1.

Philosophy of limit state design

PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN:

 In limit state design risk-based evaluation criteria is included. Thus, the philosophy
of limit state design method is to see that the structure remains fit for use
throughout its designed life by remaining within the acceptable limit of safety and
serviceability requirements based on the risks involved.

 Aim of a design is to see that the structure built is safe and it serves the purpose for
which it is built. A structure may become unfit for use not only when it collapses but also
when it violates the serviceability requirements of deflections, vibrations, cracks due to
fatigue, corrosion and fire. In this method of design various limiting conditions are fixed
to consider a structure as fit. At any stage of its designed life (120 years for permanent
structures), the structure should not exceed these limiting conditions. The design is
based on probable load and probable strength of materials.
 These are to be selected on a probabilistic approach. The safety factor for each limiting
condition may vary depending upon the risk involved. It is not necessary to design every
structure to withstand exceptional events like blast and earthquake. In limit state design
risk based evaluation criteria is included. Thus, the philosophy of the limit state design
method is to see that the structure remains fit for use throughout its designed life by
remaining within the acceptable limit of safety and serviceability requirements based on
the risks involved.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Steel structure designed and constructed should satisfy the requirements regarding stability,
strength, serviceability, brittle fracture, fatigue, fire and durability. The structures should meet the
following requirements (IS 800-2007, clause 5.1.2): 
(A) Remain fit with adequate reliability and be able to sustain all loads and other influences
experienced during construction and use.
(B) Have adequate durability under normal maintenance. 
(C) Do not suffer overall damage or collapse disproportionately under accidental events like
explosions, vehicle impact or due to consequences of human error to an extent beyond
local damage. 
The catastrophic damage shall be limited or avoided by appropriate choice of one or more of the
following: 
(a) Avoiding, eliminating or reducing exposure to hazards, which the structure is likely to
sustain.
(b) Choosing structural forms, layouts and details and designing such that:

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for loads, gf for limit state 
Durability Considerations
 The following factors affect the durability of a steel structure:
 Environment
 Degree of exposure
 Shape of the member and the structural detail 
 Protective measures 
 Ease of maintenance
A designer should refer to the IS code provisions given in section 15 of IS 800-2007 and also to
specialised literature on durability. 
Fire Resistance 
A steel structure should have sufficient fire resistance level (FRL) specified in terms of minutes
depending upon the purpose for which the structure is used and the time taken to evacuate in
case of fire. For detailed specifications a designer may refer to section 16 of IS 800-2007 along
with IS 1641, IS 1642, IS 1643 and any other specialised literature on fire resistance.
 
STABILITY CHECKS 
After designing a structure for strength, it should be checked for instability due to overturning,
uplift or sliding under factored loads. In checking for instability disturbing forces should be taken
as design loads and stabilising forces may be taken as design loads (factored loads) with lesser
factor of safety (0.9) as specified in Table 2.1. 
A structure should be adequately stiff against sway and fatigue also. In the chapters to follow
now onwards, design principles are made clear from the point of limit states of strength and
deflections. In most of the buildings these are the predominant limit states, but in all important
and special buildings, a designer has to ensure that other limit states are not exceeded.

2. Characteristic load and load factor

Load factor
Definition: Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a given period to the maximum
demand (peak load) occurring in that period. In other words, the load factor is the ratio of energy
consumed in a given period of the times of hours to the peak load which has occurred during that
particular period.

Load factor means how efficiently we use energy. It is the measure of the utilisation of electrical
energy during a given period to the maximum energy which would have been utilised in that period.
The load factor plays an important role in the cost of generation per unit (kWh). The higher the load
factor the smaller will be the generation cost for the same maximum demands. Load factor regarding
energy,

Depending on the number of hours in days, weeks, months, or years we define different load factors.
For daily load factor, period T is taken as 24 hours; similarly, for weeks, months and years the
different value of T is taken.
Mathematically,

For calculating load factor, the following information is required;

1. Actual kilowatt hours used (kWh)

2. Peak kilowatt demand (kW)
3. Number of days

Characteristic load is that value of load which has a 95 percent probability of not being exceeded
during the lifetime of the structure. In absence of any data, loads given in various standards shall be
assumed as the characteristic loads

3.  CLEAR COVER FOR ALL STRUCTURAL MEMBER

 Clear cover for all structural member Nominal Cover Nominal cover is the design
depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcements, including links. It is the
dimension used in design and indicated in the drawings. It shall be not less than the
diameter of the bar.
 Nominal Cover to Meet Durability Requirement Minimum values for the nominal
cover of normal weight aggregate concrete which should be provided to all
reinforcement, including links depending on the condition of exposure.
 However for a longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column nominal cover shall in any
case not be less than 40 mm, or less than the diameter of such a bar. In the case of
columns of minimum dimension of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do not
exceed 12mm, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used.
 For footings minimum cover shall be 50 mm.
 Nominal Cover to Meet Specified Period of Fire Resistance Minimum values of
nominal cover of normal-weight aggregate concrete to be provided to all
 reinforcement including links to meet specified period of resistance shall be given in
Table

.4. Deflection criterion in slab

The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the appearance or
efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. The deflection shall generally be limited
to the following:

a) The final deflection due to all loads including the effect of temperature, creep and
shrinkage and measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all other
horizontal members, should not normally exceed span/250.

b) The deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring after
erection of partitions and the application of finishes should not normally exceed span/350 or
20 mm whichever is less. The vertical deflection limits may, generally be assumed to be
satisfied provided that the span to depth ratios are not greater than the values obtained as
below:

 Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans up to 10m: Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20 Continuous 26
 For spans above 10m, the value sin (a) may be multiplied by 10/span in meters,
except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made.
 Depending on the area and the stress of steel for tension reinforcement, the values
in(a) or (b) shall be modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained
 Depending on the area of compression reinforcement, the value of span to depth
ratio can be further modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained.
 For flanged beams, the values of (a) or (b) be modified and the reinforcement
percentage for should be based on area of section equal to b,d.

NOTE-When deflections are required to be calculated, the method given in Annex C may be
used 5
5.

6.Slenderness Limits for Columns 

The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times the least lateral
dimension of a column. 

If, in any given plane, one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported length, it shall not
exceed   

100b^2/ D

where b = width-of that cross-section, 

and D = depth of the cross-section measured in the plane under consideration.

7.One Way slab       

                                                    Two way slab
In one way slab, the ratio of longer span In a two way slab, the ratio of longer span
panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is equal or panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is less
greater than 2. Thus, L/B ≥ 2 than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.

Slab panel is supported on two opposite Slab panel is supported on four sides of
sides in short direction of one-way slab the two-way slab.

One way slab bends or deflect in a direction Two way slabs bend or deflect in both
perpendicular to the supporting edges directions.

Deflected shape of the one way slab is Deflected shape of two way slab is dish-
cylindrical. shaped

One way slab has structural strength in shorter Two way slab has structural strength in
direction the shortest direction

Main reinforcement is provided in only one Main reinforcement is provided in both

direction for one way slabs. directions for two way slabs.

8. General guidelines as per IS code for slab, beam for tensile reinforcement

minimum and maximum percentage, spacing and Curtailment.

Maximum, Distance Between Bars in Tension 

Unless the calculation of crack widths shows that a greater spacing is acceptable, the following
rules shall be applied to flexural members in normal internal or external conditions of exposure.
 Beams - The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars, or groups, narthex
tension face of a beam shall not be greater than the value given in Table 15 depending on
the amount of redistribution carried out in analysis and the characteristic strength of the
reinforcement. 
 Slabs
1) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not be more than
three times the effective depth of solid slab or 300 IntTI whichever is smaller. 
2) The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars provided against shrinkage and
temperature shall not be more than five times the effective depth of a solid slab or 450 mm
whichever is smaller.

Clear distance between the bars

                                  Percentage redistribution to or from section considered

fy -30 -15 0 +15 +30

 N/mm2 mm mm mm mm mm

250 215 260 300 300 300

415 125 155 180 210 235

500 105 130 150 175 195

Curtailment of bundled bars:

Bars in a bundle shall terminate at different points spaced apart by not less than 40 times the bar
diameter except for bundles stopping. at a support. 

9. Torsion reinforcement in slabs

 Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is simply supported
on both edges meeting at that comer. It shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement,
each with layers of bars placed parallel to the sides of the slab and extending from the
edges a minimum distance of one-fifth of the shorter span. The area of reinforcement in
each of these four layers shall be three-quarters of the area required for the maximum
mid-span moment in the slab.
  Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described above  shall be provided at a corner
contained by an edge over only one of which the slab is continuous.
  Torsion reinforcements need not be provided at any comer contained by edges over both
of which the slab is continuous.
  Torsion ly/lx is greater than 2, the slabs shall be designed as spanning one way.
1) If two adjacent edges are discontinuous, We provide full torsion in both ways( x and y
direction)
2) When two adjacent edges are continuous - no torsion should be provided
3)  If one edge is discontinuous and other is continuous we provide 50% of torsion

Note : if continuity is there on both sides then no torsion steel is required.

                    Both adjacent sides discontinuous- T= .75 x Astx+ 

                   If one  is continuous and one is discontinuous - T’= .375 x Astx+ 

10. SHEAR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

 Shear reinforcement is oriented perpendicular to the flexural reinforcement.
  It can take the form of stirrups (typically used for beams), welded-wire fabric (used for joists),
and ties/spiral cages for columns.
 It keeps cracks parallel to the flexural reinforcement small.
 Shear reinforcement that encloses the core of the member serves to confine the concrete.
 For solid slabs, the nominal shear stress shall not exceed half the appropriate values given.
(Table 19)
 Minimum Shear Reinforcement:
 When tv is less than tc, minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided.
 Design Of Shear Reinforcement:
 When tv exceeds tc given in Table 19, shear reinforcement shall be provided in any of the
following forms:
• Vertical stirrups
 • Bent-up bars along with stirrups
• Inclined stirrups
• Where bent-up bars are provided, their contribution towards shear resistance shall
not be more than half that of the total shear reinforcement  

11.Boundary conditions in slab as per IS code

12. Staircase effective span requirements

Effective Span of Stairs The effective span of stairs without stringer beams shall be taken as the
following horizontal distances:
 Where supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning parallel with the risers. the
distance centre-to-centre of beams
 Where spanning on to the edge of a landing slab. which spans parallel, with the risers,  a
distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each end either half the width of the landing
or one metre. whichever is smaller
 Where the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs. They shall be considered as
acting together to form a single slab and the span determined as the distance centre-to-
centre of the supporting beams or walls. the going being measured horizontally.

13. Difference between load bearing structure and framed structure

A load-bearing structure and frame structure are two methods of building structural framing. Load
bearing structures were popular earlier, but now due to comparative advantages the frame structure
has become obsolete.

 A load-bearing structure is one in which a brick masonry wall is the major structural element
in the foundation as well as in the building framework.
 All the above load is carried by a wall and also transferred to the ground through the
foundation which is also made up of brick masonry. There is no framework of column, beam,
and foundation which are made from concrete.
 In frame structure, all above a load of building or structure is taken by beam, column, and
foundation. Beams are connected to the column and column connected to the footing
foundation.
 Beam transfer load to the column and column transfer it to footing and ultimately footing lay
down it to ground safely.

Load Bearing Structures
Almost all the walls are load-bearing walls.
Almost all should be provided with a
foundation.
Load-bearing walls are taken deep into the
subsoil foundation.
Any load-bearing wall should have a
minimum thickness of 200 mm.
Walls are usually constructed of bricks or
stone.
In a multi-storeyed building for every wall on
the floor above, there must be a
corresponding wall in continuation in the
floor below to support it.
In a multi-storeyed building the thickness of
the wall increases as we descend from a
floor above to one below it.
A load-bearing wall once constructed shall
remain in position and should never be
dismantled in full or part.
This type of construction does not favor too
many openings for windows, doors,
ventilation, etc., in the ground floor as
required for the showroom, etc., as the load-
bearing length of the wall is considerably
reduced.
In the case of multi–story buildings, the
Framed Structures
None of the walls are load-bearing.
They serve the same purpose as a
partition or screen.
None of the walls are provided with any
type of foundation. Walls do not go
below the plinth beam.
The only column is taken deep into the
subsoil and provided with foundation
footing.
Exterior walls subjected to weathering
elements are generally 200 mm thick.
All other walls can be 100 mm thick or
even thinner.
The column supporting beam
supporting slab is all of R.C. C.
There is no such necessity. As none of
the walls is load-bearing. Every floor
may have a wall independent of the
one below it.
These walls do not take the load and
need not be thicker. They may not
even continue on the floor below.
The walls of the framed structure can
be displaced at will as they are lighter
and non-load bearing.
The space between columns can
remain as open space as the case with
multi-storeyed residential flats where
the ground floor is left with no walls for
easy parking of the vehicle.
The thickness of the wall remains
room area is reduced as we go down due to uniform, therefore the carpet area on
thicker walls. any floor remains the same.