1.

Philosophy of limit state design

PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN
• Aim of a design is to see that the structure built is safe and it serves the purpose
for which it is built. A structure may become unfit for use not only when it
collapses but also when it violates the serviceability requirements of
deflections, vibrations, cracks due to fatigue, corrosion and fire. In this method
of design various limiting conditions are fixed to consider a structure as fit. At
any stage of its designed life (120 years for permanent structures), the structure
should not exceed these limiting conditions. The design is based on probable
load and probable strength of materials.
• These are to be selected on a probabilistic approach. The safety factor for each
limiting condition may vary depending upon the risk involved. It is not
necessary to design every structure to withstand exceptional events like blast
and earthquake. In limit state design risk based evaluation criteria is included.
Thus the philosophy of the limit state design method is to see that the structure
remains fit for use throughout its designed life by remaining within the
acceptable limit of safety and serviceability requirements based on the risks
involved.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
• Steel structure designed and constructed should satisfy the requirements
regarding stability, strength, serviceability, brittle fracture, fatigue, fire and
durability. The structures should meet the following requirements (IS 800-
2007, clause 5.1.2):
(A) Remain fit with adequate reliability and be able to sustain all loads and other
influences experienced during construction and use.
(B) Have adequate durability under normal maintenance.
(C) Do not suffer overall damage or collapse disproportionately under accidental
events like explosions, vehicle impact or due to consequences of human error
to an extent beyond local damage.
The catastrophic damage shall be limited or avoided by appropriate choice of one or
more of the following:
(a) Avoiding, eliminating or reducing exposure to hazards, which the structure is likely
to sustain.
(b) Choosing structural forms, layouts and details and designing such that:
(i) the structure has low sensitivity to hazardous conditions and

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for loads, gf for limit state
Durability Considerations
The following factors affect the durability of a steel structure:
(a) Environment
(b) Degree of exposure
(c) Shape of the member and the structural detail
(d) Protective measures
(e) Ease of maintenance
A designer should refer to the IS code provisions given in section 15 of IS 800-2007
and also to specialised literature on durability.
Fire Resistance
A steel structure should have sufficient fire resistance level (FRL) specified in terms of
minutes depending upon the purpose for which the structure is used and the time
taken to evacuate in case of fire. For detailed specifications a designer may refer to
section 16 of IS 800-2007 along with IS 1641, IS 1642, IS 1643 and any other specialised
literature on fire resistance.
STABILITY CHECKS
After designing a structure for strength, it should be checked for instability due to
overturning, uplift or sliding under factored loads. In checking for instability
disturbing forces should be taken as design loads and stabilising forces may be taken
as design loads (factored loads) with lesser factor of safety (0.9) as specified
A structure should be adequately stiff against sway and fatigue also. In the chapters to
follow now onwards, design principles are made clear from the point of limit states of
strength and deflections. In most of the buildings these are the predominant limit
states, but in all important and special buildings, a designer has to ensure that other
limit states are not exceeded.

2. Characteristic load and load factor

Load factor
Definition: Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a given period
to the maximum demand (peak load) occurring in that period. In other words, the
load factor is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period of the times of hours to
the peak load which has occurred during that particular period.

Load factor means how efficiently we use energy. It is the measure of the utilisation of
electrical energy during a given period to the maximum energy which would have
been utilised in that period. The load factor plays an important role in the cost of
generation per unit (kWh). The higher the load factor the smaller will be the
generation cost for the same maximum demands. Load factor regarding energy,

Depending on the number of hours in days, weeks, months, or years we define

different load factors. For daily load factor, period T is taken as 24 hours; similarly, for
weeks, months and years the different value of T is taken.
Mathematically,

For calculating load factor, the following information is required;

1. Actual kilowatt hours used (kWh)

2. Peak kilowatt demand (kW)
3. Number of days

Characteristic load is that value of load which has a 95 percent probability of not
being exceeded during the lifetime of the structure. In absence of any data, loads
given in various standards shall be assumed as the characteristic loads

3. CLEAR COVER FOR ALL STRUCTURAL MEMBER

Clear cover for all structural member

Nominal Cover Nominal cover is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel
reinforcements, including links. It is the dimension used in design and indicated in
the drawings. It shall be not less than the diameter of the bar.
Nominal Cover to Meet Durability Requirement

Minimum values for the nominal cover of normal weight aggregate concrete which
should be provided to all reinforcement, including links depending on the condition
of exposure.

However for a longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column nominal cover shall in any case
not be less than 40 mm, or less than the diameter of such a bar. In the case of columns
of minimum dimension of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do not exceed
12mm, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used.

For footings minimum cover shall be 50 mm.

Nominal Cover to Meet Specified Period of Fire Resistance

Minimum values of nominal cover of normal-weight aggregate concrete to be

provided to all reinforcement including links to meet specified period of resistance
shall be given in Table.
4. Deflection criterion in slab

The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the appearance
or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. The deflection shall generally be
limited to the following:

a) The final deflection due to all loads including the effect of temperature, creep and
shrinkage and measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all
other horizontal members, should not normally exceed span/250.

b) The deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring
after erection of partitions and the application of finishes should not normally exceed
span/350 or 20 mm whichever is less.

The vertical deflection limits may, generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that
the span to depth ratios are not greater than the values obtained as below:

a) Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans up to 10m: Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20 Continuous 26

b) For spans above 10m, the value sin (a) may be multiplied by 10/span in meters,
except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made.

c) Depending on the area and the stress of steel for tension reinforcement, the values
in(a) or (b) shall be modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained

d) Depending on the area of compression reinforcement, the value of span to depth

ratio can be further modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained.
e) For flanged beams, the values of (a) or (b) be modified and the reinforcement
percentage for should be based on area of section equal to b,d.

NOTE-When deflections are required to be calculated, the method given in Annex C

may be used

5.
6.Slenderness Limits for Columns
The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times the
least lateral dimension of a column.
If, in any given plane, one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported
length, it shall not exceed
100b^2/ D
where b = width-of that cross-section,
and D = depth of the cross-section measured in the plane under consideration.

7.One Way slab Two way slab

In one way slab, the ratio of longer span In a two way slab, the ratio of longer
panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is equal span panel (L) to shorter span panel (B)
or greater than 2. Thus, L/B ≥ 2 is less than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.

Slab panel is supported on two opposite Slab panel is supported on four sides of
sides in short direction of one-way slab the two-way slab.

One way slab bends or deflect in a direction Two way slabs bend or deflect in both
perpendicular to the supporting edges directions.

Deflected shape of the one way slab is Deflected shape of two way slab is dish-
cylindrical. shaped

One way slab has structural strength in Two way slab has structural strength in
shorter direction the shortest direction

Main reinforcement is provided in only one Main reinforcement is provided in both

direction for one way slabs. directions for two way slabs.

8. General guidelines as per IS code for slab, beam

for tensile reinforcement minimum and maximum percentage, spacing and
Curtailment.
Maximum, Distance Between Bars in Tension
Unless the calculation of crack widths shows that a greater spacing is acceptable, the
following rules shall be applied to flexural members in normal internal or external
conditions of exposure.
a) Beams - The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars, or groups,
ncarthe tension face of a beam shall not be greater than the value given in Table 15
depending on the amount of redistribution carried out in analysis and the
characteristic strength of the reinForcement.
b) Slabs
1) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not be
more than three times the effective depth of solid slab or 300 IntTI whichever is
smaller.
2) The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars provided against
shrinkage and temperature shall not be more than five times the effective depth of a
solid slab or 450 mm whichever is smaller.

Clear distance between the bars

Percentage redistribution to or from section considered

fy -30 -15 0 +15 +30

N/mm2 mm mm mm mm mm

250 215 260 300 300 300

415 125 155 180 210 235

500 105 130 150 175 195

Curtailment of bundled bars:

Bars in a bundle shall terminate at different points spaced apart by not less than 40
times the bar diameter except for bundles stopping. at a support.

9
• Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is simply
supported on both edges meeting at that comer. It shall consist of top and
bottom reinforcement, each with layers of bars placed parallel to the sides of
the slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance of one-fifth of the
shorterspan.The area of reinforcement in each of these four layers shall be
three-quarters of the area required for the maximum mid-span moment in the
slab.
 • Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described above shall be provided at
a corner contained by an edge over only one of which the slab is continuous.
• Torsion reinforcements need not be provided at any comer contained by edges
over both of which the slab is continuous.
• Torsion ly/lx is greater than 2, the slabs shall be designed as spanning one way.
1. If two adjacent edges are discontinuous
We provide full torsion in both ways( x and y direction)
2. When two adjacent edges are continuous - no torsion should be provided
3. If one edge is discontinuous and other is continuous we provide 50% of torsion
Note : if continuity is there on both sides then no torsion steel is required.

Both adjacent sides discontinuous- T= .75 x Astx+

If one is continuous and one is discontinuous - T’= .375 x Astx+

10. SHEAR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

• Shear reinforcement is oriented perpendicular to the flexural reinforcement.
• It can take the form of stirrups (typically used for beams), welded-wire fabric
(used for joists), and ties/spiral cages for columns.
• It keeps cracks parallel to the flexural reinforcement small.
• Shear reinforcement that encloses the core of the member serves to confine the
concrete.
• 10) SHEAR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS
• Shear reinforcement is oriented perpendicular to the flexural reinforcement.
• It can take the form of stirrups (typically used for beams), welded-wire fabric
(used for joists), and ties/spiral cages for columns.
• It keeps cracks parallel to the flexural reinforcement small.
• Shear reinforcement that encloses the core of the member serves to confine the
concrete. (Table 20)
• Under no circumstances,even with shear reinforcement shall the nominal shear
stress in beams tv exceed tc max. (Table 20)
•
• For solid slabs, the nominal shear stress shall not exceed half the appropriate
values given. (Table 19)
• Minimum Shear Reinforcement:
• When tv is less than tc, minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided.
• Design Of Shear Reinforcement:
• When tv exceeds tc given in Table 19, shear reinforcement shall be provided in
any of the following forms:
• Vertical stirrups
• Bent-up bars along with stirrups
• Inclined stirrups
• Where bent-up bars are provided, their contribution towards shear resistance
shall not be more than half that of the total shear reinforcement.
11.
12. Effective Span of Stairs The effective span of stairs without stringer beams shall be
taken as the following horizontal distances:
a) Where supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning parallel with
the risers. the distance centre-to-centre of beams
b) Where spanning on to the edge of a landing slab. which spans parallel, with
the risers, a distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each end either half
the width of the landing or one metre. whichever is smaller
c) Where the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs. They shall
be considered as acting together to form a single slab and the span determined
 as the distance centre-to-centre of the supporting beams or walls. the going
being measured horizontally.

13. A load-bearing structure and frame structure are two methods of building
structural framing. Load bearing structures were popular earlier, but now due to
comparative advantages the frame structure has become obsolete.

• A load-bearing structure is one in which a brick masonry wall is the

major structural element in the foundation as well as in the building
framework.
• All the above load is carried by a wall and also transferred to the ground
through the foundation which is also made up of brick masonry. There is
no framework of column, beam, and foundation which are made from
concrete.
• In frame structure, all above a load of building or structure is taken by beam,
column, and foundation. Beams are connected to the column and column
connected to the footing foundation.
• Beam transfer load to the column and column transfer it to footing and
ultimately footing lay down it to ground safely.
 Load Bearing Structures Framed Structures

Almost all the walls are load-bearing walls. None of the walls are load-bearing.
They serve the same purpose as a
partition or screen.

Almost all should be provided with a None of the walls are provided with
foundation. any type of foundation. Walls do not
go below the plinth beam.

Load-bearing walls are taken deep into the The only column is taken deep into the
subsoil foundation. subsoil and provided with foundation
footing.

Any load-bearing wall should have a minimum Exterior walls subjected to weathering
thickness of 200 mm. elements are generally 200 mm thick.
All other walls can be 100 mm thick or
even thinner.

Walls are usually constructed of bricks or The column supporting beam

stone. supporting slab is all of R.C. C.

In a multi-storeyed building for every wall on There is no such necessity. As none of

the floor above, there must be a corresponding the walls is load-bearing. Every floor
wall in continuation in the floor below to may have a wall independent of the
support it. one below it.

In a multi-storeyed building the thickness of These walls do not take the load and
the wall increases as we descend from a floor need not be thicker. They may not
above to one below it. even continue on the floor below.

A load-bearing wall once constructed shall The walls of the framed structure can
remain in position and should never be be displaced at will as they are lighter
dismantled in full or part. and non-load bearing.

This type of construction does not favor too
many openings for windows, doors,
ventilation, etc., in the ground floor as
required for the showroom, etc., as the load-
bearing length of the wall is considerably
reduced.
The space between columns can
remain as open space as the case with
multi-storeyed residential flats where
the ground floor is left with no walls
for easy parking of the vehicle.

In the case of multi–story buildings, the room The thickness of the wall remains
area is reduced as we go down due to thicker uniform, therefore the carpet area on
walls. any floor remains the same.