Republic of the Philippines

BILIRAN PROVINCE STATE UNIVERSITY

(formerly NAVAL STATE UNIVERSITY)
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED
SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching

Module 2: Lesson 2

Engage
Motivation is a complex phenomenon. There are many theories and views which try to
explain motivation. The basic needs mode, referred to as Content Theory of Motivation
focuses on the specific factors that motivate an individual to act in a certain way. These
factors are found both within and outside of an individual. All people have needs that they
want satisfied. The primary needs like food, water, and sleep are biological in nature, and
are not learned. Secondary needs are psychological and are learned through experience.
These are internal states such as the desire for power, achievement, and love. Education
has considered and studied the relationship of needs to motivation because it provides
the platform for developing methodologies that drive students to achieve the best learning
possible.

As future teachers, it is important for you to be theoretically grounded on the subject-

matter of motivation. This will enable you to develop and apply the necessary strategies
and techniques to develop students’ motivation to learn and achieve their goals and more
importantly, to sustain it.

Nature of Motivation
Motivation is defined as an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.
(Woolfolk, 2013; Ormrod, 2015) defines motivation as something that energizes, directs
and sustains behavior; it gets students moving, points hem in a particular direction and
keeps them going. The students’ motivation is often reflected in personal investment and
cognitive engagement in an activity (Maehr & Meyer, Paris & Paris, Steinberg in Woolfolk,
2013). As deduced from these definitions, motivation is an internal state that is reflected
in observable and measurable behavior of pursuing one’s goals.

From these definitions, motivation represents a “force” or “energy” that makes one move
or behave toward a goal and sustain it. It is thus important to consider students’ motivation
as a factor to learning.

Kinds of Motivation
1. Intrinsic Motivation
The act of being motivated by internal factors to perform certain actions and behavior
is called Intrinsic Motivation. There is neither pressure nor any sort of reward for the
actions you perform due to intrinsic motivation.

The needs or causes that lead to intrinsic motivation are:

 Autonomy: the need to have complete control over one’s own life.
  Relatedness: the need to maintain companionship or connection with others.
 Competence: the need to do be the best and/or succeed.

Intrinsic incentives are hard to figure. In a class or workplace, different individuals

will/might require different approaches. Fostering intrinsic motivation can be a lengthy
process, requiring special treatment. Intrinsic Motivation lasts for longer periods and
often leads to higher level of success.

Example 1: A student attends guitar classes because he wanted to. Whether he was
inspired by some rock stars or just enjoyed the idea of playing in front of a crowd, this
sort of motivation is classified as intrinsic motivation.

In the above example, there is a higher chance for a student to carry on playing guitar
and reach stardom in the years to come.

Example 2: A group of students might not all get intrinsically motivated, which could
hamper class productivity.

2. Extrinsic Motivation
Whenever an individual performs an action or behavior because the individual is
affected by the eternal factors such as rewards or punishments, such form of
motivation is called Extrinsic Motivation. You get rewarded as promised for the actions
you perform due to extrinsic motivation. The needs or causes that lead to extrinsic
motivation (and not limited to) are (1) Money, (2) Praise, (3) Competition, and (4) Threat
of a punishment.

Extrinsic incentives can be used to motivate a whole group, thus increasing productivity
in workplace or creating a better learning environment in classrooms. Extrinsic
Motivation often occur instantly as soon as the subject understands the perks of
performing certain actions. Extrinsic Motivation might only occur for limited period of
time, and the individual stops performing actions after the punishment or reward is
applied.

Example 1: A student attends guitar classes because his parents promise to double his
allowance money.

In the above example, the chances of the student learning guitar efficiently is quite low,
as the student only seeks an excuse to quit. Additionally, the student is most likely to
give up playing guitar if the allowance money isn’t doubled as promised.

Example 2: A group of students could be persuaded with the promise of rewards, or

even motivated under the fear of punishment. Regardless of the matter of motivation,
the whole class would perform well increasing the overall productivity.

Both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation have their own sets of advantages and
disadvantages. There is no saying which among them is more beneficial, as it largely
depends on the situation and the individuals being motivated. The techniques applied are
different, time duration required for each type of motivation to kick in is different, and so
are the results. However, at the core, the major purpose of both kinds of motivation
remains the same. The ultimate goal is to motivate an individual to get the job done.
In conclusion, both types of motivation are required for an organism leading the organism
in completing the goals.

Perspectives of Motivation
Researchers and theorists have studies motivation from four perspectives (Ormrod, 2015).

a) Trait Perspective
According to the theorists who hold onto the trait perspective, motivation is an enduring
personality characteristic which people have at differing amounts – some people have
it to a greater extent, and some, to a lesser extent. One example of a much studies trait
is the need for achievement also known as achievement motivation. It is the need to
pursue excellence for its own sake, without regard for external rewards, this was initially
thought of as a general trait and is consistent across variety of tasks. However, more
recently achievement motivation is now seen as specific to certain tasks and
occasions, and that it has a cognitive component. Thus, descriptions of achievement
motivation are veering away from the trait approach toward the cognitive approach.

b) Behaviorist Perspective
Those who take on the behaviorist perspective maintain that people behave to obtain
reinforcing outcomes or to avoid punishment. Thus, students might study hard if the
teacher praises them for their efforts. Or they might misbehave in class, if only to get
the attention of the teacher. It used to be that behaviorists think specific consequences
are reinforcing only if they address a particular drive necessary for optimal functioning
(e.g. food, water, etc.) This is the drive-reduction theory. However, it was found that
learning can occur even if a certain drive is not addressed or reduced. As a result, these
theorists now focus more on the purposes particular behaviors may serve for people,
rather than on physiological drives. However, whatever perspective one takes, theorists
now recognize that the consequences of behavior can certainly affect students’
motivation to exhibit those behaviors.

c) Social-Cognitive Perspective
This perspective places heavy emphasis on the goals people strive for, as seen in the
choices they make and the behaviors they show. Reinforcement and punishment that
follow certain behaviors affect people’s expectation of the consequences of their future
behaviors. People’s beliefs about their capability to perform in an activity is a factor in
their decision to engage and persist in that activity. Thus, goals, expectations and
efficacy are important cognitive factors in motivation.

d) Cognitive Perspective
This focuses on how mental processes affect motivation. They maintain that human
beings are naturally inclined to make sense of their world, that their curiosity id often
aroused by new and puzzling events and are more motivated by perceived
discrepancies between new information and their existing beliefs. Hence, to motivate
students, teachers should capitalize on the curiosity of the students, by presenting
challenging or even inconsistent and puzzling situations.

There is no single perspective that they will fully explain human motivation and its
underpinnings. However, teachers should be able to selectively glean useful ideas from
each perspective as to how students could be best motivated in classroom settings.
Factors relating to Motivation
Being motivated means moving energetically toward a goal, or to work hard in achieving a
goal, even if the tasks to achieve the goal are difficult. Following are some of the underlying
reasons and factors that drive one to work hard to achieve a goal (Woolfolk, 2013).

a) Drives. To satisfy a physiological state like hunger.

b) Basic desires. Desire to be accepted and recognized.
c) Incentives. Expected rewards after achieving the goal.
d) Fears. Fear of censure or criticism.
e) Goal. Is an important goal for the individual to achieve.
f) Social pressure. Pressure from family or social circle.
g) Interests. High interest in meeting a goal.
h) Curiosity. Curiosity about expected outcomes.
i) Beliefs. One’s beliefs about the goal.
j) Values. If goal is related to one’s values.
k) Expectations. The expect outcomes of a goal.
l) Cognitive Ability. A good grasp of one’s goal will lead one to work hard for it.

Benefits of Motivation
Ormrod (2015) lists several effects or benefits of motivation on students’ learning and
behavior.

1. It directs behavior toward particular goals. Social cognitive theorists propose that
individuals set goals for themselves and direct their behavior toward these goals.
Motivation determines the specific goals which people strive to reach or achieve
(Maehr & Meyer, 1997 in Ormrod 2015). Thus, motivation bears on specific choices
that students make, as for example, whether to attend a photography class, or finish
an assignment in math or watch a basketball game on TV.

2. It leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation increases the amount of effort and
energy that students spend on activities especially if these are related to their needs
and goals. Thus, motivation determines whether the student will pursue an activity or
a task, with much enthusiasm and energy; or with less enthusiasm.

3. It increases initiation of and persistence in doing activities. Students are more likely to
begin a task that they want and are interested to do, and are more likely to persist and
finish the task, even if they are barriers, hindrances, or interruptions while doing the
task.

4. It enhances cognitive processing. Motivation affects what and how information is

processed. Students who are highly motivated at doing a task will pay more attention
to the task, understand it more, and think more about the details. They exert extra
effort to deduce meaning out of the material, rather than go through the motions of
finishing the task in a superficial or haphazard manner.

5. It determines what consequences are reinforcing. The more students are motivated to
achieve, the more proud they feel of getting a high grade, or feel upset when they get
only a passing mark. The more students feel accepted and respected by peers, the
more meaning they get out of their membership in that group. Thus, to a student whose
life and efforts revolve around science, winning or not winning in a prestigious science
competition may be a consequence of significant importance.
6. It leads to improved performance. Because of the above-mentioned effects of
motivation on goal-directed behavior, effort, initiation and persistence, cognitive
processing and reinforcement, motivation necessarily leads to improved performance.
Students who are highly motivated, have better chances of better performance.

Knowing the effects of motivation on the learning of students has implications for teaching.
It is a challenge to determine what teaching techniques to use and what kind of teaching
environment to create to engage students to set goals for themselves, persists in achieving
their goals, sharpen their cognitive skills in the process, and eventually improve their
performance.
A basic principle would be for the teacher to present and clarify to the students the goals
or objectives of the lesson or a classroom activity. Thus, the students are guided to set and
direct their goals. This should be followed by the teacher getting an idea of the level at
which the students are motivated. Simply observing them for their attentions or non-
attention can be a clue to the teacher on the extent to which students are motivated to do
the task or the activity. It would also be good to find out if the motivation are motivated to
do the task or the activity. It would also be good to find out if the motivation comes from
within as being “genuinely interested” in doing the activity; or if the motivation comes from
the outside, as wanting to get a high grade as reason for joining the activity. In the process,
giving feedback to the students and guiding them as to what they should do, or correcting
them for errors is a plus. It is also important for the teacher to give rewards and incentives
for students’ performance and make sure that they exert extra effort and persist in
achieving the goal/s of the activity.

Approaches and Techniques of Motivation

Generally, there are five approaches to motivation which teachers can select from when
they want the students to get interested or focused on the lessons (Woolfolk, 2013).
1. Behavioral Approach
Student motivation starts with the teacher doing a careful analysis of the incentives
and rewards present and available in the classroom. A reward is an attractive object or
event given as a result of a particular behavior. An incentive is an object or event that
encourages or discourages behavior. The promise of a high grade is an incentive.
Receiving the grade is the reward. Giving grades, stars, stickers and other reinforces
for learning, or demerits for misbehavior are ways to motivate students by extrinsic
means of incentives, rewards and punishment.

2. Humanistic Approach
Proponents of humanistic psychology like Carl Rogers argues that other schools of
psychology are not adequate to explain why people act and behave the way they do.
This approach emphasizes intrinsic sources of motivation like need for self-
actualization, or the need for self-determination. From the humanistic view, to motivate
is to encourage people’s inner resources, their sense of competence, self-esteem,
autonomy and self-actualization. It is thus important for teachers to provide activities
or opportunities that will develop students’ self-confidence and a sense of competence
inside the classroom.

3. Cognitive Approach
People are viewed as active and curious, searching for information, and solving
problems. This approach emphasizes intrinsic motivation, and believes that behavior
is determined by our thinking, not because we were rewarded or not punished for past
behavior. Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, expectations and attributions. It
 is thus important for teachers to provide activities to students that will challenge their
thinking processes, and encourage problem-solving and independent thinking.

4. Social-Cognitive Approach
Motivation is seen as the result of two forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching
a goal, and the value of that goal to the person. If these two forces are present, then
motivation will be strong. However, if either one force is zero, then there is no
motivation to work toward a goal. For teachers, this means that to lead students to
reach a goal like completing a laboratory experiment, the expectation should be clear
to the students, and the value of attaining that goal be emphasized, too.

5. Socio-Cultural Approach
Emphasis is on participation in communities of practice. People engage in activities to
maintain their identities and their interpersonal relations in the community. Thus,
students are motivated to learn if they belong to a classroom or a group that values
learning, and where they believe learning is important to their lives. Thus, we learn to
dress, or speak in a particular manner as we learn from the other or more capable
members of the community. The values held by the whole group or class should be
clear to the students, from which they could identify with those values.

Theories on the Relationship between Need and Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the
bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety
(job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization.

Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs
higher up.
Deficiency needs vs. growth needs
This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four
levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as
growth or being needs (B-needs).

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are
unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the
duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the hungrier
they will become.

Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit needs before
progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified that
satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier
statements may have given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100
percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).

When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away, and our activities
become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to
satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt
and may even become stronger once they have been engaged.

Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a
person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to
reach the highest level called self-actualization.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-
actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level
needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to
fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but
may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that
some needs take precedence over others.

Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates
our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

1) Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.

If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow
considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become
secondary until these needs are met.

2) Safety needs - Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for
security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability and
control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police,
schools, business and medical care).

For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment, social welfare),
law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g.
safety against accidents and injury).

3) Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been
fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. Examples include
friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love.
Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4) Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy - which Maslow classified into
two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence)
and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow
indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and
adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

5) Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the
realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything
that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus
on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to
become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically,
academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings,
pictures, or inventions.
Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what
happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically
filled?

At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers,
dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still
“higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human
needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).

Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over
several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the
hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description.

Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances
or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-
esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative
fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any
behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather
than by only one of them” (p. 71).

The expanded hierarchy of needs

It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been expanded to
include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs
(Maslow, 1970b).
Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model
and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s.

1) Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2) Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from
fear.
3) Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving
and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4) Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself
(dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or
respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
5) Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for
meaning and predictability.
6) Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7) Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of
becoming”(Maslow, 1987, p. 64).
8) Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the
personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic
 experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious
faith, etc.).

Self-actualization
Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943)
formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right.
He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on
people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are
those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of.

The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth and
discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always
'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization, a person comes
to find a meaning to life that is important to them.

As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different
directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-actualization can be achieved
through creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or
within a corporate setting.

Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak
experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and
there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder.

It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than

a perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after' (Hoffman, 1988).

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:

'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to
become actualized in what he is potentially.

The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to
person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in
another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in
painting pictures or in inventions' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383).

Characteristics of self-actualized people

Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or
only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two percent of people would
reach the state of self-actualization.

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have

achieved their potential as individuals.

By studying 18 people he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and

Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1) They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2) Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3) Spontaneous in thought and action;
4) Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5) Unusual sense of humor;
6) Able to look at life objectively;
7) Highly creative;
8) Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9) Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10) Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11) Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12) Peak experiences;
13) Need for privacy;
14) Democratic attitudes;
15) Strong moral/ethical standards.

Behavior leading to self-actualization:

a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of
tradition, authority or the majority;
d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest;
e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the
majority;
f) Taking responsibility and working hard;
g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.

The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are

shown in the list above. Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique
way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of
degree, 'There are no perfect human beings' (Maslow,1970a, p. 176).

It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only
self-actualized people will display them.

Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves
achieving one's potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still
self-actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieve self-actualization.

Educational applications
Maslow's (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and
classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the
environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning.

Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an
individual and how they impact on learning.

Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious.
Before a student's cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic
physiological needs.
For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students
need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress
and reach their full potential.

Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the
classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low
self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is
strengthened.

Maslow (1971, p. 195) argued that a humanistic educational approach would develop
people who are “stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a
greater extent. With increased personal responsibility for one’s personal life, and with a
rational set of values to guide one’s choosing, people would begin to actively change the
society in which they lived”.

Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness

In psychology, self-determination is an important concept that refers to each person's
ability to make choices and manage their own life. This ability plays an important role in
psychological health and well-being. Self-determination allows people to feel that they
have control over their choices and lives. It also has an impact on motivation—people feel
more motivated to take action when they feel that what they do will have an effect on the
outcome.

The concept of self-determination has been applied to a wide variety of areas including
education, work, parenting, exercise, and health. Research suggests that having high self-
determination can fosters success in many different domains of life.

What Is Self-Determination Theory?

Self-determination theory suggests that people are motivated to grow and change by three
innate and universal psychological needs.

This theory suggests that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for
competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

The concept of intrinsic motivation, or engaging in activities for the inherent rewards of the
behavior itself, plays an important role in self-determination theory.

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard
Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic
Motivation in Human Behavior. They developed a theory of motivation which suggested
that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment.

Two key assumptions of the theory:

The need for growth drives behavior. The first assumption of self-determination theory is
that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and
taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self.

Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated to act by external
rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as extrinsic motivation), self-
determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation such as a need
to gain knowledge or independence (known as intrinsic motivation).

According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in order to achieve
psychological growth:

 Competence: People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. When
people feel that they have the skills needed for success, they are more likely to take
actions that will help them achieve their goals.
 Connection or Relatedness: People need to experience a sense of belonging and
attachment to other people.
 Autonomy: People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals. This
sense of being able to take direct action that will result in real change plays a major
part in helping people feel self-determined.

Imagine a person who fails to complete an important project at work. If this person is high
in self-determination, they will admit their fault, believe that they can do something to fix
the problem and take action to correct the mistake.

If that same person was low in self-determination, they might instead look for other things
that they can blame. They might make excuses, assign blame, or refuse to admit that their
own role. Most importantly, perhaps, is that this person won't feel motivated to fix the
mistake? Instead, they might feel helpless to control the situation and believe that nothing
that they do will have any real effect.

How the Self-Determination Theory Works

It is important to realize that the psychological growth described by self-determination
theory does not simply happen automatically. While people might be oriented toward such
growth, it requires continual sustenance.

Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either proactive or passive is largely
influenced by the social conditions in which people are raised. Social support is key.
Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can either foster or thwart well-
being and personal growth.

While social support is important, there are other factors that can also help or hinder the
three elements needed for growth.

 Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination. According to Deci,

giving people extrinsic rewards for already intrinsically motivated behavior can
undermine autonomy. As the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external
rewards, people begin to feel less in control of their own behavior and intrinsic
motivation is diminished.
 Positive feedback and boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that offering
unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person's performance on
a task can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback helps people to feel
more competent, which is one of the key needs for personal growth.
Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined Behaviors
While extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are often portrayed as separate and distinct,
behavior is complex and people are rarely driven to act by a single source of motivation.
People may often draw on multiple sources of motivation in the pursuit of a goal. If you are
training to compete in a marathon, for example, you might be extrinsically motivated by a
desire to gain approval from others as well as intrinsically motivated by the satisfaction
you gain from the activity itself.

Rather than thinking of motivation as being driven by either extrinsic or intrinsic rewards,
it is often helpful to view it as a continuum between self-determined and non-self-
determined behaviors:

 Purely self-determined behaviors tend to be intrinsically driven and are done for
enjoyment, interest, and inherent satisfaction for the action itself.
 On the other end of the continuum are non-self-determined behaviors, which are
performed only because they must be done. On this extreme end of the scale, there
is a complete lack of control.

In most cases, behaviors tend to lie somewhere in the middle of the continuum. There is
often a varying amount of external motivation, which can also fuel a degree of internal
motivation. People may engage in actions because they feel they have some level of
personal control and the behaviors ultimately align with something that is important for
self-concept.

Most actions are not purely self-determined or non-self-determined. Instead, actions often
rely on a certain degree of self-determination that may also be influenced by extrinsic
motivations.

Self-Determination in the Real World

Self-determination can play an important role in how people function in many different
areas of their lives. Feeling in control and intrinsically motivated can help people feel more
committed, passionate, interested, and satisfied with the things that they do.

In the Workplace:
People who feel that they are able to have a positive effect at work tend to feel more
engaged and motivated. How else can employers build self-determination in their workers?

 Managers and leaders can foster this sense of self-determination by allowing team
members to take an active role.
 Offer employees responsibilities, provide meaningful feedback, and offer support
and encouragement.
 Employers should be careful not to overuse extrinsic rewards. Too many rewards
can undercut intrinsic motivation (a phenomenon known as the overjustification
effect), yet too few can cause employees to feel unappreciated.

In Competition:
In competitive settings such as sports and athletics, fostering a sense of self-determination
can inspire people to excel.
  Athletes who feel that they are capable of achieving their goals and overcoming
challenges are often driven to perform better.
 Excelling allows people to gain an important sense of competence and build
mastery in skills that are enjoyable and important to them.

Researchers have also found that people who have an internal sense of control are also
more likely to stick to a regular exercise regimen.

In Social Settings
Self-determination can also play an important role in social relationships. A sense of
belongingness is critical in the development of self-determination. Forging close,
affectionate relationships with other people can improve self-determination.

 Seek positive relationships with people who will support you in the pursuit of your
goals.
 Offer support and feedback to the people who are part of your social circle.

In School Settings
Self-determined students are more likely to feel motivated to achieve. There are things
that educators can to do help students foster a sense of self-determination and intrinsic
motivation:

 Providing unexpected positive feedback when students perform well can help
improve competence
 Avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy can help
improve internal motivation

How to Improve Self-Determination

In order to strengthen your own self-determination, it is helpful to think about what a highly
self-determined individual might look like.

People who are high in self-determination tend to:

 Believe that they have control over their own lives. They have an internal locus of
control and feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes. When
confronted with challenges, they feel that they can overcome them through
diligence, good choices, and hard work.
 Have high self-motivation. They do not rely on external rewards or punishments to
motivate them to take action. They engage in behaviors because they are good at
setting goals and working toward those aims.
 Base their actions on their own goals and behaviors. In other words, they
intentionally engage in actions that they know will bring them closer toward their
goals.
 Take responsibility for their behaviors. Highly self-determined people take credit for
their success, but they also accept the blame for their failures.

Improving self-awareness, decision-making skills, self-regulation, and goal-setting abilities

can encourage the growth of stronger self-determination.
Steps you can take to improve your own sense of self-determination:

1) Find Social Support. Social connectivity is one of the main components of self-
determination theory. Strong social relationships can foster motivation and well-being,
while poor relationships can contribute to a poor sense of self and weak motivation.
Deci and Ryan have suggested that it is the social environment that can either help or
hinder a self-determined perspective. Strong social support offers opportunities for
growth, while poor support can disrupt inner experiences.

2) Gain Mastery. Becoming skilled in areas that are important to you is a helpful way to
build your sense of self-determination. Whether you have a strong interest in a hobby,
sport, academic subject, or another area, learning as much as you can about it and
improving your skills can help you feel more competent. The more you learn and
practice, the more skilled and self-determined you will likely feel.

Self-determination theory can be helpful in understanding the things that might motivate
your behaviors. Being self-determined, feeling like you have the autonomy and freedom to
make choices that shape your destiny, is important for each person's well-being. When you
pursue things that are intrinsically motivated that are aligned with your goals, you will feel
happier and more capable of making good choices.