,gbutay Development

A Handbook on "" Planning · .·

Civil Engineering
Nagpur Road Plan or First 20-year Road Plan

(i) (NH+ SH+ MDR)in km= [A+_§_+ 1.6N +ST]+ D - R

I 8 32
Il where,

rm Ii

I
NH+ SH+ MOR = Total length of first category or metalled
roads for national & state highways & major
district roads in km.
A = Agricultural area in km 2
B = Non-agricultural area in km 2

Highway Engineering I N = Number of towns & villages with population

range 2001- 5000
T = Number of towns & villages with population
- - - - - - - - - - - ,P % 1 ~ ,,,,, _ _ _ _ _ __ over 5000.
~
D = Development allowance of 15% of road length
calculated to be provided for agricultural &
industrial development during the next 20
years.
R = Existing length of railway track in km.
1. Highway Development & Planning ............................................... 451
(ii) / (ODR + VR)in km = [0.32V + 0.80 + 1.6P + 3.2S + D] /
where,
2. Highway Geometric Design ............................................................. 456
ODR + VR = Total length of second category roads for other
district roads & village roads in km.
3. Traffic Engineering ........................................................................... 467 V = Number of villages with population range 500 or less.
Q = Number of villages with population range 501-1000.
4. Highway Materials ........................................................................ 476 P = Number of villages with population range 1001-2000.
S = Number of villages with population range 2001-5000.
5. Pavement Design ................................................................. . ,... 482 D = Development allowance of 15% for next 20 years.
Second Twenty Year Road Plan {1961-81)
6. Highway Maintenance ......... . . ,. 490 (Bombay Road Plan)

(i) \NH=[~+ fa+-£]+ [32K + 8M] + o\

 l ii
JtSg. A Handbook on Civil Engineering Ii MADE EASY '1ADE EASY
• Highway Engineering

where, NH = Length of national highways in km. ----- ttighway Development and Planning
.4S3<

( ·1·1) (NH+ SH)- k = [ ~ + __§__ +

in m 20 24 32
_Q_] some Important Years

+ [ 48K + 24M + 11.2N + 1.6P] + D 1. Jayakar committee Formed in Nov. 1927

Recommendation Feb. 1928
where, (NH + SH);n km= Length of national & state highway in km.
2. Central road fund 1929

(iii) (NH+SH+MDR)inkm= [8A+ 16B+ 24C] +[48K+24M+11.2N!' 1

3. Indian road congress

4. Motor vehicle act

1934

1939
+ 9.6P + 6.40 + 2.4R] + D
'---------------------------------1 : 5. First 20 years road plan
(Nagpur road plan)
1943-1963
(but it finished in 1961)
where,(NH +SH+ MDR\n km= Length of national & state highwa, 1
& major district road.
1

ll 6. CRRI
(Central road research institute)
1950

(NH+ SH+ MOR+ ODR);n kni ! 7. Second 20 year road plan

1961-1981
(Bombay road plan)
(iv)

L
3
= [ A + ~B +
16 32 16
_Q_]
+ [ 48K + 24M + 11. 2N +
I 8. Third 20 year road plan
(Lucknow road plan)
1981-2001

9.6P + 12.80 + 4R + 0.8S + 0.32T] + D

where,(NH + SH + MOR+ ODR);n km = Length of national & state
highway & major district road & other district road.
l 1
9. National highway act

Important Recommendations
1956

(NH+ SH+ MOR+ ODR + Village road);n km

(v) =[A+ B + _Q_]

+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 9.6P
j Jayakar Committ~e
1. Road development should be considered as a matter of national
4 8 12 interest.
+ 12.80 + 5.9R + 1.6S + 0.64T + 0.2V] + D 2. Tax on petrol should be levied to collect fund for road development
where, A = Developed & agricultural areas in km 2 work.
B Semi-developed area in km 2 Result - Central road fund was formed in 1928.
C Undeveloped area in km 2 3. A semi official technical body should be formed to act as advisory
K = Number of towns with population over 1,00,000 body on various aspect of roads.
M = Number of towns with population range 1,00,000 -
Result - IRC was formed in 1934.
50,000
N = Number of towns with population range 50,000- 20,000 4. A research organisation should be instituted to carryout research
p = Number of towns with population range 20,000 - 10,000 and development work.
0 = Number of towns with population range 10,000- 5,000 Result - _CRRI was formed in 1950.
R Number of towns with population range 5,000- 2,000
s = Number of towns with population range 2,000 - "i .000
T = Number of towns with population range 1,000 -- 500
V = Number of towns with population range below 500.
D = Development allowance of 5% of road length calculated
for further development & other unforeseen factors.
 --
Highway Engineering
A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY II
454 II MADEEAsy
3. Star and grid pattern (adopted in India)
Three Road Development Plan

1st 20
year road plan
llnd 20
year road plan
lllrd 20
year road plan
-
1. Venue Nagpur Bombay Lucknow -
2. Year 1943 1961 1921 -
3. Target al end 16 km/100 km' area 32 km/100 km' area 82 km/100 km' area -
4. Total road 5.29 lakhs km 10.57 lakhs km 27.02 lakhs km -
length target
5. Outlay 448 crore 5200 crore -
-
6. Other points Roads are divided Expressway Roads are divided into
-
into 5 categories was added three major categories
(i) NH
(ii) SH
(iii) MOR
C), p nmary
. --1 Express ways
NH
4. Star and circular pattern

(iv) OOR (ii) Secondary~ SH

(v) VR MOR
(iii) OOR & VR

Different Road Patterns

1 . Rectangular and block pattern

5. Hexagonal road pattern

11
2. Star and block pattern

•••
!!. Il
Highway Geometric
Design ·
Highway Engineering 4.57

= d1 + d2 + d3 I
f ! I

'
Li j: \OSD
''
'' where, O.S.D = Overtaking sight distance in 'm'
d == Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during
the reaction time t sec of the driver from position
Stopping Sight Distance {SSD) A1 to A2 .
The minimum sight distance available in a highway at any spot should be . /d 1 = 0.278Vbt/
suff_i~ient length to stop a vehic!e traveling as design speed, safely witho~;
coll1s1on with any other obstruction. The absolute minimum sight distance is l d 2 == Distance travelled by the vehicle A from A 2 to A 3
therefore equal to the stopping sight distance. which is also some times f during the actual overtaking operation in time T sec.
called non-passing sight distance. J
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of : /d 2 = b + 2s/ and ld 2 = 0.278Vb T + }aT
2
I
1. The distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time I where S == Minimum spacing between two vehicle.

2.
known as lag distance and
The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of the
brakes, to a dead stop position which is known as the braking
distance.
I \s

~
= 0.2Vb + 6\ here Vb is in km/hr.

where, a= acceleration in m/s 2 .

(i) /lag distance= 0.278Vt/ where, V = Speed in km/hr.

(ii)
v2
t = Reaction time in sec
where,
IT= ~I where a is in km/hr/sec.

I
. d",stance=
Brea k 1ng --,,-:::,--,-.,----=--r
254(f ± S%) f = Coefficient of friction /d 3 = 0.278Vc T/
= 0.40 for v = 20 to 30 km/hr where, d 3 = Distance travelled by on coming vehicle C from C 1
== 0.35 for v = 100 km/hr to C during the overtaking operation of A i.e., T sec.
(iii) SSD == lag distance + breaking distance 2 . d
Ve = V = Speed of overtaking vehicle or design spee
2 (km/hr)
SSD = 0.278Vt + V if Vb is not given then
254(f ± S%)
where, S% is gradient+ ve sign for ascending gradient & -ve sign vb = (V - 16) km/ hr
for descending gradient Vb= (v- 4.5)m/ S v = design speed in m/s.
SSD == Stopping sight distance in 'm'.
Overtaking Sight Distance {OSD) Overtaking Zone
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that_ the le~g~h of road
to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite visible ahead at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. T~1s 1s ~eldom
direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the practicable and there may be stretches where the safe overta_k1n~ distance
safe passing sight distance available. can not be provided. In such zones where overt~kin~ o~ pa:s1ng 1s n?t s.~fe
A, A, B, B, A, or is not possible, sign posts should be installed 1nd1cat1ng No passing or
"Overtaking Prohibited" before such restricted zones starts. But_ the
r·t~i=~'Tc~=j.·3
d,-+1+,-----d., _., d:
overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should b~ given
at frequency intervals. These zones which are meant for overtaking are
Overtaking Manoeuvre called overtaking zones.
 458 A Handbook on Civil Engineering II MADE EAsy MADEEASY ■ Highway Engineering

10. s. D = d1 + d2 I where, V = Ruling design speed in km/hr

e = Rate of super elevation
For one way traffic
f = Coefficient of friction ~ 0.15
jOSD = d 1 + d 2 + ~
Extra Widening CEw>
For two way traffic Overtaking zone
minimum length = 3(0S0) The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two
!Minimum length of overtaking zone= 3 • (OSD)I parts (i) Mechanical and (ii) Psychological widening.

!Desirable overtaking zone= 5(0SD)I J · n/2 V

j IEw = Wm + Wp I ➔ Ew = 2R + 9.5.JR
R
Super Elevation (e) I
In order to _counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency
iI Mechanical Widening (Wm): The widening required to account for the
of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised off-tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical
with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout
the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to the pavemeni
surface is known as superelevation or cant or banking.
T~e superelevation 'e' is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge
I
I
widening. (Wm).

with respect to the horizontal width. l

l
I Psychological widening (WP): Extra width of pavement is also provided
(a) le=~= tane/ for psychological reasons such as, to provide for greater maneuverability
of steering at higher speeds, to allow for the extra space requirements
for the overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for
crossing and overtaking vehicles on the curves. Psychological widening
M
is therefore important in pavements with more than one lane.
where V = Speed in km/hr
w where, n = number of traffic lanes
R = Radius in 'm'
f = Design value of lateral friction = 0.15 I = length of wheel base (m)
e = Rate of super elevation ~ tan 0 R = radius of the curve (m)
• Maximum Super Elevation (emax) V =velocity (kmph)
0.07 ➔ For plain & Rolling Terrain TRANSITION CURVE
emax = 0.10 ➔ For Hilly Area
{ The Indian Roads Congress recommends the use of the spiral as transition
0.04 ➔ For Urban roads with frequent intersections curve in the horizontal alignment of highways due to the following reasons:

Ruling Minimum Radius of the Curve (Rruhng

. ) (i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition.
r--------- (ii) The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and
v2 setting out the curve in the field is simple and easy.
Rruling = 127( e + f)
 l
A Handbook on Civil Engineering

----
'ADE EASY ■ Highway Engineering
II MADE EASY
• Length of Transition Curve (L)
>et Back Distance (m)
(i) According to rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
lrhe clearance distance or set back distance required from the centre !in~ of
o.02 15 v3 where, V=Speed of vehicle in (km/hr)
L = CR C= Allowable rate of change of centrifug
l horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide
,-:dequate sight distance depends upon the following factors:
acceleration in m/sec3 a1
(i) Required sight distance (SSD)
R =Radius of curve in 'm'. (ii) Radius of horizontal curve, (R)
L= Length of transition curve in 'm'. (iii) Length of the curve (Le)
(ii) According to rate of change of super elevation

I
1. For single lane road
(a) When Le> SSD
150x ➔ For plain & Rolling Terrain
L =
{
100 x ➔ For Built up Area
60 x ➔ For Hilly Area I
Jm = R - Reos%! & ~= ~~o:
= Length of curve & s = SSD

I
where, Le.
where, x = Raise of outer line of road.
it pavement is rotated about inner side.

I
'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
it pavement is rotated about centre line. -5) :

r
X
\ w,!
1 ~!
1
X
(b) When Le< SSD
1
(w + Ew) - - - - -
(iii) According to empirical formula

~ For Plain & Rolling Terrain !

~ For Hilly Area.

I
l
I
l
~· --
l
A Handbook on Civil Engineering Ill MADE EAsy MADE EASY Ill Highway Engineering

sso
ii
i LC
!
------------------------

SSD- LC
2

2. For two lane road

. (a) When Le > SSD

I.m = R - (R - d) cos ~2 , & a2 =

.
180s
2n(R- d)

• Grade Compensation
. 30+R
Grade compensation= R % and

Maximum value of grade compensation=~%

where, R = Radius of curve in meter.

Vertical Curve
Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary
to introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen
out the vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the
fast moving vehicles.
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories:
(i) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards
(b) (ii) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards.
When Le< SSD
• Summit Curves (Crest Curve with Convexity Upward): Summit curves
m = R- (R- d) cosf + (S -2Lc)sin~2 & 2a = 180Lc
2n (R- d)
with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the case illustrated in
fig. The deviation angles between the two interacting gradients is equal
to the algebraic difference between them. Of all the cases, the deviation
angle will be maximum when an ascending gradient meets with a
descending gradient i.e., N = n 1 - (- n2 ) = (n 1 + n 2 )
 ;
-"-A.::...:6"--4.:...
. ._ _ _ _ _ _A_H_a_n_d_b_o_o_k_o_n_C_iv_i_lE_:..:n..:.:g:'...:i.:..:n.::..e-=.er:..:.i::..:.ng~--=
■:__:M::ADE EASy MADE EASY ■ Highway Engineering
----------.:
(i) Length of summit curve for SSD (b) Whey L < OSD
(a) When L > SSD

L = ___N_S_2_ _ /
// I
I
'
,;) N
'
/

'
= (n 1 + n,)
L
IL = 2S - ( ✓2H ~ ✓2h ) I ➔ IL = 2S -
2
¥1
.," I ',

(FH + ffh}2 I
:
'
', N
• Valley Curves (Sag Curve with Concavity Upward): Valley curves or
. ~-,!,:-~= ✓-'--- --- sag curves are formed in any one of the cases illustrated in fig. In all
', H the cases the maximum possible deviation angle is obtained when a
2
NS F ' B
L=- descending gradient meets with an ascending gradient.
_________________________ J H
I
4.4 A
,.__ Length of summit cu;ve, L --.:

/·<(N = (n 1 + n2 )-n2• ~·-,.-_.

- ·N·=
n (n -n )
2 1
+n~
/ --............_ -n2

where, L = Length of summit curve in meter

S = SSD(m)
N = Deviation angle

(b)
= Algebraic difference of grade
H = Height of eye level of driver above road way surface
= 1.2 m
h = Height of object above the pavement surface = 0.15 m
When L < SSD
(i)
J:~o,)
Length of valley curve as per comfort condition (transition curves

/L ~ 2s- tFH ~✓2h>'HL~ 2s-~/ are provided back to back).

3]1/ 2
L= 2 NV
(ii) Length of summit curve for safe overtaking sight distance (OSD) or [ C if C = 0.6 m/s 3 than IL= 0.38(NV 3 ) 112 I
intermediate sight distance (ISO)
(a) When L > OSD (ii) Length of valley curve for head light sight distance (parabolic curve
is provided).
NS
2
~
(FH+ffh)2 ➔~
(a) When L > SSD
L=
L = NS2 .IL - NS2 I
where, S0 = Overtaking or Intermediate sight distance
2h 1 + 2s tan ex I - 1.50 + 0.035s
4(>,~)i A Handboo~ on Civil Engineering
~-'-='----'---~=..::~~~~~~~~--~•~MADE EAsy
where, ~

L= Total length of valley curve

S = SSD (m)
N = Deviation angle
a= Beam angle ~ 1°
h1 =Avg.height of head light= O.?S m lffic engineering _is that phase of engineering which deals with planni~g
(b) When L < SSD ,if!H geometric design of. streets, highways, abutting lands, and with traffic
.~ration thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convient and economic
L= 28 _(2h1+2stana) (1
~----~-_J
N ➔ L = 2S - ~N
Il H.~nsportation of persons and goods.
.,;~.

fheoretical maximum capacity, (C)

••• f =
1
I
O~OV where, S = Minimum clear distance between two vehicles (m) .

IS= 0.2V + 6 I where, v = Speed of vehicle in km/hr.

~ C = Theoretical maximum capacity in vehicle/hour
~ ·H1 = Time headway in 'Sec'.
I.C=V-ol. i
Volume --------
Volume
maximum
where, C = Traffic capacity or traffic (c)
volume in vehicle/hour
o = Traffic density in vehicle/km
V = Traffic velocity in km/hr. Speed
(v) -
Passenger Car Unit

I
The PCU may be considered as a measure of the relative space requirement
of a vehicle class compared to that of passenger car under a specified set
of roadway, traffic and other conditions.

f PCU = Capacity of roadway with passenger car only

/ Capacity of roadway with a particular class vehicle only

I Accident Studies
!i The problem of accident is very acute in highway transportation due to
' complex flow patterns of vehicular traffic presence of mixed traffic and
1
! pedestrains. Traffic accidents may involve property damages, personal
injuries or even casualties.
where, e = Coefficient of restitution
(V~ - VA) = Velocity of separation
(VA - V8 ) = Velocity of approach.
 'J

--
A Handbook on Civil Engineering 11111 MADE EAsy r,,ADEEASY ■ Highway Engineering

7
~llllllll ~a (iii)

Before Collision
After Collision
(VA>Vs)
(V8 > V1,) (iv)
VA = Velocity of vehicle 'A' of mass mA before collision j
V8 = Velocity of vehicle 'B' of mass m 8 before collision. (v)
VA = Velocity of vehicle A after collision f
V~ = Velocity of vehicle B after collision. l
/,
(vi) IV81 = .Jv~2 + 2gfS 81 I
l
• le= 11 for perfectly elastic collision. l where, 8 A1 - -....

I SA1 &% are skid 0-ts~-------v~lf}

• le= OI for perfectly inelastic collision or plastic collapse. I distance just before Breaks applied
T
i.e., both vehicle move with same velocity after collision. I collision.
SA2 &S~
1

+vs1
86
11
• Momentum Equation are skid

lmAvA +mgVg = mAvA +msvsl I

j
distance after collision.
VA3 & VB:3 are speed of
[§] Breaks applied
• Types of Collision I
I
vehicle A & B respectively after the collision.
(i) Collision of moving vehicle with parked vehicle (assumption • VA2 & Vs,, are speed of vehicle A & B respectively after skidding a
collision is perfectly plastic)
distance SA1 & SSj.
(a)
VA1 & VBi are speed of vehicle A & B respectively before skidding.

(b) Design of Signal

(i) Trial Cycle Method
(c) 8
IX A = 15:A60 x TI IX A = 15: 60 x TI
where, v 1 = Initial velocity of moving vehicle in km/hr.
v2 = Velocity of moving vehicle after travelling distance 's 1'
where, XA = Number of vehicle accumulated in one cycle time
on Road A.
(in meter)
X8 = Number of vehicle accumulated in one cycle time
v3 = Common velocity of moving & parked vehicle at the
on Road B.
time of collision.
T = Total cycle time in 'sec' (assumed)
s2 = Distance travelled by both vehicle till both vehicle comes
in rest finally. IGA = 2.5XA I 11A = Traffic count on road A in 15 minutes.
• Two Vehicle Approaching from Right Angle Collide at an Intersection

(i) /vA 3 = ✓2gfsA 2 /

IG 8 = 2.5X 8 I 11 8 = Traffic count on road Bin 15 minutes.

(ii) /vs 3 = ✓2QfSs 2 /

 l
A Handbook on Civil Engineering OE EASY .1111 Highway Engineering
1111 MADE EAsy
where, T' = Total cycle time (Actual) ---.:.
~nnual Average Daily Traffic (AADT or ADT)
AA = Amber time on road A
A 8 = Amber time on road B MDT= Total yearly traffic
GA & G 8 are green time on road A & B respectively. 365

if IT'= Tl then 0.K. otherwise repeat the process. space Mean Speed (V5 )
(ii) Approximate Method 3-6-d-n where, V8 = Space mean speed in km/hr.
Vs=--n--
d = Length of road in meter

I
Lti n = Number of individual vehicle
i=1
observations
ti = Observed travel time (sec) for ith vehicle
whey, RA = Red time on road A of travel distance 'd' meter.
R8 = Red time on road B I
GAP = Green time on road A for Pedestrians ITime mean speed (vt)
GBP = Green time on road B for Pedestrians T] where, V1 = Time mean speed (km/hr)
WA = Width of road A L,Vi Vi = Observed instantaneous speed of ith
w8 = Width of road B Vt_-i=1
-- vehicles (km/hr)
n
1.2 m/s = Speed of pedestrians n = number of vehicles observed.

/GA = Rs - AA/ /G 8 = RA - A8 I Speed & delay study by floating car method

where, GA = Green time on road A Average journey time (t) in minute
G8 = Green time on road B
AA & As are Amber time on road A & B respectively.
(iii) Websters Method

{co= 1.~~~5/ where, C 0 = Optical cycle time

IL= 2n+R/
/Y = Y1 + Y2 ~1Y2 = qB
~ Se
. /GA ~ ~(Co -
where, GA & G 8 are green time on road A & B respectively.
L = Total lost time
where,
q = Flow of vehicles (volume per minutes) in one direction of
where, n = number of phase
the stream.
na = Average number of vehicles counted in the direction of
R = All red time
I where, qA = Normal flow on road A
q 8 = Normal flow on road B
the stream when the test vehicle travel in the opposite
direction.
ny = The average number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle
sA = Saturation flow on road A minus the number of vehicle overtaken when the test is in
S8 = Saturation flow on road B the direction of 'q'.
1w = Average journey time when the test vehicle is travelling
L)I IG8 ~ 1;<c L)I
0 -
with the stream q.
ta = Average journey time, in minute when the test vehicle is
running against the stream 'q'.
I
I
 472 A Handbook ori Civil Engineering
Ii MADE EASY ~/'DE EASY ■ Highway Engineering

Relationship between speed, travel time, volume, density &

IV= 30 km/ hrl➔ For Urban Areas.
capacity
Travel time per unit length of road, where, V = Design speed
(ii) Radius of rotary, (R)
3600
T(sec/km) = -V- where, V = Speed in km/hr where, V = Design speed of vehicle (km/hr)
f = Coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.43
lq = kVS I . & 0.47 for the speed of 40 & 30 km/hr
where, q = Average volume of vehicle passing a point during a specified respectively after allowing a factor of safety
period of time (vehicle per hour). of 1.5.
k = Average density or number of vehicle occupying a unit length (Rmin)central Island = 1.33 (R)Entry Curve
of roadway at a given instant (vehicles/km).
Vs = Space-mean speed of vehicles in a unit roadway length (Rmin )Central Island = Minimum radius of central Island.
(km/hr) (R) Entry Curve = Radius of entry curve.
90
~ (R)entrycurve ~ 35mj for
1000
70 - -' - ' /
~

I'\
j20m V = 40 km/hr.
60 800
401--+--+--+-..J's.-!---+-+-+-+-i 50 ----------
600
I
I
'I\ j15 m ::; (Rkntry Curve ::; 25 m for I V = 30 km/hr.
301--t--+----t-+--t-"-"t--+-t--t--t
I"
40
30
"'
I) Volume
(v)
I
\
201--t--+----t-+-+---l--i'..-t-,-+-t
20
v 400
I
101--t-+·-+-+-+---l--+-+-' 1' ~ 8
J---1--' I I 82
~ 10
1---!.---
200
I \' (iii) w = [( 1; ) + 3.5] metre
0 20 40 60 80 100 II
200 400 600 800 1000 I ~
Density K (Vehicles/km) 0 .50 100
Volume (q) Speed & Volume
Densily (k)
Volume & Densily

Capacity flow or maximum flow, (qmax>

v . k~ Iwhere, V8 F= Free mean speed i.e., maximum speed
q max = SF at zero density.
I 4
1
.
kJ = Jam density i.e., maximum density at
zero speed.

where, s =Spacing between vehicles.

-----.,-:::~ Exit curve of
Rotary Intersection __ - larger radius

A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged road intersection Wider

where all converging vehicles are forced to move round a large central
island in one direction (clockwise direction) before they can weave out Entrance curve
of traffic flow into their respective directions radiating from the central of smaller radius
island.
where, w = Width of weaving section.
(i) IV== 40 km/ hrl➔ For Rural Areas. e 1 = Entry width,
e2 = Width of non weaving section.
 __k_o_n_C_iv_i_l_En_g=-.i_n_e_e_ri_n---=g:....__ ______:11 MADE EASY
~4_7_4~_ _ _ _ _A_H_a_n_d_b_oo II Highway Engineering
(iv) Capacity of Rotary (Op)
----:.:..:.
,-----~--:----:------c-, ~
Op = 280w ( 1 +; )(
1 - ~)
~ for 60° angle parking.

(1+f) (vi) IN= 2~5 1 for 90° angle parking.

where, Op = Practical capacity of weaving section of a rotary in PCU " Out of various angles used in angle parking, 45 degree angle is
per hour. considered the best from all considerations discussed above.
w = Width of weaving section (6 to 18 m).
H,ighway Lighti_ng
e = Average width of entry 'e 1 ' & width of non-weaving section
e 1 +e 2
e:, for the range e/w = 0.4 to 1.0 - Spacing between lighting units =
- 2 .
L = Length of weaving section between the ends of Lamp lumen x Coefficient utilization x Maintenance factor
I Average lux x Width of road

p
channelizing islands in meter for the range of w = o 1 ,.,
to 0.4.
= Proportion of weaving traffic or weaving ratio.
L . . c.
I
j
Trip Distribution
GAFi- where, T..IJ = Number of trips from zone i to zone j.

l
T. _ I J IJ
= Trips generated in zone i.
/P= a+~:~+dl
ljJ - n Gi
(v) /0.4$;p$;0.90/
I·
LAl1i
j=I
Ai = Trips attracted to zone j.
Fii = Empirically derived 'Friction Factor'
where, a = Left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane. calculated on area wise basis.
d = right turning moving along right extreme lane. n = Number of zones in the urban area.
b = Crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right whi!e

c
entering the rotary.
= Crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving
•••
Parking Facilities
• Number of spaces (N)
the rotary.

I!
(i) ~
C.@
for parallel parking with equal spacing facing the
same direction.
I
I
i
(ii) ~ for para/IE;)/ parking when two cars placed closely. j'
I
(iii) IN = L-0.851
_ for 30° angle parking
5 1

(iv) IN = L-2.01
3 _6 for 45° angle parking
~4:.....7..:.c.4;...·-~•_ _ _ _ _

(iv)
A_H_a_n_d_b_o_o_k_o_n_C_iv_i_lE_n_g_i_n_e_e_ri_n_g_ _ _

Capacity of Rotary (Op)

-----------
--
ll_M_A_D_EEAsy

(v)
■________
~'.~A_D_E_E_A_S_Y__ H--=ig_h_w_a_:_y_E_ng=-i_n_ee_r_in--=g;____ _ _ _·~---=-

~ for 60° angle parking.

4 .:...
75 ~_ _

0 p = 280w ( 1 + t) ( 1 - ~)

(1 + t-) (vi) IN= 2~5 1 for 90° angle parking.

where, Op = Practical capacity of weaving section of a rotary in Pcu Out of various angles used in angle parking, 45 degree angle is
per hour. considered the best from all considerations discussed above.
w = Width of weaving section (6 to 18 m).

I
Highway Lighti_ng
e = Average width of entry 'e 1 ' & width of non-weaving section
e 1 +e 2 Spacing between lighting units =
e::, for the range e/w = 0.4 to 1.0 - .
- 2

II
Lamp lumen x Coefficient utilization x Maintenance factor
L = Length of weaving section between the ends of
Average lux x Width of road
channelizing islands in meter for the range of wL = o.1?-
to 0.4. ; Trip Distribution
p = Proportion of weaving traffic or weaving ratio. G-AFi· T. _ I J IJ
where, Tii = Number of trips from zone i to zone j.
ljJ - n Gi = Trips generated in zone i.
(v) Ip= a+~:~+ d I I0.4:::; p:::; 0.901 LA/7j
j=I
Ai = Trips attracted to zone j.
Fii = Empirically derived 'Friction Factor'
where, a = Left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane. calculated on area wise basis.
d = right turning moving along right extreme lane. n = Number of zones in the urban area.
b = Crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while
entering the rotary. ■■■
c = Crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving
the rotary.

Parking Facilities
• Number of spaces (N)

(i) ~ for parallel parking with equal spacing facing the

~ same direction.

(ii) ~ for parall(;)I parking when two cars placed closely.

(iii)
IN = L-0.851
_ for 30° angle parking
5 1

(iv) IN = L-2.01
_ for 45° angle parking
3 6
 Highway Engineering

(iii) 1~ = 1.1~Pal where, ~ = Deformation in 'cm'.

a= Radius of rigid plate in 'cm'.

lk = ~ = 1. 1E8 a I
E = Modulus of elasticity of soil
Group Index of Soils (G.I) subgrade in kg/cm 2 .
a1 = Radius of smaller plate (other
In order to classify the fine grained soils within one group and for judging Jk- a= constant! plate)
their suitability as subgrade material, an indexing system has been
k 1 = Modulus of subgrade reaction of
introduced in HRB classification which is termed as group index. Soils are
thus assigned arbitrary numerical numbers known as group index (GI). Group 5] other plate of radius 'a/ cm.
index is function of percentage and is given by the equation

jG.I = 0.2 a+ 0.005 ac + 0.01 bdj

Ii '
Califomia Bearing Ratio (CBRJ Test

where, a= (P- 35) ':/> 40 ] [ Load ( or pressure) sustained by th_e ]

b = (P _, 15) ':/> 40 l specimen at 2.5 or 5.0 mm penetration x
100
C = (WL - 40) ':f, 20 j CBR% = [ Load (or pressure) sustained by standard ]
d=(lp-10)':/>20 aggregates at the corresponding penetration level
where, WL = Liquid limit, IP = Plasticity Index.
P = Percentage fines passing from 0.074 mm sieve. Test for Road Aggregate
JO~ G.I ~ 201 Lower the group index~ best quality. J.

I'
Machine Base Surface
Plate Bearing Test Course Course
1.0 t
[l'
(i) Aggregate Los Angeles 150% 130%
3 ,,,,,,
:::,
(i) lk=~kg/cm / Abrasion value Abrason test
Q)

I
a: (ii) Aggregate crushing UTH 145% 130%
Here, g> 0.5
-~ value
k = Modulus of subgrade reaction Q)
OJ (iii) Aggregate Impact Impact Testing 140% 130%
C
P = Pressure corresponding to ""
Q)
:;,:
value Machine (for Bitcemine
settlement of 0.125 cm. machine)

(ii) /ks = k · ~I 1.0

Mean Settlement

Unsaved
135%
(forWBM)
where,
ks= Modulus of subgrade reaction
Indicator Respective Test Results
p
for soaked condition. 1. Flakiness Index 115%
0.5
2. Elongation 115%
Ps= Pressure required in the soaked
condition to produce same
deformation as deformation
Produce by pressure 'P' in
Deformation of specimen
10
I 3.
4.
Angularity Number
Soundness index

5." Water absorption value

0 - 11
118% (MgSO 4 ),
112% (Na2 SO4 )
10.6%
consolidated condition.
6. Stipping value 125%
k = Modulus of subgrade reaction for consolidated stage.
1
'.i Highway Engineering 479
4.78 A Handbook oA Civil Engineering II MADE EASY ~}\DE EASY II
1
I ~

(i) Aggregate crushing test · (ii) Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimen

. 100w 2 100
Aggregate crushing value= %
W1

where, w1 = Weight of the test sample in 'gm'

w2 = weight of the crushed material in 'gm' passed through where, G = Theoretical maximum specific gravity of the mix.
2.36 mm sieve. w~ = % by weight of bitu~en.
(ii) Shape Tests Gb = Specific gravity of bitumen.
1 G = Average specific gravity of aggregates.
Angularity number= 67 - oow a
C-Ga (b) Theoretical density yt' percent solids by volume

I
Where, Ga = specific gravity of aggregate ~t where, G = Actual specific gravity of test
w = mass of mould containing aggregate specimen
C = mass of mould containing water Gt= Theoretical maximum specific
(iii) Abrasion Test i gravity.
(a) Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Coefficient of hardness= 20 - Loss in weight in' gm'
Ii (c) Voids in the Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

. 3 J \vMA ~ (V, + vbJ ~ 1oo -¾,\

Bituminous Material
1. Product of fracitonal distillation of Petroleum: Gasoline, Naptha, I where, Vb = % of bitumen

2.
Kerosene, Lubricating oil and Residue - Petroleum Bitumen.
Cutback Bitumen: Reduced Viscosity Bitumen l W a = Aggregate content percent by weight
Vv = % air voids in the specimen.
Types Volatile Diluent Used
100(Gt -G)
i. RC - N Gasoline/Naptha VV = 100 -Yi= Gt
ii. MC-N Kerosene
iii. SC - N High boiling point gas (d) % Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
N - Numeral [O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Show progressive thickening from Oto 5 100Vb
3. Specific Gravity:
VFB = VMA
Bituminous ➔ 0.97 - 1.02
Tar ➔ 1. 1 - 1.5
Marshall Method Bituminous Mix Design
Bituminous Mixes
(i) Determination of Specific Gravity l •
.. I-
Percentage Air Voids= Vv -
G1 - Gm
Gm
X 1 oo]
I
where, Ga = Average specific where, G = Bulk density or.mass density of the specimen
gravity of blended
aggregate mix. I G= Theoretical specific gravity of mixture
t

w 1 , w 2 , w3 , Vv 4 are% by weight of aggregate 1, 2, 3 & 4 respectively.

G 1, G 2 , G 3 & G 4 are specific gravities of the aggregate 1, 2, 3 & 4
respectively.
 A Handboolf on Civil Engineering Ill MADE EASY • Highway Engineering

eM Method of Bituminous mix Design Stabilimeter Value,

where, W 1 = Percent by weight of coarse aggregate in total mix
W2 = Percent by weight of fine aggregate in total mix 2
W3 = Percent by weight of filler in total mix where, p v = Vertical pressure at 28 kg/cm or at
a total load of 2268 kg.
W4 = Percent by weight of bitumen in total mix
ph = Horizontal pressure corresponding
G 1 = Apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate
to PV = 28 kg/cm 2 .
G 2 = Apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate •
D == Displacement on specimen
G 3 = Apparent specific gravity of filter 2
represented as number ot turns of
G4 = Specific gravity of bitumen pump handle to raise Ph from 0.35
Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
to 7 kg/cm 2 .
jvMA = vv + vb I
cohesiometerValue, (c)
Here, Vv = Volume of air voids, %
where, L = Weight of shots in gm.
L = Diameter or width of specimen
w 4 C= 2 w
Vb = Volume of bitumen,%= G,.,,. G w(0.2H + 0.0176H ) incm
4
H == Height of specimen in cm.
Percent Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

VFB = 100Vb Stabilimeter Resistance R-value

VMA ~-----------:--::-::- - - , where, Pv=Vertical pressure applied
10 0 2
R == 100 - ) (11.2kg/cm )
2.~(Pv -1 + 1 Ph= Horizontal pressure
g D2 Ph transmitted at P v= 11 -2
:a kg/cm 2 .
0 1000
D == Displacement of stabilimeter
co
.c
2
fluid necessary to increase
-
Cl)

co ·c the horizontal pressure from

2'
500'---'-----JL--.i..J
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
0
4.5
'------JL-----Jl..----l
5.5 6.5 7.5
::J 2 .4 .__.....__.__----JL----1
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
0.35 to 7 kg/cm 2, measured
in number of revolutions of
% Bitumen % Bitumen % Bitumen
the calibrated pump handle .

12,---.----,~---.
] 120.---.-----
•••
]i
=
Cl)

i2
8 t--~t----1------1 1J 1001---1---1----1
>
Cl)

g.'Q 4 t---~-1------1

0 _ _,____,__--J
*
0)

e:'
0)
801----!l-,L....l~--I

!l 601....__,c;__...___L,____J
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
% Bitumen % Bitumen
 . 1

Pavement Design Highway Engineering

Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

l(ESWL) at% depth= Pl l(ESWL) at 2s depth= 2PI

Flexible Pavements
p p
Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible

I
flexural strength and are rather flexible in their structural action under
the loads. f I I d;
2

A typical flexible pavement consists of four components : 1. soil

subgrade 2. sub-base course 3. base course 4. surface course. 2s
ESWL = 2P

~----- :::=□~~:;i:::,,
t=:: ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"t""'""'$=
I
; Methods of :,exible Pavement Design
F" Soil Subgrade
(ii Group Index Method
(i) Stress Under Road Surface as per Boussineq's Equation,
lr-G---,-=-0-.2=-a-+--.:0=--.0:::-:0:::-;:5=-a-c:--+~O--;:_0;--::.1.::::b-:::i"ldI
cr a], .J
l
3
2 = q [ 1 - cos where cosa = z (ii) C.B.R Method
a2 + z2
where, cr2 = vertical stress at depth z. Load on soil sample
q = surface pressure. (a) C · B · R values = Standard load x 100

(ii)
z =
depth at which cr2 is computed.
a = radius of loaded area.
As Per /RC
I
z
Penetration
2.5mm
Standard load
1370 kg

(iii)
Maximum legal axle load= 8170 kg
Equivalent single wheel load = 4085 kg.

Contact pressure = Load on wheel . .

l (b)
5.0mm
Thickness of Pavement, (T)

1. 75 1 ]1/ 2
2055 kg

~--[-1-.7_5_P___A_]---:;1-,-:/2;,-,
Contact area or area of imprint T = Jf5 [ CBR - p; or T - CB R 7t

(iv) Ri idit factor (R. F) = Contact pressure

g y Tyre pressure where, P = Wheel load in kg.
CBR = California bearing ratio in percent
Cl)
p = Tyre pressure in kg/cm 2
~
u,
7 kg/cm
2
A= Area of contact in cm 2 .
~

IA= 1ta
CL
2
Cl)

~ -'tr •Tyre pressure is important a = Radius of contact area.

1

,, 45° I ,-_
,.,..;?...,, for upper layers.
I
(c) Number of heavy vehicle per day for design (A),
Contact Pressure • Contact pressure is important
for deeper layers.
RF> 1 RF< 1 \A = P[1 + r]'n+10) \
 l
A Handbook on Civil Engineering 11111 MADE EASY Highway Engineering

(i) Modulus of subgrade reaction (k), (c) Stress at Corner Loading (sc)
lk = ~ I where, k = Modulus of subgr'ade reaction (kg/cm2/cm
u P = Pressure required for 'Li' deflection (kg/cm2)
Ll = Deflection (cm).

For 75 cm dia plate, Li= 0.125 cm. where, h = Slab thickness (cm)
(ii) Radius of Relative Stiffness (I) P= Wheel load (kg)

Eh 3 }1/4 a=
l =
Radius of contact area (cm)
Radius of relative stiffness (cm)
I= { 12k(1-µ2 ) b = Radius at resisting section (cm).

where, l = Radius of relative stiffness, cm

E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (kg/cm 2)
µ = Poisson's ratio for concrete= 0.15
h = Slab thickness (cm)
I
f
(vi) Warping Stresses
(a) Stress at Interior Region (St.)
1.

k = Subgrade modulus or modulus of subgrade reaction

(kg/cm3 ) where, St·
I
= Warping stress at interior region (kg/cm 2 )
(iii) Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section (b) E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete, (kg/cm 2 )

(a) /b = ✓1.6a 2 + h2 - 0.675h/ I a = Coefficient of thermal expansion(/0 c)

ex = Coefficient based on (L;) in desired direction.

(b)
when a < 1 . 724 h

lb=alwhena>1.724h
where, a = Radius of contact area (cm)
I CY = Coefficient based on (L() in right angle to the

h = Slab thickness (cm) above direction.

(iv) Glod beck's Formula for Stress due to Corner Load µ = Poissons's ratio - 0.15.
~ where, Sc = Stress due to corner load (kg/c. m 2 )
~ P = Corner load assumed as a concentrated LJ/ or LJI Cx or Cy
point load, (kg) 4 0.6
h = Thickness of slab (cm). 8 1.1
(v) Westergards Stress Equation 12 1.02
(a) Stress at Interior Loading (si)
Lx & ~ are the dimensions of the slab considering along x & y

Si= 0.~:6p[41og (f)+1.069]

10
directions along the length & width of slab.
(b) Stress at Edge Region (st )
e
(b) Stress at Edge Loading (s 6 ) EaT
--·C
. 2 X

S6
5 2
= 0. h: P [ 4Iog10 (t) + 0.359] Ste= maximum EaT _c
{ 2 y
 ;
A Handbook on Civil Engineering '.MADE EASY II Highway Engineering .4_89.
Bl MADEEAsy _!~' -

(c) (b) When reinforcement is provided

Stress at Carrier Region ( Ste )
L _ 200S 5 A 5 where, S8 = Allowable tensile stress in steel
s _ EaT fa where, a = Radius of contact area c- bhwf (kg/cm2)
le - 3(1- µ) ~/
I = Radius of relative stiffness :::c 1400 kg/cm 2.
A 8 = Total area of steel in cm 2 .
WU
(vii) Frictional Stress (s 1) St = x 4 (iii) Longitudinal Joints
2 10
where, SF= Frictional stress (kg/cm 2) A = bfhw
(a) s 100S 8
W= Unit weight of concrete, (kg/m 3 )
f= Friction constant or coefficient of subgrade restraint where, As = Area of steel required per meter length of joint
L= Slab length (m) (cm 2 )
B= Slab width (m) b = Distance between the joint & nearest free edge
(m)
(viii) Combination of Stresses
h = Thickness of the pavement (cm)
A. Critical C~mbination During Summer
f = Coeff. of friction c::::: 1 .5
(a) Stress for edge/interior regions at Bottom = ( + load
w = Unit wt. of concrete (kg/cm3 )
stress)+ (warping stress of day time) - Frictional stress
S8 = Allowable working stress in tension for steel (kg/
(b) Stress for corner region at top= (+load stress+ warping
cm 2 )
stress at night)
B. Critical Combination During Winter
(a) Stress for edge/interior at bottom = ( + load stress +
(b) ~
warping stress at day time + frictional stress) where, Lt = Length of tie bar
(b) Stress for Corner at Top = (load stress + warping stress S8 = Allowable stress in tension (kg/cm 2 ) c::::: 1400
at night) Sb = Allowable bond stress in concrete (kg/cm 2)
Design of Joints in Cement Concrete Pavements = 24.6 kg/cm 2 for deformed bars
= 17 .5 kg/cm 2 for plain tie bars
(i) Spacing of expansion joints, (Le)
d = diameter of tie bar (cm).
L = ___8_'___ where, 8' = Maximum expansion in slab (cm)
e 100 a (T2 - T1 ) Le = Spacing of expansion joint (m) IRC recommendations for design of cement concrete pavements
a = Coefficient of thermal expansion
of concrete (/ 0 c) jAd = P'[1 + r](n+20) I
(ii) Spacing of contraction joint, (Le) where, Ad = Number of commercial vehicles per day (laden weight>
(a) When reinforcement is not provided 3 tonnes)
_(2x10 )sc
4 P' = Number of commercial vehicles per day at last count.
L c- r = Annual rate of increase in traffic intensity.
w.f
n = Number of years between the last traffic count & the
where, Le = Spacing of contraction joint (m)
commissioning of new cement concrete pavement.
sc = Allowable stress in tension in cement concrete.
f = Coefficient friction - 1 .5 •••
w = Unit weight of cement concrete (kg/m 3 ).
 l

····N11bJIVay: iVlai11te11ance • Highway Engineering

As Per I.R.C

where, h0 = Thickness of granular or WBM overlay in mm.

Flexible Overlay Over Flexible Pavement by Conventional
Design Method De = (D + 6), after applying the corrections for pavement
I temperature & subgrade moisture.
/h 0 = hd - he/ Da = 1.00, 1.25 & 1.5Q mm if the projected design traffic A is
I 1500 to 4500, 450 to 1500 & 150 to 450 respectively.
where, h0
hd
he
= Overlay thickness required (cm)
= Total design thickness required (cm)
= Total thickness of the existing pavement (cm).
I
II

Rigid Overlay Over Rigid Pavement

Analysis of Data '

I Overlay thickness, (ho) lho_ = (h~ - xh~ rI
= Rigid overlay thickness
Jo=~mmJ Here, h0
hd = Design thickness
where, D = Mean value of deflections at 'n' points. he = Existing pavement thickness values of a, b, x & n depend
l:O = 0 1 + D2 + ... upon the pavement & the method of overlay construction.
where, D 1, D2 ... are rebound deflection values.
Flexible Overlay over Rigid Pavement
Standard Deviation of Deflection (a)
/h1 = 2.5(Fhd - he)/
2
~(D-0) where, h1 = Flexible overlay thickness
O'=
(n-1)
he = Existing rigid pavement thickness
Characteristics Deflection (De), hd = Design thickness of rigid pavement
f = Factor which depend upon modulus of existing pavement.
/De = D + t · cr /
/hb = 1.66(Fhd -he)/
Overlay Thickness Design where, hb = Thickness of bituminous overlay.
h - R I De
o - - - 0 910 -
0.434 Da Ruiz's Equation •••
where, h0 = Thickness of bituminous overlay in cm.
R = Deflection reduction factor depending on the overlay
material.