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Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 6656–6660

Short Communication

Transesterified sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seed oil as a biodiesel fuel

Abdurrahman Saydut a,*, M. Zahir Duz b, Canan Kaya b,
Aylin Beycar Kafadar b, Candan Hamamci b
a
Dicle University, Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Mining Engineering Department, TR-21280 Diyarbakir, Turkey
b
Dicle University, Science and Art Faculty, Chemistry Department, TR-21280 Diyarbakir, Turkey

Received 9 March 2007; received in revised form 21 November 2007; accepted 22 November 2007
Available online 21 February 2008

Abstract

The sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) oil was extracted from the seeds of the sesame that grows in Diyarbakir, SE Anatolia of Turkey.
Sesame seed oil was obtained in 58 wt/wt%, by traditional solvent extraction. The methylester of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seed oil
was prepared by transesterification of the crude oil. Transesterification shows improvement in fuel properties of sesame seed oil. This
study supports the production of biodiesel from sesame seed oil as a viable alternative to the diesel fuel.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biodiesel; Sesame; Oil extraction; Transesterification; Renewable energy

1. Introduction tries like Germany, China, India and Turkey, ethnobotani-

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L) is an oilseed herbaceous
crop of the Pedaliaceae family. It is an economically impor-
tant oil seed crop which is widely cultivated in many parts of
the world, primarily in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world, including India, China, Sudan, Burma, Tunisia,
Egypt, Thailand, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
Saudi Arabia and Turkey, and has recently been adapted
to semi-arid regions (Elleuch et al., 2007; Koca et al.,
2007; Uzun et al., 2007; Wu, 2007). It is an ancient culti-
vated plant and thought to have originated from Africa
and Turkey is known to be the second genetic resource. Ses-
ame (3 321 458 t) are produced in 7 554 200 ha areas in the
world. In Turkey, it is grown in 43 000 ha areas and pro-
duces 23 000 t (Koca et al., 2007; Uzun et al., 2007).
Sesame is widely used in food, nutraceutical, pharmaceu-
tical and industry in many countries because of its high oil,
protein and antioxidant contents. Hence, in several coun-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 412 248 84 03; fax: +90 412 248 83
89.
E-mail address: saydut@dicle.edu.tr (A. Saydut).
cal uses against health problems including cancer, cold,
colic, etc. are common (Koca et al., 2007). The chemical
composition of sesame shows that the seed is an important
source of oil (44–58%), protein (18–25%), carbohydrate
(13.5%) and ash (5%) (Elleuch et al., 2007). The main constit-
uents of sesame seeds are oil and protein. Oil content ranges
57–63%, and protein from 23% to 25% (Tunde-Akintunde
and Akintunde, 2004). The fat of sesame is of importance
in the food industry due to its flavour and stability, and
because it can be used to cook meals of high quality. Sesame
oil contains sesamin and sesaminol lignans in its nonglycerol
fraction, which are known to play an important role in the
oxidative stability and antioxidative activity (Wu, 2007).
The addition of unsaponifiable matter extracted from
sesame seed increases the stability of sunflower oil. This
stability is more pronounced in the case of unsaponifiable
matter extracted from roasted sesame seeds due to a
synergistic role. The most abundant fatty acids were oleic
(43%), linoleic (35%), palmitic (11%) and stearic (7%) acids,
which together comprised about 96% of the total fatty acids
(Elleuch et al., 2007).
Biodiesel is produced from animal fat, plant oil or waste
cooking oil, and that can be used as the basis for a clean

0960-8524/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.11.063
 A. Saydut et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 6656–6660
substitute for fossil fuel without any modification to diesel
engines, boilers or other combustion equipments (Canakci,
2007; Gerpen, 2005; Ma and Hanna, 1999; Meher et al.,
2006). Oil seeds have been one of the major biomass
sources of fuel (Karaosmanoglu, 1999). It is renewable
and does not contribute to global warming due to its closed
carbon cycle. A life cycle analysis of biodiesel showed that
overall CO2 emissions were reduced by 78% compared with
petroleum-based diesel fuel. Its additional advantages
include outstanding lubricity, excellent biodegradability,
superior combustion efficiency and low toxicity, among
others (Gerpen, 2005; Holser and O’Kuru, 2006; Rama-
dhas et al., 2005). The plant oils usually contain free fatty
acids, phospolipids, sterols, water, odorants and other
impurities. Because of these, the oil cannot be used as fuel
directly. To overcome these problems the oil requires slight
chemical modification (Canakci, 2007). There are three
kinds of catalysts that can be used in transesterification
reaction, a strong alkaline catalyst, a strong acid, and an
enzyme. The main advantages of using a strong alkali as
a catalyst are shorter reaction time and less amount of cat-
alyst required in the manufacturing process of the transe-
sterification reaction (Ma and Hanna, 1999; Meher et al.,
2006).
In the present study, sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seed
was investigated as an alternative feedstock for the produc-
tion of a biodiesel fuel. Biodiesel was prepared from sesame
seed by transesterification of the crude oil with methanol in
the presence of NaOH as catalyst. Properties of sesame
seed oil and biodiesel produced by transesterification were
within the limits of ASTM and EN standards.
2. Experimental
Sesame seeds used in the present study were provided
from Agricultural Faculty of Dicle University in Diyarba-
kir, situated in SE Anatolia of Turkey in 2005. The seeds
were cleaned manually to remove all foreign matter such
as dust, dirt, stones and chaff as well as immature, broken
seeds. In order to preserve its original quality, the sample
was stored at an ambient temperature of 25 ± 3°C in sealed
plastic bags prior to any conditioning.
2.1. Extraction of sesame seed oil
Soxhlet extraction was employed to know the total oil
content of the sesame seed. According to the Turkish Stan-
dard, traditional Soxhlet extraction was carried out in stan-
dard apparatus by standard methods using 250 ml n-hexane
and 20.0 g sesame seeds the smallest particle size mixed with
20.0 g sand. After extraction 5 h, the extracts were concen-
trated and dried, and the solvent was then evaporated.
2.2. Production procedure for biodiesel
Biodiesel derived from sesame seed oil was prepared by
reacting 300 g of oil, 60 g CH3OH (approximately 6:1
6657
molar ratio) and 1.5 g NaOH. The reaction was carried
out for 2 h under reflux at 60 °C while stirring. The reac-
tion was carried out using 100% excess methanol, i.e. molar
ratio of methanol to oil is 6:1 and catalyst concentration of
0.5%. The reactor was equipped with reflux condenser to
condense back the methanol escaping from the reaction
mixture. The reaction mixture was then allowed to stand
overnight and the methyl ester layer was separated from
the glycerol layer using separatory funnel. After comple-
tion of reaction, crude glycerol was separated by gravity.
The catalyst was removed by hot water washings. Phenol-
phthalein indicator checked the complete removal of the
catalyst. Traces of moisture and unreacted methanol were
removed by vacuum distillation. The distillation was con-
tinued until the loss in weight of ester was constant thus
confirming the complete removal of moisture and unre-
acted methanol. The crude methyl ester was further puri-
fied by distilling-off the unreacted methanol under normal
atmospheric pressure, washing several times with water,
centrifugation and drying with vacuum destigator.
After completion of the transesterification, the reaction
mixtures were allowed to cool down to room temperature
to produce two phases: crude ester phase and glycerol
phase. This phase separation generally occurred quickly
and can be observed within the first 10 min of settling,
but the ester layer was opaque, indicating that the separa-
tion was incomplete. Experimental results showed that
given enough time for complete settling, the opaque ester
phase could turn crystalline and transparent. This complete
separation could take as long as 8–18 h. In fact, during the
settling, the transesterification process was still going on.
Therefore, the longer the settling time, the more favorable
are the separation and the conversion. All chemicals used
were of analytical grade unless otherwise stated.
2.3. Analysis of sesame seed oil and biodiesel
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C was obtained using Koeh-
ler Kinematic Viscosity Bath Model K 23377 while in
warm water bath. Pour point and cloud point were deter-
mined simultaneously using Tanaka Mini-Pour/Cloud
Point Tester Model MPC-101A/101 L. For flash point,
Tanaka Automatic Flash Point Tester Model APM-6T-A
was used. Heating value was determined using IKA Calo-
rimeter System C 2000 basic control calorimeter. C and S
were determined by Carlo Erba 1108 Model elemental ana-
lyzer and Eltra CS 500 Carbon, Sulfur Determinator. Mea-
surements of the density at 15 °C by Metler–Toledo
densimeter. The iodine number, cetane number was calcu-
lated, while the acid value was obtained by titration (Meher
et al., 2006).
3. Results and discussion
Sesame oil contains a class of unusual compounds
known as lignans, comprised of sesamin, sesamolin, and
a small amount of sesamol (Wu, 2007). Sesame oil shows
6658 A. Saydut et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 6656–6660
high stability to oxidation compared with other vegetable
oils. It can also be used to prevent lipid oxidation in soy-
bean, rapeseed, and sesame oil (Bozkurt, 2007). Sesame
seed oil was obtained in 58 wt/wt%, by traditional solvent
extraction in our laboratory. The high viscosity, low vola-
tility and poor cold flow properties of triglycerides, which
result in severe engine deposits, injector coking and piston
ring sticking, have prevented them from being used directly
in diesel engines (Marinkovic and Tomasevic, 1998;
Szentmihalyi et al., 2002).
Sesame seed oil was investigated as an alternative feed-
stock for the production of a biodiesel fuel. Although the
oil content of sesame seeds varies widely, (37–63%), the
average percentage of oleic and linoleic acid content in
the sesame germplasms and cultivars is very similar
(41.3% and 43.7%, respectively) (Baydar et al., 1999). A
maximum conversion of 74% (oil to ester) was achieved
using 100% excess methanol, i.e. molar ratio of methanol
to oil is 6:1 and catalyst (NaOH) concentration of 0.5%
at 60 °C. Sesame oil is used as the raw oil to be mixed with
methyl alcohol in a molar ratio of 1:6, and the mixture then
undergoes transesterification reaction in order to produce
biodiesel.
The fuel characteristics of the alkyl esters synthesized
were evaluated according to ASTM standard methods
(Antolin et al., 2002; Holser and O’Kuru, 2006; Ramadhas
et al., 2005). The quality of biodiesel is most important for
engine part of view and various standards have been spec-
ified to check the quality. Fuel properties of methyl esters
of sesame seed oil compare well with ASTM D 6751-06
and EN 14214 biodiesel standards (Table 1). The major
problem associated with the use of pure vegetable oils as
fuel in diesel engines is caused by high fuel viscosity in
the compression ignition. High viscosity leads to poor
atomization of the fuel, incomplete combustion, cooking
of the fuel injectors, ring carbonization, and accumulation
of fuel in the lubricating fuel (Karaosmanoglu, 1999).
Among the general parameters for biodiesel, the viscosity
controls the characteristics of the injection from the diesel
injector (Karmee and Chadha, 2005).
The viscosity of fatty acid methyl esters can go very high
levels and hence it is important to control it within an
Table 1
Fuel properties of sesame seed oil and its methylester
Sesame seed oil Biodiesel
%C 68.9628 62.1477
% S (ppm) 0 0
Kinematic viscosity (40 °C) 25.78 4.2
Heating value (MJ/kg) 39.5 40.4
Density (15 °C) 0.899 0.8672
Flash point (°C) 245.0 170.0
Iodine number 82.45 80.32
Neutralization number (mg KOH/g) 0.3
Pour point (°C) 10.0 14.0
Cloud point (°C) 1.0 6.0
Cetane number 50.48
acceptable level to avoid negative impacts on fuel injector
system performance. Therefore, the viscosity specifications
proposed are nearly same as that of the diesel fuel. Higher
viscosity of oils had an adverse effect on the combustion in
the existing diesel engines (Meher et al., 2006; Ramadhas
et al., 2005). Even more than density, this is an important
property regarding fuel atomization, as well as fuel distri-
bution. The viscosity of vegetable oils is about ten times
higher than that of diesel, with consequent poor fuel atom-
ization, incomplete combustion, carbon deposition on the
injectors and valve seats, and fuel build-up in the lubricant
oils. This can, therefore, cause serious engine deterioration,
hence, it is absolutely necessary to subject the vegetable oils
to treatments that diminish the viscosity. Biodiesel not only
has proper viscosity, boiling point, and high cetane num-
ber, but also is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic,
and essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. The kinematic
viscosity of the biodiesel sample produced in this work
4.2 mm2 s 1.
Density is important mainly in airless combustion sys-
tems because it influences the efficiency of atomization of
the fuel. The results obtained showed that for the condition
studied, the biodiesel produced in this study had a density
0.8672 g cm 3.
Flash point of a fuel is the temperature at which it will
ignite when exposed to a flame or spark. The flash point
of biodiesel is higher than the petrodiesel, which is safe
for transport purpose (Ma and Hanna, 1999). The flash
point of the biodiesel sample produced in this work has
been found 170 °C. It is highly lower than flash point of
sesame oil (245 °C).
Two important parameters for low temperature applica-
tions of a fuel are cloud point and pour point. The cloud
point is the temperature at which wax first becomes visible
when the fuel is cooled. The pour point is the lowest tem-
perature at which the oil specimen can still be moved.
The pour point is the temperature at which the amount
of wax out of solution is sufficient to gel the fuel can flow.
Sesame seed oil ester has higher cloud point and pour point
compared to No.2 petroleum diesel. Cloud point and pour
point of produced biodiesel are 6 °C and 14 °C, respec-
tively (Demirbas, 2005).
ASTM D6751-06 EN 14214 No. 2 petroleum diesel
–
15 ppm 10 ppm % < 0.5
1.9–6.0 3.5–5.0 2.5–3.5
42.7
0.86–0.90 0.82–0.86
130.0 min >101 >55
120 max –
0.50 max 0.5 max –
–33
–16
47 min 51 min 49–55
 A. Saydut et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 6656–6660
Cetane number is indicative of its ignition characteris-
tics. The cetane number measures how easily ignition
occurs and the smoothness of combustion. Higher the
cetane number better it is in its ignition properties. Cetane
number affects a number of engine performance parameters
like combustion, stability, drivability, white smoke, noise
and emissions of CO and HC (Ramadhas et al., 2006;
Meher et al., 2006). Biodiesel has higher cetane number
than conventional diesel fuel, which results in higher com-
bustion efficiency. The cetane number of biodiesel varies
widely in the range of 48–67 depending upon various
parameters including oil processing technology and cli-
matic conditions where feedstock is collected. Cetane num-
ber of the biodiesel sample produced in this work has been
found 50.48.
Neutralization number is specified to ensure proper age-
ing properties of the fuel and/or a good manufacturing
process. It reflects the presence of free fatty acids or acids
used in manufacture of biodiesel and also the degradation
of biodiesel due to thermal effects.
The iodine value is an important measure that allows
determination of the unsaturation degree of the fuel. This
property greatly influences fuel oxidation and the type of
aging products and deposits formed in diesel engines injec-
tors. Analyses of sample of the produced biodiesel revealed
iodine value 80.32.
The results show that, transesterification improved the
important fuel properties of the oil like density, viscosity,
flash point, acid value, etc (Table 1). The present experi-
mental results support that methyl ester of sesame seed oil
can be successfully used as diesel. Alternative fuel should
be easily available, environment friendly and techno-eco-
nomically competitive. Plant oils, being renewable, are
widely available from a variety of sources and have low sul-
fur contents close to zero, and hence cause less environmen-
tal damage (lower greenhouse effect) than diesel.
Among the biomass energy resources, the oil seed plants
become more important than the other sources because of
the climate of Turkey, which permit these types of plants to
grow easily (Karaosmanoglu, 1999). Southeastern Anatolia
Project is the largest regional development project in Tur-
key, and also one of the major projects in the world. It con-
sists of dams, hydropower plants and irrigation schemes in
the lower Firat (Euphrates) and Dicle (Tigris) basins, and
accompanying growth of agriculture, transportation,
industry, telecommunications, health and education sectors
and services in the region (Bayazit and Avci, 1997). Sesame
plant, with some advantages over other plants, is expected
to become one of the major oil seed crops upon full imple-
mentation of the South-eastern Anatolia Project in the SE
of Turkey (Beis et al., 2002). Sesame is usually planted in
arid and semi-arid regions of the world and should be con-
sidered while planning crop irrigation projects in those
regions. The plant is very responsive to environmental con-
ditions and biotic factors such as temperature, humidity,
precipitation and soil moisture, all of which can affect its
yield and quality (Ucan et al., 2007). The improvement of
6659
oil content is of great importance in the breeding of sesame
(Baydar et al., 1999).
4. Conclusions
 Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is one of the oldest edible
oil crops and its seeds, used as a food source, contain up
to 60% fat.
 Fuel properties of methylesters of sesame oil compare
well with ASTM and EN biodiesel standards.
 Sesame oil has good potential as alternative diesel fuel,
but its use in direct-injection engines is limited by high
viscosity, low volatility and the polyunsaturated charac-
ter of the triglycerides. Sesame seed oil transesterifica-
tion is one approach to viable sesame seed oil-based
fuel. This study used sesame oil as the raw oil to mix
with methanol and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to
undergo a transesterification reaction.
 Sesame seed oil have about 7.5% less heating value than
that of diesel oil due to the oxygen content in their mol-
ecules. Viscosity and density of methyl esters of sesame
seed oil are found to be very close to that of diesel. The
calorific value of biodiesel is found to be slightly lower
than that of diesel (5.4%).
 The present experimental results support that methyl
ester of sesame seed oil can be successfully used as diesel.
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