Unit 3: Natural Resources

•Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy sources; Use of alternate energy sources; Growing energy needs; Energy
contents of coal, petroleum, natural gas and bio gas; Agro-residues as a biomass energy source
•Land resources: Minerals, soil, agricultural crops, natural forest products, medicinal plants, and forest-based industries and livelihoods;
Land cover, land use change, land degradation, soil erosion, and desertification; Causes of deforestation; Impacts of mining and dam
building on environment, forests, biodiversity, and tribal communities
•Water resources: Natural and man-made sources; Uses of water; Over exploitation of surface and ground water resources; Floods,
droughts, and international &interstate conflicts over water
•Case studies: Contemporary Indian issues related to mining, dams, forests, energy, etc (e.g., National Solar Mission, Cauvery river water
conflict, Sardar Sarovar dam, Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Tarun Bharat Sangh, etc)

Nawin Kumar Tiwary, Ph.d.

Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Studies
Indraprastha College for Women
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
 Energy resources
Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources
Resources which can be replenished within a short span of time. Resources which cannot be replenished within a short span of time.

They are the energy resources which cannot be exhausted. They are the energy resources which can be exhausted one day.

It is environment-friendly as the amount of carbon emission is low. It is not environment-friendly as the amount of carbon emission is high.

These resources are present in unlimited quantity. These resources are present in a limited quantity only.

These resources are pollution free. These resources are not pollution free.

The maintenance cost of the renewable resources is very high. The maintenance cost of the non-renewable resources is low.

Causes no harm to life existing on the planet earth. Adversely affect the health of humans by emitting smoke, radiations,
carcinogenic or cancer causing elements into the environment.
Examples: Sunlight, Hydropower, Wind energy, Geothermal energy, Examples: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, Nuclear Energy
Tidal Energy, Biomass
Energy resources
Non - renewable resources
Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas

Coal, crude oil, and natural gas are all considered fossil fuels because they were formed from the fossilized, buried remains
of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Because of their origins, fossil fuels have a high carbon content.

Coal: Black or brown chunks of sedimentary rock that range

from crumbly to relatively hard. Mined via surface or
underground methods, coal supplies a third of all
energy worldwide, with the top coal consumers and producers
in 2018 being China, India, and the United States.

• Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya

Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra accounts for 98.26%
of the total known coal reserves in India.
Non - renewable resources
Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas
Oil: Crude oil, a liquid composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen,
is formed during the Mesozoic period as plankton, algae, and
other matter sank to the bottom of ancient seas and was
eventually buried.
• Extracted from onshore and offshore wells, crude oil is refined into a
variety of petroleum products, including gasoline, diesel, and heating
oil.
• Off-Shore Oil-fields: Assam: Digboi (oldest field, 1866), Arunachal
Pradesh: Nigreu Oil-fields, Gujarat: Ankleshwar (largest field in the
Khambhat Basin), Andhra Pradesh: Godavari Basin
• On-Shore Oil-fields: Mumbai: Mumbai High, Bassein, Gulf of
Khambat: Aliabet

Natural gas: An odourless gas composed primarily of

methane, natural gas often lies in deposits that, like those for coal
and oil, formed millions of years ago from decaying plant matter
and organisms.
• Natural gas is cleaner than coal and oil in terms of emissions.
• Almost 70% of India's natural gas reserves are found in the Bombay
High basin and in Gujarat. Offshore gas reserves are also located in
Andhra Pradesh coast (Krishna Godavari Basin) and Tamil Nadu coast
(Cauvery Basin).
Non - renewable resources
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Energy is the energy in the nucleus or core of an atom. Tiny units that make up all matter in the universe are called atoms.
• Nuclear energy is released by splitting the atom, using the process called Nuclear fission.
• Electricity is produced using Nuclear Energy through nuclear reactor. A nuclear reactor is a power plant that can control nuclear
fission to produce electricity. In the nuclear reactor, uranium is used as fuel. Atoms of uranium are split, which creates fission
products which cause other uranium atoms to split, thus creating a chain reaction. The energy from this chain reaction is released
in the form of heat. This heat is used to warm the nuclear reactors cooling agent, which results in the formation of steam. This
steam turns the turbines, which drive the engines or generators to produce electricity.

Nuclear Power Plant

Non - renewable resources
Nuclear Energy
INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM
• India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power generation.
• Atomic Energy Act, 1962 was framed and implemented with the set objectives of using two naturally occurring elements Uranium
and Thorium having good potential to be utilized as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.
• The estimated natural deposits of Uranium are about 70,000 tonnes and Thorium are about 3, 60,000 tonnes in the country.

Type Operating Projections (2020) Projections (2030)

Heavy Water Reactors 4,460 MW 10,000 MW 10,000 MW
Light Water Reactors 320 MW 9,300 MW 22,000 MW
Fast Breeder Reactors - 1,500 MW 1,500 MW
Total 4780 MW 20,800 MW 33,500 MW

Nuclear capacity presently under construction : 5300 MW

Non - renewable resources
Nuclear Energy
INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM
Non - renewable resources
Nuclear Energy

Advantages of electricity produced using Nuclear Energy:

• Produces no polluting gases. It is a source of clean energy.
• It helps in the development of a country‟s economy without adversely contributing to climate change.
• It does not emit any greenhouse gases.
• It can be built in urban or rural areas.
• Very low fuel costs.
• Low fuel quantity reduces mining and transportation effects on environment.
• Power station has very long lifetime.

Disadvantages of electricity produced using Nuclear Energy:

• Waste is radioactive and safe disposal is very difficult and expensive.
• Local thermal pollution from wastewater affects marine life.
• Large-scale accidents can be catastrophic due to radiation exposure.
• Public perception of nuclear power is negative.
• Costs of building and safely decommissioning are very high.
• Cannot react quickly to changes in electricity demand.
Renewable resources
Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar
heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, and molten salt power plant.

• India lying in tropical belt has an advantage of receiving peak solar

radiation for 300 days, amounting 2300-3,000 hours of sunshine
equivalent to above 5,000 trillion kWh.
• India‟s current installed solar power capacity, according to Central
electricity authority, is 26025.97 MW which is 34% of
total renewable energy sources i.e, 75055.92 MW till February
2019.
• Debate of global warming and climate change is compelling the
world to move from fossil based energy towards clean and green
energy.
• With its pollution free nature, virtually inexhaustible supply and
global distribution, solar energy is very attractive energy resource.
Renewable resources
Solar Energy

Technology

• Solar Photovoltaic: Solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar

radiation (sunlight) into electricity. A solar cell is a semi-conducting
device made of silicon and/or other materials, which, when
exposed to sunlight, generates electricity.

• Solar thermal power plants: Solar Thermal Power systems, also

known as Concentrating Solar Power systems, use concentrated
solar radiation as a high temperature energy source to produce
electricity using thermal route. Mirrored concentrators are used to
focus direct beam solar radiation to receivers that convert the
energy to high temperature for power generation.

JNNSM launched in 2010 targets 22,000 MW by 2022.

Renewable resources
Solar Energy

Advantages of electricity produced using Solar Energy:

• Solar energy is an immaculate and renewable energy source.
• Once a solar panel is installed, solar energy can be produced free of charge.
• Solar energy will last forever while it is estimated that the world‟s oil supply will run out in 60 or 80 years.
• Solar energy causes no pollution.
• Almost no maintenance is required to keep solar cells running. There are no moving parts in solar cells, making it difficult to
harm them.
• In the long term, there can be a high return on an initial investment because of the amount of free energy a solar panel can
produce.

Disadvantages of electricity produced using Solar Energy:

• As with all renewable energy sources, solar energy has regularity issues; the sun does not shine at night, and during the day
there may be clouds or rain.
• Solar panels require additional equipment, like inverters, to convert direct power (DC) to alternating current (AC) for use on
the power network.
• For a constant supply of electric power, particularly for on-grid connections, photovoltaic panels require inverters as well as
storage batteries, increasing the initial investment for solar power accordingly.
• In the case of land-mounted PV panels, moderately large areas are needed; more often than not, land is available for this
use for only 15-20 years.
• Solar panel efficiency is generally low (between 14%-25%),in contrast to the higher effectiveness of other renewable
energysystems.
Renewable resources
Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity made by generators that are pushed by the movement of water. It is usually made with dams that block a
river to make a reservoir or collect water that is pumped there. When the water is released, the pressure behind the dam forces
the water downpipes that lead to a turbine.

• The hydropower potential of India is around 1,45,000 MW and at

60% load factor, it can meet the demand of around 85, 000 MW.
The estimated potential for power generation from Small
hydropower projects is about 20,000 MW.

• The Koyna Hydroelectric Project (Maharashtra) is

the largest completed hydroelectric power plant in India.

• The first hydroelectric power station was the

Shivanasamudra hydroelectric power station (Karnataka).
Renewable resources
Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectric Power Plant

Renewable resources
Hydroelectricity

Advantages of electricity produced using Hydroelectricity:

• Hydroelectricity uses the energy of running water, without reducing its quantity, to produce electricity.
• Hydroelectricity promotes guaranteed energy and price stability. River water is a domestic resource which, unlike fuel or
natural gas, is not subject to market fluctuations.
• Hydroelectricity helps fight climate changes. The hydroelectric life cycle produces very small amounts of greenhouse
gasses.
• Hydroelectricity improves the air we breathe. The power plants don‟t release pollutants into the air, and hydroelectric
developments don‟t generate toxic by-products.

Disadvantages of electricity produced using Hydroelectricity :

• Hydropower is non-polluting, but does have environmental impacts. Hydropower facilities can affect land use, homes, and
natural habitats in the dam area. Reservoirs may cover people‟s homes, important natural areas, agricultural land, and
archaeological sites.
• Hydroelectricity is hydrology dependent. The system depends on precipitation levels, which can fluctuate from year to year,
causing instability.
• In some cases, hydroelectricity can disrupt wildlife habitat. Hydroelectric power plants can cause a loss or modification of
fish habitat, and lead to the entrapment of fish and the restriction of their passages.
• In some cases, hydroelectricity can cause changes in reservoir and stream water quality. Operating a hydroelectric power
plant may alter the water temperature and the river‟s flow. These changes may harm native plants and animals in the river
and on land.
Renewable resources
Wind Energy
Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide the mechanical power through wind turbines to turn electric generators and
traditionally to do other work, like milling or pumping.

India - 5th in wind capacity

• India‟s Potential of wind energy production: 50,000 MW based on
hub height of 50 m and 2% land usage. China 44, 733 MW
• At present, most of the installed wind capacity is located in the US 40,180 MW
north, south, and west. India's east and northeast do not have any
grid-connected wind power plants. Germany 27,215 MW
• South India has the maximum grid-connected installed wind Spain 20,676 MW
capacity followed by west and north. India 13,000 MW
• Tamil Nadu is the leading producer of wind energy followed by
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan.
• Around 75 % of India's wind power generation occurs between the
months of May and September i.e., in the southwest monsoon
season.
Renewable resources
Wind Energy
Renewable resources
Wind Energy

Advantages of electricity produced using Wind Energy:

• Wind is a reliable and infinite renewable energy resource.
• Wind energy is cost effective, and prices are dropping still.
• Wind energy reduces carbon emissions when used instead of fossil fuels.
• Few running costs when the turbines are up and running.
• Offshore wind farms can take advantage of offshore wind flow, without affecting the landscape view.

Disadvantages of electricity produced using Wind Energy:

• Wind energy can be unpredictable as the amount of electricity generated is dependent on the speed and direction of the
wind.
• Wind farms can affect the visual appearance of the landscape.
• Wind turbines can damage the habitats of birds and marine life.
• Wind farms can be expensive to construct
Renewable resources
Geothermal Energy
„Geo‟ means Earth and „thermal‟ means energy. Geothermal energy means energy drawn or harnessed from beneath the earth.

• It is completely clean and renewable.

• The earth contains a molten rock called magma. The temperature
increases about 3 degrees Celsius, for every 100 meters you go
below ground. Below, 10,000 meters the temperature is so high,
that it can be used to boil water.
• Water makes its way deep inside the earth and hot rock boils that
water. The boiling water then produces steam which is captured by
geothermal heat pumps. The steam turns the turbines which in turn
activates generators and produces electricity.
• In India, by the time, geothermal energy installed capacity is
experimental; however, the potential capacity is more than 10,000
MW.
• There are seven geothermal provinces in India : the Himalayas,
Sohana, West coast, Cambay, Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA),
Godavari, and Mahanadi.
Renewable resources
Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy can be

used in two ways: -
Renewable resources
Geothermal Energy

Advantages of electricity produced using Geothermal Energy:

• Geothermal energy produces no pollution and reduces our alliance on fossil fuels.
• It also results in significant cost savings as no fuel is required to harness energy from beneath the earth.
• Geothermal reservoirs are naturally replenished and therefore renewable (it is not possible to exhaust the resources).
• Massive potential – upper estimates show a worldwide potential of 2 terawatts (TW).
• Excellent for meeting the base load energy demand (as opposed to other renewables such as wind and solar).
• Great for heating and cooling – even small households can benefit.
• Harnessing geothermal energy does not involve any fuels, which means less cost fluctuations and stable electricity prices.
• Small footprint on land – can be built partially underground.

Disadvantages of electricity produced using Geothermal Energy:

• It is suitable to particular region and cannot be harnessed everywhere.
• The earth may release some harmful gases while releasing the heat which may prove adverse from mankind.
• The areas where this energy is harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. Setting up of geothermal power stations
requires huge installation cost.
• There are heavy upfront costs associated with both geothermal power plants and geothermal heating/cooling systems.
Renewable resources
Tidal Energy
Tidal power or tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly
electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has the potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable
than the wind and the sun.

• India has a long coastline. Also with many estuaries and the gulfs, it
gives an enormous opportunity for India to develop tidal power for
electricity generation. E.g., Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in
Gujarat.

• The tidal power generation work is going on at Durgaduani Creek in

Sunderbans.

• Total identified potential of Tidal Energy is about 9000 MW in West

Coast Gulf of Cambay (7000 MW), Gulf of Kutch (1200 MW) and in
East Coast the Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans in West Bengal for
small scale tidal power development estimates the potential in this
region to be about 100 MW.
Renewable resources
Tidal Energy
Renewable resources
BIOMASS ENERGY

This is the process by which an alternative energy is generated through conversion of biological materials and wastes into forms
that can be used as energy sources for heating, power generation and transportation.

• Biomass includes plant or animal matter used for production of

fibers or chemicals. Biomass may also include biodegradable
wastes that are burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material such
as fossil fuel which has been transformed by geological
processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.

• The current availability of biomass in India is estimated at about

500 million metric tons per year. Studies by the Ministry of
Petroleum & Natural Gas has estimated surplus biomass
availability at about 120 – 150 million metric tons per annum
covering agricultural and forestry residues corresponding to a
potential of about 18,000 MW.
Renewable resources
BIOMASS ENERGY
Renewable resources
BIOMASS ENERGY

Biofuels: Any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter (living or once living material) in a short period of
time (days, weeks, or even months) is considered a biofuel. E,g.,

•It is derived from corn and sugarcane using fermentation process.

•A litre of ethanol contains approximately two thirds of the energy provided by a litre of petrol.
Bioethanol
•When mixed with petrol, it improves the combustion performance and lowers the emissions of carbon
monoxide and sulphur oxide.

•It is derived from vegetable oils like soybean oil or palm oil, vegetable waste oils, and animal fats by a
biochemical process called “Transesterification.” Jatropha plant is a major source.
Biodiesel
•It produces very less or no amount of harmful gases as compared to diesel.
•It can be used as an alternative for the conventional diesel fuel.

•It is produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter like sewage from animals and humans.
•Major proportion of biogas is methane and carbon dioxide, though it also has small proportions of
Biogas
hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and siloxanes.
•It is commonly used for heating, electricity and for automobiles.
 Land Use Change

 Land use change is a process

which transforms the natural
landscape by direct human-induced
land use such as settlements,
commercial and economic uses and
forestry activities.
 It impacts the overall environment in
terms of greenhouse gas emission,
land degradation and climate change.

Data: According to the Intergovernmental

Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES), over 70% of all
natural, ice-free land in the world is
affected by human use. This could
further rise to 90% by 2050.

Land use change: Delhi

 Land Use Change
Possible Reasons for land use change
 Population Growth: Fast population growth and the
consequent high pressure on resources have an adverse
effect on the existing natural resources of the land area.
 Encroachment of Land: Substantial increase in demand
for food has resulted in an expansion of croplands by
encroaching on uncultivated areas including forest, shrub
and wetlands.
 Use of Forest Resource: Continuous and exhaustive
thinning of forestry resources for diverse uses, particularly
for construction, firewood and agricultural tools led to the
degradation of forest cultivated land.
 Grazing at Cultivated Land: Farmers often abandon and
leave the cultivated land for grazing purposes due to the
declining of its soil fertility status.
 Destruction of Wetlands: The conversion of the wetland to
the cultivated and settlement land leads to the destruction of
wetlands.
Solutions:
 Climate Smart Land Management Practices:
According to a report by IPCC on land use, increased
food productivity, improved cropland
management, livestock management, agroforestry,
increased soil organic carbon content and reduced
post-harvest losses would help in ecosystem
conservation and land restoration .
 Forest Management: Improved fire management
and improved grazing land can help in land
restoration.
 Restore and Rehabilitate: To achieve Land
Degradation Neutrality (Sustainable Development
Goal target 15.3), additional commitments in the land
use sector.
Land Degradation
Land Degradation
 Land Degradation
• Land degradation is the decline in soil quality caused
by its improper use, usually for agricultural, pastoral,
industrial or urban purposes.
• Soil degradation is a serious global environmental
problem and may be exacerbated by climate change.
• It encompasses physical (soil erosion), chemical
(salinity and alkalinity, pollution) and biological
deterioration (pollution and deterioration of vegetal
cover).
Solutions Box:
 There are two types of solutions: Those with immediate impact such
as conservation of wetlands, rangelands and mangroves which
absorb huge stocks of GHGs like CO2 from the atmosphere. There
are other solutions that are more long-term: Planting of trees,
reforestation and afforestation.
 Avoiding, reducing and reversing desertification would enhance soil
fertility and increase carbon storage in soils and biomass while
benefiting agricultural productivity and food security.
 Creation of windbreaks through afforestation, tree planting and
ecosystem restoration programmes that can function as “green walls”
and “green dams” that reduce dust and sandstorms and sand dune
movement.
Land Degradation
Soil Erosion

The word "erosion" is derived from the Latin "erosio", meaning to

"to gnaw away". In general terms soil erosion implies to the
physical removal of topsoil by various agents, including rain,
water flowing over and through the soil profile, wind, ice or
gravitational pull. Main agents of soil erosion are Water,
Wind, Waves and Glaciers.

1. Water Erosion: It is caused by the action of water, which

removes the soil by falling on as rain drops as well as by its
surface flow action. Depending upon the form of the lost soil it
may be:
(a) Sheet erosion: The removed soil is like a thin covering
from large area. This sheet is lost more or less uniformly.
(b) Rill erosion: If sheet erosion occurs with full force, the
runoff water moves rapidly over the soil surface cutting well
defined finger-shaped groove like structures, appearing as thin
channels or streams.
(c) Gully erosion: This results due to the convergence of
several rills (thin channels formed during rill erosion) towards the
steep slope, which form together wider channels (grooves) of
water, known as gullies.
Land Degradation
Soil Erosion

2. Wind erosion: It is common in dry (arid) region where soil is

chiefly sandy and the vegetation is very poor or even absent.
Once the top soil is laid bare to the fury of strong winds, it gets
blown off in the form of dust storm and sand storm. Wind erosion
may be of the following two types:

(a) Suspension: The wind throws away smallest soil particles

into air, which moves as fine cluster with the wind. By this way
soils are transported to fairly long distances.

(b) Surface creep: the heavier particles of soil that are not easily
thrown up by wind, are simply pushed or spread along the
surface by wind.
Land Degradation
Methods of controlling Soil Erosion

a) Contour farming: In which preparation of fields

with alternate furrows and ridges to reduce water
flow.
b) Mulching: It is effective against wind as well as
waster erosion. Some such plants as maize
stalks, cotton stalks etc., are used as a 'mulch' (a
protective layer formed by the stubble). Mulches
reduce soil moisture evaporation and increase
amount of soil moisture by addition of organic
matter to soil.
c) Crop rotation: It decreases soil loss and
preserves the productivity of land.
d) Strip cropping: It involves the planting of crop in
rows or strips to check flow of water
e) Stream bank protection: To grow vegetation
alongside the river bank, to construct drains,
concrete or stone Pitching etc. for checking &
cutting and carving 'of riverbanks.
f) Afforestation: Trees as windbreaks are planted
at 90° to the prevailing wind in deserts which
check the velocity of wind. They check the spread
of sand dunes or desert conditions or blowing
away of the fertile top soil. Windbreaks may be
planted in several rows.
Land Degradation
Desertification
Land Degradation
Desertification

• Desertification is the spread of desert-like

conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due to
man‟s influence or climatic change.

• A large part of the arid and semi-arid region

lying between the Indus and the Aravalli range
is affected by spreading desert conditions.

• Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by wind.

The sand carried by wind is deposited on the
adjoining fertile lands whose fertility dwindles,
and slowly the fertile land starts merging with
the advancing desert.

• It has been estimated that the Thar Desert is

advancing at an alarming rate of about 0.5 km
per year.

• The process of desertification is attributed to

uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of trees
and growing population. Climate change has
also contributed to the spread of deserts.
Land Degradation
Desertification Vulnerability Map
Land Degradation
Desertification
Ecological implications of Desertification
• Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural land.
• Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.
• Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes decrease their water containing
capacity.
• Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
• Increase in area under wastelands.
• Decrease in agricultural production.
• Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.
Measures of Controlling Desertification
• Intensive tree plantation in the transition
zones.
• Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts with
different plant species. Mulches serve as an
effective physical barrier to the moving sand.
• Grazing should be controlled, and new
pastures should be developed.
• Indiscriminate felling of trees should be
banned.
• Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the
demand for fuelwood.
• Sandy and wastelands should be put to
proper use by judicious planning.
Land Degradation
Desertification

International agreement

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)

 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is the sole legally binding international agreement linking
environment and development to sustainable land management.
 It is the only convention stemming from a direct recommendation of the Rio Conference‟s Agenda 21.
 Focus Areas: The Convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the
drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can be found.
 From India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the nodal Ministry for this Convention.
 World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought 2020: June 17
 Deforestation

Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. This can include
clearing the land for agriculture or grazing, or using the timber for fuel, construction or manufacturing.

Global Forest Watch claims India lost 16,700 sq km of tree cover from
2000 to 2018, though Indian data disputes this. The platform run by
World Resources Institute uses satellite imagery to gather data and
differs from official Indian methodology in defining tree cover.
 Deforestation

Causes of Deforestation:
 Growing food demand: To meet the food demand of rapidly
growing population more and more forests are cleared off for
agricultural purpose.
 Fire wood: Increasing demand of wood for fuel increases pressure
on forests.
 Raw material for wood based industry: Increasing demand of
wood for making furniture, plywood, match box etc results into
tremendous pressure on forests.
 Infrastructure development: Massive destruction of forest occurs
for various infrastructure development like, big dams, highways
projects etc.
 Forest fires: Forest fires may be natural or man made cause a
huge loss of forest
 Over grazing: Overgrazing of land by cattle result into soil erosion,
desertification.
 Natural forces: Floods, storms, heavy winds, snow, lightening are
some of the natural forces
 Urbanization: Overpopulation too directly affects forest covers, as
with the expansion of cities more land is needed to establish
housing and settlements.
 Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forest
land. Apart from this, roads and highways have to be built to make
way for trucks and other equipment.
 Deforestation

Effects of Deforestation: Forests are complex ecosystems that are important to the carbon and water cycles that sustain life
on earth. When they are degraded, it can set off a devastating chain of events both locally and around the world.

 Loss of Species: Seventy percent of the world‟s plants and

animals live in forests and are losing their habitats to
deforestation. Loss of habitat can lead to species extinction.
This is not only a biodiversity tragedy but also has negative
consequences for medicinal research and local populations who
rely on the animals and plants in the forests for hunting and
medicine.
 Carbon Emissions: Healthy forests help absorb greenhouse
gasses and carbon emissions that are caused by human
civilization and contribute to global climate change. Without
trees, more carbon and greenhouse gasses enter the
atmosphere.
 Water Cycle: Trees play an important part in the water cycle,
grounding the water in their roots and releasing it into the
atmosphere.
 Soil Erosion: Without tree roots to anchor the soil and with
increased exposure to sun, the soil can dry out, leading to
problems like increased flooding and inability to farm.
 Life Quality: Soil erosion can also lead to silt entering the lakes,
streams, and other water sources. This can decrease local
water quality, contributing to poor health in the local population.
 Impact of Dam Building

Effects of Deforestation: Forests are complex ecosystems that are important to the carbon and water cycles that sustain life
on earth. When they are degraded, it can set off a devastating chain of events both locally and around the world.

 Habitat fragmentation: Unless specifically engineered to allow

fish to pass through them, dams present a barrier to fish that
need to migrate to spawn and reproduce downstream and
upstream along a river.
 Flooding and the destruction of surrounding
habitat: Dammed rivers create a reservoir upstream from the
dam, which spills out into the surrounding environments and
floods ecosystems and habitats that once existed there. Such
flooding can kill or displace many different organisms, including
plants, wildlife, and humans.
 Greenhouse gases: The flooding of surrounding habitat around
dams kills trees and other plant life that then decomposes and
releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Because
the river is no longer flowing freely, the water becomes stagnant
and the bottom of the reservoir becomes depleted of oxygen. This
lack of oxygen creates a situation where methane (a very potent
greenhouse gas) is produced from the decomposition of the plant
materials at the bottom of the reservoir that eventually gets
released into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate
change.
 Impact of Dam Building

Effects of Deforestation: Forests are complex ecosystems that are important to the carbon and water cycles that sustain life
on earth. When they are degraded, it can set off a devastating chain of events both locally and around the world.
 Sediment builds up behind the dam: Because a dammed river no
longer flows freely, the sediment that would have otherwise been
deposited naturally downstream begins to build up behind the dam,
forming new riverbanks and river deltas. These changes in
sedimentation can lead to dramatic alterations in plant life and
animal life and how they are distributed.
 Downstream sediment erosion: Due to the restrictions in the
sediment flow above a dam, the lack of sediment that would have
once flowed downstream ultimately leads to a deficiency in
sediment load, and therefore, leads to an increase in downstream
erosion.
 Negative impacts on local fish populations: Typically, local fish
species will not be adapted to the new environment that is
present after a dam is built and do not survive, leading to the
extirpation of local populations. Many factors impact their survival,
including the blockage of migration routes, a disconnection from the
river‟s flood plain, changes in a river‟s flow, changes in temperature,
turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and changes in local plant life.
 Production of methyl-mercury: The stagnant water in reservoirs
creates a situation where the decomposition of organic matter from
decaying plants can transform inorganic mercury into methy-
mercury. Unfortunately, methyl-mercury tends to bio-accumalate and
cause toxic effects in humans and wildlife that eat the fish in
reservoirs.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF MINING

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth. Minerals are removed
through a variety of methods that vary widely in their costs, safety factors, and levels of environmental harm
A variety of methods are used based on mineral depth.
 Surface mining: shallow deposits are removed.
 Subsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF MINING
 Loss of biodiversity and local heritage due to mining
activities.
 Environmental pollution has been caused by the Makrana
marble mines in Rajasthan, the Granite mines of Karnataka
have left a large hole on earth, Damodar river has been
severely polluted by coal mining.
 The prevalence of mining in an area causes
various diseases like fibrosis, Pneumoconiosis, and silicosis
in workers as well as locals.
 Water Pollution – water from streams and rivers in mining
areas have become acidic and unfit for drinking. Eg:
Meghalaya‟s Kopili river, Damodar river etc.
 Contaminated air with high particulate matters is also a major
problem in mining rich regions.
 Large scale displacement of local people leads to grievances
and improper rehabilitation measures, thereby, leading to
people‟s alienation and develop distrust over the government
machinery.
 It's not just a loss of land for the local population rather the
loss of a tribal way of life and their rich cultural heritage.
 Mining also puts the lives of miners at risk due to the
rudimentary ways adopted and the absence of adequate
safety gear and protocols. For instance, mine-related
accidents at Ksan coal mine in Meghalaya- Jaintia Hills
(2018), Chasnala near Dhanbad in 1975.
 Natural Capital Degradation
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources

Steps Environmental effects

Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health
hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills
Exploration, and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat
extraction
Processing
Transportation, Solid wastes; radioactive material; air,
water, and soil pollution; noise; safety
purification,
and health hazards; ugliness; heat
manufacturing
Use
Transportation or transmission Noise; ugliness; thermal water
to individual user, eventual pollution; pollution of air, water, and
soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety
use, and discarding and health hazards; heat

Fig. 15-10, p. 344

Water resources and its uses
 Water resources and its uses

Supply of water through tankers in Delhi, India. Girl carrying water from a well across dried out and
cracked earth during a severe drought in Rajasthan, India.
Where is Earth’s water?
 Water resources

Water Cycle

The hydrologic cycle begins with the

evaporation of water from the surface of
the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools
and water vapor condenses to form
clouds. Moisture is transported around
the globe until it returns to the surface
as precipitation.
Once the water reaches the ground,
one of two processes may occur;
(1) some of the water may evaporate
back into the atmosphere or
(2) the water may penetrate the surface
and become groundwater.
Groundwater either seeps its way to
into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or
is released back into the atmosphere
through transpiration.

Natural capital: Groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer with a

permeable water table.
A confined aquifer is bounded above and below by less permeable beds of rock,
and its water is confined under pressure. Some aquifers are replenished by
precipitation; others are not.
 Water resources

Natural capital degradation: stress on the world‟s major river basins, based on a comparison of
the amount of water available with the amount used by humans.
Overexploitation of Ground Water
Over Exploitation of Ground Water:
(i) Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is
more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the
aquifer get compacted, a phenomenon known as
ground subsidence. Huge economic losses may
occur due to this phenomenon because it results in
the sinking of overlying land surface. The common
problems associated with it include structural
damage in buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the
flow of sewers and canals and tidal flooding.
(ii) Lowering of water table: Mining of
groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-
arid regions for irrigating crop fields. However, it is
not advisable to do excessive mining as it would
cause a sharp decline in future agricultural
production, due to lowering of water table.
(iii) Water logging: When excessive irrigation is
done with brackish water it raises the water table
gradually leading to water logging and salinity
problems.
Overexploitation of Surface Water

Over Exploitation of Surface Water:

Surface water is mainly misused due to which its quality and
quantity both degrades. Since lakes, ponds, rivers, sea are used for
dumping industrial and sewage wastes, dead bodies, solid wastes
etc. hence their quality degrades, which give rise to many
environmental, ecological and health problems.
Solution for Water crisis
 Flood
Flood is such a high stage in a water course i.e. river, river tributary or a water retaining body i.e. lake, pond, reservoir, seas, ocean or
other low lying areas – the level at which water over flows over its banks and inundates the adjoining areas.

Causes:
•Heavy precipitation: Over natural bank of rivers, the rainfall of about 15 cm
or more in a single day exceeds the carrying capacity of rivers causes a flood
in that region. Such effect can be seen in the West Coast region of the
Western Ghat, Assam and sub-Himalayan West Bengal and Indo-Gangetic
plains.
•Cyclones: Flood after cyclone is a very common phenomenon in the eastern
coast of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. Cyclones in
a form of strong winds, high tides cause a flood in the coastal region.
•Rise in river bed: The deposition of silt enhances the catchment area of
rivers which reduces the carrying capacity of rivers.
•Deforestation: Deforestation also plays a major role in flooding because it
makes trees unable to hold soils anymore which prevents sediment run-offs.
•Silting in Delta areas: The deposition of silt on the river-mouths by the sea
tides deteriorates the discharging capacity of rivers which causes a flood in
that region.
•Earthquake and Landslide: Sometimes it has been found that the river
changes its course after the natural calamities like earthquake, landslide
which causes a flood in the same region. Such instances can found in the
mountain of hilly region states like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
and Uttarakhand etc.
•Cloudburst: Cloud bursts lead to a high amount of rainfall within a short time
leading to flash floods. Flash flood generally occurs in the Himalayan region.
 Flood

Impacts of flooding:

 It damages property and endangers the lives of humans and other

species.
 Rapid water runoff causes soil erosion and concomitant sediment
deposition elsewhere (such as further downstream or down a coast).
 The spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitats can become
polluted or completely destroyed.
 Some prolonged high floods can delay traffic in areas which lack
elevated roadways.
 Floods can interfere with drainage and economic use of lands, such
as interfering with farming.
 Structural damage can occur in bridge abutments, bank lines, sewer
lines, and other structures within floodways.
 Waterway navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired.
 Financial losses due to floods are typically millions of dollars each
year.
 The outbreak of some communicable diseases such as Dengue,
Malaria, Cholera, etc.
 Loss of biodiversity
Flood prone areas in India
 Flood
Solutions:
 Flood Forecasting: Flood forecasting involves giving prior information Agencies for Flood Control in India
regarding the occurrence of floods. This is essential and is extremely useful for 1. India Meteorological Department
taking timely action to prevent loss of human lives, livestock and movable (IMD) – provides rainfall or cyclonic
property. event forecast which is used by all
 Forecast dissemination: The organisations responsible for flood-protection,
warning and flood-fighting works should be informed about the incoming flood as
the agencies for preparedness to
early as possible so that the required action is planned and activities set into deal with the floods.
operation with least possible time delay. 2. National Disaster Management
 Reducing Flood Peaks by Volume Reduction: The flood peaks can be Authority (NDMA) – The job of
reduced by construction of dams and detention basins. Dams have the capacity relief and rescue is carried out by
of holding huge quantity of water during the flood period and help in reducing the National Disaster Response
flood peak volume of water. Force (NDRF) with state
 Stream Channelisation: A close network of canals reduces flood hazard to a counterparts.
great extent because flood water flowing in the river can be diverted to canals.
 Flood Diversion: Flood diversion is the process of diverting the flood water in
3. Central Water Commission
marshes, lakes, the depressions and spreading it thinly over paddy fields and (CWC) – The main job of CWC is
desert drylands. to procure the data of hydrology at
 Flood Plain Zoning (FPZ): Flood plain zoning is another very effective method the national level – like river
of flood management. It is based on information regarding flood plains, discharge measurement and water
particularly the identification of floodways in relation to land use. Detailed maps level in dams etc – to alert the
of flood prone areas are prepared after a thorough study of flood cycles. Some states about any imminent or
areas are more prone to floods than the others. Different zones are identified potential flood.
and demarcated. After that necessary control is exercised with respect to land
use.
 Drought
A drought is a period of time when an area or region experiences below-normal precipitation. The lack of adequate precipitation,
either rain or snow, can cause reduced soil moisture or groundwater, diminished stream flow, crop damage, and a general water
shortage.
The 3 types of droughts and its causes are listed below.
1. Meteorological Drought – Occurs due to persisting dry weather in
an area.
2. Hydrological Drought – It happens due to low water availability in
reservoirs, streams, and depleted groundwater levels. This type of
drought happens after many months of meteorological drought.
3. Agricultural Drought – It occurs when crops are affected by
droughts.

Drought prone states of India:

• Telangana – Khammam and Mahabubnagar districts
• Maharashtra – Marathwada region
• Karnataka – North Karnataka
• Orissa – Mayurbhanj and Balasore regions.
• Gujarat – Kutch and Saurashtra region
• Rajasthan – Bikaner, Jaisalmer Districts

About 22.7% of geographical area covered under DPAP

 Drought

Impacts of drought:

 Environmental effects: Lower surface and subterranean

water-levels, lower flow-levels (with a decrease below the
minimum leading to direct danger for amphibian life), increased
pollution of surface water, the drying out of wetlands, more and
larger fires, higher deflation intensity, loss of biodiversity, worse
health of trees and appearance of pests
 Economic losses: Economic consequences include lower
agricultural, forests, game and fishing output, higher food-
production costs, lower energy-production levels in hydro
plants, losses caused by depleted water tourism and transport
revenue, problems with water supply for the energy sector and
for technological processes in metallurgy, mining industries and
disruption of water supplies for municipal economies.
 Social costs: include the negative effect on the health of
people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat
waves), a possible limitation of water supplies, increased
pollution levels, high food-costs, stress caused by failed
harvests, etc. This explains why droughts and freshwater
shortages operate as a factor which increases the gap between
developed and developing countries.
 Drought

Solutions:

 Periodical review of water shortage

 Individual state specific drought proofing measures to be
devised
 Crop diversification, farm ponds construction, adoption of
microirrigation
 Promotion of water storage, conservation and rejuvenation
 Incentivise solar pumps for irrigation
 Harvesting rain water, recharging ground water, desiltation of
irrigation tanks
 Check dams maintenece, prevention of leakage of water from
distribution network
 Reviving traditional and historical step wells
 Availing crop advisories to farmer through mobile app in their
language
 Locating ground water resources using satellite technology and
remote sensing
 Compulsory rain water harvesting in urban areas
 Promotion of alternate livelihood like dairy, poultry, beekeeping.
Timber farming and floriculture
 Crop Insurance against drought
 Conflicts over water
Conflict refers to confrontations between groups or categories of
people regarding a resource activity and its management.

“ a serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one”

The importance of water to life means that providing for water needs
and demands will never be free of politics.
 International conflicts over water
Indo – China conflict: Tsangpo-Brahmaputra
 China‟s grand plans to harness the waters of the Brahmaputra
River have set off ripples of anxiety in the two lower riparian
states: India and Bangladesh.
 China‟s construction of dams and the proposed diversion of the
Brahmaputra‟s waters is expected to have repercussions for
water flow, agriculture, ecology, and lives and livelihoods
downstream. The Chinese government has approved
hydropower projects along the Brahmaputra. It maintains that all
these are run-of-the-river projects that involve no storage or
diversion and that they will not affect the river‟s downstream flow
into northeast India.
 Still, its plans have generated apprehensions in India‟s Northeast
and in Bangladesh, where the Brahmaputra is a veritable lifeline.
 More worrying than China‟s construction of hydropower dams on
the Brahmaputra is the proposed northward rerouting of its
waters. This diversion would result in a significant drop in the
river‟s water level as it enters India. It will have a serious impact
on agriculture and fishing in the downstream areas as the salinity
of water will increase.
 The lack of communication on the issue is deepening suspicion
and tension. This underscores the need for dialogue that
includes all the riparian countries. China must share data on its
dam construction and other plans for the river.
 International conflicts over water
Indo – Pak conflict: Indus Waters Treaty
• The Indus river has its source in Indian Kashmir and flows
through Pakistan. It is the primary freshwater source for
Pakistan. Agriculture being the mainstay of the economy in both
countries, their dependence on the Indus and its tributaries is
implicit.
• From the Indian point of view, there was nothing that Pakistan
could do to prevent India from any of the schemes to divert the
flow of water in the rivers. Pakistan‟s position was dismal and
India could do whatever it wanted.
• Pakistani fear that since the source rivers of the Indus basin
were in India, it could potentially create droughts and famines in
Pakistan led to The Indus Waters Treaty, brokered by the World
Bank. The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960.
• According to this agreement, control over Beas, Ravi and Sutlej
was given to India and the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum to
Pakistan.
• Since Pakistan's rivers flow through India first, the treaty allowed
India to use them for irrigation, transport and power generation,
while laying down precise do's and don'ts for Indian building
projects along the way.
• The treaty is considered to be one of the most successful water
sharing endeavours in the world today. Since the ratification of
the treaty in 1960, India and Pakistan have not engaged in any
water wars.
 International conflicts over water

Indo – Nepal conflict: Mahakali River treaty

 The Territorial disputes of India and Nepal
include Kalapani 400 sqkm and Susta 140
sqkm.
 Nepal claims that the river to the west of
Kalapani is the main Kali river, hence it
belongs to Nepal.
 India insists that the river to the east of
Kalapani is the main Kali river, and
therefore claim the Kalapani area belongs
to India.
 The river borders the Nepalese zone of
Mahakali and the Indian state of
Uttarakhand.
 The dispute intensified in 1997 as the
Nepali parliament considered a treaty on
hydro-electric development of the river.
 The Mahakali Treaty basically aims at an
integrated development of water resources
in the Mahakali River and has been
finalized on the basis of equal partnership.
 International conflicts over water

Indo – Nepal conflict: Kosi River

 Since 1954, when the Kosi Agreement was
signed between India and Nepal, talks
between the two governments have stalled
and water rights issues have not been
addressed.
 There have been various disputes over this
agreement fuelled by floods in the Kosi
region.
 India and Nepal have also had disputes over
the issue of compensation of the Kosi
dam.
 Moreover, Nepal had considered India‟s
construction as an encroachment on
Nepal‟s territorial sovereignty.
 The problem with the Kosi River is its high
level of sedimentation and
embankments have proven to be ineffective
to tackle the sedimentation.
 The only available option in this case
is storage tanks and these cannot be set up
without the cooperation of Nepal.

Intensified flood threat in Bihar

 Interstate Conflicts over Water
The major Inter-State water disputes according to
the report of the Ministry of Water Resources
(Government of India) are listed below:
1. Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal: States
concerned: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh & Odisha
2. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal –I: States
concerned: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka
3. Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal: States
concerned: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
and Maharashtra
4. Ravi & Beas Water Tribunal: States
concerned: Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
5. Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal: States
concerned: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Puducherry
6. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal –II: States
concerned: Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh
and Maharashtra
7. Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal: States
concerned: Andhra Pradesh &Odisha
8. Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal: States
concerned: Goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra
Case Study
National Solar Mission

• The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, also known

as National Solar Mission, is one of the eight key National
Mission‟s which comprise India‟s National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC).

• NAPCC was launched on 30th June 2008 which identified

development of solar energy technologies in the country
as a National Mission. Finally on January 11, 2010 GoI
approved National Solar Mission.

• The Solar Mission recommends the implementation in 3

stages leading up to an installed capacity of 20,000 MW
by the end of the 13th Five Year Plan in 2022. It serves
twin purposes: i) Long term energy Security and ii)
Ecological Security

• Objective of the National Solar Mission: is to

establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by
creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across
the country as quickly as possible.
Case Study
Cauvery River Water Conflict

• Cauvery, which is locally known as Kaveri, is a large river that flows through the
southern states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• The Cauvery River has been a source of conflict between the states of Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu for over 124 years. The primary conflict, in this case, has always
been about the sharing and distribution of water of Cauvery River between the two
states.
• Cauvery water is vitally important for both the states as people from Karnataka
depend upon it to satisfy their drinking needs, whereas farmers from Cauvery delta
in Tamil Nadu depend upon it for agriculture and livelihood.
• The fight for Cauvery river water become even more important during rainfall
deficient years, as the entire basin delta of the Cauvery River falls under the
drought prone area. Therefore, Cauvery river water is the only source of water in
this region.
• As far as water resources are concerned, around 53% of Cauvery water resources
fall within the geographic boundaries of Karnataka, whereas only 30% of water
resources fall within the geographical borders of Tamil Nadu.
• As per the facts provided above, Karnataka claims more rights over Cauvery water
as the river originates in the state and they hold 53% of water resources fall within
their state.
• Similarly, Tamil Nadu has been traditionally and historically dependent on Cauvery
water to meet the irrigation needs in the northern part of the state. In addition to
this, they also have larger share of river basin area and have been using more
water from Cauvery historically, which has translated into demand for more water
from Karnataka.
Case Study
Tarun Bharat Sangh

• Tarun Bharat Sangh seeks to bring dignity and prosperity to

the life of a destitute section of the nation through
sustainable development measures. TBS aims for the
holistic development of men, women, and children,
regardless of economic situation, caste or religion.

• Renowned water conservationist and environment activist

Rajendra Singh who is popularly known as the Water Man
of India, started his career in 1980 as a National Service
Volunteer and later joined NGO Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS).

• Rajendra Singh along with volunteer young people and TBS

members had started movement purifying traditional
rainwater tanks (johads).

• He also had played important role in rejuvenating Arvari

River after johads and check dams were constructed on it. It
has helped Arvari River to become perennial river and was
awarded „International River Prize‟.

• Since then he has pioneered in building around 8,600 johads

and other structures to collect water in state of Rajasthan.
This initiative has brought water back to around 1,000
villages across the state.