 to 5 days, and the adults which emerge have a
preoviposition period of 3 days. Mating takes place on the host, and females can
lay about 200 eggs in their lifetime. The life cycle from egg to adult takes about 10
to 14 days.

The adults feed intermittently, perhaps 20 times a day, and remain on the host day
and night, except for oviposition. This makes them susceptible to chemical control
measures. Forced use dust bags give the best control of horn flies, although sprays,
ear tags and dips may also be successfully used. Back rubbers and pour-on-
materials can give control but are usually the least successful. Feed additives may
be used for larval control; however, adult populations may not be affected when fly
migration keeps populations at high levels.

Horse and Deer Flies

Horse flies (Figure 3) and deer flies (Figure 4), also called Tabanids, are insects
that are usually strong fliers. As with mosquitoes, only females bite. They are
usually daytime feeders and are vicious biters. Their attacks often account for
lowered weight gains and lowered milk production. Because of their painful bites
and frequent attacks, horse flies produce frenzied behavior in their hosts,
sometimes causing them to run long distances in an effort to escape.
Tabanids introduce an anticoagulant into the wound when they bite that causes
blood to ooze. These wounds are excellent sites for secondary invasion of other
insects and diseases, and also cause more blood loss. Being intermittent feeders,
they can be important mechanical transmitters of diseases such as anthrax,
tularemia and anaplasmosis.

Most species of tabanids are aquatic or semi-aquatic in the immature stage, but
some develop in moist soil, leaf mold or rotting logs. Generally the eggs are
deposited in layers on vegetation, objects over water, or moist areas favorable to
larval development. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days and the larvae fall to the surface of
the water or moist areas where they begin to feed on organic matter.

Many species prey upon insect larvae, crustacea, snails and earthworms. When the
larvae are ready to pupate, they move into drier soil, usually an inch or two below
the surface. The pupal stage lasts 2 to 3 weeks, after which the adults emerge. The
life cycle varies considerably between species, requiring anywhere from 70 days to
2 years. Florida has more than 122 kinds of horse and deer flies with some species
present most times of the year. They are difficult pests to control. Daily mist
applications will protect animals, but are difficult for most cattlemen to implement.

Sand Flies and Biting Midges

Sand flies (Figure 5) are small biting flies, also known as punkies, no-see-ums or
biting midges. All these flies breed in wet or aquatic habitats and are a difficult,
almost impossible, pest to control. These flies are predominately a source of
annoyance and irritation, but may also cause suffocation because of large numbers.
One species is a known vector of blue tongue virus in cattle and some are
intermediate hosts of helminths. Little is known of the life cycle of those attacking
livestock.
Stable Flies
The stable fly (Figure 6), or dog fly, is similar to the house fly in size and color, but
the bayonet-like mouthparts of the stable fly differentiate it from the house fly.
Unlike the flies previously discussed, both sexes of the stable fly are vicious biters.
They are strong fliers and range many miles from their breeding site.

Stable flies cause irritation and weakness in animals and account for much blood
loss in severe cases. Bite wounds also can serve as sites for secondary infection.
These flies are easily interrupted in feeding and are mechanical transmitters of
anthrax and anaplasmosis.

Stable flies breed in soggy hay, grain or feed, piles of moist fermenting weed or
grass cuttings, spilled green chop, peanut litter and sea weed deposits along
beaches and in manure mixed with hay. The female, when depositing eggs, will
often crawl into loose material, placing the eggs in little inner pockets. Each female
may lay a total of 500 to 600 eggs in 4 separate layings. Eggs hatch in 2 to 5 days
and the newly emerged larvae bury themselves, begin to feed, and mature in 14 to
26 days. While the average life cycle is 28 days, this period will vary from 22 to 58
days, depending on weather conditions.

Adult flies are capable of flying up to 80 miles from their breeding site. Greater
than 10 flies per animal is considered economically damaging. Higher numbers
indicate heavy fly breeding in the area.
Stable fly control is most successfully approached with cultural control measures.
Since the larvae require a moist breeding media, it is essential that they breeding
source be found and dispersed to allow drying. Animal treatments are limited to
fogging or mist applications of insecticide.

Non-Blood-Sucking Flies

Cattle Grubs
Two species of cattle grubs are found in the United States, the common cattle grub
and the northern cattle grub. The common cattle grub is found in Florida; however,
the northern cattle grub is usually found only in cattle shipped into Florida from
other states.

The common cattle grub (Figure 7) lays its eggs chiefly on the hair of cattle,
attaching 5 to 15 eggs to a single hair. No pain is inflicted at the time of
oviposition. In the spring (February, March, April, May) cattle gallop madly for
water or shade to escape the northern cattle grub (gadding). It is apparently a
reaction to the sound produced by the bee-like fly in flight.

Eggs hatch within 4 days, and the maggots burrow through the skin. Migration of
the first stage larvae of the common cattle grub is through connective tissue,
assisted by enzyme secretion. Common cattle grub larvae locate in the mucous
membrane of the gullet. Larvae of the northern cattle grub locate in the spinal cord.
During the early fall in Florida (October-November), migrating first stage larvae
begin reaching the backs of cattle where they cut or digest a breathing hole through
the skin and form a warble.

First stage larvae molt in the warble formed in the back to the second stage in 3 to
4 days. The second stage larvae molts to the third stage then grows rapidly, feeding
on pus, necrotic cells and secretions from the wall of the warble or cyst. One to 2
months are spent in the warble to attain full larval growth. The grub then squeezes
through the breathing hole in the skin and drops to the ground to pupate. Pupation
occurs in 2 to 3 days with the pupal stage lasting 20 to 60 days, depending on the
temperature. The complete life cycle requires about a year.

The larvae produce two types of injury. First there is irritation caused by larval
migrations in the body of the host and later by emergence from beneath the skin.
Second, the escape of the larva from the warble leaves an open, running wound
that is persistent and subject to secondary infection.

Economic losses are, however, much more important. Milk production may be
reduced as much as 10 to 20 percent and loss of weight resulting from the wild
efforts of the animals to escape from the flies may be considerable. The value of
the carcass depreciates because flesh becomes greenish-yellow and jellylike in
appearance and unfit for consumption where the grubs are located. The value of
the hide is also reduced because of the holes cut in the skin.

Timing of treatments for control is important. The grubs must be killed before they
reach the gullet or spinal cord, because killing grubs in these areas can cause
swelling and possibly paralysis or death. "Cut-off dates" have been established in
the United States for grub treatment. In Florida, grub appearance in the backs or
gullets of animals occurs early, so the "cut-off date" has been set at August 31.

The treatment period includes that time after which egg hatch has ceased until
larvae have moved up to, but not into, the back or gullet region. Sprays, dips, feed
additives, and pour-ons are all recommended for cattle grub control although pour-
ons give best results.

Infestations of Fly Maggots (Myiasis)

Myiasis is the presence of fly larvae in the living tissue of the host. Several kinds
of maggots infest the wounds of warm-blooded animals; however, the only one
that feeds exclusively on live flesh is the primary screwworm. Sterile male releases
have eradicated the primary screwworm fly from the Southeast; but there is
constant danger of reinfestation.

Other species such as the secondary screwworm and other blow flies may also
infest wounds. These species normally lay their eggs on carcasses of dead animals
and may occasionally occur in the dead tissue of open wounds. Although these
species may cause some damage, they will not consume living flesh and will feed
on dead flesh and wound secretions. However, they may cause some tissue to die
and then will feed on this dead tissue.
There is no simple way to differentiate between primary screwworms and other fly
larvae. Any suspected screwworm case should be reported to the County Extension
Director. Samples of eggs and maggots should be saved in a small container filled
with 70% alcohol. Wounds should be treated with insecticidal ointment, sprays or
dusts.

Lice
Most lice are permanent ectoparasites, spending their entire lives on the host. Both
immature and adult stages are parasitic; therefore, they must remain on their hosts
to survive. Each species of louse prefers a certain host. While a species may occur
on several breeds of cattle, that same species will not occur on swine or horses.
Most sucking lice are specific to the site they occupy on the host.

Five kinds of sucking lice (Figure 8) and one biting louse (Figure 9) are found on
cattle in Florida. Sucking lice which feed on blood include the long-nosed cattle
louse (found on the head, neck and brisket during winter to early spring), the short-
nosed cattle louse (found on the head, neck and brisket during winter to early
spring), and the cattle tail louse (the adults found principally in the tail brush and
the immatures found on various parts of the body during summer to late fall and
sometimes year round). The only biting louse, the cattle biting louse, feeds on skin
and hair, causing itching, irritation and hair loss. It can be a severe problem in fall,
winter or spring. Lice populations vary seasonally, depending largely on the
condition of the host. The biting louse, and most sucking lice begin to increase in
number during the fall and reach peak populations in late winter or early spring.
Summer populations are usually minimal, causing no obvious symptoms. The
host's "climate" may be extremely important. For example, skin temperature and
moisture, quantity or thickness of hair, the amount of oil on the skin, and grooming
behavior of the host may appreciably affect the size of the louse population. An
animal under stress will usually support a larger louse population than is normal.
Mites
Mites have the abdomen broadly joined to the thorax with little or no evidence of
segmentation. Adults and nymphs generally have 8 legs and the larval stage has 6.
The life cycle of many species requires less than 4 weeks and in some it is as short
as 8 days. All but a few species of mites are minute and barely visible to the naked
eye.

Itch and mange mites (Figure 11) (Psoroptes, Sarcopte, and Chorioptes) feed on
the surface or burrow just beneath the skin, making very slender, winding tunnels
from 0.1 to 1 inch long. The fluid discharged at the tunnel openings dries to form
nodules. A toxin is also secreted which causes intense irritation and itching.
Infested animals rub and scratch continuously, often producing inflamed areas with
only scattered hairs remaining. The infection may spread over the entire body,
forming large, cracked scabs on the thickened skin. Infestations are contagious and
treatment of all animals in a herd is essential in preventing spread.

Follicular mites are microscopic, cigar-shaped, worm-like organisms that live

within the skin. All stages of the life cycle are found within the hair follicle. The
mite causes nodular lesions in the skin which sometimes break, producing holes in
the hide and opening the skin to secondary infection. Control is difficult because of
the depth of penetration of the mites.

Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes (Figure 12) are small insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts, and
scales on their wings. Female mosquitoes suck blood but do not always need blood
to lay the first batch of eggs. Several species of mosquitoes attack livestock
causing painful bites, unthriftiness, and occasionally death by suffocation or heavy
blood loss. In addition, their attacks can cause loss of weight and decreased milk
production.
The mosquito life cycle consists of 4 stages. The eggs are laid either directly on the
water surface or on damp soil and sides of containers that will be flooded later.
Common breeding sites for mosquitoes are drainage ditches, ponds, tin cans, old
tires and tree holes. The eggs of most species hatch in 2 to 3 days, and the larvae or
"wigglers" feed in the water on organic matter. The larvae pass through 4 stages in
about 7 to 10 days. The pupal stage lasts 2 to 3 days, and the adult emerges from
the pupal skin at the water surface.

If mosquitoes are a serious problem to livestock in your area, control measures

should be implemented. The most effective control method available is source
reduction by removing or draining mosquito breeding sites. Daily fogging or
aerosoling for adult mosquitoes may provide relief but only as temporary control
measure.

Ticks

Ticks (Figure 13) are easily distinguished from insects, since the body is not
definitely divided and the strong fusion of the thorax and abdomen produces a sac-
like, leathery appearance. A distinct head is lacking, but there is a head-like
structure which bears recurved teeth that are inserted into the wound, allowing the
tick to hold on strongly. Females can be greatly distended and are bean-like in
form when fully engorged. Ticks have 4 developmental stages: egg, 6-legged seed
or larval stage, 8-legged nymphal stage and 8-legged adult.

A fully engorged female usually deposits eggs (from 100 to 18,000) on the ground.
The larval or seed ticks emerging from eggs in the soil usually climb up grasses or
other low vegetation to contact passing animals. The larvae molt into nymphs and
go through 3 to 5 nymphal stages (soft ticks 2-5). Ticks (Figure 14) remain in the
8-legged form in both nymphal and adult stages. The majority drop off the host to
molt after feeding. Males, females and immatures all feed on blood and lymph.

The effects of ticks upon the host include inflammation, itching and swelling at the
bite site, blood loss, production of wounds that may serve as sites for secondary
invasion, obstruction of body openings and paralysis from the injection of toxic
fluids. They also transmit many diseases, including anaplasmosis, bovine
piroplasmosis and tularemia. Some ticks have the ability to transmit diseases to
their offspring without feeding on a diseased animal.

Tick control may be attempted through premise control with insecticides. Premise
control kills ticks which are either engorged or on foliage waiting to contact a host.
On animals, tick control is best achieved with insecticide sprays or dips.

Keys to Pesticide Safety

1. Before using any pesticide, stop and read the precautions.

2. Read the label on each pesticide container before each use. Heed all
warnings and precautions.
3. Store all pesticides in their original containers away from food or feed.
4. Keep pesticides out of the reach of children, pets and livestock.
5. Apply pesticides only as directed.
6. Dispose of empty containers promptly and safely.

Recommendations in this guide are for guidelines only. The user must insure that
the pesticide is applied in strict compliance with label directions.

The Food and Drug Administration has established residue tolerances for certain
insecticides in the meat of certain animals. When these and other approved
insecticides are applied according to recommendations, the pests should be
effectively controlled and the animals' products will be safe for food.
The improper use of insecticides may result in residue in milk or meat. Such
products must not be delivered to processing plants. To avoid excessive residues,
use the insecticides recommended at the time recommended and in the amounts
recommended.

Disease management
DISEASE MANAGEMENT

BUFFALO-POX

The disease occurs in India in both generalized and localized forms, udder, inner
thigh, lips and nostrils. The disease is of zoonotic importance manifesting lesions
on the hands and fingers of milkers. The methods of treatment and prevention are
similar to those recommended for cow-pox. Since buffaloes wallow in marshy
places care should be taken to see that the wounds are cleaned well and kept free
form files. Attempts to develop a vaccine against buffalo-pox have not given
encouraging results.

Symptoms

After an incubation period of 2 to 5 days there is some rise in body temperature;

the animal develops pin-point red spots and papules of the size of mustard or sago
which cab be felt by hand. Later, these papules coalesce into vesicles, Papules
occurring on the udder are generally circular, but those on the teats are elongated.
The lesions heal in the course of 15 to 20 days; the udder and the teats regain their
normal appearance. In males, the disease is very often unnoticed, because the,
being on the scrotum and inside of the things are often covered with dirt and
consequently hidden from view.

Treatment, Prevention and Control

The lessons heal by themselves in the normal course and the adoption of special
measures is not called for; only the usual rules of hygiene need to be observed.
The lesions should be cleaned with a 1:1,000 solution of potassium permanganate
followed by the application of an antiseptic ointment such as 1:110 boric acids.
The affected animals should be isolated and milked by separate milkers. Milk
from affected animals should be boiled before use. If the disease assumes serious
proportions, vaccination may be undertaken by scarification in the perineum with
calf lymph or with material collected from lesions from the anima.
BLACK QUARTER

Black quarter is an acute infection but a non-contagious disease characterized by

inflammation of muscles, severe toxaemia and high mortality in cattle and sheep.

Transmission

In cattle the disease is confined to young stock between the age of 6 months and 2
years. Buffaloes usually suffer a mild disease. The outbreaks occur with a onset of
rainy season. The cattle acquire infection from ingestion of organism and the
ingested bacteria remain as dormant spores in tissues until predisposing factors
stimulate the development of negative forms and rapid multiplication and
formation of toxins.

Symptom

Sometimes animal may be die without showing symptoms. The most obvious sign
in a crepitate swelling in hind- or forequarters crackles when rubbed due to gas in
the muscle. The symptoms are fever, lameness and switching of the muscles of the
affected region. Death usually occurs within 24 hours of the symptoms first
observed. The affected region is hot and painful but soon becomes cold and
painless, and there is crepitation due to gas. The skin over the affected area
becomes dry, hard and dark. Sometimes the muscle of neck and back is affected in
sheep; there is high fever and anorexia.

Treatment

Penicillin and tetracycline’s if given promptly and inoculated into the site of lesion
are of value and should be given in normal therapeutic dose. Sulphathiozole and
antitoxicsera also effective.

Control

Hygiene and prophylaxis are the methods of control. Proper hygiene requires the
destruction of carcases by burning, and cleaning and treatment of all wounds.

Active immunization of animals has proved to be effective. The vaccine used is

formalized alum precipitated whole culture vaccine. It is a common practice to
vaccinate animals before the onset of rainy season. In sheep vaccination prior to
lambing or castration and docking is a useful precaution.
JOHNE`S DISEASE

Johne`s disease is a specific chronic contagious enteritis of cattle, sheep, goat,

buffaloes and occasionally of pigs. The disease is characterized by progressive
emaciation and in cattle and buffaloes by chronic diarrhea and thickening of the
intestine.

Transmission

Under natural conditions the disease spread by ingestion of feed and water
contaminated by the faeces of infected animals. The infection occurs mostly in the
early month of life. The incubation period extends from 12 months to several
years. The animal aged 3 to 6 years mostly suffer from the disease. Affected
animals may not show clinical symptoms continue to discharge organisms in
faeces. The organisms persist in pastures for about 1 year. The organisms are
susceptible to sunlight, drying and high PH of soil; continuous contact of urine
with faeces reduces the life of bacteria.

In cattle clinical signs appear mainly during 2-6 years of age. The infected animals
which are apparently healthy often show clinical signs after parturition.

Treatment

The organisms are more resistant to chemotherapeutic agent’s invitro than

Mycotuberculosis. Because of this the practical utility of treatment in clinical cases
is poor.

Control

The affected animal should be segregated and their faeces properly disposed off.
Alive vaccines have been developed. It reduces the incidence of clinical disease. It
consists of a non-pathogenic strain of Jhone`s bacillus with an adjuvant. The calves
soon after birth are inoculated with vaccine subcontaneously. The vaccinated
animals become reactors of Jhonin. Vaccination is generally done in heavily
infected herds. (Source: Dr.Acharya, Handbook of Animal Husbandry)

Market Segmentation
General Statistics 1.1 Tamil Nadu at a Glance
 1.2 Social Statistics: Human Population

1.3 State Economy

Tamil Nadu at a Glance

1.2 Social Statistics: Human Population
Table i.2.1: Human Population by residence and Sex –2001

Districts rural (‘000) urban (‘000) Total (‘000)

male Female Total male Female Total male Female Total
Tamil naDu 17,531 17,390 34,922 13,869 13,615 27,484 31,401 31,005 62,406
Ariyalur 308 309 617 39 40 79 347 349 696
Chennai 0 0 0 2,220 2,124 4,344 2,220 2,124 4,344
Coimbatore 735 717 1,452 1,441 1,379 2,820 2,176 2,096 4,272
Cuddalore 772 759 1,531 379 375 754 1,151 1,134 2,285
Dharmapuri 1240 1,160 2,400 233 222 456 1,474 1,383 2,856
Dindigul 629 621 1,250 339 334 673 968 955 1,923
Erode 705 682 1,388 604 590 1,194 1,309 1,272 2,582
Kancheepuram 676 666 1,343 781 754 1,535 1,457 1,420 2,877
Kanniyakumari 290 293 582 543 551 1,094 832 844 1,676
Karur 311 314 624 155 157 311 466 470 936
Madurai 573 561 1,134 730 714 1,444 1,303 1,275 2,578
Nagapattinam 576 583 1,159 163 167 330 739 750 1,489
Namakkal 482 466 948 277 268 545 760 734 1,493
Perambalur 207 208 414 39 40 79 246 248 494
Pudukkottai 601 611 1,211 124 125 248 724 735 1,460
Ramanathapuram 433 452 885 150 152 302 583 604 1,188
Salem 852 774 1,626 711 679 1,390 1,564 1,453 3,016
Sivaganga 405 424 829 162 164 326 567 588 1,155

Thanjavur 726 741 1,468 370 378 749 1,097 1,120 2,216

The Nilgiris 152 156 308 226 228 455 378 384 762

Theni 255 247 502 298 294 592 553 541 1,094

Thiruvallur 629 626 1,255 768 732 1,500 1,397 1,357 2,755

Thiruvarur 464 469 932 117 120 237 581 589 1,169

Thoothukkudi 439 468 908 328 337 665 767 805 1,572

Tiruchirappalli 639 641 1,279 570 569 1,139 1,209 1,210 2,418

Tirunelveli 689 727 1,416 645 663 1,308 1,334 1,390 2,724

Tiruvannamalai 896 890 1,785 200 201 401 1,096 1,090 2,186

Vellore 1,088 1,081 2,169 653 655 1,308 1,741 1,736 3,477

Viluppuram 1,277 1,256 2,533 215 212 427 1,492 1,468 2,960

Virudhunagar 483 491 974 388 390 777 870 881 1,751

Source: census 2001, office of the registrar General and census commissioner, Govt. of India, New Delh
I.2. Social Statistics: Human Population

TaBlE i.2.2: Human Population by residence and Sex –2011

Districts rural (‘000) urban (‘000) Total (‘000)
male Female Total male Female Total male Female Total
Tamil naDu 18,679 18,551 37,230 17,459 17,459 34,917 36,138 36,009 72,147
Ariyalur 333 338 671 41 42 84 375 380 755
Chennai 0 0 0 2,336 2,311 4,647 2,336 2,311 4,647
Coimbatore 419 420 839 1,310 1,309 2,619 1,729 1,729 3,458
Cuddalore 869 852 1,721 443 442 885 1,312 1,294 2,606
Dharmapuri 643 603 1,246 131 130 261 774 733 1,507
Dindigul 679 673 1,352 402 406 808 1,081 1,079 2,160
Erode 552 541 1,094 577 581 1,158 1,130 1,122 2,252
Kancheepuram 735 725 1,460 1,278 1,260 2,538 2,013 1,985 3,998
Kanniyakumari 165 166 331 761 778 1,540 926 944 1,870
Karur 313 317 630 216 219 435 528 536 1,064
Krishnagiri 742 709 1,451 218 211 428 960 920 1,880
Madurai 601 590 1,191 925 922 1,847 1,526 1,512 3,038
Nagapattinam 619 632 1,252 179 186 365 798 818 1,616
Namakkal 521 510 1,030 349 348 696 869 857 1,727
Perambalur 234 234 468 48 49 97 282 283 565
Pudukkottai 646 656 1,302 158 159 316 803 815 1,618
Ramanathapuram 475 468 943 208 203 411 683 671 1,353
Salem 883 825 1,708 898 876 1,774 1,782 1,700 3,482
Sivaganga 462 464 926 206 206 413 669 670 1,339
Thanjavur 765 789 1,555 417 434 851 1,182 1,223 2,406
The Nilgiris 146 154 300 214 221 436 360 375 735
Theni 291 285 575 335 336 670 626 620 1,246
Thiruvallur 650 649 1,300 1,226 1,203 2,428 1,876 1,852 3,728
Thiruvarur 500 507 1,006 127 131 258 627 638 1,264
Thoothukkudi 430 443 873 435 442 877 865 885 1,750
Tiruchirappalli 689 696 1,384 664 674 1,338 1,352 1,370 2,722
Tirunelveli 769 788 1,557 752 768 1,520 1,521 1,556 3,077
Tiruppur 479 479 958 767 754 1,521 1,246 1,233 2,479
Tiruvannamalai 990 980 1,970 246 249 495 1,236 1,229 2,465
Vellore 1,117 1,117 2,234 845 857 1,702 1,962 1,975 3,936
Viluppuram 1,481 1,458 2,940 259 260 519 1,741 1,718 3,459
Virudhunagar 480 482 962 487 493 980 968 975 1,942

Source: census 2011, office of the registrar General and census commissioner, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
I.2. Social Statistics: Human Population

TaBlE i.2.3: rural Households, Electricity and Tap Water Supply -

2001 and 2011
rural Households with rural Households with
Electricity (‘000) Tap Water (inclusive –
Districts rural Households (‘000) treated & untreated)( ‘000)
2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
Tamil naDu 8,284 9,528 5,890 8,683 5,005 7,581
Ariyalur 148 176 96 158 107 153
Chennai 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coimbatore 388 242 272 214 273 201
Cuddalore 348 423 259 400 223 345
Dharmapuri 537 310 368 276 244 171
Dindigul 306 351 192 305 196 281
Erode 383 324 280 283 210 238
Kancheepuram 302 361 229 335 214 307
Kanniyakumari 131 85 96 82 55 65
Karur 159 168 111 153 99 142
Krishnagiri 343 307 258
Madurai 277 315 195 288 192 281
Nagapattinam 272 323 166 298 87 201
Namakkal 256 283 191 257 142 206
Perambalur 103 124 78 112 72 103
Pudukkottai 258 310 160 281 131 233
Ramanathapuram 202 229 128 200 73 134
Salem 405 452 298 400 206 322
Sivaganga 193 235 137 214 101 159
Thanjavur 334 391 214 353 206 319
The Nilgiris 77 83 54 77 52 67
Theni 127 157 89 145 107 147
Thiruvallur 290 332 222 307 227 296
Thiruvarur 223 262 137 242 100 197
Thoothukkudi 225 235 177 220 144 202
Tiruchirappalli 308 357 210 322 214 310
Tirunelveli 352 419 284 397 229 382
Tiruppur 283 254 219
Tiruvannamalai 404 473 296 438 276 403
Vellore 483 537 351 491 295 453
Viluppuram 545 679 413 632 354 567
I.2. Social Statistics: Human Population
TaBlE i.2.4: District-wise SC and ST Population – 2001 and 2011
Districts SC Population (‘000) ST Population (‘000)
2001 2011 2001 2011
Tamil naDu 11,858 14,438 651 795
Ariyalur 151 176 9 11
Chennai 598 780 7 10
Coimbatore 631 536 29 28
Cuddalore 634 764 12 16
Dharmapuri 417 245 60 63
Dindigul 376 452 6 8
Erode 422 369 18 22
Kancheepuram 722 948 27 41
Kanniyakumari 68 74 5 7
Karur 190 221 1 1
Krishnagiri 267 22
Madurai 323 409 6 11
Nagapattinam 441 510 3 4
Namakkal 281 345 51 57
Perambalur 149 175 3 3
Pudukkottai 249 285 1 1
Ramanathapuram 216 249 1 1
Salem 476 581 104 119
Sivaganga 189 228 1 1
Thanjavur 400 455 4 4
The Nilgiris 238 236 28 33
Theni 212 258 2 2
Thiruvallur 601 822 38 47
Thiruvarur 378 431 3 3
Thoothukkudi 289 348 3 5
Tiruchirappalli 399 467 19 18
Tirunelveli 481 570 8 10
Tiruppur 396 5
Tiruvannamalai 468 565 73 91
Vellore 714 860 63 73
Viluppuram 811 1,016 64 75
Virudhunagar 332 400 2 2

SC: Scheduled caste, ST: Scheduled Tribe

Source: census 2001 and 2011, office of the registrar General and census commissioner, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
1.3 State Economy
 Milk Production
• 4.3 Production Performance: Milk Production
• 4.4 Production Performance: Milk Availability

4.3 Production Performance: Milk Production

IV.3. Production Performance: Milk Production

Table IV.3.1: Year and District-wise bovine Milk Production

 Districts bovine Milk Production (‘000 MT)
1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
TaMIl NaDU 3,524.4 4,060.6 4,752 5,586.1 5,673.8 5,778.1 6,831.3 6,967.9 7,004.8
Ariyalur 105
Chengalpattu MGR 349.6 327.8
Chennai 50.3 59.6 34.4 3.9 4.5 4.9 7.9 8.8
Coimbatore 199.1 224.9 255.8 333.3 302.9 332.9 340.8 191.7 215.6
Cuddalore 243.7 190.6 176.7 200.7 211.6 189.7 196.2
Dharmapuri 122.6 120.3 225.7 208.9 213 207.5 242 179.3 245.1
Dindigul 173.7 216.4 148.3 176.1 156 194 235.4 264.7
Erode 205.5 283 246.8 314.7 335.7 358.9 449.1 359.5 327.7
Kancheepuram 216.2 156 151.8 149.7 202.9 275.8 284.8
Kanniyakumari 68 104.8 79.5 126.1 138.8 143 154.4 101.8 70.6
Karur 91.9 110.1 106.1 109.3 120.4 121.7 96.8
Krishnagiri 172 202.7 194.1 200.3 199.9 195.9
Madurai 359.8 297.1 167.8 169.4 167.9 176.4 214.6 211.5 172.8
Nagapattinam 187.2 134.1 150.4 138.6 154.9 176.5 211.3 189.9
Namakkal 195.4 237.7 238.4 234.7 304.4 286.6 294.9
Perambalur 136.9 163.2 159.2 176.3 196.7 192 80.5
Pudukkottai 82.1 129.7 121.2 114 119 134 194.7 256.9 300.9
Ramanathapuram 179.6 92.8 74.1 67 63.4 69.4 78.5 60.1 65.6
Salem 329.3 319 254.6 450.6 428.5 461.3 480.5 483.6 540.2
Sivaganga 53.8 89.6 72.8 83.2 101.5 113.4 127.5 106.48
South Arcot 355 159
Thanjavur 249.6 157 129.7 196.8 219.5 230.6 236.3 239.3 261.6
The Nilgiris 23.1 50.4 60.3 89.7 105.2 102.7 124.9 89.6 48.9
Theni 117.8 70.9 85.6 82.1 102.8 133.6 126.5
Thiruvallur 223.6 154.9 158.3 155 232.1 188.8 219.5
Thiruvarur 93.7 160.5 161.5 156.1 169.2 146.4 99.7
Thoothukkudi 91.2 90.9 105.9 116 106.1 144.9 221 133.4
Tiruchirappalli 333.2 363 172.5 224.5 227.9 226.4 256.2 247.2 300.4
Tirunelveli 199.6 123.2 153.4 296.3 296.9 283.5 330 316 347.8
Tiruppur 261.1 202.3
Tiruvannamalai 189.8 259 256.2 260.6 265.4 424.5 424.1 544.3
Vellore 417.5 225.5 306.4 312.3 300.1 284.7 348.9 422.5 412.5
Viluppuram 254.9 267.7 334.2 326 329.9 370.7 389.7 382.6
Virudhunagar 63.1 93.5 194.8 210 190.1 208.4 195.8 171.8

IV.3. Production Performance: Milk Production

Table IV.3.2: Year and District-wise Indigenous Cattle Milk Production

Districts Indigenous Cattle Milk Production (‘000 MT)

1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
TaMIl NaDU 1,283.5 1,086.7 1,278.0 799.9 791.8 789.2 774.3 776.5 719.3
Ariyalur 17.5
Chengalpattu MGR 150.8 96.5
 Chennai 7.8 8.9 4.3 0.6 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.1
Coimbatore 58.0 35.7 37.6 7.8 6.5 8.0 5.2 4.6 6.6
Cuddalore 64.2 28.9 31.9 28.9 28.9 23.6 23.8
Dharmapuri 70.6 60.1 75.5 20.8 22.4 19.3 22.3 13.0 8.9
Dindigul 27.6 26.2 10.1 10.7 10.8 12.6 23.1 14.0
Erode 38.2 36.1 42.3 37.3 33.5 29.4 33.0 22.4 27.5
Kancheepuram 85.4 55.9 56.5 54.3 56.4 67.3 80.3
Kanniyakumari 10.4 8.3 8.2 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.2 2.0 0.9
Karur 21.3 14.5 12.4 14.1 12.8 11.9 7.6
Krishnagiri 32.3 35.7 26.2 33.0 25.4 19.5
Madurai 54.1 46.3 41.4 11.3 12.7 13.6 14.0 16.4 13.7
Nagapattinam 65.1 65.4 39.8 35.9 37.7 33.5 32.2 26.0
Namakkal 21.6 10.3 10.6 11.0 10.9 12.9 16.3
Perambalur 33.1 20.3 20.6 20.6 21.9 16.8 2.1
Pudukkottai 41.1 58.0 53.7 59.4 54.9 58.8 51.5 89.2 77.4
Ramanathapuram 74.7 24.5 30.0 20.2 19.8 20.3 13.9 0.4 2.2
Salem 94.9 83.6 44.6 38.8 33.2 34.5 35.8 24.8 18.4
Sivaganga 26.4 47.6 28.6 32.6 39.0 40.4 39.6 34.5
South Arcot 175.3 53.7
Thanjavur 98.3 41.2 31.4 41.9 40.2 45.2 45.7 38.6 38.0
The Nilgiris 4.4 6.7 6.2 5.1 4.0 4.3 1.6 1.1 1.6
Theni 27.0 5.1 5.5 5.8 4.8 4.4 3.6
Thiruvallur 50.1 40.9 42.2 42.0 36.9 32.8 15.4
Thiruvarur 39.4 40.7 29.8 35.6 35.3 22.6 14.7
Thoothukkudi 19.0 16.3 9.4 14.2 11.5 11.4 13.9 7.6
Tiruchirappalli 108.3 82.2 52.7 19.2 17.9 20.7 17.4 19.8 17.9
Tirunelveli 66.3 36.1 34.1 35.9 35.0 32.2 33.3 37.2 34.7
Tiruppur 7.5 6.4
Tiruvannamalai 73.2 104.4 40.3 35.5 35.4 38.0 29.6 62.2
Vellore 230.3 73.5 63.0 33.5 27.1 32.0 33.8 33.2 22.9
Viluppuram 101.1 134.3 78.5 94.0 84.0 75.6 90.4 84.6
Virudhunagar 13.1 17.5 10.8 14.2 11.6 12.3 18.7 12.6

Source: Integrated Sample Survey reports (1993-94 to 2012-13), Directorate of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Govt. of Tamil Nadu.
NoTe: For the year 1993-94, data for Thanjavur district also includes Nagapattinam district; Madurai includes Dindigul; ramanathapuram includes

Sivaganga and Virudhunagar; Tirunelveli includes Thoothukkudi; Vellore includes Tiruvannamalai

IV.3. Production Performance: Milk Production
Table IV.3.3: Year and District-wise Crossbred Cattle Milk Production

Districts Crossbred Cattle Milk Production (‘000 MT)

1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
TaMIl NaDU 818.8 1,345.1 2,045.0 4,026.9 4,121.7 4,227.4 5,246.9 5,412.4 5,580.3
Ariyalur 81.7
Chengalpattu MGR 25.2 52.6
Chennai 4.8 6.8 11.2 1.5 1.6 2.2 3.3 5.2
Coimbatore 46.6 65.4 165.5 310.1 280.2 306.5 319.1 180.5 202.8
Cuddalore 126.6 142.8 128.8 156.7 163.8 151.0 163.7
Dharmapuri 17.6 23.5 88.1 141.6 142.3 138.2 174.4 137.3 205.5
Dindigul 54.8 114.8 113.4 136.9 118.4 148.3 179.0 210.3
Erode 71.6 112.6 74.2 175.1 191.3 195.9 298.0 230.1 235.8
Kancheepuram 47.3 54.4 51.3 54.5 95.8 145.7 129.2
Kanniyakumari 45.0 84.5 66.5 119.6 132.7 139.0 150.4 97.4 69.2
Karur 24.1 63.8 62.2 58.2 72.7 78.8 67.4
Krishnagiri 131.3 155.9 155.1 157.7 163.7 167.9
Madurai 144.5 156.4 84.7 145.5 146.6 152.4 191.2 186.6 154.5
Nagapattinam 47.5 26.1 91.9 86.0 96.0 124.3 160.3 149.2
Namakkal 61.1 123.2 132.6 126.2 191.0 177.2 182.4
Perambalur 63.9 133.0 131.1 147.1 162.1 166.7 77.1
Pudukkottai 13.7 27.8 37.0 41.3 50.9 61.9 128.4 143.5 194.5
Ramanathapuram 51.7 50.7 27.4 43.3 40.3 46.0 61.7 58.2 61.8
Salem 57.2 103.7 130.9 323.9 305.6 336.8 351.4 385.9 465.1
Sivaganga 14.9 30.4 40.0 47.0 58.6 69.0 85.0 68.7
South Arcot 91.8 52.2
Thanjavur 52.8 44.1 57.4 139.2 158.5 169.5 174.6 187.3 208.2
The Nilgiris 16.0 37.3 52.2 83.0 99.2 97.3 121.1 87.4 46.2
Theni 65.6 59.7 74.0 71.3 92.6 126.8 120.3
Thiruvallur 53.0 57.4 60.0 65.8 138.5 97.3 143.4
Thiruvarur 31.4 109.7 124.7 114.2 127.3 118.0 81.1
Thoothukkudi 25.7 58.9 88.7 90.8 85.3 105.7 188.4 114.1
Tiruchirappalli 53.2 92.8 62.2 185.6 190.0 184.4 215.4 204.6 262.7
Tirunelveli 31.5 28.1 74.1 232.2 228.3 226.6 263.7 238.0 266.7
Tiruppur 228.2 164.9
Tiruvannamalai 69.9 113.1 203.6 216.6 221.6 374.5 384.5 474.0
Vellore 95.5 79.9 181.1 259.0 258.4 240.3 302.3 370.0 375.6
Viluppuram 94.1 58.0 239.3 217.6 235.6 283.4 286.7 286.1
Virudhunagar 19.8 57.3 174.1 180.5 165.9 185.2 163.2 150.2

Source: Integrated Sample Survey reports (1993-94 to 2012-13), Directorate of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Govt. of Tamil Nadu.
NoTe: For the year 1993-94, data for Thanjavur district also includes Nagapattinam district; Madurai includes Dindigul; ramanathapuram includes

Sivaganga and Virudhunagar; Tirunelveli includes Thoothukkudi; Vellore includes Tiruvannamalai

IV.3. Production Performance: Milk Production
Table IV.3.4: Year and District-wise buffalo Milk Production

Districts buffalo Milk Production (‘000 MT)

1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
TaMIl NaDU 1,422.1 1,628.8 1,429.0 759.3 760.3 761.5 810.1 779.0 705.2
Ariyalur 5.8
Chengalpattu MGR 173.6 178.7
Chennai 37.7 43.9 18.9 1.8 1.9 1.7 3.2 2.5
Coimbatore 94.5 123.8 52.7 15.4 16.2 18.4 16.5 6.6 6.2
Cuddalore 52.9 18.9 16.0 15.1 18.9 15.1 8.7
Dharmapuri 34.4 36.7 62.1 46.5 48.3 50.0 45.3 29.0 30.7
Dindigul 91.3 75.4 24.8 28.5 26.8 33.1 33.3 40.4
Erode 95.7 134.3 130.3 102.3 110.9 133.6 118.1 107.0 64.4
Kancheepuram 83.5 45.7 44.0 40.9 50.7 62.8 75.3
Kanniyakumari 12.6 12.0 4.8 5.1 4.9 2.7 2.8 2.4 0.5
Karur 46.5 31.8 31.5 37.0 34.9 31.0 21.8
Krishnagiri 8.4 11.1 12.8 9.6 10.8 8.5
Madurai 161.2 94.4 41.7 12.6 8.6 10.4 9.4 8.5 4.6
Nagapattinam 74.6 42.6 18.7 16.7 21.2 18.7 18.8 14.7
Namakkal 112.7 104.2 95.2 97.5 102.5 96.5 96.2
Perambalur 39.9 9.9 7.5 8.6 12.7 8.5 1.3
Pudukkottai 27.3 43.9 30.5 13.3 13.2 13.3 14.8 24.2 29.0
Ramanathapuram 53.2 17.6 16.7 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 1.5 1.6
Salem 177.2 131.7 79.1 87.9 89.7 90.0 93.3 72.9 56.7
Sivaganga 12.5 11.6 4.2 3.6 3.9 4.0 2.9 3.28
South Arcot 87.9 53.1
Thanjavur 98.5 71.7 40.9 15.7 20.8 15.9 16.0 13.4 15.4
The Nilgiris 2.7 6.4 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.1 2.2 1.1 1.1
Theni 25.2 6.1 6.1 5.0 5.4 2.4 2.6
Thiruvallur 120.5 56.6 56.1 47.2 56.7 58.7 60.7
Thiruvarur 22.9 10.1 7.0 6.3 6.6 5.8 3.9
Thoothukkudi 46.5 15.7 7.8 11.0 9.3 27.8 18.7 11.7
Tiruchirappalli 171.7 188.0 57.6 19.7 20.0 21.3 23.4 22.8 19.8
Tirunelveli 101.8 59.0 45.2 28.2 33.6 24.7 33.0 40.8 46.4
Tiruppur 25.4 31.0
Tiruvannamalai 46.7 41.5 12.3 8.5 8.4 12.0 10.0 8.1
Vellore 91.7 72.1 62.3 19.8 14.6 12.4 12.8 19.3 14.0
Viluppuram 59.7 75.4 16.4 14.4 10.3 11.7 12.6 11.9
Virudhunagar 30.2 18.7 9.9 15.3 12.6 10.9 13.9 9.0

Source: Integrated Sample Survey reports (1993-94 to 2012-13), Directorate of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Govt. of Tamil Nadu.
NoTe: For the year 1993-94, data for Thanjavur district also includes Nagapattinam district; Madurai includes Dindigul; ramanathapuram includes

Sivaganga and Virudhunagar; Tirunelveli includes Thoothukkudi; Vellore includes Tiruvannamalai.

 Tamil Nadu’s Milk Production (MMT)
(Change due to no. of in-milk animals & average yield)

6.97 7.00

5.59
4.75 2.96
4.06 2.11 2.58
1.13
3.52 0.52 0.87 0.52
0.02
0.10

3.52 3.52

3.52 3.52 3.52 3.52

-0.04

1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2011-12 2012-13

bovine

Milk production in base year - 1993-1994 - MMT. Total

milk production - MMT.

Increase in total production due to change in numbers of in-milk animals - MMT.

Increase in total milk production due to change in average yield - MMT.

79 National Dairy Development Board
V.3. Production Performance: Milk Production
Table IV.3.5: Year and District-wise Milk Production Density

Districts Milk Production Density (kg/day/sq km)

1993-94 1997-98 2003-04 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
TaMIl NaDU 74 85 100 117 119 121 144 146 147
Ariyalur 149
Chengalpattu MGR 122 114
Chennai 806 955 551 62 72 79 127 141
Coimbatore 73 82 94 122 111 122 125 111 125
Cuddalore 182 142 132 150 158 141 146
Dharmapuri 35 34 64 127 130 126 147 109 149
Dindigul 76 95 65 77 68 85 103 116
Erode 69 95 83 106 113 120 151 172 157
Kancheepuram 134 96 94 93 125 170 176
Kanniyakumari 111 172 130 207 227 234 253 167 116
Karur 87 104 100 103 114 115 92
Krishnagiri 92 108 103 107 106 104
Madurai 74 117 123 124 123 129 157 155 127
Nagapattinam 107 135 152 140 156 178 213 192
Namakkal 159 193 194 191 248 233 240
Perambalur 102 121 118 131 146 143 126
Pudukkottai 48 76 71 67 70 79 114 151 177
Ramanathapuram 39 62 50 45 42 46 53 40 44
Salem 105 102 134 237 226 243 253 255 284
Sivaganga 35 59 48 54 66 74 83 70
South Arcot 89 118
Thanjavur 83 127 105 159 177 186 191 193 211
The Nilgiris 25 54 65 97 113 111 135 96 53
Theni 100 60 72 69 87 113 107
Thiruvallur 179 124 127 124 186 151 176
Thiruvarur 122 210 211 204 221 191 130
Thoothukkudi 53 53 62 68 62 84 129 78
Tiruchirappalli 83 91 107 140 142 141 159 154 187
Tirunelveli 48 50 62 120 120 115 134 128 141
Tiruppur 138 107
Tiruvannamalai 82 112 111 113 115 184 184 236
Vellore 94 104 142 145 139 132 161 196 191
Viluppuram 97 102 127 124 125 141 148 145
Virudhunagar 41 60 126 136 123 135 126 111

Source: estimated from Integrated Sample Survey reports (1993-94 to 2012-13), Directorate of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Govt. of Tamil Nadu. NoTe:
For the year 1993-94, data for Thanjavur district also includes Nagapattinam district; Madurai includes Dindigul; ramanathapuram includes

Sivaganga and Virudhunagar; Tirunelveli includes Thoothukkudi; Vellore includes T

83 National Dairy Development Board

4.4 Production Performance: Milk Availability
6.1.2 PRICE
The aim is to give good value for money through good
competitive prices, which result in consumer satisfaction. The
pricing objective is to optimize the profits of the company and to
get the return on investment.
The price of the milk is lower than the price of foreign
beverages with comparable quality and the same quantity