Chapter 1: Introduction to Bio-Engineering

1.1 Definition
Nepal is prone to natural as well as human-induced hazards. Earthquake, landslide, debris flow,
glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF), avalanche, and cloud burst are the natural causes of erosion
and slope instabilities. When such hazards occur, bridges, roads, and power intakes located in the
mountainous regions may destroyed. In the Terai area, many paddy fields are either eroded or
submerged with floodwater.
As it is too costly to construct heavy civil engineering structures and use high technology for
solving these problems. The experiences of past several years have shown that such types of
problem can be solved by using living plants with small civil engineering structures. The use of
livening plants either alone or in combination with small-scale civil engineering structures or non-
living plant materials for the purpose of reducing the shallow-seated instability and controlling
erosion on slopes of any watershed can be named as Bioengineering. It is not a new technique for
Nepal. The indigenous methods similar to bioengineering are in practice for centuries.

1.2 History of Bio-Engineering

The traditional methods similar to bioengineering in current sense were in practice for centuries in
our hills. Not only in our hills, the practice of bioengineering can be traced to ancient peoples of
Asia and Europe. Chinese historians recorded use of bioengineering techniques for dike repair as
early as 28 BC. Later, Romans used fascines, bundles of willow poles, for riverbank protection.
By the 16th Century, bioengineering techniques were being used and developed throughout
Europe. By 20th century, European bioengineers had found new applications for old traditional
technologies to deal with the new environmental problems. In 1936, Hitler established a research
institute in Munich charged with developing bioengineering techniques for road construction.
Later Arthur von Kruedener, the head of the institute, continued to work in the field and is known
as the father of bioengineering. In United States of America, bioengineering works started from
the stabilizing degrading slopes in the national forests of central and southern California.
Bioengineering approaches most often use locally available materials and a minimum of heavy
equipment, and can offer local people an inexpensive way to resolve local environmental

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problems. The public’s increased environmental consciousness often makes bioengineering
solutions more acceptable than traditional “hard” engineering approaches.

1.3 Problems on Slope

There are many problems in our slopes regarding the sallow depth instabilities. During the
monsoon, sallow depth instabilities are major problem in the hilly region and erosion and
deposition problem in chure and terai region. Mainly following problems can be listed:
a. Materials roll down the slope
b. Water enters into slope or liquefy the slope material
c. Loose state of materials
d. Outward and downward movement of slope due to gravity
e. Slip of overlying layer
f. Accumulation of water

1.4 Scope of Bio-Engineering

Bioengineering can be applied in different fields. For example, slope stabilisation on embankments
and cut slopes, erosion control, water course and shoreline protection, wind erosion control, noise
reduction, traffic control, mining and reclamation, construction sites, waste disposal and public
health, reservoirs and dams, buildings, highways, railways, and the like.

1.5 Benefit of Bioengineering

In Nepal, roadside bioengineering has been practiced since last 21 years. Bioengineering is an one
of the best way for stabilizing areas of soil instability. On areas of potential or existing mass
wasting, it may be best to use a civil engineering system (such as check dam, toe wall, catch wall,
stone pavement etc) alone or in combination with bioengineering.

Benefits of bioengineering in a watershed includes

 Less cost and less impact on slope as well as less soil disturbance to the site and adjoining
areas.

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  Use of native plant materials and seed may provide ecological establishment. Indigenous
plant species are readily available and well adapted to local climate and soil conditions.

 Bioengineering projects may be installed during the dormant season of late fall, winter, and
early spring.

 Bioengineering work can also be useful on sensitive or steep sites where easy accessibility
is not feasible.

 Bioengineering systems are strong initially and grow stronger with time as vegetation
becomes established.

 Once plants are established, root systems reinforce the soil and remove excess moisture
from the soil profile.

 Bioengineering provides improved landscape and habitat values in the watershed.

1.6 Functions of Bioengineering System

Any structures are constructed to fulfil a concrete function. This means, any structure fulfils its
engineering as well as other functions. As described earlier in Bioengineering, small-scale civil
engineering (inert) and vegetative structures are used. Generally, these structures are used for
fulfilment of the following six engineering functions.

Engineering Functions

1.6.1 Catch Function

Loose materials have the tendency of rolling down the slope because of gravity as well as erosion.
This tendency can be controlled by constructing any structure, which could catch the rolling-down
materials.

1.6.2 Armour Function

Some slopes are very water sensitive. It means, they start moving or are liquefied easily when they
intercept water. Or, there may be the case of a high rate of infiltration, which later, causes shear

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failure. Therefore, such types of slope should be covered so that the water could be diverted easily.
It is called the armouring function.

1.6.3 Reinforce Function

Because of presence of voids, the soil may not be compacted, and it may need bonding of the
grains. The structure constructed for this purpose fulfils the reinforce function.

1.6.4 Support Function

On the slope with the length more that 15 m, the lateral earth pressure causes the lateral and
outward movement of the slope material. This tendency can be controlled by constructing any
retaining types of structure. They fulfil the support function.

1.6.5 Anchor Function

If there is the case of failure of overlying layers with respect to stable underlying strata, the upper
strata can be pinned up with the underlying ones. This activity fulfils the anchor function.

1.6.6 Drain Function

Water is the main problem leading to instabilities on slopes. It could be the surface water or the
groundwater. Therefore, the water should be diverted safely from the slopes.

 
Armour
Catch
 
Reinforce
Support  

 
Anchor

 
Fig 2.1, Engineering functions of plant  

Hydrological Functions

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Cloud

 
Rain

Interception  

Evaporation  
Store
 

Leaf drip
 
Pool formation
 

Water Uptake  

 
Fig 2.2, Hydrological functions of plant
 
a. Leaves intercept raindrops before they hit the ground.
b. Water evaporates from the leaf surface.
c. Water is stored in the canopy and stems.
d. Large or localized water droplets fall from the leaves.
e. Surface runoff is checked by stems and grass leaves.
f. Stems and roots increase the roughness of the ground surface and the permeability of
the soil.
Roots extract moisture from the soil, which is then released to the atmosphere through
transpiration.

1.7. Advantages of bioengineering

a. Protects almost all slopes against erosion

b. Reduces the instance of shallow seated instability
c. Improves surface drainage and reduces slumping
d. Physical flexibility

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 e. Versatility in application
f. The only solution for some problems.
g. Cost effective
h. Environmentally advantageous
i. Socially advantageous
1.7 Scope of Bioengineering

a. Mining and reclamation

b. Highways and railways
c. Construction sites
d. Waste disposal and public health
e. Airfields and helipads
f. Waterways
g. Land drainages
h. Reservoirs and dams
i. Coastal and shoreline protection
j. Buildings
k. Recreation
l. Pipelines
m. Site appraisal
1.8 Applications of Bioengineering
a. Slope stabilization
a. Embankment
b. Cutting
b. Erosion control
c. Water course and shoreline protection
d. Wind erosion control
e. Vegetation barriers
a. Shelters
b. Noise reduction
f. Surface protection and trafficability

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 g. Control of runoff in small catchments
h. Plants as indicators

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF BIOENGINEERING

a. Not able to function in its initial stage

b. Root Penetration on Foundation and Drains

c. Choking of Waterways with plant growth

d. Vegetation growth on structure cause adverse effect on the performance of structural

material

e. Needs aftercare, Regular repair and Maintenance

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 Chapter 2: Hydrology
2.1 Runoff Generation

Partial processes that generate runoff

1. Precipitation
2. Heat energy exchange with atmosphere and space
3. Interception of rainfall drops
4. Snow cover formation and water yield from snow
5. Soil erosion
6. Evaporation
7. Subsurface overflow
8. Infiltration characteristics

Distribution of Rainfall In Nepal

The temporal and spatial variation of rainfall in Nepal is very high. 80-90% of rainfall occurs
during June to September. Nevertheless, rainfall in Nepal occurs with different mechanisms.

(a) Orographic Rainfall: This type of rainfall is due to the condensation of moisture-laden
vapour as it meet orographic barrier (mountains). The monsoon rainfall in Nepal (June-
Sept) is mainly by this mechanism. During these months the moisture-laden vapour from
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal get intercepted by high mountains of Nepal causing
condensation as it rises up. This results in high rainfall across the southern flanks of
Annapurna range (windward face) and low rainfall along trans Himalayan region
(Leeward face).

(b) Frontal Rainfall: When dry cold wind and light moisture laden hot wind meet at front,
heavy cold wind compels to rise the latter resulting in condensation. This mechanism
prevails in Nepal during winter as hot moisture laden wind from Mediterranean sea meets
cold wind from central Asia. As a consequence winter rainfall is much significant in the
western part of Nepal.

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 (c) Convective Rainfall: This type of rainfall mechanism is very local in nature. During
April month the temperature in Terai is high causing significant evaporation from water
bodies and soil and evapotranspiration from vegetation. However the environment at high
altitude is still cold enough to condense convectively the evaporated moisture locally
resulting in rainfall.

(d) Cyclonic Rainfall: Cyclones are the large concentric low-pressure zones. Such zones
appear in Bay of Bengal and its vicinity during autumn resulting in rapid condensation of
moisture. This mechanism is mainly responsible for rainfall in Nepal during autumn.

Moist sites

The main factors making sites more moist are:

- exposure to rain-bearing winds;

- topography causing uplift of the wind;

- shade from the sun (e.g. north-facing slopes).

Drier sites

The main factors making sites drier are:

- rain shadow effect;

- exposure to the sun (e.g. south-facing slopes);

- higher site temperatures;

- soils with low infiltration rates;

- dry winds in big river valleys.

Rainfall severely affects plants because it is essential for growth. The variations of rainfall,
temperature and evapotranspiration can be measured. Their effects on soil water balances can be
demonstrated graphically.

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Quantification of runoff

Rational Method

The quantity of runoff

Q=

Where,

∑
C = Runoff coefficient or imperviousness factor = ∑

i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr

i= for t=5 to 20 minutes

i= for t=20 to 100 minutes

t = smaller of duration of rainfall and time of concentration

A = Area of catchment in hector

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2.2 Infiltration

Causes of infiltration

1. Gravity
2. Porosity of soil

Factors affecting rate of infiltration

1. Slope angle: the steeper the slope, the greater is the chance that water will run off.
2. Soil texture: the finer the soil particles, the slower will be the infiltration.
3. Vegetation cover: vegetation helps to break up the soil and make it more porous, thus
increasing infiltration; but it is necessary to look at the micro level: a short grass cover
creates a very different effect from a few large trees with nothing in between.
4. Ease of entry
5. Storage capacity
6. Permeability of soil
7. Initial saturation of soil

Soil texture Representative IR Normal range of IR

(mm/hr) (mm/hr)

Clay 0.5 < 0.1 - 8

Silty clay 2 0.3 - 5

Clay loam 8 2 - 15

Loam 10 1 - 20

Sandy loam 20 10 - 80

Sand 50 20 - 250

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Quantification of Infiltration

Water Budget Equation

F= BI + P – E – T – ET – S – IA – R – Bo

Where

F is infiltration

BI is boundary input (water from another impervious watershed)

Bo is boundary output

P is precipitation

E is Evaporation

T is Transpiration

ET is Evapotranspiration

S is storage

IA is initial surface storage

R is surface runoff

2.3 Runoff related Hazards

Water can move over the surface of ground, into the surface to a depth of a few centimeters,
further down into the soil profile, and deep into rocks. All these pathways can lead to instability
in various forms.

There are, generally, five types of erosion caused by the runoff. They are listed below:

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 1. Splashing or rain drop erosion
2. Sheet erosion
3. Rill erosion
4. Gully erosion
5. Chanel erosion

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 Chapter 3: Geology

3.1 Introduction to Minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring crystalline chemical compounds. Rocks are bonded aggregations
of minerals. These are natural inorganic substance and have definite structure.
Rocks may contain several different types of minerals, which have very different chemical
compositions and strength properties contributing to slope failures.

3.2 Physical Properties Of Minerals

The main physical properties of minerals are the following:

a. Colour
b. Streak (Colour in powder)
c. Shape of the crystal (crystal habit)
d. Size of the crystal
e. Cleavage
f. Lustre
g. Transparency
h. Hardness
i. Tenacity (can be bent)
j. Specific gravity
k. Odour
l. Taste
m. Others
The colour of the mineral depends upon the presence of the colouring elements such as iron
(yellow, black, red, and green), copper (green, blue), and chromium (green).
The colour of the mineral powder (streak) is generally different from the colour of the crystal.
Some of the minerals have very characteristic streak.
The shape of the mineral grain (crystal habit) is defined by its internal crystal structure. The
crystals follow certain symmetry elements. The terms: needle-shaped means that the grains are
elongated in one direction, flaky means very thin layers such as micas, whereas tabular means that
the grains have the form similar to a table. The prismatic grains are like prisms or rods and the
equi-dimensional grains are like a cube or a ball.
Similarly, the grain size of the mineral can be grouped into the following divisions.

1 Less than 0.1 mm (very fine-grained)

2 From 0.1 mm to 1 mm (fine-grained)
3 From 1 mm to 2 mm (medium-grained)

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 4 From 2 mm to 5 mm (coarse-grained)
5 Greater than 5 mm (very coarse-grained)
Cleavage is the property of the mineral grain to split into parallel planer surfaces. There could be
one, two, and three sets of cleavages. The cleavage may be excellent, distinct, and weak in
appearance.
Hardness refers to the resistance of the minerals to scratching. Some are so hard that they readily
scratch glass, while others themselves are readily scratched with a fragment of glass, the point of
knife, or even the fingernail. The minerals can be grouped into the following way:

1 Hardness more than 5: those, which scratch the glass.

2 Hardness between 5 and 3.5: those, which scratch the hammer or knife but not the glass.
3 Hardness between 3.5 and 1.5: those, which are scratched by hammer but not by fingernail.
4 Hardness less than 1.5: those, which are scratched by the fingernail.
Lustre refers to the property of the mineral to reflect light. Some minerals reflect much light and
show metallic lustre, others have the appearance of glass and are said to have the vitreous lustre.
They also may have pearly lustre, and some are dull like earth.
Transparency is the property of the mineral to refract light. The minerals can be transparent,
translucent, and opaque.
Tenacity refers to the property of the mineral grain to bend (such as mica), and malleability is the
property of the minerals to be scratched like a metal.
The specific gravity of the mineral grains also varies widely and it is widely used to identify them.
The other properties such as electrical conductivity, magnetism, radioactivity, and are other
properties characteristic of some minerals.
Thus, minerals, which are the constituent parts of rocks, can be easily identified if enough attention
is given to their physical properties.

3.3 Introduction to Rocks

The geological classification of rocks is different from the engineering classification. But the
geological classification is important because it gives the insight into the processes of rock
formation and changes. The rocks in the hand specimen may not always be the best representatives
of the site conditions. However, it is important to examine the rock closely in the sample and then
get the general picture of the site conditions.

3.3.1 Geological classification of rocks

The rocks are classified into three major groups: the igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

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Igneous rocks: The rocks originated from cooling of molten material called magma or lava. It the
rock solidifies inside the earth, it is called intrusive rocks, whereas the rocks solidified at the
surface are called volcanic. Common igneous rocks are granite, gabbro, rhyolite, basalt, and
trachyte.
Sedimentary rocks: The rocks formed at the surface of the earth by the process of weathering,
transportation, and deposition by wind, water, snow, or biological processes. They are classified
into the clastic rocks (made up of fragments), precipitates (rock salt, iron ore), and organic (coal,
peat). Common sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, shale, mudstone, limestone, and
dolomite.
Metamorphic rocks: The rocks which have undergone significant changes in their solid state after
their formation by the action of pressures and temperatures in the earth’s crust are called the
metamorphic rocks. Common metamorphic rocks are: slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, and gneiss.
The cyclic relations between these three types of rock can be understood by the help of rock cycle.

Rock Cycle 

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3.3.2 Textures and structures of rocks
The texture is the shape, size, and internal arrangement of the constituent grains in the rock (the
texture is like the arrangement of bricks in a wall).
Structure is the interrelationship of various textures (the structure is like the position of windows,
ceiling, floor, and other parts of a house).
The intrusive igneous rocks have interlocked crystals. The grains are the crystals formed from
the magma.
Example: Granite 

The volcanic igneous rocks contain glass as well as crystals. Example: Basalt
The clastic sedimentary rocks have grains derived from the previous rocks. They contain grains
and cementing material.
Examples: conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone.
The precipitate sedimentary rocks have crystals.
Examples: limestone, rock salt.

The metamorphic rocks have parallel arrangement of grains. It is called the foliation.
Examples: slate, schist, and Gneiss.

3.4 Geological Framework of Nepal Himalaya

Nepal Himalayas are also geologically divided into the five zones form south to north. In Nepal,
the Gangetic Plain is also termed as the Terai Zone.

3.4.1 Terai Zone (Gangetic Plain)

This is the southern zone of Nepal Himlaya. It contains mainly river deposit, coarse in northen part
and fine in southern part. Terai can be classify into Northern Terai or Bhabhar Zone, Middle Terai
and Southern Terai.
 
 
 
 
 
 

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 Annapurna
  Manaslu Langtang Ri
Nepalganj MCT

28° INDIA Piuthan  

Pokhara Everest Kanchenjunga 28°
MBT
Bhairawa
  Kathmandu
Terai Okhaldunga Taplejung
Duns and recent alluvium  
Siwaliks Sindhuli MCT
Dhankuta
Lesser Himalayan zone
HH leucogranites   Janakpur MBT
Higher Himalayan zone LH granites Biratnagar
Tibetan-Tethys zone:
 
Mesozoics
Thrust
25 0 25 50 75 100 km
STDS
26° Plaeozoics
  26°

88°
 
Geological Map of Nepal

3.4.2 The Sub-Himalayan Zone (Siwaliks)

The Sub-Himalayan Zone is delimited on the south by the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) and on the
north by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). It consists basically of fluvial deposits of 23 Ma to
1.6 Ma old. This Zone extends all along the Himalaya forming the southernmost hill range with
width of 8 to 50 km (Fig 4.3). The Lesser Himalayan rocks thrust southward over the rocks of
Siwaliks along the MBT.
Lower Siwaliks consist of irregularly laminated beds of fine-grained sandstone and siltstone with
mudstone. The Middle Siwaliks are comprised of medium to coarse-grained salt-and-pepper (looks
like mixture of salt and black pepper) sandstones. This is differentiated from the Lower Siwaliks
in lacking variegated mudstone and sandstone. The Upper Siwaliks are comprised of conglomerate
and boulder beds and subordinately sand and silt beds. The upper part of this sequence contains
conglomerate beds, which have mostly boulder and cobble size rounded to subangular fragments
of Lesser Himalayan rocks.

3.4.3 The Lesser Himalayan Zone

Both the southern limit and northern limit of the Lesser Himalayan Zone are characterized by the
thrust, the Main Boundary Fault (MBT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) respectively.
In this zone, very old (more than 1000 Ma) sediments are widely distributed and younger
sediments are rare. The both sequence of the Lesser Himalaya mainly contains sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, limestone, dolomite, etc, There are also
some igneous rocks in this zone.

3.4.4 The Higher Himalayan Zone

The Higher Himalayan zone mainly consists of huge pile of strongly metamorphosed rocks.
Geologically, the Higher Himalayan Zone includes the rocks lying north of the Main Central
Thrust (MCT) and below the highly fossiliferous Tibetan-Tethys Zone.

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The gneisses, schists, and marbles are the main rock types of this zones. Granites are found in the
upper part of the unit.

3.4.5 The Tibetan-Tethys Zone

The Tibetan-Tethys Zone lies in northern part of the country. It begins from the top of the Higher
Himalayan Zone and extends to the north in Tibet. In Nepal, the fossiliferous rocks of the Tibetan-
Tethys Zone are well-developed in Mustang, Manang and Dolpa area. In eastern part, amount of
exposure of the Tibetan Tehys Zone is almost negligible and found only in top of the Mount
Everest. Most of the other Great Himalayan peaks of Nepal such as Manaslu, Annapurna, and
Dhaulagiri, belong to the Tibetan-Tethys Zone This zone is composed of sedimentary rocks, such
as shale, limestone, and sandstone, ranging in age from 570 Ma to 22 Ma.

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 Chapter 4
Soil Classification
Introduction
The main purpose of soil classification is to segregate soils into different groups so that particular
groups shows similar properties according to engineering perspectives
For the classification of soil following requirements should be fulfilled:
a. It should have limited number of groups
b. Groups should be based on engineering properties
c. Particular groups shows similar engineering properties
Field identification of Soil
Generally, soil is classified in four groups
Type of soil Particle Size (mm)
Gravel 4.75 to 80
Sand 0.075 to 4.75
Silt 0.002 to 0.075
Clay < 0.002

Mixture of these soil is named after major component and minor component is added as adjective. For
example, in mixture of sand and silt if amount of sand is more than it is silty sand and if amount of
silt is more than it is sandy silt.
For the identification of soil problems arises in following heading:
a. Gravel vs sand
For the identification of gravel and sand soil is spread inn to flat surface then if more than 50%
particles are visible by naked eye it is coarse grained soil (gravel).
b. Sand vs Silt
Silt particles are slightly darker than sand particles so visual examination can be performed to
identify the soil. But if it is difficult to identify than we perform dispersion test. For dispersion
test, take a glass of water and a sample of soil. Mix the sample in water and allowed to settle
down. Sand particles settles within 30 seconds. Amount of settled soil is evaluated and
identified the soil type.
c. Silt vs Clay

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 It is very difficult to distinguish silt and clay. But some approximate methods are carried out:
i. Visual Examination
If possible visual examination is carried out.
ii. Shaking Test - In this test a pat of material is prepared and placed in the open palm of
one hand and shacked horizontally by striking vigorously against the other hand several
times. If silt is present, due to its high permeability, water will appear on the surface of
the pat. The appearance of the water on the surface of the pat will give a shining surface.
When the sample is squeezed between the fingers, the water and gloss disappear from
the surface and get absorbed in the soil. If it is clay, due to its lower permeability, on
shaking, water will not come to the surface and the surface will be dull.

iii. Dispersion test - it would be difficult to distinguish clay and silt by visual examination.
To distinguish them dispersion test is to be carried out. In this test a spoonful of sample
is poured in a small measuring cylinder and shaken uniformly. If the material is silt, it
will take anywhere from 15 minutes to one hour to settle down. In case the soil is r
predominantly clay, it will form a suspension which will remain as such for hours and
may be for days, unless the material is allowed to flocculate by adding some
flocculating chemicals.
iv. Ribbon Test (thread test) - A soil, which is predominantly clay, it can be rolled in the
form of a thread of about 3 mm in diameter without disintegration. A thread of this size
made out of clay and about 30 cm long can support its own weight, when held in the
hand from the two edges. In the case of pure silt, it would not be possible to make

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 thread of this size without crumbling or disintegration.

v. Wet and Manipulated Strength Test - This test helps to distinguish the predominant
soil characteristics, that is whether it is clayey or
silty. In this test, a small quantity of soil specimen
is taken in hand and moistened. The specimen is
worked between fingers. While doing this, if a
soapy touch is felt, the soil is clayey. If roughness
is experienced, the soil is silty. When the specimen is squeezed in between fingers and
water comes out the soil is silty. If the soil is clay it sticks to the fingers and dries
slowly. On the other hand, if the soil is silt, it dries quickly and after drying, it can be
easily dusted off the fingers leaving only stain.

Types of Soil

Soil in-group exhibits similar behavior in a given engineering situation. A classification system also
provides a common language to engineers and builders for the exchange of information and experience
regarding soils. Soils are classified differently in different disciplines.
1. Residual Soil :The soil formed by the weathering of the underlying rock is called Residual
soil or also called Eluvial Soil. The weathered product is deposited at its place of origin i.e. not
transported by any transporting agent.
2. Colluvial Soil : Soil deposited after some movement or transportation from its place of origin
is called as colluvial or also allogenic soils. Such type of soil is deposited after some movement
or transportation from its place of origin. The transporting agent is mostly the gravity.

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 3. Alluvial soil: Soil transported by water through considerable distance and then deposited is
alluvial soil. The particles, which were angular at their various sources, are actively
smoothened through friction during transportation.
4. Morainic soil:A morainic soil is a soil deposited in place by glacial action.
5. Eoline: If the transporting agent is wind, soil is called Eoline. Eoline soil, mostly consist of
sand and silt sizes and are most common in desert, sea beach etc.

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 Table: Classification of Coarse Grained Soil (ISSCS)
Group Typical
Division Subdivision Laboratory Criteria Remarks
Symbol Names

Well
Cu > 4
GW Graded
Clean Cc between 1 to 3
Gravel When
gravels
fines are
Gravel (G) (Fines< 5%) Poorly
between
(More than 50% GP graded Not meeting all graduation requirements for GW
5% and
of coarse fraction Gravel
12%
is retained on Atterberg Limits plotting
Silty Aterberg limits below above A-line with Ip border
4.75 mm sieve Gravel with GM
Gravels A-line or Ip < 4 line
(No. 4 Sieve)) appreciable between 4 and 7 are border cases
Coarse Grained amount of line cases requiring use of requiring
Soil fines Clayey Aterberg limits above dual symbol dual
(More than 50% (fines>12%) GC Gravels A- line and Ip > 7 GM-GC symbols
of Soil is
such as
retained on 75 Well
Cu Greater than 6 GP-GM
micron Sieve SW graded
Cc between 1 and 3 SW-SC
Clean Sand ( sand etc
fines< 5%) Poorly
Sand (S) (more
SP graded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
than 50% of
sand
coarse fraction is
Silty Aterberg limits below Aterberg Limits plotting
passes through Sands with SM
sands A- line or Ip <4 above A-line with Ip
4.75 mm sieve) appreciable
between 4 and 7 are
amount of
Clayey Aterbergs limits above boarder line cases requiring
SCfines SC
Sands A-line and Ip >7 case of double symbols
(fines>12%)
SM-SC

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 Table: Classification of Fine Grained Soil (ISSCS)
Group
Division Subdivision Typical Names Laboratory Criteria Remarks
Symbol
Inorganic silts with Atterberg Limit Plotting Atterberg Limit
ML
Low- none to low plasticity below A-line or Ip<4 Plotting above A-
Compressibility line with Ip
Inorganic Clay of low Atterberg Limit Plotting Organic and inorganic
(L) (Liquid CL between 4 to 7
Plasticity above A-line or Ip>7 soils plotted in same
Limit less than ML-CL
zone in plasticity charts
35%) Organic Silt of low
OL Atterberg Limit Plotting below A-line are distinguished by
Plasticity
odor and color or liquid
Intermediate Inorganic Silts of
Fine Grained Soil MI Atterberg Limit Plotting below A-line limit test after oven
Compressibility medium Plasticity
( more than 50% drying. A reduction of
(I) liquid limit Inorganic Clays of
passes through CI Atterberg Limit Plotting above A-line liquid limit after oven
greater than medium Plasticity
75 micron sieve) drying to a value less
35% but less Organic Silts of
OI Atterberg Limit Plotting below A-line than three fourth of
than 50% medium Plasticity
liquid limit before oven
Inorganic Silts of high
High MH Atterberg Limit Plotting below A-line drying is positive
Compressibility
Compressibility identification or
Inorganic clays of
(H) (Liquid CH Atterberg Limit Plotting above A-line organic soils.
high Plasticity
Limit Greater
Organic Clays of
than 50%) OH Atterberg Limit Plotting below A-line
medium Plasticity
Black Cotton soil lie
Highly Organic Peat and other highly Readly Identified by color, odor, spongy feel along a band partly
Pt
Soils organic soils and fibrous texture above A-line and partly
below A-line

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Table: British Soil Classification System
Very coarse BOULDERS > 200 mm
soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm

coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
Coarse fine 2 - 6 mm
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm
S
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
SAND
fine 0.06 - 0.2 mm

coarse 0.02 - 0.06 mm

M
Fine medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm
SILT
soils fine 0.002 - 0.006 mm

C CLAY < 0.002 mm

Table: MIT Soil Classification System 

Silt Sand
Clay Gravel
Fine (F) Medium (M) Coarse C) Fine (F) Medium (M) Coarse C)

0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 Dimensions

are in mm

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 Table: Unified Soil Classification System for Coarse Grained Soil
Group Typical
Division Subdivision Classification Criteria
Symbol Names

Well
Cu > 4
GW Graded
Clean Cc between 1 to 3
Gravel
gravels

c. 5 to 12% passing no. 200 sieve use of dual symbols as GW-GM, SP-SC
Gravel (G) (Fines< 5%) Poorly
(More than 50% GP graded Not meeting all graduation requirements for GW
of coarse fraction Gravel
is retained on Aterberg limits Atterberg Limits plotting
4.75 mm sieve Gravel with GM Silty

b. More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; GM, GC, SM, SC
below A-line or Ip < above A-line with Ip

a. Less than 5% passing No. 200 sieve ; GW,GP, SW, SP

(No. 4 Sieve)) appreciable Gravels between 4 and 7 are
4
Coarse Grained amount of border line cases requiring
Soil fines Aterberg limits use of dual symbol
Clayey
(More than 50% (fines>12%) GC Gravels
above A- line and Ip GM-GC
of Soil is >7
retained on 75 Well
micron Sieve) Cu Greater than 6
SW graded
Cc between 1 and 3
Clean Sand ( sand
fines< 5%) Poorly
Sand (S) (more
SP graded Not meeting all gradation requirement for SW
than 50% of
sand
coarse fraction is

Percentage of fines
Aterberg limits Aterberg Limits plotting
passes through Sands with Silty
SM below A- line or Ip above A-line with Ip
4.75 mm sieve) appreciable sands
<4 between 4 and 7 are
amount of
Aterbergs limits boarder line cases
SCfines Clayey
SC above A-line and Ip requiring case of double
(fines>12%) Sands
>7 symbols SM-SC
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 Table: Unified Soil Classification System for Fine Grained Soil
Group
Division Subdivision Typical Names Classification Criteria
Symbol
Inorganic silts with
ML
none to low plasticity
Silt or clays
Inorganic Clay of low
Liquid limit CL
to medium Plasticity
50% or less
Organic Silt of low
Fine Grained Soil OL
Plasticity
( more than 50%
Inorganic Silts of high See plasticity Chart
passes through 75 MH
plasticity
micron sieve)
Silt or clays Inorganic clays of high
CH
Liquid limit Plasticity
greater than 50% Organic Clays of
OH medium to high
Plasticity

Peat, Muck and other

Highly Organic Soils Pt Visual-Manual Identification
highly organic soils

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Figure 1: Plasticity Chart for USCS Figure 2: Plasticity Chart for ISSCS 

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Table: AASTHO Classification System
Silt‐Clay Materials 
Granular Materials   
General Classification  (More than 35% pa 
(35% or less passing No. 200)   
ssing No. 200) 
A‐1  A‐3  A‐2  A‐4  A‐5  A‐6  A‐7‐5 
Group Classification 
A‐1‐a  A‐1‐b    A‐2‐4  A‐2‐5  A‐2‐6  A‐2‐7        A‐7‐6 
Sieve Analysis  No. 10  50 max                     
percent  No. 40  30 max  50 max  51 min                 
passing   No. 200  15 max  25 max  10 max  35 max  35 max  35 max  35 max  36 min  36 min  36 min  36 min 
Liquid 
Characteristics      40 max  41 min  40 max  41 min  40 max  41 min  40 max  41 min 
Limit 
of fraction 
Plasticity 
passing No. 40  6 max  N.P.  10 max  10 max  11 min  11 min  10 max  10 max  11 min  11 min* 
Index 
Group Index  0  0  0  0  0  0  8 max  12 max  16 max  20 max 
Usual types of significant  Stone fragments  Fine 
Silty and clayey Gravel and Sand  Silty Soils  Clayey Soils 
constituents materials  gravel and sand  Sand 
General rating as subgrade  Excellent to Good  Fair to Poor 

* If plasticity index is equal to or less than (liquid limit – 30), the soil is A‐7‐5 (i.e. PL> 30%) 

   If plasticity index is greater than (liquid limit – 30), the soil is A‐7‐7 (i.e. PL< 30%) 

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Table: Textural Classification of Soil

nd
0
10

Sa
10

90
Clay

80
20

t
Sil
70
60 e
30

tag
ge

n
40

e
nta

erc
rce
50

0
P
5

y
Pe

a
Clay

l
40
60

C
nd
Sa

30
70

Sandy Clay Silty Clay

Sandy Clay Silty Clay

20
80

Clay Loam
Loam Loam

10
90

Loam
Sandy Loam Silty Loam
Sand
10
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Percentage

 
 
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 Chapter 5: Landslide
5.1 Classification of mass movements

There are many classification schemes for mass movement (landslides) proposed by different
authors like Campbell (1951), Hutchison (1968, 1969, 1977), Crozier (1973) and Varnes (1958,
1978).

Hutchinson’s classification considers movement criteria including depth, direction and sequence
of movement with respect to the initial failure. (Varnes 1978) Classification is based on nature of
source material and the type of movement involved

Types of Landslide/mass movement according to Varnes

The types of landslide proposed by Varnes (1978) is the most commonly used in the world. It was
also adopted by Landslide Committee, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C. It divides
landslides into falls, topples, slides, lateral spreads and flows. Wherever two or more types of
movements are involved, the slides are termed as complex. Varnes (1978) has divided the material
prone to landslides into classes, e.g. rock and soil. The soil is again divided into debris and earth.

Falls

Falls are abrupt movements of the slope material that becomes detached from steep slopes or cliffs.
Movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Depending on the type of materials involved,
the result is a rock fall, soil fall, debris fall, earth fall, boulder fall, and so on. Typical slope angle
of occurrence of falls is from 45-90 degrees and all types of falls are promoted by undercutting,
differential weathering, excavation, or stream erosion.

Topples

A topple is a block or serial of block that tilts or rotates forward on a pivot or hinge point and then
separates from the main mass, falling to the slope below, and subsequently bouncing or rolling
down the slope.

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 Types of Landslide (Varnes, 1978)

Type of material
Type of movement Engineering soils Bedrock
Predominantly Predominantly
fine coarse
Falls Earth fall Debris fall Rock fall
Topples Earth topple Debris topple Rock topple
Slides Rotational Few Units Earth slump Debris slump Rock slump

Translational Few units Earth block slide Debris block slide Rock block
slide
Many Earth slide Debris slide
units Rock slide
Lateral spreads Earth spread Debris spread Rock spread
Flows Earth flow Debris flow Rock flow
(Soil creep) (Deep creep)
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of movement
Slides

Although many types of slope movement are included in the general term “landslide”, the more
restrictive use of the term refers to movements of soil or rock along a distinct surface of rupture,
which separates the slide material from more stable underlying material. The two major types of
landslides are rotational slides and translational slides.

Rotational slides

These slides refer to a failure, which involves sliding movement on a circular or near circular
surface of failure. They generally occur on slopes of homogeneous clay, deep weathered and
fractured rocks and soil. The movement is more or less rotational about an axis that is parallel to
the contour of the slope. Such slides are characterised by a scarp at the head, which may be nearly
vertical. These slides may be single rotational, multiple rotational or successive rotational types,
accordingly they may have a single surface of rupture, multiple surface of rupture. A “slump” is
an example of a small rotational slide.

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Translational slides

These are non-rotational block slides involving mass movements on more or less planar surfaces.
The translational slides are controlled by weak surface such as beddings, joints, foliations, faults
and shear zones. The slides material involved may range from unconsolidated soils to extensive
slabs of the rock and debris. Block slides are transitional slides in which the sliding mass consists
of a single unit or a few closely related units of rock block that moves down slope. Translational
slide may progress over great distance if conditions are right.

Lateral spreads

Lateral spreads are a result of the nearly horizontal movement of unconsolidated materials and are
distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes. The failure is caused by liquefaction,
the process whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state, or plastic flow of subjacent material. Failure is
usually triggered by rapid ground motion such as that experienced during an earthquake, or by
slow chemical changes in the pore water and mineral constituents.

Flows

There are several types of flows and a short description of them is given below.

a. Creep

Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady downward movement of slope-forming soil or rock. Creep
is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and small
ripples or terracettes.

b. Debris flow

A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter
combine with entrained air and water to form a slurry that then flows downslope. Debris flow areas
are usually associated with steep ravines where there are some active landslides. Individual debris
flow areas can usually be identified by the presence of debris fans at the termini of the drainage
basins. In general, the following conditions are important for formation of a debris flow:

 Slopes with 20-45 degrees

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  Saturated loose rock and soil materials with high content of clay minerals

 High intensity and duration of rainfall

c. Debris avalanche

A debris avalanche is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid slide-debris flow process.

d. Earth flow

Earth flow has a characteristic “hourglass” shape. A bowl or depression forms at the head where
the unstable material collects and flows out. The central area is narrow and usually becomes wider
as it reaches the valley floor. Earth flows generally occur in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing
rock on moderate slopes and with saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular material
are also possible

e. Mudflow

A mudflow is an earth flow that consists of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that
contains at least 50 per cent sand-, silt- and clay-sized particles.

Complex movements

A complex movement is a combination of two or more types of movements mentioned above.

Generally huge-scale movements are complex, such as rock fall, rock/debris avalanches.

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 Fig. 3.2, Types of Slope Movement (after Varnes 1978)

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5.2 Component Parts of a Mass Movement

5.2.1 Landslide zones

A landslide has distinct parts. Recognizing and assessing these individually helps us understand
the character of the landslide, in particular, its severity.
A landslide has four zones:
- zone of cracking (above the slide and sometimes around its sides)
- zone of failure (the head scar (crown) and failure surface which may occupy only
a relatively small area at the top of the slide)
- zone of transport (a damaged slope, scarred by the passage of debris on its way
down slope, this part of the slope may be stable, and may recover on its own)
- debris pile (the detached, mobile material).
We describe the stability of a slope in terms of the factor of safety. Factor of safety 1 means that
the slope is at the dividing line between being stable or unstable. If the factor of safety is more
than 1 the slope is stable. If it falls below 1 it will be unstable.

Fig 3.4, Parts of Landslides 

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 Fig 3.5, Landslide scenario 

Fig 3.6, Fall   Fig 3.7, Topple  

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 Fig 3.9, Rotational slide 
Fig 3.8, Planar rock slide 

Fig 3.10, Soil Creep 

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 Fig 3.11, Soil creep, tilted trees 

Fig 3.12, Debris Flow, Matatirtha 

Fig 3.13, Rotational slide 

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 Chapter 10: Plant Species Selection

10.1 Criteria for Species Selection

Plant type selection is a skilled job in bioengineering. There are more than 10000 plants in
Nepal. About 6000 plants are easily available in all part of country. But there are only few and
selected plants recommended for bioengineering. In Nepal, the vegetation bands are broadly
related to altitude. The main factors, which govern the distribution of vegetation, are:

 Altitude
 Aspect
 Rainfall and its distribution
 Geology and soils (relatively minor scale)

10.2 Distribution of Plants in Nepal

There are different zones classified accordance with ecological zones and vegetative zones. Nepal
can been divided into six ecological zones, with one of them divided into two sub-zones. They are:

- Terai;
- Chure;
- Inner Terai;
- Lesser Himalaya:
- Mahabharat Range;
- Midlands;
- Higher Himalaya;
- Trans-Himalaya.

The vegetation types in these zones vary differently. So it should be thought to which zone the
working area is related .
The classification of vegetation types is based primarily on altitude. Many tree species occur
over a wide range of altitudes, they may also occur in zones above and below it. For example,

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gobre salla (Pinus wallichiana) has its main range from 1800 meters to 4000 meters, but it may
occur 80 or 100 meters below this level.
Where two vegetation zones meet there is a transitional zone where species from both zones
occur.
The following lists provide some examples of the vegetation types found in the different zones.
Tropical zone: upper boundary at about 1000 m
- sal forest;
- khayer + sisau forest;
- other riverain forest;
- grassland;
- asna forest (Terminalia spp.).
Sub-tropical zone: range 1000 - 2000 m in the west and 1000 - 1700 m in the east
- khote salla;
- chilaune + katus;
- utis;
- riverain forest (tooni + siris).
Lower temperate zone: range 2000 - 2700 m in the west and 1700 - 2400 in the east
- khasru;
- gobre salla;
- banjh
- lower temperate mixed broadleaf forest.
Upper temperate zone: range 2700 - 3000 m in the west and 2400 - 2800 m in the east
- banjh;
- gurans;
- upper temperate coniferous forest (gobre salla).
- upper temperate broadleaf forest;

Sub-alpine zone: range 3000 - 4200 m in the west and above 3000 m in the east
Basically forest species are found growing in the cool desert areas having a rainfall of less than
300 mm/year. Small spiny shrubs are found in the Mustang and Dolpa areas. Species include
gurans, gobre salla and dhupi.

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Alpine zone: Above the snow line
Species include gurans, dhupi, thorny plants and shrubby species.
Some grass species found on roadside slopes in Nepal

Wet Dry
Altitude (m)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Phurke Sito Amliso Setaria Muse kharuki Napier Khar Dhonde Kans Babiyo

10.3 Management of Plant Communities in Bioengineering

a Do not use single species at first, have a mixture of plants in the initial planting. If you rely
on one species and this fails, there may be a complete loss of the planted material.
b Start with pioneer species. For example, with a damp and north facing slope you might
introduce Utis and some under storey grasses.

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c Plan a balance of plant species in the community. Generally, include grasses, shrubs, and
trees.
d Remember that dominant plants such as Utis must be replaced or thinned out within three
years. Otherwise, the under storey plants will be overshadowed and eradicated completely.
e Thin the plants out properly to maintain a balance.
f Clear weeds to reduce competition.
g Replant gaps.
h. Always think whether the selected plant is the associated plant of the dominant species.
The other factors to be considered for the selection of plant species are:
a. Local Species
b. Selection of Plant Species According to Morphological Characteristics
c. Establishment and Persistence
d. Adaptation and Availability
e. Growth and Availability Characteristics of Bioengineering Species
f. Rapid establishment and vigour
g. Persistence
h. Ease of propagation
i. The most important factor is that there should not be introduction of colonizers.

10.4 Drought Factor

Depending upon the drought factor, an appropriate species can be selected from the list provided
in the Bioengineering Site Handbook, page 130-143.
a Slope angle: Slope Score
< 30º 1
30 - 34º 2
35 - 39º 3
40 - 44º 4
45 - 49º 5
> 49º 6
b Stoniness: Fines Score
> 25% 1

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 20 - 25% 2
15 - 19% 3
10 - 14% 4
5 - 9% 5
< 5% 6
c Altitude: Altitude Score
> 2500 m 1
2000 - 2500 m 2
1500 - 1950m 3
1000 - 1450 m 4
500 - 950 m 5
< 500 m 6

d Aspect: Aspect Score

North 0
Northeast 2
Northwest 4
East 6
West 8
Southeast 10
Southwest 10
South 12

e Annual rainfall: Rainfall Score

> 2500 mm 1
2000 - 2490 mm 2
1500 - 1990 mm 3
1000 - 1490 mm 4
500 - 990 mm 6
< 500 mm 8

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Highway slope site drought factor Classes:
Score Class Definition
<6 I Cool, moist sites
6 - 11 II Damp sites
12 - 17 III Moderately dry sites
18 - 23 IV Warm, dry sites
24 - 30 V Very hot and dry sites
> 30 VI Very severely hot and dry sites

Selection of Plant Species for Bioengineering

Site

Site Site environmental

requirements conditions

Engineering functions Availability of material

required including ease of propagation

Choice of Human
vegetative techniques factors

General plant Structural Range of Final choice

types which characteristics possible species of species
are suitable required

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