Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

A. Nature and Importance of the Study

Meatballs are a common meat-based food product in Asia. Meatballs are

usually made of minced meat that is bound together by filler as binder. Several

spices and water are also added into meatballs. This product is usually prepared by

boiling in East Asia and Southeast Asia and is often eaten with noodles and a sauce.

In other regions, however: the meatballs are fried and ready-to-eat. (Putra et al.,

2010)

Beef, chicken and fish are the dominant components in meatballs sold in the

market. However, in order to diverse meatball products and to improve other meat

consumption in society: other potential meat can be used to make meatballs.

Developments in seafood production and consumption has resulted in using shrimp

and prawn (limited quantity) to make meatballs, however, meatballs made of poultry

other than chicken are not common. Thus: it is important for the meatball processing

sector to develop meatballs with poultry meat - in addition to chicken - that is

available at market scale quantities.

In Asia, duck meat is the second dominant poultry meat in use after chicken

meat. However, the recent application of this meat in making food products is still

limited. Moreover, producing duck meat ready-to-eat meatballs will help to improve

the poultry meat type production chain. (Putra et al., 2010)

Ducks occupy second place to chicken for the production of eggs in Asia.

They are mainly reared for laying purpose. Spent and culled ducks are presented in
the market after 3- 4 laying years. Such duck meat intended for human consumption

has less juiciness, more toughness, less palatability which are the hidden reasons

for unacceptability of the duck meat by the consumers, though there is no significant

decline in its nutritive value with increase in age (De, 2001).

Malunggay (moringa) is a tree plant that is grown for food and it is an

exceptionally nutritious vegetable tree with varieties of potential value (Ozumba,

2011). The tree is valued mainly for its tender pods, which are esteemed as

vegetable, tender leaves and flowers are also used as vegetable. There is

considerable variation among nutritional values of moringa, which depends on

factors like genetic background, environment and cultivation methods (Brisibe et al.,

2009). Nutritional composition of the plant plays a significant role in nutritional,

medicinal and therapeutic values (Al-kharusi et al., 2009). Green leaves and fruit

pods of drumstick are rich sources of minerals like calcium, iron and good sources of

vitamin A,B, C and protein including fair amounts of Sulphur containing amino acids

(Ram, 1994).

Moreover, processing of duck meat is more important for providing variety of

duck meat products to consumer so that demand and marketability can be

increased. The changes of consumers’ attitude towards the buffet food are giving

impetus to this field. It is more economical to utilize spent ducks for preparing value

added meat products by adding non-meat ingredients, malunggay and seasonings.

The present study was conducted with an objective to find out the acceptability of

duck meatballs with malungay as fortifier.

B. Objective of the Study

 This study aims to determine the acceptability of duck meatballs with

malunggay as fortifier.

C. Time and Place of the study

This study will be conducted at the College of Veterinary Medicine, University

of Eastern Philippines, University Town, Northern Samar. It will be conducted during

the school year 2020- 2021. It will be conducted during the school year 2020- 2021.
 Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Meatballs can be defined as round meat foods obtained from the meat (cattle,

duck, goat, chicken) that have been mashed and mixed with other additives in order

to formulate a product that is better, affordable, more accessible, acceptable and

healthy. They are animal products with high water content. The main ingredient in

making meatballs is the meat - beef, chicken, shrimp, fish and ducks. Soybean meal

can improve the quality of food (Novia et al., 2013).

There are many kinds of meatball recipes using different kind of meats and

ingredients. Some are made of meat to and ingredients to cement the ball, others

are meatless to satisfy vegetarian. The processes and methods of making meat balls

depend on one’s cultural background and individual taste.

Protein is an essential macronutrient needed by the human body for growth

and maintenance. Foods that are rich in animal protein are meat, fish, eggs, poultry,

and dairy products, while plant foods high in protein are mainly legumes, nuts, and

grains (Delimaris, 2013). Meat is held in high esteem in most communities. It has

prestige value, it is often regarded as the central food round which meals are

planned and from the popular as well as the scientific point of view, it is regarded as

a food of high nutritive value (FAO, 2015).

 The global increase in health risk which has been attributed to unhealthy

feeding habits and as a result, large population of different nations are now

conscious of what enters their biological systems (Batool and Hafeez, 2012). To

counter this trend, several non-meat ingredients have been evaluated as meat

replacements in meat products with the goal of maintaining the products yield and

minimizing formulation cost while retaining acceptable palatability (Arun et al., 2008)

Globally, the production of duck meat and eggs is increasing annually. Asia is

the biggest producer of duck meat and eggs (Huang et al., 2012), and China is the

main producer (Zeng et al., 2016). Genetic improvement programs for meat-type

ducks have successfully enhanced their productive performance. In particular,

Peking ducks are well known as the main meat-type duck and they have been

genetically enhanced to obtain a higher meat yield and lower rate of carcass fat

deposition.

However, the recommendations of the National Research Council 1994 (NRC,

1994) for approving the development of a new strain of meat-type ducks, however,

defined their nutritional requirements based on 40-year-old data, or on results

obtained in other species.

Moreover, (NRC, 1994) did not define nutritional requirements for egg-type

ducks. Thus, the present review summarizes the results obtained in recent studies of

both meat-type and egg-type ducks in order to determine the current nutritional

requirements of ducks, as well as to provide guidance for duck producers and duck

feed manufacturers.

Protein and energy are the first nutritional requirements that should be

considered when formulating a diet because they represent the most expensive
dietary components, but also because of their impact on the productive and

reproductive performance of flocks for meat or egg production (Fouad et al., 2014).

Fan et al. (2018), determined the effects of the energy levels on performance

and carcass quality in Pekin ducks from 2 to 6 wk of age. Their results showed that

an energy level increase from 2,600 to 3,100 kcal of AME/kg had a positive effect on

the productive performance, but a negative effect on the carcass quality by

increasing body fat deposition.

Thus, based on the growth performance, they recommended 3,000 kcal of

AME/kg based on the growth performance when the diet contains 18% crude protein

(CP). In addition, Xie et al. (2010) suggested 2,900 kcal of AME/kg with 20.5% CP

for male White Pekin ducks during the first 3 week of age based on the growth

performance and carcass quality when energy levels from 2,450 to 3,050 kcal of

AME/kg were tested.

Wickramasuriya et al. (2016), tested increasing energy levels (2,600 to 3,300

kcal of AME/kg) and showed that native Korean ducks require 2,900 kcal of AME/kg

with 18 CP% from hatching to 21 d of age in order to maximize their productive

performance and carcass weight. By contrast, few studies have aimed to estimate

the energy and protein needs of laying ducks.

In recent years, the utilization of plant extracts as natural antioxidants and

preservatives is receiving substantial attention because of their ability to improve the

shelf life of food and health of consumers (Falowo et al., 2016). Natural antioxidants

extracted from plants rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and

flavonoids have been used to prevent lipid oxidation and improve quality

characteristics of different meat products (Mancini et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017).
 As possible preservative agents, plant extracts can have high amounts of

bioactive compounds that inhibit and disintegrate the cytoplasmic membrane as well

as cell wall of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Kim et al., 2013; Radha

Krishnan et al., 2014). Phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties as well as

antimicrobial activity and they are found in all parts of fruits, vegetables and seeds

(Sayas-Barberá et al., 2020). Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated

hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisol, etc. are added during meat processing to

prevent lipid oxidation but they have recently come under scrutiny because of their

possible toxicological effects (Choi et al., 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2019).

At present, processed meat products constitute a high percentage of the

muscle foods consumed globally since they are convenient and reasonably

inexpensive when compared with whole fresh meat cuts (De Oliveira et al., 2012;

Soladoye et al., 2015). However, most of the processed meat products are prone to

lipid and pigment oxidation during the manufacture or storage. This is due to mincing

and thermal treatment disrupting the coherence of muscle membranes as well as

exposing lipid membranes to metal ions which promotes pro-oxidants to interact with

unsaturated fatty acids resulting in the initiation of free radicals and generation of

oxidative reaction (Asghar et al., 1988; Sharma & Yadav, 2020).

Lipid oxidation influences alteration of muscle fats and proteins and, thereby,

compromising physicochemical, nutritional properties and sensory attributes of meat

and meat products by producing rancid flavor and oxidized compounds that are

harmful to the health of consumers (Falowo et al., 2014).

New research on the utilization of plant extracts as non-synthetic

preservatives have demonstrated that they can improve the storage life of meat and
meat products by decreasing the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms

(Kobus-Cisowska et al., 2014; Kozłowska et al., 2015). In addition, the use of plant

extracts as preservatives also prevents lipid oxidation that might result in nutritional

and economic losses to the meat processing industry (Falowo et al., 2014; Sánchez-

Ortega et al., 2014).

Moringa oleifera leaves extract is associated with various functional properties

such as antioxidant, anticancer, antiulcerogenic, antihypertensive, antispasmodic

and antiasthmatic qualities (Abdull Razis et al., 2014). Therefore, the utilization of

natural antioxidants such as Moringa oleifera leaves extract in processed meat

products such as meatballs might be useful because of the escalating consumer

concerns on the application of synthetic antioxidants in processed food products.

Moringa oleifera is the most extensively cultivated species among the thirteen

species of Moringa trees in the family Moringaceae (Khawaja et al., 2010).

The leaves can be consumed fresh, cooked or dried and can be stored for

longer periods without compromising their nutritional value (Mendieta-Araica et al.,

2011). Moringa oleifera leaves extract (MOLE) possesses antioxidant and biological

activities that are ascribed to the availability of phenolic compounds such as

flavonoids and other phenolic acids (Al-Owaisi et al., 2014) and its leaves are being

evaluated as possible natural preservative for different processed meat products (Al-

Juhaimi et al., 2016; Dillard & German, 2000; Falowo et al., 2016). Moringa oleifera

contains many essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, proteins, dietary fibre,

carotenoids, and fatty acids (Fahey, 2005).

References

Abdull Razis, A. F., Ibrahim, M. D., & Kntayya, S. B. (2014). Health benefits of
Moringa oleifera. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention,
15(20),8571–8576. https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2014.15.20.8571
Al-Juhaimi, F., Ghafoor, K., Hawashin, M. D., Alsawmahi, O. N., & Babiker, E. E.
(2016). Effects of different levels of Moringa (Moringa oleifera) seed flour
on quality attributes of beef burgers. CyTA – Journal of Food, 14(1), 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2015.1034784
Al-Kharusi LM, El maradi MO, Ali A, Al-Said FAJ, Abdelbasit KM, and Al-
Rawahi. (2009). Effect of mineral and organic fertilizers ion the
chemical characterizations and quality of Moringa. International Journal
of Agriculture and Biology, 11:290-296
Al-Owaisi, M., Al-Hadiwi, N., & Khan, S. A. (2014). GC-MS analysis,
determination of total phenolics, flavonoid content and free radical
scavenging activities of various crude extracts of Moringa peregrine
(Forssk.) fiori leaves. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 4
(12), 964–970. https://doi.org/10.12980/APJTB.4.201414B295
Arun, K.D., Anne, S.R.A., Arun, K.V. and Napa, K. (2008). Physioco-
chemical,textural, sensory characteristics and storage quality of goat
meat patties extended with full fat soy paste and soy granules.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 383-392.
Asghar, A., Gray, J. I., Buckley, D. J., Pearson, A. M., & Booren, A. M. (1988).
Perspectives on warmed-over flavour. Food Technology, 42(6), 102–108
Batool, W. and Hafeez, M. G. (2012). Unhealthy eating habits. Kemocolian
Journal of Medical Sciences
Brisibe EA, Umoren UE, Brisibe F, Magalhaes PM, Ferreira JFS, Luthria D, Wu
X, and Prior RL. (2009). Nutritional characterization and antioxidant
capacity of different tissues of Artemisia annual. Food Chemistry,
115:1240-1246
Choi, J. H., Kim, N., Kim, G. W., & Choi, H. Y. (2019). Effect of cacao nip
extracts on quality characteristics of pork patties during cold storage
 period. Food Science of Animal Resources, 39(6), 918–933.
https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2019.e77
De Oliveira, T. L. C., De Carvalhob, S. M., Soaresa, R. D., Andradeb, M. A.,
Cardosob, M. D., Ramos, E. M., & Piccolia, R. H. (2012). Antioxidant
effects of Satureja montana L. essential oil on TBARS and colour of
mortadella-type sausages formulated with different levels of sodium
nitrite. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 45(2), 204–212.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.09.006
De, PN (2001). A study on the quality of spent duck meat with special reference
to physio-chemical characters. MVSc thesis, Department of Animal
Products Technology and Marketing, West Bengal University of Animal
and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
Delimaris, I. (2013). Adverse Effects Associated with Protein Intake above the
Recommended Dietary Allowance for Adults. ISRN Nutrition. 126929: 6
Dillard, C. J., & German, J. B. (2000). Phytochemicals: Nutraceuticals and
human health: A review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,
80(12), 1744–1756.https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-
0010(20000915)80:12<.0.CO;2-W
Fahey, J. W. (2005). Moringa oleifera: A review of the medical evidence for its
nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Part 1. Trees for Life
Journal, 1, 5. http://www.TFLJournal.org/article.php/2005/201124931586
Falowo, A. B., Fayemi, P. O., & Muchenje, V. (2014). Natural antioxidants
against lipid–protein oxidative deterioration in meat and meat products:
A review. Food Research International, 64, 171–181.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.06.022
Falowo, A. B., Muchenje, V., Hugo, C. J., & Charimba, G. (2016). In vitro
antimicrobial activities of Bidens pilosa and Moringa oleifera leaf extracts
and their effects on ground beef quality during cold storage. CyTA –
Journal of Food, 14(4), 541–546.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2016.1162847
Fan HP, Xie M, Wang WW, Hou SS, Huang W. Effects of dietary energy on
growth performance and carcass quality of white growing Pekin ducks
from two to six weeks of age. Poult Sci. 2008;87:1162–4.
FAO (2015). Meat and meat products in human nutrition in developing countries.
Available at http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/en/meat/backgr
ound.html. Accessed on 12/02/2015
Fouad AM, El-Senousey HK. Nutritional factors affecting abdominal fat
deposition in poultry: a review. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2014;27:1057–68.
Huang JF, Pingel H, Guy G, Łukaszewicz E, Baéza E, Wang SD. A century of
progress in waterfowl production, and a history of the WPSA waterfowl
working group. World's Poult Sci J. 2012;68:551–63. Article Google
Scholar
Khawaja, T. M., Tahira, M., & Lkram, U. K. (2010). Moringa oleifera: A natural
gift- A review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 2(11),
775-778.
Kim, S., Cho, A. R., & Han, J. (2013). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of
leafy green vegetable extracts and their applications to meat product
preservation. Food Control,29(1), 112–120.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.060
Kobus-Cisowska, J., Flaczyk, E., Rudzińska, M., & Kmiecik, D. (2014).
Antioxidant properties of extracts from Ginkgo biloba leaves in
meatballs. Meat Science, 97(2), 174–180.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.01.011
Kozłowska, M., Ścibisz, I., Zaręba, D., & Ziarno, M. (2015). Antioxidant
properties and effect on lactic acid bacterial growth of spice extracts.
CyTA – Journal of Food, 13(4), 573–577.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2015.1022228
Mancini, S., Preziuso, G., Dal Alessandro, B., Roscini, V., Szendro, Z., Fratini,
F., & Paci, G. (2015). Effect of turmeric powder (Curcuma longa L.) and
ascorbic acid on physical characteristics and oxidative status of fresh
and stored rabbit burgers. Meat Science, 110, 93–100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.07.005
Mendieta-Araica, B., Spörndly, R., Reyes-Sánchez, N., & Spörndly, E. (2011).
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaf meal as a source of protein in locally
produced concentrates for dairy cows fed low protein diets in tropical
areas. Livestock Science, 137(1–3), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.livsci.2010.09.021
National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of poultry. 9th ed.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1994.
Novia D., Juliyarsi I., Melia S. and Vermalida, W.A. (2013). Substitution of
Soybean Meal and Cornmeal to Moisture, pH, Bacterial Colony Forming
and Shelf Life of Rejected Duck Meatballs. International Journals of
Advance Science Engineering Information Technology. 3 (4):35-39.
Putra, A., Huda, N., & Ahmad, R. (2010). Changes During the Processing of
Duck Meatballs Using Different Fillers after the Preheating and Heating
Process. International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(1), 62–70.
https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2011.62.70
Radha Krishnan, K., Babuskina, S., Azhagu Saravana Babu, P., Sasikala, M.,
Sabina, K., Archana, G., Sivarajan, M., & Sukumar, M. (2014).
Antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of spice extracts on the shelf life
extension of raw chicken meat. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 171, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.
11.011
Ram J. (1994). Moringa – A highly nutritious vegetable tree. Tropical rural
and island/A toll to development, experiment station (TRIADES),
Technical Bull. No 2
Ribeiro, J. S., Santos, M. J. M. C., Silva, L. K. R., Pereira, L. C. L., Santos, I. A.,
Da Silva Lannes, S. C., & Da Silva, M. V. (2019). Natural antioxidants
used in meat products: A brief review. Meat Science, 148, 181–188.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.10.016
Sánchez-Ortega, I., García-Almendárez, B. E., Santos-López, E. M.,
AmaroReyes, A., Barboza-Corona, J. E., & Regalado, C. (2014).
Antimicrobial films and coatings for meat and meat products
preservation. Scientific World Journal, 2014, 18. Article ID 248935.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/248935
Sayas-Barberá, E., Martín-Sánchez, A. N., Cherif, S., Jamel Ben-Abda, J., &
Pérez-Álvarez, J. A. (2020). Effect of date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) pits on
the shelf life of beef burgers. Foods, 9(1), 102.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9010102
Sharma, P., & Yadav, S. (2020). Effect of incorporation of pomegranate peel and
bagasse powder and their extracts on quality characteristics of chicken
meat patties. Food Science of Animal Resources, 40(3), 388–400.
https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2020.e19
Soladoye, O. P., Juárez, M. L., Aalhus, J. L., Shand, P., & Estévez, M. (2015).
Protein oxidation in processed meat: Mechanisms and potential
implications on human health. Comprehensive Review in Food Science
and Food Safety, 14(2), 106–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-
4337.12127
Wickramasuriya SS, Yoo J, Kim JC, Heo JM. The apparent metabolizable
energy requirement of male Korean native ducklings from hatch to 21
days of age. Poult Sci. 2016;95:77–83.
Xie M, Zhao JN, Hou SS, Huang W. The apparent metabolizable energy
requirement of white Pekin ducklings from hatch to 3 weeks of age. Anim
Feed Sci Technol. 2010;157:95–8.
Zeng T, Chen L, Du X, Lai SJ, Huang SP, Liu YL, et al. Association analysis
between feed efficiency studies and expression of hypothalamic
neuropeptide genes in laying ducks. Anim Genet. 2016;47:606–9.
Zhang, H., Peng, X., Li, X., Wu, J., & Guo, X. (2017). The application of clove
extract protects Chinese-style sausages against oxidation and quality
deterioration. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources,
37(1), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2017.37.1.114