GCSE Biology Cells Biology 1

Cells
1. Most animal cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm, membrane,
mitochondria and ribosomes.
2. Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall and often have
chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole.
3. Plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells which have a
membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus.
4. Bacterial cells are prokaryotic cells.
5. They are smaller than eukaryotic cells and have a cell wall,
membrane and cytoplasm, but do not have a nucleus.
6. Their genetic material is a single loop of DNA or several small
rings of DNA called plasmids in the cytoplasm.

Specialised cell Function Adaptations

7. Red blood cell Carries oxygen. • Large surface area.
• Contains haemoglobin.
• No nucleus to create more space.
8. White blood cell Destroys microorganisms. • Irregular shape to get out of blood vessels.

9. Egg cell (ovum) Join with sperm cell and provide • Large
food for new cell formed. • Contains lots of cytoplasm

10. Sperm cell Reach and join with egg cell. • Long flagellum (tail) for swimming
• Enzymes of head to break into egg.
11. Nerve cell Carry nerve impulses to different • Long
parts of the body. • Connections at each end.
• Carry electrical signals.

12. Muscle cell Move the body. • Contain protein fibres that contract.
• Large numbers of mitochondria.
13. Ciliated cell Move mucus. • Thin layer of tiny cilia (moving hairs).

14. Palisade cell Absorb sunlight for • Large surface area.

photosynthesis. • Lots of chloroplasts.

15. Root hair cell Absorb water and minerals • Large surface area.

16. Xylem cell Moves water through the plant. • Made of dead cells.
• Thick, strengthened cellulose cell wall.
• Hollow lumen.
17. Phloem cell Moves food through the plant. • Made of living cells.
• Connected by sieve plates to form a tube.

Cell differentiation
18. Cells differentiate to form different types of cells. Animal cells differentiate at an early stage, whereas many plant cells can
differentiate throughout life.
19. Differentiation is the generation of specialised cells which acquire different organelles to enable them to carry out specific
functions.
20. Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function.
21. Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can differentiate to form many different types of cells.
22. Stem cells from human embryos and adult bone marrow can be cloned and made to differentiate into different cells.
23. Stem cells may be used to treat paralysis and diabetes in the future.
24. In therapeutic cloning an embryo with the same genes as the patient is produced. Cells from this embryo will not be rejected
by the patient.
25. Risks e.g. transfer of viruses, associated with the use of stem cells in medicine.
26. Stem cells from meristems in plants are used to produce clones quickly and cheaply.
 GCSE Biology Cells Biology 1

Culturing microorganisms Microscopes

27. Bacteria multiply by simple cell 30. An electron microscope has a much higher magnification and
division (binary fission) as often as resolution than a light microscope, so it can be used to study cells in
once every 20 minutes if they have much finer detail and show organelles.
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
enough nutrients and a suitable 31. 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
temperature.
32. 1m = 1000mm
28. Bacteria can be grown in a nutrient
33. 1mm = 1000µm (micrometre)
broth solution or as colonies on an
34. 1µm = 1000nm (nanometre)
agar gel plate.
35. To get smaller x 1000.
29. Uncontaminated cultures of
36. To get bigger ÷ 1000.
microorganisms are required for
investigating the action of
disinfectants and antibiotics.

Mitosis
37. Chromosomes are found in the nucleus. They are made of DNA. Each chromosome carries a large number of genes.
38. In body cells chromosomes are found in pairs.
39. Mitosis occurs during growth or to produce replacement cells.
40. During mitosis:
• copies of the genetic material separate
• the cell then divides once to form two genetically identical cells.
41. Mitosis forms part of the cell cycle.

Diffusion Osmosis
42. Substances can move into 47. Water may move across cell membranes by osmosis.
and out of cells across 48. Osmosis is the movement of water from a dilute solution (high concentration) to a
membranes by diffusion. more concentrated solution (low concentration) through a partially permeable
43. Diffusion is the net membrane.
movement of particles 49. An isotonic solution is one that is the same concentration as the cell.
from an area of high 50. Water moves in and out at the same rate in an isotonic solution.
concentration from an 51. A hypotonic solution has a higher concentration of water (low concentration of
area of low concentration solutes) than the cell (low water and high solutes).
down a concentration 52. Water moves into the cell until it reaches equilibrium (equal concentrations).
gradient. 53. A hypertonic solution has a lower concentration of water (high concentration of
44. Oxygen, carbon dioxide solutes) than the cell (high water and low solutes).
and urea passes through 54. Water moves out of the cell until it reaches equilibrium.
cell membranes by 55. Lysis – bursting an animal cell by osmosis.
diffusion. 56. Crenation – shrinking an animal cell by osmosis.
45. Single celled organisms 57. Turgid – A plant cell fully inflated with water.
have a bigger surface area 58. Flaccid – A plant cell that is limp through a reduction of pressure inside the cell (some
to volume ratio than water lost).
multicellular organisms, so 59. Plasmolysed – a plant cell that has lost water causing the cell membrane to be pulled
transfer sufficient away from inside the cell wall.
substances across their
surface.
46. Multicellular organisms
require specialised organ
systems to exchange
sufficient substances.
Active transport
60. Active transport involves the movement of ions or molecules from a low concentration
to a high concentration against a concentration gradient on a cell membrane.
61. Energy is required from respiration to move the substances.
62. Mineral ions can be absorbed by active transport into
plant root hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil.
63. Sugar can be absorbed by active transport from the
gut into the blood.
 GCSE Biology Organisation Biology 2

Cell organisation
1. Cells are the building blocks of living organisms.
2. A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
3. Organs are groups of tissues working together.
4. Organs are organised into organ systems.
5. An organism is made up of several organ systems.
Structure Function
6. Mouth Where food enters the alimentary canal
and digestion begins.
7. Salivary glands Produce saliva containing amylase.
8. Oesophagus Muscular tube which moves ingested food
to the stomach. The digestive system
9. Stomach Muscular organ where digestion continues. 23. Enzymes are biological catalysts; they speed
10 Pancreas Produces digestive enzymes. up a reaction without being used up.
11. Liver Produces bile.
24. Food molecules must be small and soluble in
12. Gall bladder Stores bile before releasing it into the
duodenum. order to be absorbed into the blood.
13. Small intestine - Where food is mixed with digestive 25. Enzymes in the digestive system chemically
duodenum enzymes and bile. digest food into small, soluble molecules
14. Small intestine - Where digested food is absorbed into the that can be absorbed.
ileum blood and lymph. 26. Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates
15. Large intestine - Where water is reabsorbed. into simple sugars.
colon 27. Amylase is a carbohydrase that breaks down
16. Large intestine - Where faeces are stored.
starch.
rectum
17. Large intestine - Where faeces leave the rectum. 28. Amylase works in the mouth and small
anus intestine.
29. Protease breaks down protein into amino
Food tests acids.
18. Foods can be tested to find out which food groups they contain. 30. Protease works in the stomach and small
19. Starch is identified by the iodine test. Food turns black or blue intestine.
if starch is present. 31. Lipase breaks down lipids (fats and oils) into
20. Sugars are identified by Benedict’s solution. If sugar is present, glycerol and fatty acids.
the solution turns from blue to red / orange / yellow / green 32. Lipase works in the small intestine.
when heated depending on the amount of sugar. 33. The products of digestion are used to build
21. Protein is identified by Biuret reagent. Food becomes purple if new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
proteins are present. Some glucose is used in respiration.
22. Fat is identified using paper. The food is rubbed onto the paper. 34. Bile is made by the liver and stored in the
If, when dry, the area becomes translucent, fats are present. gall bladder. It helps in the digestion of fats
by neutralising acid from the stomach and
emulsifying fats.
35. Different enzymes work best at different
temperatures and pH values.

The heart
36. The heart is a double pump, blood passes through the heart twice on its journey around the body.
37. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where gas exchange takes place.
38. The left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body.
39. The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker.
40. Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate.
 GCSE Biology Organisation Biology 2

Coronary heart disease Blood

41. Fatty material builds up in coronary arteries reducing blood
flow to the heart muscle.
42. Stents can be used to keep the coronary arteries open.
43. Statins reduce cholesterol levels, so fatty material is
deposited more slowly.
44. Faulty heart valves can be replaced with biological or
mechanical ones.
45. Heart failure can be treated with a heart and lung transplant.
46. Artificial hearts can be used whilst waiting for a transplant, or
to allow the heart to rest and recover.
47. Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
48. Plasma transports dissolved chemicals and
proteins around the body.
49. Red blood cells transport oxygen attached to
haemoglobin.
50. White blood cells help to protect the body
against infection.
51. Platelets are fragments of cells involved in
blood clotting.

Health issues Lifestyle and health

52. Health is the state of physical and mental well-
being.
53. Factors such as diet, stress and life situations can
have a serious effect on physical and mental
health.
54. Diseases are major causes of ill health.
55. Different diseases may interact:
• defects in the immune system increase the
chance of catching an infectious disease.
• Viral infections can trigger cancers.
• Immune reactions can trigger allergies.
• Physical ill-health can lead to depression and
mental illness.
Cancer
60. Cancers (malignant tumours) result from
uncontrolled cell division.
61. Cancer cells may invade neighbouring tissues, or
break off and spread to other parts of the body in
the blood, where they form secondary tumours.
56. Various risk factors are linked to some non-
communicable disease.
57. These can be aspects of a person’s lifestyle or substances
in the person’s body or environment.
58. A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk
factors but not in others:
• The effects of diet, smoking and exercise on
cardiovascular disease.
• Obesity as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes.
• The effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function.
• The effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer.
• The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies.
• Carcinogens, including ionising radiation, as risk
factors in cancer.
59. Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number
of factors.

Plant organ system

62. Plant organs include stems, roots and leaves.
63. Organs are made up of different tissues, eg meristem tissue at
growing tips.
64. The leaf is the organ of photosynthesis.
65. The roots, stem and leaves form a plant transport system.
66. Root hair cells absorb water by osmosis and mineral ions by
Structure Function
diffusion and active transport. 71.
67. Xylem tissue transports water and dissolved ions. The flow of
72.
water from the roots to leaves is called the transpiration
stream.
73.
68. Xylem tissue is composed of hollow tubes strengthened with
lignin.
74.
69. Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to
other parts of the plant. The movement of food through
75.
phloem is called translocation.
70. Phloem cells have pores in their end walls for moving of cell
76.
sap.
GCSE Biology Infection and response Biology 3

Communicable diseases Viral disease

1. Communicable diseases are infectious diseases 5. Viral diseases include measles and AIDS, which is
caused by pathogens. caused by HIV.
2. Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or 6. Measles has symptoms of a fever and red skin
fungi. They may infect plants or animals. rash.
3. Pathogens can be spread by direct contact, by 7. It is a serious illness that can be fatal if
water or by air. complications arise.
4. The spread of diseases can be reduced or 8. Most young children are vaccinated against
prevented by: measles.
• simple hygiene measures 9. The measles virus is spread by inhalation of
• destroying vectors droplets from sneezes and coughs.
• isolation of infected individuals 10. HIV initially causes a flu-like illness.
11. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral
• vaccination
drugs, the virus attacks the body’s immune cells.
12. Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when
Bacterial disease the body’s immune system becomes so badly
damaged it can no longer deal with other
18. Bacterial diseases include salmonella food
infections or cancers.
poisoning and the sexually transmitted disease
13. HIV is spread by sexual contact of exchange of
gonorrhoea.
bodily fluids such as blood, which occurs when
19. Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria
drug users share needles.
ingested in food or on food prepared in
14. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a plant pathogen.
unhygienic conditions.
15. It has a distinct mosaic pattern of discolouration
20. In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against
on the leaves, which affects the growth of the
Salmonella to control the spread.
plant due to lack of photosynthesis.
21. Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and
16. Viruses enter cells and damage them to cause
diarrhoea are caused by the bacteria and toxins
symptoms.
that they excrete.
17. Antibiotics don’t treat viruses as they cannot
22. Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease
enter cells.
with symptoms of a thick yellow or green
discharge from the vagina or penis and pain
when urinating. Protist disease
23. It was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin
30. Malaria is caused by a protist transmitted by
until many resistant strains appeared.
mosquitos.
24. The spread of gonorrhoea can be controlled by
31.
antibiotic treatment and the use of a barrier
method of contraception such as a condom.

Fungal disease
25. Humans can also be infected with fungal
diseases.
26. Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple
or black spots develop on leaves, which turn
them yellow and makes them drop off early.
27. It affects the growth of plants as photosynthesis
32. Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and
is reduced.
can be fatal.
28. It is spread in the environment by wind or water.
33. Spread of malaria is controlled by preventing the
29. It can be treated by using fungicides and /or
vectors (mosquitos) from breeding and by using
removing and destroying the affected leaves.
mosquito nets to avoid being bitten.
GCSE Biology Infection and response Biology 3

Vaccination Human defence system

34. A vaccine contains a small amount of dead or 38. The body defends itself against the entry of
inactive pathogens. These stimulate white blood pathogens.
cells to produce antibodies. 39. Non-specific defence systems of the body are
35. Edward Jenner made the first vaccination for the: skin; nose; trachea and bronchi; stomach.
smallpox, which has now been wiped out. 40. Bacteria may produce toxins that make us feel ill
36. Immunity allows a person to produce specific and damage tissues.
antibodies quickly to prevent infection. 41. Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing
37. If a large proportion of the population is immune damage.
to a pathogen, the spread of the pathogen is 42. The immune system tries to destroy pathogens
very much reduced. that enter the body.
43. White blood cells help to defend against
Antibiotics pathogens by:
• Phagocytosis
53. Antibiotics, eg penicillin, are used to kill
infective bacteria inside the body.
54. Specific bacteria should be treated with specific
antibiotics.
55. The emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics
is of great concern.
56. Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.
57. Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat
the symptoms of disease but do not kill
pathogens. It is difficult to kill viruses without
also damaging the body’s tissues.
58. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin from the
• antibody production
Penicillium mould.
• antitoxin production.

Drug development
44. Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.
45. The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves.
46. The painkiller aspirin originates from the willow tree.
47. Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists; the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a
plant.
48. New drugs are tested for toxicity, efficacy (the ability to produce a desired result) and dose.
49. Preclinical testing in the lab, then clinical trials involving healthy volunteers and then patients.
50. Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial (phase 1).
51. If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials (phase 2 /3) to find out the optimum dose for the drug.
52. In a double blind trial, some patients are given a placebo; neither the doctors nor the patients know who has
received a placebo and who has received the drug.
GCSE Biology Infection and response Biology 3

Monoclonal antibodies
59. Monoclonal antibodies (MAB) are produced from a single clone of cells. They are specific to one antigen, so
target a specific chemical or cell in the body.
60. A lymphocyte that makes a specific antibody is combined with a tumour cell to form a hybridoma cell. This is
cloned to produce many identical cells which all produce the specific antibody.

61. There are many uses for MABs:

• Diagnosis in pregnancy tests.
• In labs to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in the blood or to detect pathogens.
• In research to locate and identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding them with a
fluorescent dye.
• To treat diseases: for cancer the monoclonal antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a
toxic drug or a chemical which stops cells growing and dividing. It delivers the substance to the
cancer cells without harming other ells.
62. MABs can have more serious side effects than expected.
63. They are not as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.

Plant diseases Ion deficiency

64. Plants can be infected by a range of viral, 69. Plants can be damaged by a range of ion
bacterial and fungal pathogens as well as by deficiency conditions.
nematode worms and insects. 70. Nitrate deficiency causes stunted growth.
65. Tobacco mosaic virus affects many plants, eg 71. Nitrate is needed for protein synthesis and
tomatoes. therefore growth.
66. Rose black spot is a fungal disease spread by 72. Magnesium deficiency causes chlorosis
water or wind. (yellowing of the leaves).
67. Aphids feed on the sap of plants and affect plant 73. Magnesium ions are needed to make
growth. chlorophyll.
68. Ion deficiencies can damage plants, eg stunted
growth by nitrate deficiency and chlorosis by Plant defence responses
magnesium deficiency.
76. Plants have physical and chemical defence
responses to resist the invasion of
Detecting plant diseases
microorganisms.
74. Plant diseases can be detected by: 77. Physical defences include: cellulose cell walls,
• stunted growth tough waxy cuticles on leaves; layers of dead
• spots on leaves cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off.
• areas of decay (rot) 78. Chemical defence responses include:
• growths antibacterial chemicals and poisons to deter
• malformed stems or leaves herbivores.
• discolouration 79. There are also mechanical adaptations to deter
• presence of pests. animals from eating or touching them.
75. Identification can be made by: 80. Mechanical adaptations include: thorns and
• Using a gardening manual. hairs to deter animals; leaves which droop or
curl when touched; mimicry to trick animals.
• Taking infected plants to a lab.
• testing kits that use monoclonal antibodies.
 GCSE Biology Bioenergetics Biology 4

Photosynthesis Respiration
light
1. Carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen. 13. Respiration can take place aerobically or
light anaerobically to transfer energy.
2. 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
3. Photosynthesis takes place in the palisade cells in the 14. Respiration is an exothermic reaction.
leaf. 15. Respiration takes place in the mitochondria.
4. Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which 16. Organisms need energy for chemical reactions,
energy is transferred from the environment into the movement and to keep warm.
chloroplasts by light. Aerobic respiration
17. During aerobic respiration glucose and oxygen
react to release energy.
18. Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water.
19. C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Anaerobic respiration
20. Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete
oxidation of glucose so less energy is released
than in aerobic respiration.
21. In muscle cells: Glucose  lactic acid
22. C6H12O6  2C3H6O3
23. In some plant and yeast cells:
Rate of photosynthesis Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide
5. The rate of photosynthesis may be limited by: 24. C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
• low temperature 25. Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called
fermentation and has economic importance in
• shortage of CO2 the manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks.
• shortage of light
Response to exercise
• shortage of chlorophyll.
26. During exercise the heart and breathing rates
increase and breath volume increases to supply
oxygen to muscle cells faster.
27. Muscle cells can respire anaerobically if there is
insufficient oxygen. This produces lactic acid
and creates an oxygen debt.
28. Lactic acid can cause muscle fatigue. The cells
6.
stop contracting efficiently.
7. When the graph has a slope, the investigated factor is
29. When exercise stops, the oxygen debt must be
limiting.
repaid by continuing to breathe deeply.
8. When the slope levels out, another factor has started to
30. Blood transports lactic acid to the liver where it
limit photosynthesis.
is converted back into glucose.
9. The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by counting
31. The oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen
the number of oxygen bubbles produced by a plant in
needed to oxidise lactic acid.
water.
10. Factors that can limit the rate of photosynthesis are
called limiting factors. Metabolism
11. Limiting factors are important economically in 32. Metabolism means all the chemical reactions
greenhouses. They help us work out the optimum happening in a living organism.
conditions for growing plants. 33. Metabolism includes:
12. Glucose produced in photosynthesis may be: • the conversion of glucose to starch,
• used for respiration glycogen and cellulose

• converted into starch for storage • the formation of lipids

• the formation of amino-acids and proteins
• used to produce fats and oils for storage or cellulose
to strengthen cell walls • respiration

• used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis. • the breakdown of excess proteins to form
urea for excretion.
 GCSE Biology Homeostasis and response – Biology only Biology 5

The brain Brain function

1. The brain controls complex behaviour. 5. Neuroscientists have been able to map
2. The brain has billions of interconnected neurones. the regions of the brain to particular
3. Different areas of the brain control different functions. functions by studying patients with brain
4. Investigating and treating brain damage and disorders is damage, electrically stimulating different
difficult. parts of the brain and using MRI scans.
6. The complexity and delicacy of the brain
makes investigating and treating brain
disorders very difficult.
7. The cerebral cortex is the largest part of
the mammal brain.
8. It is divided into four lobes, the parietal,
occipital, temporal and frontal. Each has
a different function.
9. It is responsible for intelligence,
language, memory and consciousness.
10. The cerebellum receives information
from the sensory systems, spinal cord
and other parts of the brain to regulate
movement.
11. The medulla oblongata is the centre for
respiration and circulation.
12. It regulates breathing, heart and blood
vessel function, digestion, sneezing and
swallowing.

The eye
13. The eye contains receptors sensitive to light and colour.
14. The cornea refracts (bends) light as it enters the eye.
15. The sclera is the front part of the cornea. It is a tough outer coat.
16. The iris is the coloured part of your eye, it contains pigments so light cannot pass through.
17. Ciliary muscles connected to the iris contract and relax to alter the size of the pupil (the hole) to change the amount
of light entering the eye.
18. The lens is a transparent, bi-concave, flexible disc behind the iris which focuses light onto the retina.
19. Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near and far objects.
20. The lens is held in place by suspensory ligaments to the ciliary muscles.
21. The retina is the lining on the back of the eye.
22. The retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells: rods (sensitive to dim light and black and white) and cones
(sensitive to colour).
23. The optic nerve is a bundle of sensory neurones at the back of the eye that carries electrical impulses to the brain.
24. To focus on a near object: the ciliary muscle contract, suspensory ligaments loosed and the lens becomes thicker to
refract the light more strongly.
25. To focus on a distant object: the ciliary muscles relax, the suspensory ligaments are pulled tight and the lens becomes
thin so it only slightly refracts the light.
26. To common defects of the eye are myopia (short sightedness) and hyperopia (long sightedness) in which rays do not
focus on the retina.
27. These defects are treated with glasses which refract the light so that it focusses on the retina.
28. New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser surgery to change the shape of the cornea and
replacements lenses in the eye.
 GCSE Biology Homeostasis and response – Biology only
Control of body temperature
29. Body temperature is monitored and controlled
by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. It
has receptors sensitive to the temperature of
the blood.
30. Temperature receptors in the skin send impulses
to the thermoregulatory centre.
31. If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels
dilate (vasodilation) and sweat is produced
from skin glands.
32. Sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the
skin.
33. If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels
constrict (vasoconstriction), sweating stops and
skeletal muscles contract (shiver).
Plant hormones
50. Hormones control and coordinate
growth and responses to light and gravity
in plants.
51. Auxin is a powerful growth hormone
produced naturally by plants.
52. Responses to light and gravity are
controlled by the unequal distribution of
auxin which causes unequal growth rates
in shoots and roots.
53. Auxin moves away from the light which
makes that part of the shoot grow. It
makes the stem grow towards the light.
54. Gibberellins are important in initiating
seed germination.
55. Ethene controls cell division and ripening
of fruits.
Biology 5
Maintaining water and nitrogen balance
34. Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation.
35. Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat.
36. There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the
lungs or skin.
37. Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys
in the urine.
38. If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they
do not function efficiently.
39. Urea is produced in the liver by the breakdown of excess
amino acids.
40. In the liver, amino acids are deaminated to form
ammonia.
41. Ammonia is toxic and is immediately converted to urea
for safe excretion.
Kidneys
42. The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and
selective reabsorption of useful substances.
43. All the sugar and dissolved ions needed by the body and
as much water as the body needs are selectively
reabsorbed.
44. Urea, excess ions and water are excreted in urine.
45. ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is
too concentrated. It causes more water to be reabsorbed
back into the blood.
46. ADH control of water in the blood is an example of
negative feedback.
47. Kidney failure can be treated by kidney transplant or by
using kidney dialysis.
48. Kidney dialysis is a procedure to remove waste products
and excess fluid from the blood.
49. Blood is diverted to a machine to be cleaned and pumped
back into the body.
Plant hormones
56. Plant hormones are used in
agriculture and horticulture.
57. Auxins are used as weed
killers,, as rooting powders
and for promoting growth
tissue culture.
58. Giberellins can be used to end
seed dormancy, promote
flowering and increase fruit
size.
59. Ethene is used in the food
industry to control the
ripening of fruit during
storage and transport.
 GCSE Biology Homeostasis and response Biology 5

Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the regulation of internal conditions to
maintain optimal conditions for enzyme action and cell
function.
2. Automatic control systems involve nervous responses and
chemical responses.
3. Control systems have receptors, a coordination centre and
effectors.

Nervous system Reflex arc

4. The functions of the nervous system are to detect and react to 15. Some of your reactions happen without you
stimuli; to coordinate behaviour. thinking about them, e.g. moving your hand
5. The structure of the central nervous system (CNS): receptors; when you touch something hot. These are
different types of neurones, coordinator (brain or spinal cord); called reflex actions.
effectors, synapses. 16. Reflex actions are automatic and rapid to
6. Sensory neurones carry impulses (electrical signals) from the protect the body from harm.
sense organ to the relay neurone. 17. A stimulus is a change in the environment that
7. The relay neurone carries electrical impulses in the CNS. can be detected by the body.
8. The motor neurone carries electrical impulses from the relay 18. A receptor is a cell that detects the stimulus.
neurone to the muscle or gland (effector) to make it respond. 19. The effector is the area that makes the
9. Neurones line up end to end throughout the CNS. response.
10. Synapses are the gaps between each neurone. 20. The reflex action is a reflex arc that doesn’t
11. Electrical impulses cannot cross a synapse. involve the brain, it is very fast.
12. At the end of the neurone, the electrical impulse causes a 21. The brain is informed after the action has
chemical to be released. happened.
13. The chemical diffuses across the synapse and triggers an
electrical impulse in the next neurone.
14. Diffusion of the chemical is slower than the electrical impulse.

Human endocrine system

22. The system is composed of endocrine
glands that secrete hormones into the
blood to be carried to a target organ where
it has an effect.
23. The pituitary is the master gland. It
secretes many hormones that affect other
glands. 25.
24. Hormones are chemical messengers.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.
 GCSE Biology Homeostasis and response Biology 5

Control of blood glucose concentration

32. Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas. It produces insulin, which causes glucose
from the blood to enter cells.
33. Glucose is converted to glycogen in liver and muscle cells for storage.
34. Glucagon is also produced by the pancreas to convert stored glycogen back into glucose when blood glucose levels
fall.
35. In Type 1 diabetes the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. Glucose levels may rise too high.
36. Type 1 diabetes is usually treated with insulin injections.
37. In Type 2 diabetes the cells do not respond properly to insulin.
38. Type 2 diabetes is usually treated by diet, exercise and drugs. Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
39.

Contraception
47. Fertility can be controlled using hormonal and non-
hormonal contraceptives.
48. Hormonal
• oral contraceptives
• injection
• implant or skin patch.
49. Non-hormonal
• barrier methods
• IUDs
Hormones in human reproduction
• spermicides
40. During puberty hormones cause sexual characteristics
to develop. • abstinence
41. In females oestrogen is produced by the ovaries. Eggs • sterilisation
mature and are released (ovulation) every 28 days. • surgery.
42. In males testosterone is produced by the testes and
stimulates sperm production.
Hormones for infertility
43. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the eggs in
50. Infertility is when an animal or plant is unable to
the ovary to mature (the eggs grow surrounded by cells
reproduce.
called the follicle).
51. Women can be given a ‘fertility drug’ containing
44. Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the
FSH and LH to stimulate ovulation.
egg at ovulation.
52. In IVF treatment, FSH and LH are given to stimulate
45. Oestrogen and progesterone stimulate the build-up
many eggs to mature. These are collected and
and maintenance of the uterus lining.
fertilised by sperm in a lab. Embryos form, and
46.
some are inserted into the woman’s uterus.
53. There are many advantages and disadvantages to
fertility treatment: healthy baby; multiple births;
cost; stress.

Negative feedback
54. Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in
times of stress. It increases heart rate so oxygen
and glucose are supplied to the brain and muscles
faster.
55. Thyroxine is produced by the thyroid gland. It
stimulates the basal metabolic rate and plays an
important role in physical and mental development.
56. Adrenaline and thyroxine secretions are controlled
by negative feedback mechanisms.
 GCSE Biology Inheritance, variation and evolution Biology 6

Sexual and asexual reproduction Meiosis

1. Sexual reproduction involves the joining (fusion) of 8. Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis
male and female gametes (sperm and egg) in animals to form gametes.
and pollen and ovule cells in flowering plants. 9. When a cell divides to form gametes: copies
of the genetic information are made and the
2. This mixing of genetic information leads to variation in
cell divides twice to form four gametes, each
the offspring. with a single set of chromosomes.
3. Only mitosis is involved. 10. All gametes are genetically different from
4. Gametes are produced by meiosis. each other.
5. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no 11. Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the
fusion of gametes. normal number of chromosomes. The new
6. There is no mixing of genetic information. cell divides by mitosis, and as the embryo
develops, cells differentiate.
7. This leads to genetically identical offspring (clones).

DNA and the genome Genetic inheritance

12. DNA is a polymer made up of two strands
forming a double helix.
13. DNA is found in chromosomes in the nucleus of a
cell.
14. A gene is a small section of DNA.
15. Each gene codes for a sequence of amino acids to
form a particular protein.
16. The genome is all the genetic material of an
organism.
17. The human genome has been studied and will be
important for medicine in the future.
Sex determination
28. Human body cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
29. 22 pairs control characteristics only.
rd
30. The 23 pair carries the genes that determine
sex.
31. In females the sex chromosomes are the same
(XX).
32. In males the chromosomes are different (XY).
18. A gamete is the male or female sex cell which
contains the genetic information.
19. Some characteristics are controlled by a single
gene. Each gene may have different forms called
alleles.
20. The genes present, or genotype, operate at a
molecular level to develop characteristics that are
expressed as a phenotype.
21. A dominant allele is expressed if only present on
one chromosome.
22. A recessive allele is only expressed if present on
both chromosomes.
23. If the two alleles present are the same the person
is homozygous for that trait, but if the alleles are
different they are heterozygous.
24. ‘Homo’ means the same. ‘Hetero’ means
different.
25. Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes
interacting.
26. Some disorders are inherited, eg polydactyly
(caused by a dominant allele) and cystic fibrosis
(caused by a recessive allele).
27. A Punnett square can be constructed to predict
the outcome of a monohybrid cross.
 GCSE Biology Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetic engineering
33. Genetic engineering involves modifying the genome
of an organism to introduce a desired characteristic.
34. Genes can be cut from the chromosome of a human
or other organism and transferred into the cells of
other organisms.
35. Enzymes are used to cut the gene from a
chromosome.
36. The gene is inserted into a vector, eg bacterial
plasmid or virus.
37. The vector is used to insert gene into cell.
38. The cell then makes a new protein to produce the
desired characteristic.
39. Examples of genetic engineering are: weed killer
resistance soya beans; golden rice; humalin (insulin
made in bacteria).
40. Concerns about GM crops, eg effect on populations
of wild flowers and insects, and uncertainty about
safety of eating them.
Selective breeding
49. Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the
process by which humans breed plants and animals
for useful characteristics.
50. Selective breeding of food plants has produced
disease or weather resistant crops, more attractive
or better flavoured fruits and crops that are easier
to harvest.
51. Selective breeding of animals has produced cows
that produce more milk, animals that produce
more, better flavoured or leaner meat.
52. Selective breeding can lead to inbreeding, where
some breeds are particularly prone to disease or
inherited defects. Some breeds of dogs suffer from
inbred defects.
Extinction
33. Extinction may be caused by:
• changes to the environment over geological time
• new predators
• new diseases
• new, more successful competitors
• a single catastrophic event, eg massive volcanic
eruptions or collisions with asteroids.
Biology 6
Variation
41. Differences in the characteristics of individuals
may be due to:
• genes they have inherited
• environmental causes
• a combination of genetic and environmental
causes.
42. There is usually extensive genetic variation within
a population of a species.
43. All variants arise from mutations.
44. Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype.
45. Some mutations influence phenotype.
46. A few mutations determine the phenotype.
47. Mutations occur continuously but it is only very
rarely that a mutation leads to a new phenotype.
48. If the phenotype is suited to an environmental
change, it can lead to a relatively rapid change in
the species.
Evolution
53. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
states that all species evolved from simple life
forms that first developed more than three billion
years ago.
54. Characteristics favourable to the environment are
passed on because the animal is more likely to
survive and reproduce.
55. Mutations are changes in the DNA code. They
may lead to more rapid evolution, although
mutations resulting in a new phenotype are rare.
56. Organisms of the same species can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
Evidence for evolution
57. The theory of evolution by natural selection is
now widely accepted. At the time, it contested
with religious belief.
58. Fossils are the ‘remains’ of organisms from many
years ago, which are found in rocks.
59. Scientists can’t be certain about how life began
on Earth as many early forms of life were soft-
bodied, so few traces remain. What traces there
were have been destroyed by geological activity.
60. Fossils show how much, or how little, organisms
have changed over time.
61. Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they
reproduce at a fast rate.
62. Mutations produce new strains. Resistant strains
are not killed by antibiotics, so they survive and
reproduce. Resistant strains spread because
people are not immune and there is no effective
treatment.
63. MRSA is resistant to antibiotics.
 GCSE Biology Inheritance, variation and evolution Biology 6
Advantages and disadvantages of DNA structure
sexual and asexual reproduction 68. DNA is made up of four different nucleotides. Each
64. Advantages of sexual reproduction: nucleotide consists of a sugar, a phosphate group and
• produces variation one of four different bases attached to the sugar. The
• survival advantage if the environment bases are A, C, G and T.
changes 69. A = adenosine, C = cytosine, G = guanine, T = thymine.
• used in selective breeding to produce 70. The bases on the two strands always join together in
organisms with desired characteristics.
the same pairs: C with G and T with A.
65. Advantages of asexual reproduction:
71. The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide
• only one parent needed
units.
• time and energy efficient as do not need to
find a mate 72. Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a
• faster than sexual reproduction template. Carrier molecules bring specific amino acids
• many identical offspring produced when to add to the growing protein chain in the correct
conditions are favourable. order.
66. Some organisms can reproduce by either method, 73. When the protein chain is complete it folds up to form
depending on conditions. a unique shape. This unique shape enables the proteins
67. Some organisms reproduce by both methods
to do their job as enzymes, hormones or forming
depending on the circumstances.
structures in the body such as collagen.
• Malarial parasites reproduce asexually in the
human host but sexually in the mosquito. 74. Mutations occur continuously. Most do not alter the
• Many fungi reproduce asexually by spores protein, or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or
but also reproduce sexually to give variation. function is not changed.
• Many plants produce seeds sexually but also 75. A few mutations code for an altered protein with a
reproduce asexually by runners, such as different shape. For example an enzyme may no longer
strawberry plants, or bulb division, such as fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may
daffodils.
lose its strength.
76. Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding
DNA structure
parts of DNA can switch genes on and off, so variations
77. Cloning techniques include taking
in these areas of DNA may affect how genes are
cuttings, tissue culture, embryo
expressed.
transplants and adult cell cloning.
78. Tissue culture uses small groups of
The theory of evolution
cells from part of a plant to grow
82. Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural
identical new plants. It is important in
selection (On the Origin of Species) in 1859. It raised much
preserving rare plant species or for
controversy.
nurseries.
83. The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually
79. Taking cuttings is an older but simpler
accepted.
method used by gardeners to produce
84. There were other scientists who tried to explain evolution, eg
many identical new plants from a
Alfred Russell Wallace and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
parent plant.
85. The work of Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection, the theory
80. Embryo transplants are splitting apart
of speciation and warning colouration in animals.
cells from a developing animal embryo
86. New species arise as a result of isolation, genetic variation,
before they become specialised, then
natural selection and speciation.
transplanting the identical embryos
into host mothers.
81. Adult cell cloning
Mendel
87. In the mid-19th century Gregor Mendel carried out breeding
experiments using plants. He proposed the idea of separately
inherited factors that we now call genes.
88. In the late 19th century behaviour of chromosomes during cell
division was observed.
89. In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and
Mendel’s factors behaved in similar ways, leading to the idea that
the factors (genes) were located on chromosomes.
90. In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and
the mechanism of gene function worked out.
GCSE Biology
Classification
1. Traditionally organisms have
been classified into groups
depending on their structure and
characteristics.
2. Classification can be described
by: Kingdom; Phylum; Class;
Order; Family; Genus; Species.
3. Organisms were classified into
smaller and smaller groups.
4. Carl Linnaeus studied the
similarities and differences
between organisms to classify
them. He developed the binomial
system to name organisms by
genus and species.
5. Today powerful microscopes are
used to see internal structures.
This and biochemical analysis has
led to new classification systems.
6. Carl Woese developed the three
domain system to classify
organisms as:
• Archaea (primitive bacteria)
• Bacteria (true bacteria)
• Eukaryota (protists, fungi,
plants and animals).
Sampling
15. Quantitative data on the
distribution and abundance of
organisms can be obtained by:
• random sampling with quadrats
• sampling along a transect.
16.
Adaptations
22. Organisms have adaptations for
survival; they may be structural,
behavioural or functional.
23. Extremophiles can survive in very
extreme environments, such as
high temperature or pressure, or
in high salt concentration.
Ecology Biology 7
Communities
7. An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living
organisms (biotic) within the non-living (abiotic) parts of their
environment.
8. Organisms need a supply of materials from their surroundings and
other organisms to survive and reproduce.
9. Plants compete for light, space, water and mineral ions.
10. Animals compete for food, mates and territory.
11. One species depends on others for food, shelter, pollination, seed
dispersal etc. This is called interdependence.
12. A stable community is one where all the species and
environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes
remain fairly constant.
Biotic and abiotic factors
13. Biotic factors are living factors that can affect a community:
• availability of food
• new predators arriving
• new disease organisms
• one species out-competing another so the numbers are no
longer sufficient to breed.
14. Abiotic factors are non-living factors which can affect a
community:
• light intensity
• temperature
• moisture levels
• soil pH and mineral content
• wind intensity and direction
• carbon dioxide levels for plants
• oxygen levels for aquatic animals
Food chains
17. Feeding relationships can be
represented by food chains.
18. A food chain begins with a producer
which synthesises molecules, which is
usually a green plant or alga which
makes glucose by photosynthesis.
19. Producers are eaten by consumers.
20. Consumers that eat other animals are
predators, and those eaten are prey.
21. In a stable community the numbers of
predators and prey rise and fall in
cycles.
Biodiversity
24. Biodiversity is the variety of all life on
Earth.
25. A great biodiversity ensures stability of
ecosystems.
26. The future of the human species relies
on us maintaining a good level of
biodiversity.
27. Human activities can reduce biodiversity
and we should try to stop this.
 GCSE Biology
Material recycling
28. Materials are recycled to provide the
building blocks for future organisms.
29. The carbon cycle returns carbon to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral
ions to the soil.
30. The water cycle provides fresh water for
plants and animals on land before draining
into the seas. Water is continuously
evaporated and precipitated.
Global warming
40. Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in
the atmosphere are increasing and
contribute to global warming.
41. Consequences of global warming include:
• loss of habitat when low lying areas
flood
• changes in the distribution of species
where temperature of rainfall changes
• changes in migration patterns.
Ecology Biology 7
Waste management
31. Rapid growth in the human population means more
resources are used and more wastes are produced, which
could lead to more pollution.
32. Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce
biodiversity.
33. Waste may pollute water with sewage, fertilisers or toxic
chemicals.
34. Waste may pollute air with smoke and gases such as
sulfur dioxide, which contributes to acid rain.
35. Waste may pollute land with toxic chemicals such as
pesticides and herbicides, which may be washed from
the land into water.
Land use and deforestation
36. Humans reduce the amount of land available for other
plants and animals by building, quarrying, farming and
dumping waste.
37. The destruction of peat bogs to produce compost
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. It destroys
habitats and reduces biodiversity.
38. Large scale deforestation occurred to:
• provide land for cattle and rice fields to provide more
food
• grow crops from which biofuel can be produced.
39. This destruction of large areas of trees has:
• increased the release of carbon dioxide by burning
and microbial activity
• reduced the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed
from the atmosphere by photosynthesis to be ‘locked
up’ in wood
• led to a reduction in biodiversity.
Programmes
42. Programmes have been put in place to reduce the
negative effects on ecosystems and biodiversity.
• breeding programmes for endangered species
• protection and regeneration of rare habitats, eg coral
reefs, mangroves, heathland
• reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in
agricultural areas
• reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide
emissions by some governments
• recycling resources rather than dumping waste in
landfill.
 GCSE Biology Ecology Biology 7

Trophic levels Pyramid of biomass

43. Organisms obtain food as producers, consumers
or decomposers.
44. Producers are mostly plants and algae. They
transfer about 1% of incident light for
photosynthesis.
45. Consumers include herbivores, carnivores and
omnivores.
46. Decomposers break down dead plant and
animal matter.
Decomposition
56. Decomposition is the process of rotting or
decay.
57. Factors which affect the rate of decay of organic
matter:
• temperature
• availability of oxygen
• availability of moisture
• availability of microorganisms to carry out
decay
• pH
• build-up of toxic substances.
58. Compost provides gardeners and farmers with a
natural fertiliser for plants and crops.
59. Anaerobic decay produces methane gas. It
occurs without the presence of oxygen.
60. Biogas is a mixture of different gases produced
by the anaerobic decay of organic matter.
61. Biogas generators can produce methane which
can be used as a fuel.
47. The stages in a food chain are called trophic levels. The
producer is at level 1.
48. Level 2 is herbivores (eat plants and algae) and are
called primary consumers.
49. Level 3 is carnivores that eat herbivores (secondary
consumers).
50. Level 3 is carnivores that eat other carnivores (tertiary
consumers).
51. Apex predators are carnivores with no predators
52. Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent
the relative amount of biomass at each level in a food
chain.
53. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of a pyramid of
biomass.
54. Only about 10% of the biomass at each trophic level is
transferred to the level above.
55. They are always a pyramid shape.
Impact of environmental changes
62. Environmental changes affect the distribution of
species in an ecosystem.
63. These changes include:
• Temperature
• Availability of water
• Composition of atmospheric gases
64. These changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused
by human interaction.

Food security
68. Factors affecting food security include:
• the increasing human population
• changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources are transported around the world
• new pests and pathogens affect farming
• environmental changes affect food production
• cost of agricultural inputs
• conflicts in some parts of the world over the availability of water or food.
69. New ways must be found to feed all people without endangering the ecological balance of the planet.

Farming techniques Sustainable fish Biotechnology

70. The efficiency of food production
can be improved by restricting
energy transfer from food
animals.
71. Battery chickens and calves
raised in pens are examples of
‘factory farming’.
72. Fish grown in cages can be fed
high protein food and have
restricted movement.
73. There are moral and ethical
objections to some ‘factory
farming’ techniques.
74. Fish stocks are 65. Modern biotechnology techniques enable
declining and need to large quantities of microorganisms to be
be maintained at cultured in industrially controlled vats for food
levels where or medical purposes.
breeding continues 66. The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing
or some species may mycoprotein, a protein-rich food suitable for
disappear. vegetarians. The fungus is grown on glucose
75. Net size and fishing syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass
quotas play is harvested and purified.
important roles in 67. GM crops could provide more food or food
conservation of fish with improved nutritional value, eg Golden
stocks. rice.