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Peer-reviewed version available at Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Mathematica 2019, 11, 371-379; doi:10.2478/ausm-2019-0027
FENG QI
Abstract. In the paper, the author discusses and computes bounds of the
sine and cosine along straight lines on the complex plane.
1. Motivations
In the theory of complex functions, the sine and cosine on the complex plane C
are denoted and defined by
eiz − e−iz e−iz + e−iz
sin z = and cos z = ,
2i 2
where z = x + iy and x, y ∈ R. When z = x ∈ R, these two functions become sin x
and cos x which satisfy the periodicity and boundedness
sin(x + 2kπ) = sin x, cos(x + 2kπ) = cos x, | sin x| ≤ 1, | cos x| ≤ 1
for k ∈ Z. On the other hand, when z = iy for y ∈ R,
e−y − ey e−y + ey
sin(iy) = → ±i∞ and cos(iy) = → +∞
2i 2
as y → ±∞. These imply that the sine and cosine are bounded on the real x-axis,
but unbounded on the imaginary y-axis.
Motivated by the above boundedness, we naturally guess that the complex func-
tions sin z and cos z for z ∈ C are
(1) bounded on all straight lines parallel to the real x-axis,
(2) unbounded on all straight lines whose slopes are not horizontal.
In this paper, we will verify the above guesses and compute bounds for sin z and
cos z on all straight lines parallel to the real x-axis.
Peer-reviewed version available at Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Mathematica 2019, 11, 371-379; doi:10.2478/ausm-2019-0027
2 F. QI
Peer-reviewed version available at Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Mathematica 2019, 11, 371-379; doi:10.2478/ausm-2019-0027
− e−(ix−α) 1 eix
(ix−α)
e −ix α
= = α
− e e
2i 2 e
ix
1 e 1 1
≥ α − e−ix eα = α − eα .
2 e 2 e
Therefore, it follows that
1 1 α
1 1 α
− e ≤ | sin(x + iα)| ≤ +e , x, α ∈ R.
2 eα 2 eα
When z = 2kπ + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei(2kπ+iα) − e−i(2kπ+iα)
i 1 α
sin z = sin(2kπ + iα) = =− − e .
2i 2 eα
π
When z = 2kπ + 2 + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei(2kπ+π/2+iα) − e−i(2kπ+π/2+iα)
π
sin z = sin 2kπ + + iα =
2 2i
i(π/2+iα) −i(π/2+iα) −α α
e −e e +e 1 1 α
= = = +e .
2i 2 2 eα
When z = (2k + 1)π + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei((2k+1)π+iα) − e−i((2k+1)π+iα)
sin z = sin((2k + 1)π + iα) =
2i
ei(π+iα) − e−i(π+iα)
1 α 1 i 1
= = e − α = − eα − α .
2i 2i e 2 e
When z = (2k + 1)π + π2 + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei((2k+1)π+π/2+iα) − e−i((2k+1)π+π/2+iα)
π
sin z = sin (2k + 1)π + + iα =
2 2i
i(3π/2+iα) −i(3π/2+iα) −α α
e −e e +e 1 1 α
= =− =− + e .
2i 2 2 eα
Peer-reviewed version available at Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Mathematica 2019, 11, 371-379; doi:10.2478/ausm-2019-0027
4 F. QI
1 eix −ix α 1 1
α
≥ α
− e e = α
− e .
2 e 2 e
Therefore, it follows that
1 1 α
1 1 α
− e ≤ | cos(x + iα)| ≤ + e , x, α ∈ R.
2 eα 2 eα
When z = 2kπ + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei(2kπ+iα) + e−i(2kπ+iα)
1 1 α
cos z = cos(2kπ + iα) = = + e .
2 2 eα
π
When z = 2kπ + 2 + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei(2kπ+π/2+iα) + e−i(2kπ+π/2+iα)
π
cos z = cos 2kπ + + iα =
2 2
i(π/2+iα) −i(π/2+iα) −α α
e +e ie − ie i 1 α
= = = − e .
2 2 2 eα
When z = (2k + 1)π + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei((2k+1)π+iα) + e−i((2k+1)π+iα)
cos z = cos((2k + 1)π + iα) =
2
ei(π+iα) + e−i(π+iα)
1 1 α
= =− +e .
2 2 eα
When z = (2k + 1)π + π2 + iα for k ∈ Z, we have
ei((2k+1)π+π/2+iα) + e−i((2k+1)π+π/2+iα)
π
cos z = cos (2k + 1)π + + iα =
2 2
i(3π/2+iα) −i(3π/2+iα) −α α
e +e −ie + ie i 1 α
= = =− −e .
2 2 2 eα
5. Conclusions
On the sloped straight line y = α + βx for α ∈ R and β 6= 0 on the complex
plane C, the trigonometric functions sin z = sin(x + i(α + βx)) and cos z = cos(x +
i(α + βx)) are unbounded.
On the vertical line x = γ for any scalar γ ∈ R on the complex plane C, the
trigonometric functions sin z = sin(γ + iy) and cos z = cos(γ + iy) are unbounded.
On the horizontal line y = α for any constant α ∈ R on the complex plane C,
the trigonometric functions sin z = sin(x + iα) and cos z = cos(x + iα) are bounded
by the double inequalities
| sinh α| ≤ | sin(x + iα)| ≤ cosh α, x, α ∈ R (1)
and
| sinh α| ≤ | cos(x + iα)| ≤ cosh α, x, α ∈ R (2)
whose equalities are attained at points
π 3π
2kπ + iα, 2kπ + + iα, (2k + 1)π + iα, 2kπ + + iα
2 2
with concrete values
3π
sin(2kπ + iα) = cos 2kπ + + iα = i sinh α,
2
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 19 September 2018 doi:10.20944/preprints201809.0365.v1
Peer-reviewed version available at Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Mathematica 2019, 11, 371-379; doi:10.2478/ausm-2019-0027
π
sin 2kπ + + iα = cos(2kπ + iα) = cosh α,
2
π
sin((2k + 1)π + iα) = cos 2kπ + + iα = −i sinh α,
2
3π
sin 2kπ + + iα = cos((2k + 1)π + iα) = − cosh α
2
for k ∈ Z.
Letting α → 0 in the double inequalities (1) and (2) leads to
0 ≤ | sin x| ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ | cos x| ≤ 1, x ∈ R.
On the horizontal belt zones 0 ≤ A ≤ y ≤ B and −B ≤ y ≤ −A ≤ 0 on
the complex plane C, the trigonometric functions sin z = sin(x + iy) and cos z =
cos(x + iy) are bounded by the double inequality
| sinh A| ≤ | cos(x ± iy)| ≤ cosh B, x ∈ R.