Chapter 16 The Endocrine System

Chapter Outline

Module 16.1 Overview of the Endocrine System (Figures 16.1–16.5)

A. Introduction to the Endocrine System: organs of this complex system work by
synthesizing and secreting chemical messengers called . Hormones
interact with specific target cells and influence their functions in order to
maintain fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base homeostasis, promote growth, and
regulate metabolic reactions.
B. Comparison of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems: these complex systems
work together to maintain nearly every aspect of homeostasis. The nervous
system operates through a series of neurons that directly affect their target cells
through the release of . The effects are almost
immediate but are short-lived unless stimulation is repetitive. Cells of the
endocrine system are generally not in close direct contact with target cells.
Instead, hormones are secreted into the where they travel to
interact with target cells.
C. Types of Chemical Signals: Hormones and neurotransmitters only represent a
few of the chemical signals used by the body. , ,
and are the three basic types of chemical signals (Figure 16.1).
D. Overview of the Endocrine Organs: Endocrine glands are diverse group of
organs found throughout the body that all regulate other cell types by producing
and secreting hormones. Endocrine glands consist of ductless glandular
epithelial cells that secrete hormones into the extracellular fluid for transport by
the bloodstream (Figure 16.2). The primary endocrine organs are as follows:
1. The anterior pituitary gland is found in the bone of the skull.
2. The thyroid gland is found in the anterior .
3. The parathyroid gland is found on the posterior side of the
gland.
4. The adrenal cortices are located on the superior side of each .

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 5. The endocrine pancreas is located in the left side of the abdominal
cavity mostly posterior to the .
6. The is located in the superior mediastinum.
E. Hormones are the chemical messengers, or chemicals secreted by
endocrine glands, that regulate the functions of other cells (Figures 16.3,
16.4, 16.5).
1. Overview of hormones: Once released, hormones can cause widespread
effects throughout the body in as fast as a few seconds or as slowly as several
hours.
2. Target cells and receptors: Hormones are able to affect only particular cells
called target cells. These cells contain specific protein to
which hormones bind.
3. Classes of hormones: Hormones are classified based on their chemical
structures: (1) Amino-acid hormones consist of one or more amino acids.
This class is generally , binding to plasma membrane
receptors. (2) Steroid hormones are derived from and are
hormones that bind to receptor in the cytosol or nucleus.
4. Mechanisms of hormone action: Hydrophilic hormones. Once a
hydrophilic hormone binds to its target cell receptor, a second messenger
system that links a G-protein to a plasma membrane hormone receptor is
triggered when a hydrophilic hormone binds to the receptor (Figure
16.3a).
5. Mechanisms of hormone action: Hydrophobic hormones cross through the
plasma membrane where they can interact with receptors
in the cytosol of nucleus and change the rate of protein synthesis (Figure
16.3b).
6. Describe the effects of hormone actions: (1)
. (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
 7. Regulation of hormone secretion. Secretion can be initiated or inhibited
by several different stimuli including hormonal, humoral, and neural stimuli
(Figure 16.5).
8. Regulation of hormone secretion. Describe each step of the feedback loop
that regulates hormone secretion (Figure 16.5):
a. Stimulus:
b. Receptor:
c. Control Center:

d. Effector/Response:

e. Homeostatic Range:

9. Hormone interactions: Some hormones called can act

on the same target cell to exert the same effect. Some hormones called
act on the same cells but have the opposite effects.
Module 16.2 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland (Figures 16.6– 16.10;
Table 16.1)
A. Introduction. The hypothalamus is a small collection of nuclei found in the brain
that is vital to many homeostatic processes. Several hypothalamic nuclei and
anterior pituitary hormones directly control certain body functions.
B. Structure of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland. The following
anatomical features of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland highlight their
anatomical and functional proximity (Figure 16.6):
1. The hypothalamus is the small anteroinferior portion of the diencephalon and
is connected to the pituitary gland by a stalk called the .
2. The pituitary gland is a small organ that sits in the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone. The gland is composed of the following two structurally and
functionally distinct components (Figure 16.6b):
a. The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis, is a true gland
composed of hormone-secreting glandular epithelium (adeno).
 b. The posterior pituitary, or neurohypophysis, is made up of
tissue (neuro).
3. The hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system is a specialized blood supply
that allows both hypothalamus and pituitary to deliver their hormones to their
target cells.
C. Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary: What hormones are
made in the posterior pituitary?
Two neurohormones, and , are produced by the
hypothalamus then stored and released from the posterior pituitary (Figure
16.7a):
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Water retention. This neurohormone,
also known as vasopressin, controls water balance. The following
highlights ADH:
a. Discuss the primary function of ADH.

b. Diabetes insipidus is a disease caused by an abnormal lack of ADH

secretion or activity, which causes extreme thirst and signs of
dehydration. Explain these symptoms.

2. Oxytocin: Supporting reproduction. Oxytocin is produced by the

hypothalamus and stored in the axon terminals of the posterior pituitary gland
(Figure 16.7b). What are the functions of oxytocin?
Describe the milk let-down reflex and the role of oxytocin in the nursing
mother.
D. Functional Relationship of the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary. The
hypothalamus controls many of the functions of the anterior pituitary in the
following ways (Figure 16.7b, 16.8, 16.9, 16.10, and summarized in Table 16.1):
1. The hypothalamus produces and releases tropic hormones that either
stimulate ( hormones), or inhibit ( hormones) the
release of hormones from the anterior pituitary (Figure 16.7b).
2. Negative feedback control of anterior pituitary hormones by
hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones. Hormones of the
hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and their target tissues are maintained at
normal levels by feedback loops with multiple levels or tiers
of control. Each tier includes a stimulus, receptor, control center, and
response/effector (Figure 16.8).
3. Anterior pituitary hormones that affect other glands: Tropic hormones
secreted by the anterior pituitary include the following:
a. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, thyrotropin) stimulates the
development of the gland and its secretions, the thyroid
hormones. TSH release is stimulated by the hypothalamic
(TRH).
b. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin) stimulates the
development of the gland and their synthesis of various
steroid hormones. ACTH release is stimulated by the hypothalamic
hormone (CRH).
c. Prolactin (PRL) stimulates the growth of gland
tissue, initiation of production after childbirth, and
maintenance of milk production for the duration of breastfeeding. PRL
release is stimulated by the hypothalamic hormone prolactin-releasing
hormone and inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting factor, which is known
to be dopamine.
 d. Luteinizing hormone (LH, male gonadotropin) stimulates the
production of the hormone testosterone by the testes under the
direction of the hypothalamic hormone
(GnRH).
e. Luteinizing hormone (LH, female gonadotropin) stimulates the
production of and from the ovaries
and triggers the release of an oocyte in the process of ovulation, also
under the direction of GnRH.
f. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH, male gonadotropin) stimulates
the cells of the testes to produce chemicals that bind and concentrate
the hormone , under the direction of
GnRH.
g. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH, female gonadotropin) and LH
together trigger the production of . FSH also triggers
the maturation of ovarian follicles, which house developing ooctyes as
well.
4. Anterior pituitary hormone with widespread effects: growth hormone.
GH (somatotropin) is produced and secreted by somatotrophs, which release
GH periodically throughout the day, with peak secretion occurring during
.
5. Effects and regulation of growth hormone. The main function of GH is to
regulate and control the growth of various target tissues including:
, , , and
can be either short or long-term effects (Figure 16.9, 16.10).
6. Growth hormone disorders: imbalances in GH secretion can result in
various disruptions in growth such as , ,
and .
Module 16.3 The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands (Figures 16.11– 16.16; Table
16.2)
A. Structure of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands. The following section
highlights the anatomical features of both intimately related endocrine glands
(Figures 16.11b, 16.12):
1. The thyroid gland is located anterior to the neck, just superficial to the larynx
and secretes and . The gland is
composed of (1) thyroid that produce and secrete thyroid
hormones; (2) , which stores iodine atoms; and (3)
parafollicular cells, which produce .
2. The parathyroid glands, typically 3 to 5 separate glands, are found on the
posterior surface of the gland and secrete
from their chief cells (Figure 16.12).
B. Thyroid Hormone: Metabolic Regulator (Figure 16.13, 16.14, 16.15)
1. Introduction to the thyroid hormone: Thyroid hormone consists of an amino
acid core bound to either 3 (triiodothyroxine, T3) or 4 (thyroxine, T4)
atoms. Both T3 and T4 enter the target cell nucleus where they
bind with intracellular receptors that either activate or inhibit specific gene
transcription.
2. Effects of thyroid hormone: Almost every cell in the body contains thyroid
hormone receptors, which makes their effects widespread. Describe the three
main categories of effects:
a.

b.
c.
 3. Thyroid hormone production: Iodide ions and thryoglobulin are secreted
into the . Iodide ions are converted to iodine atoms that attach
to thyroglobulin. Iodinated thyroglobulin enters the cell by
endocytosis and is converted to T3 and T4 by lysosomal enzymes. T3 and
T4 are finally released into the bloodstream (Figure 16.13).
4. Regulation of thyroid hormone production: T3 and T4 production is
regulated by a negative feedback loop starting with thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH), made by the , promoting the release of
TSH from the pituitary gland, which stimulates the production
of T3 and T4 from the gland (Figure 16.14).
5. Thyroid disorders cause serious imbalances due to the systemic effects of
thyroid hormones. Overproduction of thyroid hormone leads to
while underproduction leads to .
Common disorders leading to over or underproduction include the following
(Figure 16.15): hyperthyroidism, goiter, Grave’s disease, hypothyroidism,
and congenital hypothyroidism.
C. Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Calcium Ion Homeostasis: Chief
cells of the parathyroid gland secrete hormone and the thyroid gland
secretes . These hormones have opposing effects on calcium
ion concentration in the blood, which keeps calcium ion levels within a normal
range (Figure 16.16; Table 16.2). Thus, these hormones are antagonists.
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a major factor in the maintenance of blood
ion concentration. PTH is secreted in response to
declining calcium ion levels in blood and (1)

(2)
(3)
 (4) .

2. Regulation of calcium ion homeostasis: Regulation involves a negative

feedback loop that maintains calcium ions with a normal range and proceeds
in the following manner (Figure 16.16). Describe each step:
a. Stimulus:
b. Receptor:
c. Control center:
d. Effector/Response:

e. Homeostatic range and negative feedback:

3. Calcitonin is released when the calcium ion level in the blood

above normal. This hormone, produced and secreted by the
cells, primarily targets the osteoclast cells in bone. Osteoclast activity is
inhibited by the presence of , which allows osteoblast
activity. Unopposed osteoblast activity reduces blood calcium ion levels as
these ions are incorporated into bone matrix.
Module 16.4 The Adrenal Glands (Figures 16. 17–16.20; Table 16.3)
A. Structure of the Adrenal Glands: Located on the superior aspect of each
kidney these roughly pyramid-shaped endocrine glands produce catecholamine
and steroid hormones. The adrenal gland is divided into two distinct regions: an
outer adrenal cortex containing three distinct zones surrounding an inner adrenal
medulla (Figure 16.17).
B. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex. Production of steroid hormones from the
three zones of the cortex is partially regulated by a multi-tiered negative
feedback loop called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. The
following highlights the different hormones produced by the cortex (Figure
16.18, 16.19, 16.20):
1. Mineralocorticoids: Fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. Mineralcorticoids
(aldosterone) regulate the concentration of certain minerals in the body
(such as sodium and potassium ions) (Figure 16.18). Aldosterone regulates
, through the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), and .
2. Regulation of aldosterone synthesis: Multiple factors regulate aldosterone
synthesis and secretion such as (1) ,
(2) , and (3) .
(4) Corticosteroid-releasing hormone (CRH) from the
stimulates the release of from the anterior pituitary, which then
stimulates the production and release of aldosterone.
3. Aldosterone disorders: hypersecretion of aldosterone
(hyperaldosteronism) can lead to (low blood potassium ion level),
(high blood sodium ion level), and high blood pressure.
4. Glucocorticoids: Metabolic homeostasis: Glucocorticoids help mediate the
body’s response to stress. Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the most potent of the
glucocorticoids and is a vital component of the stress response. Cortisol
regulates blood levels and gluconeogenesis, the release of free
amino acids from the breakdown of , the release of fatty acids
from adipocytes, and is an anti-inflammatory that decreases levels of certain
leukocytes (Figures 16.19, 16.20).
5. Regulation of cortisol involves the axis and a multi-tiered
control mechanism utilizing CRH and ACTH.
6. Cortisol disorders involve either oversecretion of cortisol or long-term
administration of corticosteroids, include Cushing’s syndrome (Figure 16.20):
7. Adrenal insufficiency: The hyposecretion of both cortisol and aldosterone are
characteristic of disease, which render the individual
susceptible to adrenal crisis. Adrenal crisis results in fluid, electrolyte, and
acid-base homeostasis disruptions.
8. Adrenal production of androgenic steroids: Sex hormones: the androgenic
steroids are steroid sex hormones that affect the reproductive organs or
 gonads as well as other tissues. These hormones are largely byproducts
of cortisol synthesis but can be converted to or
when secreted into the blood.
C. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla: The medulla consists of neuroendocrine
cells called chromaffin cells, which are derived from nervous tissue and
secrete catecholamines called epinephrine and norepinephrine.
1. Chromaffin cells secrete mostly epinephrine that mediates the following
immediate responses from the body in response to a stressor, hormonal
catecholamines. Describe the effects of epinephrine: (1)
(2)
(3
(4)

2. Regulation of the adrenal medulla includes the sympathetic nervous system

and the HPA axis.
Module 16.5 The Endocrine Pancreas (Figures 16.21, 16.22; Table 16.4)
A. Structure of the Pancreas: The pancreas is a club-shaped organ located in the
abdominal cavity, mostly posterior to the stomach. The pancreas is both an
endocrine and exocrine gland (Figure 16.21). Pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) are small rounded islands populated by endocrine cells that secrete
hormones into the bloodstream. Pancreatic islets contain the following three
main cell types: Alpha cells secrete the peptide hormone ; beta cells
secrete the protein hormone ; delta cells secrete the peptide
hormone somatostatin.
B. Hormones of the Endocrine Pancreas: Glucose Homeostasis: Glucagon and
insulin regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood.
1. Glucagon is produced and secreted from alpha cells in the pancreatic islets.
Its major target tissues are the cells of the , tissue,
and . In target tissues, glucagon promotes reactions that
increase the levels of glucose and metabolic fuels in the blood. Such reactions
include and .
 2. Ketone bodies are four-carbon molecules that are formed during fatty acid
metabolism, which are released into the bloodstream and taken up into
skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle cells. Accumulation of ketone bodies can
cause a dangerous lowering of blood pH called .
3. Glucagon secretion is inhibited by both an elevated blood glucose level and
somatostatin. Glucagon secretion is triggered by (1)
(2)
(3)
and
(4)

4. Insulin, the primary antagonist of

, is produced and

secreted from beta cells of the pancreatic islets that promotes the uptake and
storage of ingested nutrients into its target cells, which lowers blood glucose
levels. Insulin stimulates the following responses in target cells: (1)
, , and ; (2)
; (3) ;
and (4) .
5. Hypoglycemia is a condition where blood glucose levels are too low, which
can be caused by elevated insulin levels. Symptoms include: ,
, , , and .
6. Hyperglycemia is a condition where blood glucose levels are too high,
which can be caused by a decrease in insulin secretion or decreased insulin
sensitivity of target tissue receptors. Type I and Type II diabetes mellitus are
the most common causes of chronic hyperglycemia.
C. Blood Glucose Regulation: insulin and glucagon are antagonists in a
complicated feedback loop that maintains blood glucose homeostasis (Figure
16.22):
1. The following feedback responses are initiated when blood glucose level
increases (Figure 16.22a). Describe the steps of the negative feedback loop.
a. Stimulus:
 b. Receptor:

c. Control center:

d. Effector/Response:

e. Homeostatic range and negative feedback:

2. When blood glucose level decreases, alpha cells increase glucagon secretion,
beta cells decrease insulin secretion. Glucagon triggers breakdown of
glycogen (a process called ) into glucose and the
formation of new glucose (a process called ).
Module 16.6 Other Endocrine Glands and Hormone-Secreting Tissues (Table 16.4)
A. The Pineal Gland: Melatonin: The pineal gland is a primary endocrine organ
that is a component of the epithalamus, which is the posterior region of the
diencephalon of the brain. The pineal gland secretes the neurohormone
, whose secretion appears to be related to light and dark
cycles, where secretion increases in the . Melatonin’s main target
tissues are the sleep-regulation centers in the reticular formation of the
brainstem, where it appears to adjust the sleep-wake cycle in some individuals.
B. The Thymus: Thymopoietin: The thymus is a primary endocrine gland found in
the mediastinum and is the location where T-lymphocytes mature. The gland
secretes the hormones and , which
function mainly as paracrine signals that assist in T lymphocyte maturation.
C. The Gonads: Sex Hormones: The testes and ovaries are the primary male and
female reproductive organs or gonads, respectively. The gonads are responsible
for the production of gametes, sperm in males, and ova, or eggs, in females. These
produce sex steroid hormones responsible for gamete production and other
functions.
1. The testes: Testosterone: the testes produce testosterone (females make
testosterone in the glands). Testosterone production and
 secretion is regulated by a multi-tiered negative feedback loop involving the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. Testosterone has anabolic effects, which
include those that (1) and (2)
, and it has androgenic effects, which encompass those
involving the development of male secondary sex characteristics.
2. The ovaries: Estrogens and progesterone: Cells of the ovary produce the
female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone (males produce a small
amount of estrogen in the gland). Estrogen stimulates (1)
, (2)
, and has multiple effects other tissues and organs.
Progesterone secretion peaks after and during
. Physiological effects include: (1)
and (2)
. Progesterone also has effects on smooth
muscle tissue, body temperature, blood clotting, bone tissue, and
metabolism.
D. Adipose tissue: Leptin: Adipocytes produce the protein hormone ,
which is able to cross the blood-brain barrier where it interacts with neurons in
the hypothalamus, its main target tissue. The action of leptin is to induce satiety,
which prevents .
E. The heart: Atrial natriuretic peptide: Specific cardiac muscle cells contain
stretch-sensitive ion channels that open more widely when the blood volume
inside the heart increases. This simulates cardiac muscle cells to secrete atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP), which targets (1)
and (2) . ANP triggers vasodilation, an
increase in vessel diameter, and enhances excretion of ions from
the kidneys, decreasing blood volume and lower blood pressure.
F. The kidneys: Erythropoietin (EPO): The kidneys serve the following
roles involving endocrine functions:
1. Erythropoietin production: EPO is secreted by specific kidney cells in
response to decreased blood oxygen concentration. EPO acts on the red bone
 marrow to stimulate development of new erythrocytes, called
, which increased the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
2. Renin secretion: Specific kidney cells secrete the hormone renin, which
converts the plasma protein angiotensinogen to I. Renin is a
vital component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which
maintains blood pressure.
3. Conversion of vitamin D to its active form: Vitamin D made in response to
in the skin is converted to its active form in the
kidneys under the influence of parathyroid hormone.
Module 16.7 Three Examples of Endocrine Control (Figures 16.23, 16.24)
A. Hormonal Control of Fluid Homeostasis: ADH, aldosterone, and ANP are
involved in fluid homeostasis (Figure 16.23).
B. Hormonal Control of Metabolic Homeostasis: The regulation of metabolic
homeostasis by the endocrine system is complex. Hormones maintain metabolic
homeostasis during three periods: hormone determines basal
metabolic rate at rest while fasting, secretion increases at rest while
feeding, and control metabolic rate and
secretion increases during exercise.