Section A: Answer all questions on blackboard within the indicated framework

1.) Identify the group to which sclereids belong from the below cell types.
a.) Parenchyma
b.) Xylenchyma
c.) Collenchyma
d.) Sclerenchyma

2.) How can one best describe collenchyma cells?

a.) Elongated lignin filled cells
b.) Flexibility enhancing cells
c.) Aeration enabling cells
d.) Chlorophyll filled cells

3.) What does a species name consist of?

a.) Genus and specific epithet
b.) Family and species variety
c.) Genus and cultivar name
d.) Order and family name

4.) Which of the below is an action of auxin in plants?

a.) Root derived auxin suppresses apical buds
b.) Increases in stem width
c.) Delaying of senescence
d.) Enhancing water absorption in root cells

5.) Which of the below is among the three largest of the plant families?
a.) Apocynaceae
b.) Menispermaceae
c.) Fabaceae
d.) Loganiaceae

6.) Identify the set of words that fit the description of a plant
a.) Eukaryote, multicellular, non-motile
b.) Cellulose, cell wall, motile
c.) Eukaryote, cellulose, roots
d.) Prokaryote, multicellular, non-motile

7.) Describe a function of sepals

a.) Providing support to petals
b.) Protecting the unopened flowers
c.) Gaseous exchange for photosynthesis through the stomata
d.) Directing of pollen transported by wind towards the ovules

8.) Why are plants important? It’s because they

1
 a.) Are a secondary source of food in all ecosystems?
b.) Reduce global warming by roots absorbing carbondioxide
c.) Assist in soil formation
d.) Stabilise the environment via asexual reproduction

9.) How is water transported up the stem of a plant?

a.) Transpirational pull
b.) Active transport
c.) Root pumps
d.) Xylem osmosis

10.) Dicot stems

a.) Lack strong vascular bundles
b.) Are scattered throughout the stem
c.) Have a prominent pith region
d.) Have secondary growth during water stress periods

11.) In what major form is this food is the food produced by plants?
a.) Lipids
b.) Carbohydrates
c.) Nitrates
d.) Proteins

12.) Which of the below would you not consider as plants?

a.) Fungi, chlorophytes, rodophytes
b.) Horsetails, mosses, cycads
c.) Monocots, gnetums, conifers
d.) Liverworts, hornworts, ferns

13.) Which of the below is not a function of the epidermis?

a.) Protection against infestation by parasites
b.) Protection against desiccation
c.) Absorption of water
d.) Protecting receptor stimuli for light sensitivity

14.) Pick an example of a Meso-organism in the soil?

a.) Mole
b.) Protozoan
c.) Earthworm
d.) Mouse

2
15.) Under what conditions do short day plants thrive?
a.) Day lengths of less than 8 hours
b.) Day lengths of less than 12 hours
c.) Day lengths of less than 10 hours
d.) Day lengths of less than 6 hours

16.) When modifications are made to natural plant metabolites, we get

a.) Synthetic drugs
b.) Natural synthetic drugs
c.) Pharmaceutical drugs
d.) Semi-synthetic drugs

17.) How do vascular bundles in monocot roots differ from dicot ones?
a.) They are arranged in an “X” shape
b.) They are arranged in a ring form
c.) They are scattered throughout the root
d.) They are located in the pith

18.) Which of the below best explains why plants contain metabolites?
a.) To minimise infestations from flying orchinades
b.) For self defence against potential herbivores
c.) To assist at least 5 million people with critical herbal medicines
d.) For better physiological functioning of internal plant processes

19.) Establish a good reason for plants having medicinal substances

a.) An act of a supreme being
b.) For the sake of human society
c.) As a defence mechanism
d.) To facilitate physiological metabolism

20.) Whish categories follow from Kingdoms?

a.) Division, class, order, family
b.) Division, order, class, family
c.) Class, division, order, family
d.) Class, order, family, genus

Section B (Short Answer Questions) (Use the space provided on the question
paper)

21. Relate the anatomy of an typical angiosperm leaf to its function

A leaf consists of a blade that varies in width from plant to plant.
They have a number of layers enclosed in an upper and lower epidermis. The
epidermis secretes a waxy substance called the cuticle to protect the leaf from
insects, bacteria and fungi.

3
 Guard cells in the epidermal layers form a pore (stoma) for gaseous
diffusions and transpiration.
Photosynthesis takes place in elongated cells called palisade mesophyll which
contains chloroplasts. Gas exchange occurs in the air spaces between the
spongy mesophyll.
Veins support the leaf and are filled with vessels that transport food, water,
and minerals to the plant.
22. Create a plant for each of the following location using appropriate characteristics:
a. Plasdonia with a cold 4 month winter of 8 hour daylight and warm 14
hour day summers, moderate annual temperature, rainfall and light
intensity.
C3 metabolism, long day plants, low cuticle covering, delayed
flowering
b. Marocha with 30 days a year of below average rainfall, 12 hour daylight
all year round with high annual temperatures and light intensity.
CAM metabolism, cuticle covered leaves, modified stems, thorns, anti-
herbivory chemicals

c. Geogolda with very high annual rainfall (spread over 9 months), high
annual temperatures and light intensity all year round.
C4 metabolism, thin cuticle, broad leaves, hardwood

d. Batavia located at the inter tidal area of a sea shore with a even 12 hour
days average annual temperature, rainfall and light intensity.
Salt pumps, aerial roots, stilt roots, green foliage, C4 metabolism

23. Plants are a vital source of medicinal substances. Beyond that, what do you see as
the vital roles that they play in the environment?
a. vital role in environment stability with functions such as soil
formation and stabilization,
b. recharge of aquifers,
c. maintenance of ambient temperature
d. regulation and attracting of rainfall
24. For any of the two plant divisions below, provide information of the following:
a. Significant families in your country (name it)
b. Important genera and their economic uses
c. Local species in your daily interaction
DIVISIONS
Anthocerotophyta, Bryophyta, Equisetophyta, Gymnosperms, Psilophyta,
Cycadophyta,

25. Within our local communities, there is a wide range of medicinal drug from
purely naturals to largely synthetic with an in between situation of people mixing
the two. Offer sound advice (with a balance of a “good” and a “bad”) to the two
extreme groups of natural and only synthetics and the group with a mix of both.

4
 - (regarding natural medicine it has its ups and downs. herbal medicines are
cost effective, they can be bought without a prescription so available to a
large population, they are easily availabble in parts of kenya, and they are
more effective in treating certain ailments as well as having lesser side
effects. however some disadvantages are that herbal medicines normally
take a longer time to heal, as well as there is no quality assurance
implemented by any agency so there may be some impurities that may
cause side effects , there are very few proffesionals herbal practitioners as
well and this may cause there to be issues if you visit an untrained
herbalist.
- for synthetic medicine it heals effectively fast, it is quality assured so less
chances of an impurity that may cause damage, and it has undergone a lot
of testing before it is commercially available so any side effects have been
monitored as well as any negative effects of the drug. it is dealt to you by a
trained medical proffesional who has quite a lot of knowledge on the
ailment as well as the drug. some downside to it is that it may cause severe
side effects, it needs to be bought with a precription, and they ae
definately not cost effective when it comes to serious ailments such as
cancer drugs.
- for a combination of both- i certainly this is the way forward as we may
combine the best of both worlds which may make it more cost effective ,
not too hard on the body in terms of side effects , somewhat more cost
efficient and may provide better results. the problem would be the
integration of herbal medicine into synthetic medicine and describing
what would be applied where. )
-
26. Of what practical use in the prevailing surroundings (do not generalize) would the
below named to a plant found on the USIU-A campus, Nairobi, Kenya.
a. Trichomes: Hairy structures to reduce water loss by transpiration
b. Glands: Secretion of sweet products to attract ants for protection
c. Spines: To prevent touching by students
d. Tendrils: To climb on other plants or walls
27. Name any other items, structures or organisms your life that resemble the
following plant forms:
a. ACTINOMORPHIC FORM (Starfish)
b. GAMAPETALOUS FLOWER (Funnel)
c. UMBEL INFLORESCENCES (Umbrella)
d. ACCUMINATE LEAF TIP (arrow)
e. SERRATED LEAF MARGIN (Saw)
28. Reinforce and strengthen (giving reasons) in the dicot stem of a plant (identifying
specific cells and tissues you would use) over three indicated periods of growth
from its germination to maturity.
a. Sapling (young green plant): Turgid parenchyma cells, Collenchyma,
Sclerenchyma
b. Midlife: Secondary xylem, Secondary Phloem, Periderm

5
 c. Maturity: More secondary xylem, Bark,
_________________________________________________________________

(END)

6
BOT3352 A & B QUIZ TWO SUMMER 2020 MAINA MUNIAFU
Answer all questions on blackboard within the indicated framework

1.) An impressive aspect of botanical techniques would be

a.) The totipotentiality of sclerid cells in tissue culture
b.) Ability to map cytoplasmic chromosomal movements
c.) Producing new plant cultivars
d.) Use of drones to monitor crop growth

2.) Which of the below attributes best qualifies a wild plant for cultivation?
a.) Flexible pest resistance
b.) Easy growth
c.) Possessing synthetic metabolites
d.) Low soil nutrient uptakes

3.) With a few plants of Artemisia annua growing in your backyard

a.) Dihydroartemisinic acid can be produced
b.) There shall be high mortality rates for mosquitoes
c.) Farmers stand to benefit from leaf harvests
d.) You can label them as bitter wormwood

4.) Which part of a marama bean plant would you treasure as a pharmacist?
a.) Aerial shoot
b.) Below ground part
c.) Glossy bean seeds
d.) Broad leaves

5.) What would be a challenge of sexual plant propagation?

a.) The time taken for totipotency action in most plant species
b.) The dangers of cross pollination to susceptible style tubes
c.) A tendency towards heterogeneity
d.) Reluctance of plants to mate

6.) One way in which multilayering differs from serpentine layering is that in the
latter
a.) Many plants are produced from many stems
b.) Many plants are produced from one stem
c.) Many stems are used to produce one plant
d.) One plant is produced from one stem

7.) Mound layering works best for

a.) Annuals
b.) Shrubs
c.) Climbers
d.) Epiphytes

1
8.) What do suckers and rhizomes have in common?
a.) They can both be planted in pots
b.) They grow horizontally
c.) Both grow despite being cut into pieces
d.) Soil fertility increases where the grow

9.) Which of the below is a clear benefit of tissue culture?

a.) Fast selection of crop improvements
b.) Sterilizing of media culture after explant growth
c.) Extended root growth in explants allowing for variety improvement
d.) The technology application of liquid nitrogen

10.) An important step in the tissue culture

a.) Maintaining a correct ratio of gibberellins and cytokinin
b.) Protecting forming shoots from excess sugar in the growth medium
c.) Aseptic growth of explants
d.) Finding clean plant tissue in developed plants

11.) When do apomixis occur?

a.) During fusion of apices
b.) As seeds are produced
c.) When asexual reproduction occurs between two plant species
d.) During sexual apices reproduction

12.) Emasculated flowers

a.) Are used to develop useful plant varieties
b.) Overcome pollination barriers easily
c.) Usually possess a glistening sticky stigma.
d.) Are healthy with heavy yellow pollen

13.) What is self-fertilization useful for in flowers?

a.) Boosting hybrid vigour
b.) Producing new plant varieties
c.) Ensuring better yields of desired products
d.) Sustaining plant traits

14.) Why is the selection of healthy seed important in plants?

a.) To ensure high germination growth rates before seed sowing
b.) So that they can be certified seeds
c.) To boost seedlings from sexual reproduction
d.) For proper storage in dry conditions

2
15.) Seed dormancy has probably evolved
a.) To withstand seed herbivory
b.) To survive high rainfall conditions
c.) To give time for good dispersal
d.) To allow for phototropism in extreme weather locations

16.) Name one advantage of a landrace plant over a wild one

a.) Tissue yield
b.) Growth rate
c.) Metabolite content
d.) Agronomic performance

17.) In a directed improvement of plant cultivars

a.) Genes are exchanged between many locations
b.) Gene spread reduces
c.) A scattering of the plant genome occurs
d.) Plant diversity increases

18.) A clone is produced

a.) Via gene manipulation
b.) Asexually
c.) From sexual propagation
d.) With specially selected pollen

19.) What special item does a plant variety have?

a.) Hybrid genes
b.) Unique features
c.) Patent
d.) High physiological metabolism

20.) What is a cultivar? It is a plant with

a.) Desired characteristics
b.) Targeted genes
c.) High commercial value
d.) Cultivation permits

(END)

3
 Introduction Class: Plant
Morphology, Anatomy and
Physiology
BOT 3352
PLANTS
DEFINITIONS
Plants

• Plants are eukaryotic, multicellular, non-motile

organisms. They are autotrophic and plant cell walls
are composed of cellulose.

• There are over 250,000 species that make up the

kingdom PLANTAE.
Importance of Plants
• Plants are the primary source of food in all ecosystems. This is
because they have the ability to convert sun energy into organic
molecules.
• Addition of oxygen and removal of carbondioxide assist in the
presence of life forms and temperature regulation on earth
respectively.
• For human society, plants produce economically important produce
like fibers, medicine and wood. For this reason, they are the basis of
important industries like agriculture, forestry and horticulture.
Importance of Plants
• Plants have cultural and aesthetic values and thus important “psycho-
sociologically”.
• Plants play a vital role in environment stability with functions such as soil
formation and stabilization, recharge of aquifers, ambient temperature
regulation and rainfall attractants.
• Plants reproduce extensively both by sexual and asexual means and
provide a basis for other organisms.
• Plants develop self-defense mechanisms to protect them from being
destroyed by animals, fungi and other plants which we exploit as humans
for our own medicine.
Plant Anatomy

•Plant anatomy is concerned with the study of

internal structure of plants.

•It deals with the structural organization of plants

which varies along broad and specific groups.
Plant Morphology
• Plant morphology describes the physical form and external structures
of a plant.
• It is mainly concerned with the study of entire structures of a plant,
such as:
• Leaf arrangements, flower structure, presence of micro structures
among many others.
Plant Physiology
• Plant physiology is the study of processes and functional activity
occurring in plants. Such processes include metabolic activities,
water relations, mineral nutrition, plant development, movement,
growth and transport processes.
• Plant physiology enables us to understand fundamental processes of
plants such as photosynthesis, plant nutrition, respiration, function of
plant hormones, tropism, nastic movements, photoperiodism,
photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, environmental stress, seed
germination, transpiration and plant water relations.
CHECK-UP ENTRANCE QUESTIONS
• 1. How is water transported up a plants stem? Via xylem vessels
• 2. By what mechanism does this transport happen? Capillary action and
transpirational pull
• 3. How is “food” transported to different parts of the plant? Phloem vessels
• 4. By what mechanism is this food transported? Translocation
• 5. In what major form is this food? Sucrose
• 6. By what process is it produced? Photosynthesis
• 7. What structure forms the major reproduction organ of flowering plants?
Flower
• 8. What is a plant seed? Ovule
• 9. Name the structure in which a plant seed is found. Ovary (Fruit)
• 10. Why are plants green? Chl reflects green light
CHECK-UP ENTRANCE QUESTIONS
• 11. What are starch grains? Storage vessels for starch
• 12. What stacked up structures would one find in chloroplasts in a plant? Grana
• 13. Name any one organ that anchors a plant in the soil. Root
• 14. Give a name to the active cell dividing region of a plant. Meristem
• 15. Where does a plant obtain its nitrogen and in what form is it obtained? Soil/Nitrates
• 16. Why does a plant need nitrogen? Protein structures (enzymes, hormones, DNA, cell
components)
• 17. Where does a plant obtain its carbon and in what form is it obtained?
Atmosphere/CO2
• 18. Why does a plant need carbon? Virtually everything (structures, components, etc)
• 19. Are mushrooms plants? No (not autotrophic)
• 20. Do roots have barks? Yes (Critical for medicines)
SOIL PROFILES
 Soil components: Soil particles and soil
organic matter
• Soil particles including clay, silt, sand and gravel in ascending
order of size.
• They consist mainly of silicon, oxygen, magnesium.
Aluminium and iron.
• Soil organic matter is found in various states of decomposition.
• It is crucial to soil properties in many ways including soil
aggregation, porosity, fertility and water holding capacity.
 Soil components: Soil flora and fauna
• The soil is a complex ecosystem with a diverse community of
organisms.
• These interact with each other through a complex network of
energy and nutrient transfers.
• They include:
• Micro-organisms (< 0.2 mm in width)
• (algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoans e.t.c.)
 Soil components: Soil flora and fauna
• Meso-organisms (0.2 to 2 mm in width) (Nematode, fungi,
earthworms, mites, insects, spiders, etc.)

• Macro-organisms ( > 2 mm in width) (spiders, insects, mice,

moles, ground squirrels, etc.)
HYDROPHYTES
AND
HYDROPONICS
EPIPHYTES
What are Plants looking for in life?
• 1. ENERGY
• Many plants use the sun’s energy to convert inorganic molecules into
organic molecules.
• This is referred to as photoautotrophism.
• It is also exhibited by green algae and some bacteria.
• On the other hand, chemoautotrophs utilise chemicals as their source of
energy.
• The chemicals include hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, elemental sulphur,
ferrous iron and ammonia.
• It is carried out by bacterial in the grouping of archaebacteria.
 What are Plants looking for in life?
• 2. NUTRIENTS
• They utilise some elements in greater quantity (macroelements)
while others in lower amounts (microelements).
• Macroelements include: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
sulphur (S), sodium (Na) and phosphorus (P).
• Microelements include: boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe),
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) and
chloride (Cl).
 Nutrient forms in substrate
• Nitrogen (Nitrates, Ammonia, Nitrites)
• Phosphorus (Phosphates)
• Cations (Hydrogen, Potassium ions, Magnesium ions, Calcium ions,
Iron (ferrous and ferric ions), etc. Important property is cation
exchange capacity (CEC)
• Anions (Chlorine (Cl-), Nitrate (NO3-), Sulphate (S04=) and
Phosphates (PO43-)
• Hydrogen (Water)
• Oxygen (molecular form in the substrate)
 What are Plants looking for in life?
• 3. AIR
• Carbon-dioxide, Oxygen mainly through stomata.
• Net movement into the plant depending on usage.
• Uptake of CO2 during the day in C4 and C3 plants due to
use in photosynthesis.
• A net release of CO2 at night due to respiration.
• The opposite happens for O2.
 Important Plant Processes
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Tropisms (Light, Gravity, Water)
• Diurnalism
• Photoperiodism
 Photosynthesis
• Anabolic process
• Unique to plants and some bacteria where simple elements
are combined into complex compounds with light energy
• These can then be converted/further built into more
complex compounds (including medicinal compounds)
• Important enzymes include nitrate reductase and ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase
 Respiration
• Catabolic reaction
• Serves to provide energy through the breakdown of the
glucose molecule
• Plants produce oxygen and ATP when thy respire
aerobically
• They produce ethanol and fewer ATP if the do so
anaerobically (important base in many liquid
pharmaceuticals)
 Growth
• Most plant species are sessile but grow through active
meristematic cells.
• They are thus capable of regeneration after pruning,
coppicing (ground level cutting) or pollarding (upper level
cutting).
• Plant cells also exhibit totipotentiality which is a property
used in tissue culture.
 Reproduction
• This may occur through gametes either through an aqueous
medium (lower plants) or vectors (higher plants).
• Plants are also capable of asexual reproduction.
• This happens through the use of organs such as runners and
tubers.
• This allows for the artificial propagation of plants which has
the advantage of producing homogenous strains of plants.
 Tropisms
• Plants react by growing towards a resource of need (external
stimulus)
• These include light and water as the most essential
• Trees and grasses have roots that grow many meters away from the
parent plant
• Ornamentals grown near houses normally clog the water drains
• Forest plants exhibit a very high competition for light through quick
growth
• Tropisms are hormonal responses
 Photoperiodism
• Day length in photoperiodism controls the plant developmental
processes.
• This includes flower growth, stem elongation among others.
• Short day plants thrive in day lengths of less than 8 hours while long
day plants need more than 12 hours of light.
• Photoperiodism coincides with circadian rhythms which are patterns
in gene expression or physiology in a plant that repeat on a 24-hour
cycle and are driven by the plant's internal body clock.
 Plant forms
• Annuals – grow over one season (maximum one year),
flowers, set seed and die. They include ephemerals which
are often desert plants that need just a number of days to
undergo a life cycle.
• Biennials – Tend to grow over two growing seasons with an
ability to survive the absence of soil moisture
• Perennials – grow over a number of seasons. Mainly woody
plants.
SURVEY OF THE PLANT
KINGDOM
plant anatomy, morphology and physiology
Concepts and taxonomic characters
• Taxonomy: The science of classifying organisms in internationally-
shared classification systems.
• A hierarchical system is used which places organisms in an organized
manner from larger to smaller, more-specific categories.
• Seven categories are utilised starting with three large ones called
domains (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) followed by kingdoms.
• This taxonomic system honors Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist,
zoologist, and physician who is the father of taxonomy.
CLASSIFICATION OF
LIVING AND EXTINCT
ORGANISMS
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING AND EXTINCT
ORGANISMS
• The taxonomic classification system (the Linnaean system) undergoes
changes with time as techniques are discovered and refined.
• The current use of genetic analysis in phylogeny involves the use of
the molecular sequences of amino acids as well as those
of nucleotides in nucleic acids.
• A close similarity in molecule sequences indicates a closer relationship
of the groups.
• A wide difference indicates a different evolutionary history and
ancestry.
Plant Classification
• Classification of plants attempts to present them in an orderly manner which can be
artificial, natural or phylogenetic (phyletic).
• Artificial classification
• Utilises a single or few characters to group the organisms (e.g. colour, or plant habit). It
does not indicate the relationships between various taxa.
• Natural classification
• Group together organisms with many similar characteristics. They utilise characteristics
based on anatomy, morphology, cytology, ecology, biochemistry, genetics, and
distribution and further identify the organisms by species, genera, and families.
• Phyletic/Phylogenetic classification
• It is a natural classification that utilises the evolutionary history (the phylogeny) of a taxa.
It is based on plant anatomy and morphology in addition to the more modern techniques
of biochemistry and molecular biology.
Plant Nomenclature
• A binomial nomenclature is used in the classification of plants. It gives
every species a two-part latinised scientific name.
• The first part of a scientific name is called the genus. The second part
of a scientific name is the specific epithet.
• Basic rules in this system are as follows:
1. The entire two-part name must be written in italics (or underlined
when handwritten).
2. The genus name is always written first.
3. The genus name must be capitalized.
4. The specific epithet is never capitalized.
Example of classifying the prairie sunflower
Domain Eukaryota
Kingdom Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass Asteridae
Order Asterales
Family Asteraceae – Aster family
Genus Helianthus. L - Sunflower
Species Helianthus petiolaris – Prairie
Sunflower
DIVISION ANTHOCEROPHYTA
• Anthocerotophyta consists of Hornworts whose key physical feature
is irregular lobed or branching bodies, known as thalli (singular
Thallus), the tissue of which is not organised into organs.
• They need aqueous surroundings for spores to carry out sexual
reproduction.
• Initially they were placed into the division Bryophyta that comprised
of hornworts, liverworts and mosses.
• However, molecular studies have found that the three are not
monophyletic (sharing an ancestor) and are now placed in separate
divisions.
Hornworts
DIVISION
HEPATOPHYTA
• Commonly referred to
as Liverworts.
• They are either made up
of a thallus or of leafy
stems.
• The plant body does not
have ribs (costas).
DIVISION
CHLOROPHYTA
(Eukaryotic Algae)
• Commonly referred to as
Green Algae.
• Examples: Chlorella,
Chlamydomonas,
Spirogyra and Green
Seaweeds
• General Characteristics:
• Has chlorophylls a&b
• Storage product is starch
• Cellulose cell walls;
(organic scales)
DIVISION
BRYOPHYTA
• Also referred to as
Mosses.
• A key feature is that
they have thin stems
around which simple
leaves branch out.
• Moss leaves frequently
have a midrib
DIVISION
EQUISETOPHYTA
• Also known as
Horsetails
DIVISION LYCOPODIOPHYTA

CLUB MOSSES SPIKE MOSSES QUILL WORTS

DIVISION PSILOPHYTA
•Psilophyta (Whisked ferns)
DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA

•(Ferns)
SUPER DIVISION SPERMATOPHYTA
(Seeded plants)
• DIVISION CYCADOPHYTA (cycads)
2. DIVISION GINGKOPHYTA
e.g. Ginkgo trees
3. DIVISION GNETOPHYTA

• Various types of plants such as

Welwitschia (Namibia)
4. DIVISION
CONIFEROPHYTA
• Conifers
5. DIVISION MAGNOLIOPHYTA
• Originally referred to as Angiosperms.
• They form the largest group of current green plants (80%).
• Thus, magnoliophytes are the most important ultimate source
of food for birds and mammals, including humans.
• In addition, they serve as a source of pharmaceuticals, fibre
products, timber, ornamentals, and other commercial
products.
5. MAGNOLIOPHYTA
•They are vascular seed plants in which the
ovule/seed is located and develops in an
enclosed ovary. The ovary may become a
fruit.
•The ovary itself is usually enclosed in a
flower that contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both.
PLANTAE KINGDOM CLASS EXERCISE
ONE (GROUP WORK)
• 1. Antherocophyta • 6. Psilophyta, Pteridophyta
• 2. Hepatophyta, Chlorophyta • 7. Cycadophyta, Gnetophyta
• 3. Bryophyta, • 8. Gingkophyta
• 4. Equisetophyta • 9. Coniferophyta
• 5 Lycopodiophyta • 10. Magnoliophyta
PLANTAE KINGDOM CLASS EXERCISE
ONE (GROUP WORK)
i. Select a division
ii. Outline its main general features
iii.Point out a key characteristic of the division
iv.Pick examples of families that you as class members probably
interact with
v. Describe any genus of environmental and economic significance in
human society
SURVEY OF INDIGENOUS
MEDICINAL PLANTS
plant anatomy, morphology and physiology
BOT 3352
Medicine in plants
• Plants contain metabolites that serve various functions.
• A key one is that of self defence against potential herbivores ingestion
(anti-herbivory) and against pest (deterrents).
• Over the ages, humans have learnt to exploit such metabolites for
various purposes such as health management.
• At a finer level, plant metabolites are now used in many drug
preparations.
• It is estimated that over 5 billion people in the world rely directly on
herbal medicines.
Medicine in plants
Medicines from medicinal herbs
are being used to:
• Cleanse the bowels
• Open congested sinuses
• Help mend broken bones
• Stimulate the brain
• Cure nerve related disabilities
• Increase libido
• Heal cancers (prostrate)
• Cure hypertension
• Ease pain
• Aid digestion
• Repair damaged skin
• Soothe wounds
• Improve complexion
• Heal bruises
• Relieve aching muscles
• Cure alcoholism
• Overcome infertility
• Stimulate urination
Medicinal Plants in Local Environments
• Knowledge of active substances in plants, animals and other
organisms have existed and are still (albeit diminishing rapidly)
present in some individuals in various societies.
• Almost all Kenyan communities have a level of reliance on raw
unrefined plant medications that fill in the medical personnel
shortage gap (1 doctor to 100 000 patients).
• Researchers have made an effort of documenting plant species and
their importance in health management as explained by local
herbalists.
Medicine in plants
• There is always debate as to whether natural or synthetic substances are best for the
human health.
• Some favour natural plant products since they have a long evolution with humans and
are thus considered safer for human health.
• Either way, they are:
• i.) administered as clinically useful drugs
• ii.) used in the development of new pharmaceuticals
• iii.) used as starting materials to produce synthetic drugs. They however often possess
complex structural features not easily accessible by total synthesis (hence
semisynthetic drugs in which only modifications are made to the natural products).
• iv.) regarded as lead compounds from which a totally synthetic drug is designed
• Synthetic drugs, on the other hand, may also act in the body as irritants and toxins,
upsetting the balance of whole systems and producing side effects that can be lethal.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS
SYNTHETICS (mainstream pharmaceuticals)
1. Natural compounds, due to the long history of their use have
given the pharmaceutical industry a starting point for drug
development.
2. Natural compounds have long term data of use and thus of any
side effects as compared to synthetic compounds.
3. A high demand for natural compounds leads to the damaging of
plants (e.g bark stripping), plant resource depletion, inadequate
land for growing medicinal plants and competition with food
crops, among others.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS
SYNTHETICS (mainstream pharmaceuticals)
4. Natural compounds often act simultaneously with other
bioactive chemicals within the organism. Thus the purification
of the active compound denies the activators or complexes
that enable it to be highly effective.

Natural products thus have to be sold as crude extracts which

companies and individuals that prefer completely synthesized
products may be unwilling to take.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS SYNTHETICS
(mainstream pharmaceuticals)

5. The wide belief is that naturally occurring compounds are safer

and more effective with fewer side effects than synthetics.
However there is always the possibility the active ingredients
found in natural remedies can be toxic and must therefore be
strictly regulated and tested just like any other drug.

6. Proper research is urgently needed to get the full benefits of

both synthetic and natural compounds.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS SYNTHETICS
(mainstream pharmaceuticals)

• The bottom line is that it is the molecular structure of a compound that

defines its interactions with other molecules in the body causing it to
exhibit desirable and/or undesirable biological activities and not
necessarily whether it is natural or synthetic.
• Important drug characteristics to consider are safety, efficacy,
pharmacokinetics and metabolic /chemical stability.
• Drugs will tend to be used as natural or semisynthetic due to their
complex structure. Synthetic drugs are available for the same range of
diseases.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS SYNTHETICS
(mainstream pharmaceuticals)

• Antibiotics
• First naturally occurring antibiotic was penicillin. However, its
weaknesses were that:
• i.) It had a very narrow spectrum of activity
• ii.) It had poor pharmacokinetics and chemical stability
• iii.) It was easily destroyed by the action of penicillinase, which gave
resistance to bacterial strains capable of producing this enzyme.
• These shortcomings were overcome when it was discovered that
modifications to its biosynthetic precursor enabled an improvement to
this weaknesses.
NATURALS (phytochemical pharmaceuticals) VS SYNTHETICS (mainstream
pharmaceuticals)

• Artemisinin
• A sesquiterpene from the plant Artemisia annua used in the treatment of
malaria in China (especially cerebral malaria).
• A semisynthetic derivative, artemetheris was developed after much research
and is now an approved for the treatment of malaria.
• Other important semisynthetic drugs have been made for cancer,
cardiovascular (e.g. from digitalis even though, central nervous system and
immunomodulation.
• Synthetic drug categories include those used as anti-infectives (malaria and
HIV), some anticancer drugs, CNS drugs and anti-histamines.
Commercial drugs derived from plant sources
Plant Species Active Ingredient Disease Target

Senna alexandrina Sennosides Laxative products

Mentha (mint) species Menthol Preparations to relieve itching and

as a mild local anesthetic to soothe
soreness and ease muscular tension.

Gaultheria procumbens, or Methyl salicylate Ointments and liniments to relieve

wintergreen muscular pain, and for lumbago,
sciatica and rheumatic conditions

Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) Morphine potent pain killer

Digitalis purpurea (purple foxglove) Digitoxin Treatment of congestive heart

failure and other cardiac disorders
 Commercial drugs derived from plant sources
Plant Species Active Ingredient Disease Target

Rauwolfia serpentine Alkaloid reserpine antihypertensive and as a sedative

to relieve some types of psychiatric
disorders

Cinchona species Quinine Malaria

Chondodendron tomentosum Tubocurarine (from poison Curare) Used as an adjunct to general

anesthesia, and in cases of spastic
paralysis and plastic muscular
rigidity

Taxus brevifolia (Pacific Yew) Paclitaxel (Taxol) Chemotherapy

Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Vinblastine and Vincristine Treatment of Hodgkin’s disease and
periwinkle) alkaloids pediatric leukemia
Community Plant Use
• Your instructor, along with colleagues, has visited a number of Kenyan
rural communities to assess the general use of plant resources with
their conservation as a specific objective.

• 10 identified plants from Narok (Mau Forest), Kakamega (Kakamega

Forest), Mwingi (Waita area), Marakwet (Tot area) and Meru (Meru
Central) are shared with the class.

• Select a county and answer the queries on the exercise document.

Mwingi County
Kakamega Forest
Kakamega Forest
Kilifi County
Study of selected plant families,
with emphasis on medicinal
importance
plant anatomy, morphology and physiology
Plant Taxonomy
SPECIES

GENUS

FAMILY

ORDER

CLASS
DIVISION
KINGDOM
Plant Taxonomy
• Kingdom: Plantae
• Division: Various
• Class: Monocotyledons, Dicotyledons
• Order: Most end in – “ales”
• Family: End in - “aceae”
• Genus: Plants within a family that have common characteristics with one
another. It is in latin or latinised and written in capital letters and
Italics/underlined. It is followed by a specific epithet which describes a
plant characteristic, location or the person who discovered it.
• Species: Species is the name of a specific plant. It combines the genus and
the specific epithet
Plant Families
•Knowledge of a plant family is useful for the
following reasons:
- It enables us to identify plants in the field.
- It gives us an idea of a plant’s morphology.
- It helps in the search for seeds.
- It helps in the diversification of plants during the
establishment of a conservation area.
Plant Families
• Plants in the same family have similar flower, fruit, and seed
structures.
• The family name is often the first level of plant classification
discussed when talking about specific plants, as pest problems and
management practices within a family may be similar.
• Most families in the plant kingdom are angiosperms.
• These include the three largest plant families Asteraceae (sunflower
family) with 24,000 genera, Orchidaceae (orchid family) with 20,000
and Fabaceae (bean family) with an estimated 18,000.
Medicinal Plant Families, Africa
• PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa) program details
406 plant families of medicinal importance in Africa.

• Proportion-wise, 88% are perennials, 7% are annuals and 5%

can be annual or short-lived perennials depending on the
environmental conditions.

• Almost 70% of these medicinal plants are shrubs or

trees,10% are lianas and 20% are herbs.
Medicinal Plant Families, Africa
• Majority of medicinal plants in Africa belong to the Euphorbiaceae family.
• A great proportion of the medicinal plants in Africa have high to medium levels of
toxicity.
• The most toxic are considered to be in the three families, Apocynaceae,
Menispermaceae and Loganiaceae.
• Some will have secondary uses including timber, shade, fibre, fruits, vegetables
and use for ornamental value.
• Research shows that health problems targeted by plant use in Africa include skin
related problems (including eye infections) (66% of the plants), gastro-intestinal
problems, (51%), pain relief (46%) as purgatives and emetic (46%), problems
related to venereal diseases, female sterility and impotence (45%), fever and
malaria (41%), lung related problems (including bronchitis) (39%), intestinal
worms (34%) and (severe) diarrhoea (33%).
Some Medicinal Plant Species, USIU-Africa
• Acalypha wilkesiana (copper leaf and • Theveta peruviana
variegated types)
• Melia azaderachta
• Carissa edulis
• Warbughia ugandensis • Euphorbia tirucalli
• Croton macrostachyus • Acokanthera schimperi
• Bidens pilosa • Prunus africana
• Aleurites molucanna • Datura stramonium
• Teclea simplicifolia • Erythrina abyssinica
• Olea africana
• Kigelia africana
• Euphorbia candelabrum
• Euphorbia prostrata
• Aloe species
• Zizyphus abyssinica • Datura stramonium
• Tagetes minuta
Future thoughts for pharmacists in the
making
• Medicinal compounds are a very tiny percentage of plants by weight.
• Large quantities often needed in research.
• Herbals make a good source especially fast growing types and annuals.
Some are actively removed as weeds in agricultural systems.
• Look to select a few for your future project work that is coming up in 5th
year.
• What is lacking in many of the attached plants is studies on the efficacy,
toxicity and allergic reactions of the medicinal substances (local herbalists
have a feel for this but not the exact science).
• Whenever possible, take an interest in any extraction, isolation and
purification studies of medicinal substances that are taking place in the
school labs.
CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES
1. Select six medicinal plants that are found on the USIU-A Nairobi
campus and list them taxonomically.
2. Describe the family of the plant using:
• Flower, fruit and leaf structure types
• General characteristics of the family
3. What is the plant’s habit?
4. Walk around the campus and use your group’s description to locate
it (provide a location description and its picture)
5. Describe significant medicinal substances in each plant relating them
to their pharmacological impact in the human body.
Preparations from medicinal plants (Identify
reasons/situations of use, advantages and
limitations)
• Infusions • Steam (Inhalation and baths)
• Decoctions • Liniments
• Cold water extracts • Powder snuffs
• Syrups • Enemas
• Juices • Poultices
• Tinctures • Gargles
• Chewing • Lotions
• Ointments
• Nasal and Eye drops
Assignment One (individually, paired or at
maximum tripled)
• Construct a plant ID key that can be used by non-botany/science
students of USIU-A for plant identification.

• Please refer to the attached document in week 3 content of

blackboard to get useful tips on how to construct the key.

• This is your effort and creativity will be rewarded.

 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 1
• Melia azedarach (Neem) • Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 2
• Bidens pilosa (Black Jack) • Aleurites molucanna (Candle nut tree)
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 3
• Datura stramonium • Prunus africana (Red stinkwood)
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 4
• Euphorbia tirucalli • Acokanthera schimperi
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 5
• Acalypha wilkesiana (Copper leaf) • Carissa edulis
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: PLANT FAMILIES.
Group 6
• Croton macrostachyus • Warbughia ugandensis
Herbaceous Plants of Kenya with Medicinal
Compounds
 A. wilkesiana (copper leaf)
Acalypha spp

Euphorbiaceae
The leaves are squeezed into water
and the resulting juice is drunk as a
treatment for diarrhoea and A. wilkesiana (variegated leaf)
dysentery laryngitis and fresh leaves
are also chewed on as a first-aid
treatment for a ruptured appendix .
The fresh shoots are squeezed into
water and the solution drunk to
regulate menstruation and as an
abortifacient, Copper leaf is said to
help in controlling diabetes while
the variegated leaves can reduce
skin rashes.
Achyranthes aspera
(Amaranthaceae)

Prickly Chaff Flower or

Devil's Horsewhip
It contains compounds that
show anti-inflammatory and
anti-arthritic treatment
possibilities.
The chemicals are also
reported to be used for anti-
cancer activity and also
exhibit antifungal potential.
Ajuga remota

Labiate

Infusions of fresh leaves taken

for fever, toothache or
dysentery.

Plant used to treat high blood

pressure and can form part of
a mixture to cure malaria.
Aloes

Asphodelaceae A. kilifiensis

Aloes cure a wide range of

diseases including skin rashes,
body swellings, malaria, bruises,
cuts, hypertension,
conjunctivitis, etc. and can act as
laxatives, appetisers or blood
• A. lateritia
purifiers
A. ferox
(follow up aloe types in case you
become a fan as many
do…https://www.houzz.com/dis • A. vera
cussions/4367908/aloe-flower-
close-ups).
 A. cepa
Allium spp

Liliaceae
A. Cepa used to treat coughs,
sore throat, bronchitis, fungal
infections, high bloods pressure
and urinary tract infections, A. sativum
malaria, gout and whopping
cough among others.

A. Sativa used to cure high blood

pressure, asthma, influenza, sore
throats and it also lowers blood
cholesterol levels.
Anethum graveolens

Umbelliferae

Exotic plant well domiciled in

Kenya.
Used as a mild sedative and
as an emmenangogue as well
as to stimulate lactation,
reduce flatulence and
indigestion.
It treats fever, diarrhoea and
improves eyesight.
Artemisia afra

Asteraceae

(African wormwood)
Leaves used for curing sore
throat, fevers and indigestion.
Can remove intestinal worms
and also to ease and regulate
menstruation.
Asclepius fruticosa

Asclepidiaceae

(Milkweed)
Roots harvested for various
cures such as asthma,
bronchitis and pneumonia.
They also have diuretic,
emetic and purgative
properties and leaf juice can
open stuffy noses.
Asparagus spp
A. africanus
Asparagaceae

Root infusions treat STDs

especially gonorrhea with
fresh root juice calming sore
throats and coughs. A. Flaggelaris
Dry leaves treat wounds and
plant in general seems to be
effective in curing depression
and mental illnesses

A. officinalis (Exotic)
Aspilia spp

Asteraceae A. pluriseta

Pounded leaves treat skin

infections such as ringworm
and also heals fresh cuts and
wounds. A. mossambiciensis
Can also be used to treat liver
and abdominal diseases,
intestinal worms and venereal
diseases.
Bidens pilosa

Asteraceae
(Black jack)
Has antimicrobial substances
and is an active growing weed in
agricultural soils very easily
dispersed and has many uses in
different parts of Africa. Apart
from being eaten as a vegetable
medicinal uses include clotting
of blood and treating ear
infection and kidney problems
and water used for its cooking is
retained to cure malaria ,
stomach and mouth ulcers,
diarrhoea, headaches and
hangover.
Boerhavia diffusa

Nyctaginaceae

Red spiderling

Root contains a quinolone

alkaloid and is cure diarrhoea,
dysentery and cholera.
Aqueous extracts of the plant
exhibit antiviral activity and
its is also used as a diuretic.
Brugmansia suaveolens

Solanaceae

White angel's trumpet (Exotic)

Extracted compounds show
spasmolytic or spasmogenic
activity
Plant parts can be smoked,
eaten, drunk as a tea or taken as
an enema.
Calotropis procera

Asclepiadaceae

(Dead Sea Fruit)

Very common in south east
Kenya to Tanzania.
Used in curing bronchitis,
headaches, ringworms,
rheumatism, earaches,
cholera and snakebites
amongst others.
Cannabis sativa

Cannabinaceae
(Hemp, Hashish, Pot, Weed, etc.)
Finds great use in cancer and
HIV/AIDS patients (pain. nausea,
appetite, energy) and other
areas such as asthma,
depression, decreased
cholesterol levels and malarial
fever amongst others.
Use highly restricted due to
harmful effects on mental
function and infertility.
Catharanthus edulis

Apocynaceae

(Madagascar periwinkle)
Leaves are used in the
treatment of diabetes,
dysentery and leukemia (in
children)’
Generally used for high blood
pressure, STD’s (gonorrhea),
rheumatism, cancer, malaria
and to regulate menstruation
Carica papaya

Caricaceae

(Papaya)
A pharmacy of a plant with
very wide usage from
indigestion, amoebic
dysentery, infected wounds,
malaria, intestinal parasites,
yellow fever, bronchitis,
hepatitis to gonorrhea,
urinary tract infections and
alcohol addiction cures.
Datura stramonium

Solanaceae
(Thorn apple/Jimson weed)

Associated with frequent cases

of poisoning (especially in
children) the leaves of the plant
contain tropane alkaloids. Their
extracts are antimicrobial and
antifungal with a wide range of
applications including cure i=of
diarrhoea, toothache, tonsillitis,
spermatorrhea, premature
ejaculation, tenuous semen,
diabetes, sweaty palms, ulcers
and digestive disorders.
Euphorbia tirucalli

Euphorbiaceae
Used parts for medicine include
the milky sap and the bark with
the former acting as a purgative
in small doses. Both show co-
carcinogenic and
anticarcinogenic activities and
also find wide use in the control
of syphilis, intestinal parasites,
asthma, cough, earache,
rheumatism, verrucae, cancer,
epithelioma, sarcoma and skin
tumors.
Galium aparine

Rubiaceae

(Cleavers)
They are diuretics and hence
re popular for weight loss,
They also stimulate lymph
action helping to stimulates
waste excretion from the
bloodstream with a general
feeling of freshness.
Gallinsoga parviflora

Asteraceae
(Gallant soldier)

Popular in some regions as a

vegetable but mainly used for
skin inflammations
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Malvaceae

(Rose of China)
Commonly grown as an
ornamental plants.
Dried buds are eaten to
control and cure diabetes and
infusions of flowers in boiled
water cure fever and
bronchitis. Washing eyes with
the cooled infusion reduces
eye infections.
Lantana camara

Verbenaceae
Exotic plant with an invasive
habit.
Leaves are used to treat
toothache, sore throat,
conjunctivitis and colds in the
form of ash while fresh ones
cure skin conditions. Dried
leaves help to cure malaria and
water extractions from dried
stems are a useful
emmenagogue.
Leonotis mollissima

Labiatae

(Lions ear)
Very common in agricultural
fields after harvest.
Used to treat dysentery,
intestinal worms, stomach
cramps, conjunctivitis,
wounds, boils, itching and
muscular pain.
Lippia spp
• L. javanica
Verbenaceae

Rubbed leaves have a strong

scent hence its use as a nose • L. kituiensis
decongestant. Used to cure
coughs, colds, flu, headaches,
malaria, stomach ailments,
tapeworms, indigestion and
bronchitis with a leaf paste
helping to heal wounds.
An oil can be water extracted to
act as a anti-bacteria application.
Senna didymobotrya

Caesalpiniaceae

A common herb in many

boundary regions of moist
areas.
Considered a poisonous plant
but has wide applications
including treating of
gonorrhea, fever, malaria,
backaches and stomach
disorders.
Ocimum spp
• O. basilicum (common basil)
Labiatae

Leaf juice treats skin

infections, earache, as well as
migraines.
Leaves treat common colds,
coughs, malaria, sore eyes, • O. kilimandscharicum
wounds, boils, herpes and
measles in children.
 • O. corniculata

Oxalis spp
(Creeping wood sorrel)
Has numerous external and
internal medicinal applications
including the treatment of
influenza, fever, urinary tract
infections, enteritis, diarrhoea,
traumatic injuries, sprains and
poisonous snake bites, muscular • O. latifolia
swellings, boils and pimples. The
plant is emmenagogue and
antidiuretic among others.
Oxygonum sinatum

(Double thorn)
Popular as a vegetable in
some regions of East Africa, it
grows as a weed and
medicinally the leaves are
applied to boils while the
stems are chewed to treat
tonsillitis. The leaf juice is
used for treating fungal
infections of legs and feet and
to treat eye infections.
 S. incanum
Solanum spp (Sodom
S. Incanum roots are used in curing
toothache, fever, stomach aches,
while fruit pulp heals warts,
Apple)
wounds, fungal infections,
ringworm and other skin infections.
Leaf extracts cure earache and are
applied to snakebites.
S. Nigrum is a vegetable of
increasing popularity (managu) that S. nigrum
grew as a weed.
Unripe fruits are squeezed to calm
baby teething problems and the
leaves relieve many gastrointestinal
problems.
Striga hermonthica

Orobanchaceae
(Witchweed)
Highly unpopular being an
obligate parasite that depletes
the host’s (crops like maize)
nutrients are depleted and
energy is spent supporting it.
In East Africa, a decoction or
infusion of the roots is
administered orally as an
abortifacient and in the
treatment of pneumonia.
Sonchus oleareus

Asteraceae
(Sow thistle)
The plant is emmenagogue
and hepatic with an infusion
being used to bring on a tardy
menstruation and to treat
diarrhoea.
The latex in the sap is used in
the treatment of warts and
may have anticancer activity.
Tagetes minuta

Asteraceae

It is used in the treatment of

gastritis, indigestion and
internal worms and externally
can help to treat
haemorrhoids and skin
infections (newly born babies
usually washed in water with
plants sprinkled in it.
Tithonia diversifolia

Asteraceae

Fast growing herb in moist areas.

The plant (especially the leaves)
are used to treat a wide range of
ailments including to wounds,
skeleto-muscular disorders,
abscesses, dermatological
conditions, stomach pains as
well as oral administration for
diabetes, malaria, fever,
hepatitis and infectious diseases.
Tradescantia pallida

Commeliniaceae

Spiderwort(purple heart)
Roots extracts are used as a
laxative and in the treatment
of kidney and stomach
ailments.
A poultice from the leaves is
applied to stings, insect bites
and cancers.
Tribulus terrestis

Zygophyllaceae

Highly valued in arid and

semi-arid Kenya and may
have potential as a treatment
for urinary stones, Parkinson's
disease, malignant
melanoma, liver and eye
diseases as well as benign
prostatic hyperplasia.
It is said to improve male
sexual function
Plant Morphology (Flowers)

Plant anatomy, morphology and

physiology
 Flower morphology
• Floral parts
• Petals
• Petals are what give a flower its unique shape, and are often
brightly colored to attract insects for the pollination of ovules.
• Sepals
• Small green leaf-like parts growing at the base of the petals. They
serve to protect the flower before it blossoms.
• Peduncle/Pedicel
• It is the stem or stalk of a flower.
• Receptacle
• This is the thickened part at the bottom of the flower which holds
its major organs.
 Flower morphology
• Pistil
• The female organ of the flower that is made up of four major parts:
• Stigma – The head of the pistil. The stigma receives pollen which
begins the process of fertilization.
• Style – This is the stalk of the pistil. When pollen reaches the
stigma, it begins to grow a tube through the style called a pollen
tube, which will eventually reach the ovary. The style therefore acts
as a buffer against pollen contamination, since only compatible
pollen is able to grow a pollen tube.
• Ovary – The base of the pistil. This organ holds the ovules.
• Ovules – These are the female reproductive cells and are located
inside the ovary. Upon fertilization by pollen, they will eventually
grow into a seed with a surrounding fruit.
 Flower morphology
• Stamen
• This is the male organ of the flower, consisting of
two major parts:
• Anther – The head of the stamen. The anther is
responsible for the production of pollen, which
transported to the pistil by a variety of pollinating
agents including wind, water and animals
(especially insects).
• Filament – This is the stalk that holds the anther
and attaches it to the flower.
1.a. A unisexual is one in which either the stamens or
the carpels are missing, vestigial or otherwise non-
functional.e.g. Male (Staminate) and female
(Carpellate) flowers in Zea mays (Maize)
1.b. A bisexual flower contains both male
and female reproductive organs e.g.
Hibiscus plants
 2.a. A complete
flower that is one
that has all the
four parts which
include the
sepals, petals,
pistils and
stamens, e.g.
Bougainvillea
flower
 2b. An incomplete
flower is one that is
missing any of its
parts in its natural
form, i. e. petals,
sepals, stamens or
pistils.s e.g. Calla Lily
 3.a. An
actinomorphic flower
is one that has
multiple lines of
symmetry (radially
symmetrical)
 3.b. A
zygomorphic flower is
one that can only be
divided one way to form
mirror images of each
other(bilaterally
symmetrical)
 3.c. An
asymmetric flower is
one that cannot be
divided into two
equal halves in any
plane
4. Bracteate and Ebracteate flowers (those with
and without bracts. A bract is a small leaf or
scale from the axil of which a flower or floral
axis arises)
5. Pedicellate (with flower stalk) and
sessile (no flower stalk)
6. Tetramerous flower (consisting of
groups of four parts)
7. Pentamerous flower (consisting of
groups of five parts)
8. Spirocyclic (flowers in a spiral
arrangement)
 9. Attachment of flower parts
• a. Hypogynous
• Sepals, petals and stamens are attached to the
receptacle below the ovary
• b. Perigynous
• A hypanthium (a floral tube formed from the
fusion of the stamens, petals, and sepals) is
attached to the receptacle below the gynoecium
• c. Epigynous
• Sepals, petals and stamens arise from the top of
the ovary
 10. Calyx
• The calyx is the lowermost axillary whorl of the
flower and its parts are referred to as sepals.
• In terms of its duration, it has three types as follows:
• 1. Caducous calyx (drops off as soon as the flower
opens)
• 2. Deciduous (falls off along with the petals just after
fertilization)
• 3. Persistent (remains attached to the ripe fruit)
• The sepals may be polysepalous or gamosepalous.
10.a. Polysepalous calyx (unconnected
sepals) and 10.b. Gamosepalous calyx
(united sepals)
 11. Corolla
• The corolla is an inner envelope of (usually)
coloured floral leaves of the flower.
• It consists of petals and may be polypetalous
(separate petals) or gamopetalous (fused
petals either fully or partially in a tube)
• The calyx and corolla are referred to as the
perianth.
11.a. Polypetalous 11.b. Gamopetalous
 12. The
Androecium
This is the male
part of the
flower with its
individual units
(stamens)
consisting of a
filament and
anthers of ripe
pollen.
 The anther may be single lobed
(monothecus) or bilobed (dithecous).
The filament maybe attached to the base of the anther
(basifixed), go right through it and protrude out from
the apex (adnate), be fixed to the dorsal part
(dorsifixed)or to the side of the anther (versatile)
 Fusing of androecium: It may have be monadelphous (filaments
fused into a single stamen tube), diadelphous (filaments fused to
form two bundles) or polyadelphous (filaments united into many
bundles with anthers being free).
Monadelphous

Diadelphous

Polyadelphous
 The androecium may
be Polyandrous
(filaments are many
and free), Syngenesious
(filaments free but
anthers fused) and
Synandrous (fused
filaments and fused
anthers)
Stamens maybe epipetalous (filaments
attached to petals) or gynandrous
(filaments attached to the carpels).
 The androecium can also be didynamous (two
long and two short filaments) or tetradynamous
(two short and four long filaments)
 Inflorescences
• An inflorescence is a group of flowers arranged on a single
stem or branching stems.
• In indeterminate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are
at the top of an elongated axis or on the centre of a
truncated axis.
• An indeterminate inflorescence may be a raceme, panicle,
spike, catkin, corymb, umbel, spadix or head.
• In determinate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are at
the bottom of an elongated axis or on the outside of a
truncated axis.
• At the time of flowering, the apical meristem (the terminal
point of cell division) produces a flower bud, thus arresting
the growth of the peduncle. An example is a cymose.
 Capitulum
(Common in
Asteraceae)
 Aestivation
• This is the positional arrangement of the parts of a
flower within a flower bud before it has opened. It is
also used in plant identification.
• There are various types including:
• 1. Valvate: The individual petals/sepals touch but do
not overlap.
• 2. Twisted: All petals/sepals in a given whorl have
one overlapping margin and the other margin
overlapped. The arrangement is such that every
petal/sepal overlaps the next; either in clockwise or
anti-clockwise fashion.
 Aestivation
• 3. Imbricate: one petal/sepal is completely
internal (being overlapped on both the margins)
and one petal/sepal is completely external (both
margins are overlapping others). The remaining
sepals/petals, have one margin is overlapping
and another margin is overlapped.
• 4. Quincuncial:
Two petals are internal, two are external and the
fifth one has one margin external and the other
margin is internal. valvate, twisted, imbricate,
quincuncial and vexillary.
 Plant fruits
• 1. Simple fruits (formed from a single ovary of a single
flower). They include:
• a. Fleshy fruits (berry, drupe, pome, hesperidium,
popo)
• b. Dry fruits (dry dehiscent such as capsule, siliqua,
legume and follicle as well as dry indehiscent
comprising achene, caryopsis grains, samara and nut)
• 2. Aggregate fruits formed from separate single ovaries
of the same flower.
• 3. Multiple or composite fruits formed from ovaries of
several flowers borne close together on a single axis)
such as sorosis and synconium
• AGGREGATE FRUITS
(e.g. Strawberry) • MULTIPLE/COMPOSIT
E (e.g. Pineapple)
Plant Morphology
Plant anatomy, morphology and
physiology
Plant Morphology
• Plant morphology describes the physical form and external structures
of a plant.
• It is the study of entire structures of a plant and includes the structure
and function of organs and organ systems.
• Most plants of Magniliophyta have distinct parts such as stems,
roots, leaves, flowers and fruits.
• There is however a big variety in these plant parts.
Plant stems consist of
nodes, internodes
and buds; stem
thorns and tendrils
Plant habit
• Plant Habit refers to the general appearance or form of the plant.
• It is an equivalent of the plants architecture.
• Examples of plant habits include:
• Woody perennials (produce wood as structural tissue),
• Herbaceous plants (are vascular plants that have no persistent woody
stems above ground)
• Shrubs; creepers/trailers/climbers/twiners/ramblers; lianas and
aerial plants.
• Ephemerals/ annual/biennial herbs and herbaceous perennials.
Herbaceous Plant (Galinsoga parviflora:
Gallant Soldier/Quickweed)
Shrubs/Bushes: Woody plants smaller than trees
and have several main stems arising at or near
the ground (less than a meter).
Creepers/Vines/Climbers/Trailers/Twiners/Ramblers: Plants that
grow along the ground, around another plant, or up a wall by
means of extending stems or branches.
Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia)
Karela
Malabar Spinach
(Endelema) (Basella
alba)

• Pumpkin(Curcubita
maxima)
Specialised examples
include rhizomes, Stem (Shoot) Types
corms, tubers and
bulbs, bulbils (tiny
bulbs between stem
and leaf or in place of
a flower)
Aerial Plants
Specialised stems
Plant root types
include taproot, Root Types/Parts
adventitious roots,
aerial roots,
assimilatory roots,
fibrous roots;
tuberous roots;
prop roots and stilt
roots among others
Aerial, stilt and
buttress roots
Plant leaves
• Leaf arrangement types: Alternate, Opposite,
Whorled, Rosette
• Types of leaves include simple leaves, compound
(various types) and palmate leaves.
• Leaf form takes into account shape, margin, apex,
base, surface, texture and venation
• In leaf modifications, the leaves occur as scale leaves,
phyllode or leaf tendrils.
Leaf Arrangements
• Opposite

• Alternate • Whorled
Leaf Types 2. Trifoliate
A. Simple leaves

3. Pinnately compound
a. Imparipinnate
B. Compound leaves
1. Bifoliate
Compound leaves 4. Bipinnately compound

3. Pinnately compound
b. Paripinnate

5. Palmately compound
LEAF SHAPES
Leaf Margins
• It is the edge of the leaf lamina lying between the apex and base.
• Entire margins are smooth, without indentations or incisions.
• Revolute margins are rolled downward, toward the lower surface of the
leaf.
• Involute margins are rolled upward, or toward the upper surface of the
leaf.
• Repand margins are slightly and irregularly wavy, with the lamina surface
undulating in a downward and upward direction.
• Sinuate leaf margins are shallowly indented and strongly wavy in the
horizontal plane.
Leaf Margins
• “Teeth” are commonly seen in leaf margins and typically extend less than one-
eighth of the distance from the margin to the midrib of the leaf.
• There are various shapes and sizes of teeth are associated with leaf margins and
these include:
• Crenate margins
• They have shallowly ascending round or obtuse teeth.
• Crenulate (which means minutely crenate) margins
• They have minute, shallowly ascending round or obtuse teeth.
• Serrate margins
• They have sharp, saw-toothed teeth pointing forward or toward the apex.
Leaf Margins
• Serrulate (minutely serrate) margins
• They have very fine, sharp, saw-toothed teeth pointing forward or toward the apex.
• Doubly serrate margins
• They have coarse, saw-toothed teeth bearing smaller teeth on the basipetal part of their edges.
• Dentate margins
• They have sharp teeth, or indentions, pointing outward at right angles to the midrib.
• Denticulate (minutely dentate) margins
• They have fine, sharp teeth, or indentions, pointing outward at right angles to the midrib.
• Aculeate margins have spiny or prickly projections along their edges.
• Bristle tips refer to teeth or lobes that are terminated by a sharp, flexible, elongated point.
Leaf margins • Dentate (triangular tooth like
edges)

• Entire (Smooth)

• Serrated (sharp saw like teeth)

• Crenate (blunt rounded teeth)

Leaf Tips (Apices)
• The apex is the tip of the leaf blade and include the following types:
• Acuminate apices
• They have a long, slender, sharp point, with a terminal angle less than
45 degrees, and straight to convex sides.
• Acute apices
• They have a sharp-pointed tip, with a terminal angle between 45 and
90 degrees, and straight to convex sides.
• Mucronate apices
• They have a tip that is terminated by a short, sharp, abrupt point.
Leaf Tips (Apices)
• Cuspidate apices have a tip that is abruptly and sharply constricted
into an elongated, sharp-pointed tip or cusp (a sharp, rigid point).
• Obtuse apices have a blunt or rounded tip, with the sides forming an
angle of more than 90 degrees, and straight to convex sides.
• Rounded apices have a tip that is curved to form a full, sweeping arc.
• Truncate apices have a tip that looks as though it was cut off at
almost a right angle to the midrib, forming a flat-topped or squared-
off shape.
• Retuse apices have a shallow notch in a rounded or obtuse apex.
• Emarginate tips have a shallow and broad notch at the apex.
Leaf bases
• The base of a leaf is the lower part of the lamina, where it is attached to the
petiole or stem.
• Types of bases include:
• Cuneate bases
• They are sharp-pointed, with an angle less than 45 degrees between opposite
sides which form a wedge or triangular shape that tapers to a narrow region at
the point of attachment of lamina with petiole.
• Acute bases
• They have a sharp-pointed base, with opposite sides forming an angle between
45 and 90 degrees at the position where the lamina joins the petiole.
• Obtuse bases
• They have a blunt or narrowly rounded base with opposite sides forming an angle
greater than 90 degrees at the position where the lamina joins the petiole.
Leaf bases
• Rounded bases
• They are curved to form a full, sweeping arc.
• Truncate bases
• They have an appearance of being cut off at nearly a right angle to the midrib,
forming a flat-topped or squared-off shape.
• Cordate bases
• They are valentine-shaped, with both right and left margins forming broad arcs
that meet in the middle of the junction between lamina and petiole.
• Inequilateral bases
• They have asymmetrical left and right sides of different sizes or shapes.
• Auriculate bases
• They have earlike lobes where the lamina joins the petiole.
Leaf Bases
Specialised Leaf Structures
Glands (on leaves)
• They are defined functionally as plant structures which secrete one or
more products.
• This may be located on leaves or other plant surfaces and secrete products
either externally or internally (into a canal or reservoir).
• They appear on leaves as small, protruding bumps on the leaf margin that
are typically different in color from the surrounding lamina tissue.
• Often they occur at the apices of teeth or lobes or on leaf petioles.
• Use of a hand magnifying lens helps in observing the small glands of some
species.
Leaf spines and tendrils
• Leaves may change to spines in some plants.
• A typical example is in xerophytic plants are adapted to survive in an
environment with little water.
• They differ from thorns which are endogenous in development but
have a similar additional function of protecting the plant from
herbivory.
• Tendrils are modified stems, leaves or petioles with a threadlike shape
They are used for support and attachment that is commonly observed
in climbing plants.
Leaf spines and tendrils
Stipular
spines in
Euphorbi-
aceae
Leaf Vestiture (cover of leaf surface) including
trichomes (hairy), glabrous (smooth) and glaucous
(waxy) and viscid (sticky)
Plant anatomy, morphology and
physiology
BOT 3352
Plant Anatomy

•Plant anatomy is concerned with the study of

internal structure of plants.

•It deals with the structural organization of

plants.
Organisation of structures in multicellular
plants
•1. Cells
•2. Tissues
•3. Organs
•4. Organ systems
•5. Entire plant
Cells – basic units of plants that are
specialized for a particular function.
Types of cells
• Epidermal cell
• Parenchyma
• Aerenchyma
• Chlorenchyma
• Collenchyma
• Sclerenchyma
• Tracheid
• Sieve tube
• Xylem vessel
• Companion cell
Parenchyma cells
• Parenchyma cells range in shape and size depending on their function
but are characterized by large vacuoles.
• Parenchyma cells are the most versatile and are common in ground
tissue such as the cortices of stems and roots, pith of the stem,
mesophyll layer in leaves, fruit pulp and the endosperm in seeds.
• Parenchyma cells can become meristematic at maturity
(totipotentiality).
• They function in photosynthesis (chlorenchyma), gas exchange,
storage of starch, protein, fats, oils and water in roots, tubers and
seeds; wound repair and renewed growth as well as aeration
(aerenchyma).
Collenchyma Cells
• They are elongated cells with thick cells walls (pectin filled) that
provide support and structure.
• They are located under the epidermis or are found as the outer layer of
cells in young stems and in leaf veins.
• Their main function is support (especially for the petiole, leaves and
stem) of young dicot plants. They give flexibility that allows plants to
bend without breaking.
• They also allow for the growth and elongation of plant organs.
• Mainly absent in monocots.
Sclerenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells
• They are specialized plant cells that provide strength and support to
the plant and also transport water and nutrients in the stem.
• Two types are fibres and sclereids where the former are usually the
long while the latter are short cells.
• Mature sclerenchyma cells die and thus remain with the function of
support with lignin deposits in the cell wall.
Epidermal cells
• They are a complex collection of cells types characterized by very
little intercellular space in the epidermal tissues.
• Most tend to be cuboid or elongated but some may be flattened cells.
Vascular cells
• Xylem – Consist of tracheids and vessel elements. They form
elongated tubes. They are non-living.

• Phloem – Consist of sieve-tube cells and companion cells that are

living cells. Companion cells have nuclei and actively transport sugar
into and out of sieve-tubes.
Xylem Cells
Phloem Cells
Plant Tissues

•Composed of cells for a specific function.

•These are usually similar in shapes and size.
•Examples of tissues include epidermal
tissue, meristems, vascular tissue and ground
tissue.
Plant Tissues
Tissue Cell Types Function Locations
Xylem is made up of
vessels and tracheids
Xylem transports water In stems, leaves, and
Vascular tissue Phloem is made up of
Phloem transports sugars roots
sieve cells and companion
cells
Protect plant tissues and Outer layer of stems,
Epidermal tissue Parenchyma
prevent water loss roots, and leaves
Parenchyma
Makes up bulk of plant
Ground tissue Collenchyma Stems, roots, leaves
mass
Sclerenchyma
Tips of shoots
Tips of roots
Divide to produce new
Meristematic tissue Parenchyma In buds
growth
In a ring around the stem
in woody plants
Plant Tissue Types
1. Dermal layer
• It is the outermost tissue of a plant
• It functions mainly to protect the plant inner layers and
consists of:
a.) epidermis (in young plant parts) and
b.) periderm tissue.
• Plant stems and leaves may have a waxy cuticle whose
thickness is usually related to water availability.
a.) Epidermal tissue
• It is the primary surface tissue of the entire plant.
• Associated substances and structures include cutin as well as unicellular or
multicellular hairy outgrowths and other appendages such as tendrils and
spines.
• The epidermis offers protection against:
• - various chemical and physical influences
• - predatory by herbivores and infestation by parasites
• - protection of the plant against desiccation
• It enables the plant to carry out gas exchange, secretion of metabolic
compounds and the absorption of water
• The layer is a site of receptors for light and mechanical stimuli that help to
transform signals from the surrounding to the plant
b.) Periderm
• The periderm, also known as the bark, replaces the
epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth.
• The periderm is multilayered as opposed to the single
layered epidermis.
• It consists of cork cells (phellem), phelloderm, and
phellogen (cork cambium).
• Barks in stems are an example of a dermal layer.
• Openings in the bark layer called lenticels allow for
gaseous and moisture exchanges.
Plant Tissue Types
2. Vascular Tissue
• It is the innermost tissue of a plant
• It is composed of the xylem, phloem and vascular cambium.
• When roots absorb water and nutrients, they are transported through xylem to the
rest of the plant. Hormones and other small molecules are also transported
through the xylem.
• The phloem, on the other hand, transports carbohydrates and other compounds
produced by photosynthesis to the rest of the plant.
3. Meristematic tissue
• A meristem refers to a layer of undifferentiated cells responsible for plant growth
and they occur within the stem leaves and at the tips of stems and roots.
• Vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that gives rise to the secondary xylem and
phloem.
Xylem Tissue
Phloem
tissue
Plant Tissue Types
4. Ground Tissue
• It is the intermediate tissue between the dermal and vascular tissue of
plants.
• It is made up mainly of parenchymous tissue in young plants.
• Its turgidity keeps leaves vertical and help very young stems to remain
upright.
• Collenchyma and sclerenchymous ground tissue give support to stems.
• They also provide protection to vascular tissues.
Plant Organs
• Composed of tissues for one or more specific function.
• LEAVES
• STEMS
• FLOWERS
• ROOTS
Leaf anatomy
• A leaf consists of a blade that varies in width from plant to plant.
• They have a number of layers enclosed in an upper and lower epidermis.
The epidermis secretes a waxy substance called the cuticle to protect the
leaf from insects, bacteria and fungi.
• Guard cells in the epidermal layers form a pore (stoma) for gaseous
diffusions and transpiration.
• Photosynthesis takes place in elongated cells called palisade mesophyll
which contains chloroplasts. Gas exchange occurs in the air spaces
between the spongy mesophyll.
• Veins support the leaf and are filled with vessels that transport food, water,
and minerals to the plant.
Leaf Cross Section
Differences between dicot and monocot stems
• Dicot stems have a circular arrangement of vascular tissues,
whereas the stems of monocots have vascular-tissue bundles
scattered throughout.
• In monocots the vascular bundles also tend to be toward the
outside of the stem while dicot stems have bundles in a ring.
• There is no pith region in monocot stems while dicot stems
have parenchyma cells in a pith region at the center of the
stem.
TYPICAL DICOT STEM
Detailed vascular bundle
Older Woody Plant
Differences between dicot and monocot roots
• Monocot roots have their vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
Xylem and phloem tissue lies in an alternate manner
• Dicot roots have their xylem arranged like an “X” in the
center of the root and phloem surrounding it.
• Xylem and phloem are much fewer in dicot roots but
numerous in monocots.
• The pith is absent or very small in dicot roots but large and
well developed in monocot roots.
TYPICAL MONOCOT ROOT SECTION
MAIZE ROOT WITH
STEELE AND ROOT
HAIR
CROSS
SECTION
OF A
DICOT
ROOT
Placentation
Types of ovules
• There are six types of ovules:
• 1. Orthotropous or atropous ovule
• (ortho-straight, tropous - turn)
• The body of the ovule is erect or straight. The hilum, chalaza and the micropyle
lie in a straight line e.g. Polygonum.
• 2. Anatropous ovule
• (ana - backward or up, tropous - turn)
• The body of the ovule becomes completely inverted during the development so
that the micropyle lies very close to the hilum (e.g.) Gamopetalae members.
• 3. Hemi-anatropous or hemitropous ovule
• The body of the ovule is placed transversely at right angles to the funicle. The
micropyle and chalaza lie in one straight line e.g. Ranunculus.
Types of ovules
• 4. Campylotropous ovule
• (kampylos - curved)
• The body of the ovule is curved or bent round so that the micropyle and
chalaza do not lie in the same straight line. e.g. Fabaceae.
• 5. Amphitropous ovule
• The curvature of the ovule is very much pronounced and the embryo sac
also becomes curved e.g. Allismaceae and Butomaceae.
• 6. Circinotropous ovule
• The nucellus and the axis are in the same line in the beginning but due to
rapid growth on one side, the ovule becomes anatropous. The curvature
continues further and the micropyle again points upwards (e.g.) Opuntia.
Fruit Anatomy
Fruit Anatomy
Fruit Anatomy
SEED ANATOMY
Plant Anatomy Queries
• 1. Relate the internal design of the following plant parts to some of
their key their functions:
• a. Stem
• Xylem and phloem cells aligned as vertical tubes functioning in
transportation and thus with hollow elongated tracheids lignified for
strength
• Variety of tissues such as dermal tissue which is tightly packed and
with thickened cell walls to function in protection and support
• Cambium with undifferentiated cells to increase length and width of
stem/roots
• Pith for storage and support with a large central filled with turgid
loosely packed parenchyma cells
Plant Anatomy Queries
• b. Roots
• Parenchyma cells loosely arranged for storage of nutrients with amyloplasts.
Further adaptation for water storage in succulent plants and movement of oxygen
through the root.
• Endodermis last layer of cortex with a casparian thickenings making more compact
• Presence of root hairs to increase the surface area for the absorption of water and
minerals
• Meristematic tissue enables root elongation and thickening to enable water
exploration and anchoring
• Root cap designed to protect the apical bud
• Waxy substance suberin in the casparian strip that forces water and solutes to
cross the plasma membrane of the endodermal cells and prevent passage of
unwanted substances
Plant Anatomy Queries
• c. Leaves
• Epidermis has stomata designed with guard cells to assist, via opening and
closing, in the exchange of gases and exit of water which creates a
transpiration pull
• Spongy mesophyll with loosely arranged parenchyma cells to ease the
movement of moisture and gases
• Palisade mesophyll are elongated with chloroplasts and located below the
top leaf surface to maximize the absorption of light
• Lower and upper epidermis secretes a waxy cuticle for protection with
thickness depending on water availability to protect leaf from pathogens
and desiccation
• Veins are highly branched to ensure that water and nutrients reach every
cell in the leaf
Plant Anatomy Queries
• d. Flower
• Petals are brightly coloured to attract pollinators
• Anthers with partitioned rounded storage sacs to store pollen
• Stigma located at the top of the pistil and usually sticky to enable
pollen collection
• Sepals leathery and elongated to protect unopened flower
• Ovary located deep in the pistil for protection of emryos with
selective access via the style
Plant Anatomy Queries
• 2. Link two ovule types to eventual fruits in Magniliophyta
• Orthotropous (Atrotropous) in green pepper
• Anatropous in helianthus annus (sunflower)
• Campylotropous in Fabaceae (common beans) and mustard family
• Circinotropous in Opuntia (Prickly pear)
• 3. Describe seed placement in any fruits from the ovule placentation
• Axile for apples and lemons
• Marginal for pea family pods
• Basal for marigold and sunflower fruits?
• Parietal for passion fruit
• Free central for primula (primrose flowers)
Plant Anatomy Queries
• 4. What is the structure of meristematic tissue and what makes it unique?
• Tissue with numerous undifferentiated cells that can form any of the
required plant cell types
• Cells always actively dividing with this cell walls and large nuclei
• Located only in growing parts of the plant
• 5. What is the function of meristematic tissue in a monocot stem?
• It is primary thickening meristem and helps in the initial thickening of the
stem.
• Intercalary meristems in bases of leaf blades and nodes e.g. Lawn grass
leaves elongate even after repeated mowing