Design Lab Manual

DESIGN LABORATORY MANUAL

15MEL76

Department of Mechanical Engineering (Cambria font 18)

Vidyavardhaka College of Engineering (Cambria font 18)
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University/ Recognized by the AICTE and Government of Karnataka)(Cambria font 10)
Gokulam 3rd Stage, Mysuru - 570 002 (Cambria font 12)

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 Design Lab Manual

Department of Mechanical Engineering (Cambria font 18)

Vidyavardhaka College of Engineering (Cambria font 18)
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University/ Recognized by the AICTE and Government of Karnataka)(Cambria font 10)
Gokulam 3rd Stage, Mysuru - 570 002 (Cambria font 12)
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Design Lab Manual

DESIGN LABORATORY

Subject Code: 15MEL76 IA Marks: 20

Hours/Week: 04 Exam Hours: 03

Total Hours: 50 Exam Marks: 80

PART – A

1. Determination of natural frequency, logarithmic decrement, damping ratio and

damping coefficient in a single degree of freedom vibrating systems (longitudinal
and torsional)

2. Balancing of rotating masses.

3. Determination of critical speed of a rotating shaft.

4. Determination of Fringe constant of Photoelastic material using.

a) Circular disc subjected to diametral compression.

b) Pure bending specimen (four point bending)

5. Determination of stress concentration using Photoelasticity for simple

components like plate with a hole under tension or bending, circular disk with
circular hole under compression, 2D Crane hook.

PART - B

6. Determination of equilibrium speed, sensitiveness, power and effort of

Porter/Prowel /Hartnell Governor. (Only one or more)

7. Determination of Pressure distribution in Journal bearing.

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8. Determination of Principal Stresses and strains in a member subjected to

combined loading using Strain rosettes.

9. Determination of stresses in Curved beam using strain gauge.

10. Experiments on Gyroscope (Demonstration only)

Scheme of Examination:

One question from Part A - 20 Marks (05 Write up +15)

One question from Part B - 20 Marks (05 Write up +15)

Viva - Voce - 10 Marks

Total: 50 Marks

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Contents

Sl. Page
List of Experiments
No. No.
6-15
1. SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
16-19
2. STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES
20-23
3. WHIRLING OF SHAFT
CALIBRATION OF PHOTO- ELASTIC MATERIAL USING A 24-27
4.
CIRCULAR DISC UNDER COMPRESSION
DETERMINATION 0F STRESS CONCENTRATION USING 28-32

5. PHOTO ELASTICITY FOR CIRCULAR DISC WITH CIRCULAR

HOLE UNDER COMPRESSION

6. HARTNELL GOVERNER 33-35

7. JOURNAL BEARING 36-42

8. STRAIN ROSETTE 43-48

9. CURVED BEAM 49-53

10. GYROSCOPE 54-55

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EXPERIMENT: 1

SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM

Aim: To determine natural frequency, logarithmic decrement, damping
ratio, damping coefficient and time period of a single degree of freedom
vibrating spring mass system.
Apparatus: Spring mass system experimental set up, displacement measuring system, set
of masses.

kx
m = Mass of the system, kg

m k = Stiffness of the spring, N/m

k x = Displacement of the system, m

m mx" x" = Acceleration of the system, m/s2
x Free Body Diagram

Fig.1 Free body diagram of spring mass system

Theory:
1. Vibration: A motion which repeats itself after a certain interval of time may be called as
vibration.
2. Natural Frequency: It is the frequency of the system having free vibrations without
damping.
3. Degree of Freedom: The number of independent co-ordinates required to specify
completely the configuration of the system at any instant is called degree of freedom.
4. Damping: Resistance to the motion of the vibrating body is called damping. A vibrating
system may encounter damping forces of different types like internal molecular friction

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(structural damping), sliding friction (coulomb damping) and fluid resistance (viscous
damping).
5. Damped Natural Frequency: The frequency of the system having free vibrations with
damping is called damped natural frequency.
6. Logarithmic Decrement: The ratio of any two successive amplitudes for an
underdamped system, vibrating freely, is a constant termed as logarithmic decrement and
it is a function of the damping only.

Case 1: UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION

Spring

LVDT
Weight Pan

Weights

Fig.2 Experimental Setup of spring mass system

Procedure:
1. Connect the chord from LVDT to spring mass system
2. Switch on the displacement measuring unit and calibrate it for zero reading
3. Place a known mass on the pan provided and note the corresponding displacement
4. Repeat the experiment by increasing mass in steps of 0.5 kg
5. Plot the graph of frequency versus mass, time period versus mass and load versus
deflection
6. From the plot of load versus deflection find the stiffness of the given spring

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Observations & Calculations:

1. Angular Frequency √ rad/s.

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s 2

2.

3.

Tabular Column:
Deflection in ‘m’ Time
Mass in ωn fn
Sl. No period
‘(kg) mm m (rad/s) (Hz)
(seconds)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Specimen Calculation:
For Mass of ‘X’ Kg:

T= Sec

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Graphs:

1. Frequency v/s Mass 2. Time Period v/s Mass 3. Load v/s Deflection

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Case 2: DAMPED FREE VIBRATION

Experimental Setup:

Spring

LVDT Weight Pan

Damper

Weights

Fig.1 Experimental Setup of spring mass damper system

Procedure:

1. Connect the damping unit to the spring mass unit

2. Connect LVDT to display measuring unit and calibrate it for zero reading
3. Change the position of the loading pan from spring series to the center position of the
plate beam
4. Place a known mass on the pan and note down the corresponding displacement
5. Repeat the experiment by increasing mass in steps of 0.5 kg
6. Plot the graph of frequency versus mass, time period versus mass and load versus
deflection
7. From the plot of load versus deflection find the stiffness of the given spring for damped
system

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Formulae:

Type of oil used = SAE 20

Where, g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

( )
√

Tabular Column:

Displacement Damped Time

Natural Logarithmic Damped
Sl. Mass Damping Natural period
With damping Frequency( Decrement Frequency
No (kg) Ratio (ζ) Frequency (Td) in
ωn) (rad/s) (δ) (Fd) in Hz
(m) (ωd) (rad/s) s

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

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Calculation:

Trial No. 1:

( )

Graphs:

1. Frequency v/s Mass 2. Time Period v/s Mass 3. Load v/s Deflection

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Case 3: UNDAMPED TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF SINGLE ROTOR SHAFT SYSTEM

Spring
Ruler

Damper

Shaft Rotor

Fig.1 Experimental Setup of torsional vibration system

Procedure:

1. Fix the flywheel at convenient position along the shaft

2. Grip one end of the shaft at the bracket by the flat plate
3. Place the frequency sensor side the disc. So that the frequency and amplitude can be
seen in digital indicator
4. Twist the rotor on the shaft up to 50° and allow to oscillate
5. Note down the frequency in digital meter

Observation:

i. Shaft diameter =3mm

ii. Diameter of the Disc =200mm
iii. Weight of the Disc =5.4kg
iv. Modulus of rigidity for shaft =80GPa

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Tabular Column:

Length of Angle of Experimental Torsional Theoretical Theoretical

Sl
the Shaft in twist in Frequency, Stiffness Time Period Frequency,
No.
m degrees (Fn)exp Kt Ttheo (Fn)theo

Calculation:

Trial No. 1:

1. Torsional Stiffness,

Where,

L = Length of the Shaft in m

Ip = Polar Moment of Inertia of Shaft in m4 =

G = Modulus of Rigidity of the Shaft

2. Theoretical Time Period, √

Where,

, I = Moment of Inertia of Disc

W = Weight of the Disc

r = Radius of the Disc

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3. Theoretical Frequency, , Hz

Viva Questions:

1. Define stiffness of a spring

2. What is the difference between vibration and oscillation?

3. What is the unit of damping?

4. List different types of vibrations with examples to each.

5. What is meant by torsional rigidity of a shaft?

6. Does stiffness of the material varies with addition of damping, justify your answer.

7. What is meant by SAE20 oil?

8. Name the spring material and shaft material used in the experiment.

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EXPERIMENT: 2
STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES

AIM: To find static and dynamic balancing of rotating masses.

APPARATUS: It consists of a frame, which is hanging by chains from the main frame.
A shaft rotates within bearings in the frame. Four eccentric weights are supplied
which can be easily fitted over the shaft. For static balancing one weight is attached
and balanced with another weight. For dynamic balancing three or four weights are
mounted over the shaft at calculated angle and the shaft is rotated. If the system is
unbalanced, vibrations indicate it.

Fig.1. Experimental setup for static and dynamic balancing of masses

THEORY:
Balancing of masses is important part of a machine design, when the mass is
stationary it can be easily balanced by putting suitable counter weight on the
opposite side of mass. When the mass is revolving and if it is left unbalanced, then a
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centrifugal force is developed which changes its direction during rotation. This
causes pre- mature failure of bearings and shafts are unbalanced, hence balancing is
essential in machine design.

PROCEDURE:
Case-1: Static balancing
 Remove the leather rope over the pulley.
 Fix the points at 00 position.
 Attach the weight pans on both sides.
 Remove locking screw and go on putting steel balls in the pan till, the points is
turned through 900.Now the weights is balanced by steel balls, count the
number of balls. This is relative balancing weight for the eccentric weight.
Find out relative weight for all eccentric weight and note down.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.No. Plane Mass Distance Radius Angular Force Couple
(kg) from of position F=mw2r =Fxl
Reference rotation from
plane mm r (mm) plane B
(e)
1. A mA 0 0.035 1900 0.035×mA 0

2. B 90 × 10-3 0.070 0.035 0 3.15 × 10-3 2.21 × 10-4

3. C 70 * 10-3 0.12 0.035 1000 2.45 × 10-3 2.94 × 10-4

0.035×mD ×
4. D mD * 0.035 θD 0.035×mD
10-4

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Line Diagram: -

A B C D

70mm
120mm
m X

Space Diagram:-

rB

1900

1000 rC
C
rA

rD

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Couple Polygon:-

θD= 1900 From couple polygon, AB= N-mm

A
0.35× mD×x×10-4=

MD×x =9.37 N-mm

-4
(2.94 × 2) × 10

θc =1000

B
C C
(2.21 × 2) X 10-4

Force Polygon:-

From force polygon

θD 1900
0.035 mA=BC=
B
mA = 0.043 kg
C C
0.035 mA=BC=

(2.45 × 2) × 10- mD = 0.073 kg

From couple polygon, W.K.T,

θc 1000
MD×x =9.37 N-mm
A
C D
(3.15 × 2) × x = 132 mm

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EXPERIMENT: 3
WHIRLING OF SHAFT
Aim: To determines the critical speed or whirling speed of a rotating shaft
and to verify the value theoretically.
Apparatus: Shaft, Variable, Speed motor, Stop clock, Tachometer or Stroboscope,
Vernier calipers, measuring scale and Weights (optional)

Fig.1 Experimental setup of whirling of shaft

THEORY:
The speed at which the rotating shaft varies violently in transverse direction is called the
“critical or whirling speed “
Or
When the speed of shaft is equal to natural frequency of vibration such a frequency is
called critical or whirling or whipping speed.
If the body or a disc mounted upon the shaft rotates about it, then C.G. of the disc must be
at the shaft axis, if perfect running balance is to be obtained. But practically because of
difficulty of perfect machining of disc (rotor) C.G does not coincide with shaft axis. Hence,
when such shaft rotates, it deflects towards heavier side of the disc due to unbalanced

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centrifugal force. As the speed increases the shaft vibrates violently up to resonance speed,
and after resonance speed the shaft again runs smoothly.
For any rotating shaft, a certain speed exists at which violent instability occurs. The shaft
suffers excessive deflection and bows, a phenomenon known as whirling. If this critical
speed of whirling is maintained (called First Critical speed), then the resulting amplitude
becomes sufficient to cause buckling and failure. However, if the speed is rapidly increased
before such effects occur, then the shaft is seen to re-stabilize and run true again until
another specific speed is encountered where a double bow is produced as shown in
Figure-1. The second speed is called "Second Critical". Whirling speed depends primarily
on the stiffness of the shaft and mass distribution. When the shaft is loaded, the whirling
speed will be shifted due to the effect of the new mass. Dunkerley set the equation that
relates the overall whirling frequency with critical frequencies introduced by the shaft and
load individually. This equation is valid for any number of loads. Studying whirling of shaft
is of great important due to huge number of applications in various fields. For example, all
rotating machinery involve shafts with rotating parts such as rotors in electrical motors,
impellers in pumps, blades in turbines ….etc. On the other hand, Dunkerley's Equation is
found to be useful not only in studying whirling of loaded shafts, but also in structural
analysis and frequency response testing.

Fig.1. Modes of whirling

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Critical Speed Depends Upon The Following Factor:

1. Length of the shaft
2. Diameter of the shaft
3. Bearing supports conditions i.e. fixed, hinged or free.
4. The magnitude of the load.
5. The location of the load carried by the shaft
Procedure
1. Attach a shaft of known diameter and length to the apparatus.
2. Check the whole apparatus for tightening the screw etc.
3. Select Fixed hinge end condition
4. Switch on the speed control unit and adjust the speed carefully until obtaining the
largest amplitude of whirling. Read the speed on the stroboscope and note down the
number of loops.
5. Slowly bring the shaft to rest and switch of the supply.
6. Repeat the same procedure for different shaft.
7. Change the support type to fixed-fixed and repeat steps 4 to 6.
8. Also, repeat the experiment for different shafts.

Specifications:

1. Diameter of shaft ‘D’ = 4mm

2. Length of shaft ‘L’= 0.6m
3. Mass of the shaft ‘m’= 0.06 kg
4. 1.91×10-12m4
5. Young’s Modulus of the shaft ‘E’= 2×1011N/m2
6. Model frequency of the shaft ‘a’=3.23

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Tabular Column
Sl. Diameter Length Model Fixed- hinged Fixed-Fixed
No. of shaft of shaft frequency
‘D’ (mm) ‘L’ ‘a’ Angular Speed Speed Angular Speed Speed
(mm) speed (rpm) (rpm) speed (rpm) (rpm)
experi Theore experi Theoret
mental tical mental ical
1 4 0.6 3.23

FORMULAE:
Case1: Fixed- Hinged support

1. Mass per unit length, M= kg/m

2. Moment of inertia of the shaft ‘I’= m4

3. Angular speed, ω=

Where, a=√

4. Theoretical speed, Nthe= rpm

Case1: Fixed- Fixed support

1. Mass per unit length, M= kg/m

2. Moment of inertia of the shaft ‘I’= m4

3. Angular speed, ω=

4. Theoretical speed, Nthe= rpm

Inference: Compare the results of theoretical speed with experimental speed and infer
the results.

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EXPERIMENT: 4
CALIBRATION OF PHOTO- ELASTIC MATERIAL USING A CIRCULAR
DISC UNDER COMPRESSION (DIAMETRICAL –COMPRESSION)
Aim: To determines the material and model fringe constant, using photo
elastic material under diametrical compression
Apparatus: Photo-Elastic apparatus with polarizes analyzer and photo elastic specimen

Figure 1: Photoelstic Bench and Fringe formed through circular disk under compression

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Theory:
Stress analysis is play an important role in a engineering field of applications, this analysis
is the determination of the effects of loads on physical components, components subjected
to this type of analysis include a different loads, such as vehicles, machinery (Automobiles
and aerospace components) etc., Stress analysis is a base of the engineering design of
structures. Photo elasticity is widely used for stress analysis in mechanical engineering.
Experiment in photo elasticity utilizes a polariscope that is an optical system. Birefringent
phenomena of a photo elastic specimen in the polariscope make fringe patterns that
depend on external load applied to the specimen. They are analyzed to obtain information
about stress of the specimen. The polariscope takes advantages of the optical system that
are two-dimensional signal process and non-contact measurement. Fringe patterns
obtained in the polariscope consist of broad fringe bands with different width and they
have limited fringe orders.

Procedure:
The circular disc is mounted between the lever arms, which is extended from the fulcrum
to the load acting on the other side. The light emitted from the sodium white light of the
circular polariscope is analyzed using both polarizer and analyzer. This setup is set white
field and then the load is applied in the weight hanger. This exerts a pressure on the disc at
the vertical edge and the fringe pattern appears which can be seen through the analyzer.
The analyzer is rotated till the emerging fringe at the edge coincides with the clearly
formed fringe at the center of the specimen. The angle of rotation and the fringe order is
determined. Repeat the experiment for different loads on the pan and determine various
parameters. The fractional fringes are compensated by Tardy’s compensation method. The
analyzer is turned in clockwise or counterclockwise to move the fringe from lower to
higher order or vice versa, until the fringe coincides and separate and the angle turned is
noted.
Case1: - Fringes move from higher order to lower order.
The total number of fringes = number of Integral fringes – angle turned /1800

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Case 2: - when the fringes move from lower to higher order

The total number of fringes = number of Integral fringes + angle turned /1800
A graph is plotted between P v/s N and the slope of is obtained in order to calculate
material and fringe constant.

Specifications:

7. Diameter ‘D’ = 72 mm
8. Thickness ‘h’ = 5.5 mm
9. Length of lever arm from the fulcrum to the loading arm, L1 = 1000 mm
10. Length of lever arm from the fulcrum to the specimen center, L2 = 265 mm
11. Lever arm ratio, r = L1/L2 =1000/265 =3.77

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load Material Fringe

Sl.no Fringe Order (N) Effective Load Slope = constant
Kg N ∆P/∆N N/mm/fringe
1 1 9.81 1 37.02
2 2 19.62 1 73.96
73.91 2.61
3 3 29.43 2 110.95
4 4 39.24 2 147.93

FORMULAE:
1. Material fringe constant:

Fσ = ( ×( ⁄ * D) N/mm –Fringe

Where P= Load acting on specimen

N= Fringe order
D=Diameter of specimen in mm
∆P/∆N = Slope (from graph)

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2. Model Fringe constant: -


f = in N/mm2/ fringe

CALCULATION:
From Graph,

[ ]

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EXPERIMENT: 5
Determination of stress concentration using Photo elasticity for
circular disc with circular hole under compression
Aim: To calibrate the given model of photo elastic material & to
determine the stress concentration factor for a circular disc with a
circular hole under diametrical compression.
Apparatus: Circular Polariscope, photo elastic model in the form of circular disc with a
circular hole, Vernier caliper.

Fig.1. Experimental set up of circular polariscope

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Fig.2: Circular disc with circular hole subjected to diametric compression

Theory:

1. Introduction: In the development of the basic stress equations for tension,

compression, bending and torsion, it was assumed that no irregularities occurred in
the member under consideration. But it is quite difficult to design a machine
without permitting some changes in the cross-sections of the members.
Ex: rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearing can be
properly sealed and so that they will take thrust loads. Other parts require holes, oil
grooves and notches of various kinds. Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the
stress distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity so that the elementary
stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in the part, such
discontinuities are called stress raisers and the regions in which they occur are
called areas of stress concentration.

2. Theoretical or geometric, stress-concentration factor kt: It is the ratio of actual

maximum stress at the discontinuity to the normal stress.



Where, kt is used for normal stresses.
kts is used for shear stresses.
The subscript t in kt means that this stress- concentration factor depends for its
value only on the geometry of the part. That is, the particular material used has no

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effect on the value of kt .this is why it is called theoretical stress- concentration

factor.

Procedure:

1. The circular specimen is mounted between the lever arm which is extended from the
fulcrum to the load acting on other side. The light emitted from sodium vapor lamp of
circular polariscope is analyzed using both polarizes and analyzer.

2. The load is applied in the weight hanger and the fringe pattern is observed .the total
number of integral formed plus the fractional fringes are counted and the fringe order is
noted.

3. The load acting on the specimen is calculated. Repeat the procedure for various loads. At
each load calculate the nominal and maximum stress acting on the specimen.
Observations:

1. Outer diameter of specimen D = 72 mm

2. Inner diameter of the specimen d = 36 mm

3. Thickness of the specimen h = 5.5 mm

4. Distance x = 280 mm

5. Distance y = 1000 mm

Table of Readings:

Load on hanger W Fringe order

Sl.no
Kg N N
1 1 9.81 0.5
2 2 19.62 1

3 3 29.43 1.5
4 4 39.24 2

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Calculations:
1. Load on the disc

P × x = w× y

2.  in N/mm2


3.  in N/mm2

Where N= fringe order

F = Material fringe constant

Fσ = N/mm –Fringe

4.  

Table of Results

Material
Effective Load Fringe
act max
Sl.no P=w ×r constant
K
N/mm2 N/mm2
N F (N/mm –
Fringe)

1 35.03 0.225 0.1769 1.271

2 70.07 0.400 0.3538 1.271

2.615
3 100.09 0.675 0.5307 1.271

4 140.12 0.90 0.7076 1.271

Inferences details

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1. Stress concentration values of each specimen are dependent on the fringe numbers.
2. The presence of residual stress induced in the machining process can account
largely for our errors in specimen with a circular hole.

Viva Questions
1. What is the nature of light?

2. Define wave front, disturbance?

3. What are the requirements of a photo elastic material?

4. Name few of the photo elastic material.

5. What is Polariscope? How many types are there?

6. What is polarizer?

7. What is the difference between polarizer and analyzer.

8. What is a fringe order? What do you understand birefrigerent materials. Can you
name few such materials?

9. What is a fringe constant?

10. What is a wave plate how are they classified?

11. What are the advantages of photo elasticity over other experimental techniques?

12. What is meant by polarized light?

13. What are the elements of circular polariscope?

14. What is meant by polarizer, analyzer, quarter wave plate, half wave plate?

15. How can we produce dark field and bright field arrangement using circular
polariscope.

16. Difference between isochromatic and isoclinic.

17. What are the methods used for determining the fractional fringe order?

18. What is scattered light photo elasticity?

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EXPERIMENT: 6
HARTNELL GOVERNER
APPARATUS: Universal governor experimental set-up, tachometer, set of masses springs
of different stiffness.
THEORY: The function of a governor neither is to maintain the speed of an engine within
prescribed limits for varying load conditions. A governor is necessary for all types of engines as it
regulates the supply of fuel according to the demand. When the load on an engine increases, it
becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid and when the load decreases less
working fluid is required, so depending upon the load condition the governor automatically
controls the supply of working fluid by means of a throttle value to the engine and keeps the mean
speed within the prescribed limits.
Hartnell governor is spring loaded governor .As compared to dead weight governor; the spring
loaded governors have variation of load for every configuration, thus providing greater flexibility.

Fig.1 Experimental setup of Hartnell governor

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PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the given Hartnell governor assembly over the spindle.
2. Tighten the necessary nuts and Bolts.
3. Start the motor and adjust the speed.
4. The flyweight’s fly outwards due to centrifugal force, the sleeve will rise.
5. Measure the sleeve and sleeve rise.
6. Repeat the experiments at different speeds spring forces over the sleeve by
changing the initial compressions and springs of different stiffness of the governor.
7. Calculate the theoretical lift, and compare it with the experimental value.

SPECIFICATIONS: -
 M =. Mass of Sleeve = 0.8 kg
 m = Mass of each ball = 0.22 kg
 r1 = Min. radius of rotation = 0.1 m
 r2 = Max. radius of rotation = 0.2 m
 x = Length of ball arm = 0.145 m
 y = Length of sleeve arm = 0.125 m
 h = Difference b/w Max. & Min. position of the sleeve ( Max. lift of the sleeve ) =
80 mm
 ω = Angular speed / angular velocity rad/s
 ω1 = Angular velocity at Min. radius of rotation
 ω2 = Angular velocity at Max. radius of rotation

FORMULAE:

1. ( - )

( )
2.
( )

3.

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4. = rad /s

5.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl.No Lift
Speed
(rpm) Theo (mm) Exp (mm)

1 180 18.84 3.68 5

25.13
2 240 9.30 10
28.48
3 270 13.34 15

CALCULATION:

Stiffness:

S = 3133.24 N/m
Theoretical lift:

( )
( )

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EXPERIMENT: 7
JOURNAL BEARING
Aim: To determine the pressure distribution in the oil film of the bearing
for various speeds & plot the Cartesian & polar pressure curve for various
speeds
Apparatus: Journal bearing apparatus, dimmer stat, Tachometer, DC motor, manometer
counter balance & mass.

Theory:

Bearings are used to prevent friction between parts during relative movement. In
machinery they fall into two primary categories: anti-friction or rolling element
bearings and hydrodynamic journal bearings. The primary function of a bearing is to
carry load between a rotor and the case with as little wear as possible. This bearing
function exists in almost every occurrence of daily life from the watch on your wrist
to the automobile you drive to the disk drive in your computer. In industry, the use
of journal bearings is specialized for rotating machinery both low and high speed.

BEARING MATERIALS
Bearing materials constitute an import part of any journal bearing. Their
significance is at the start of the hydro-dynamic lubrication when metal to metal
contact occurs or during mixed and boundary lubrication period.
The desirable properties of a good bearing material
1. Conformability (low elastic modulus) and deformability (plastic flow) to relieve
local high pressures caused by misalignment and shaft deflection.
2. Embeddability or indentation softness, to permit small foreign particles to
become safely embedded in the material, thus protecting the journal against wear.
3. Low shear strength for easy smoothing of surface asperities.
4. Adequate compressive strength and fatigue strength for supporting the load and
for enduring the cyclic loading as with engine bearings under all operating
conditions.

Table.1.Classification of bearing and its properties.

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Bearing Description Friction Bearing Velocity Life Span Comments

Type Stiffness
Plain Rubbing Depends Good, Low to Low to very Widely used,
Bearing surfaces, on provided very high - depends relatively
usually with materials wear is high upon high friction,
lubricant; some and low, but application suffers from
bearings use constructi some and stiction in
pumped on, PTFE slack is lubrication some
lubrication and has normally applications.
behave coefficient present Depending
similarly to of friction upon the
fluid bearings. ~0.05- application,
0.35, lifetime can
depending be higher or
upon lower than
fillers rolling
added element
bearings.
Ball or Ball or rollers Rolling Good, but Moderat Moderate to Used for
Roller are used to coefficient some e to high high (depends higher
Bearing prevent or of friction slack is (often on lubrication, moment
minimize with steel usually requires often requires loads than
rubbing can be present cooling) maintenance) plain
~0.005 bearings with
(adding lower friction
resistance
due to
seals,
packed
grease,
preload
and
misalignm
ent can
increase
friction to
as much as

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 Design Lab Manual

0.125)
Jewel Off-center Low Low due Low Adequate Mainly used
Bearing bearing rolls in to flexing (requires in low-load,
seating maintenance) high
precision
work such as
clocks. Jewel
bearings may
be very small.
Magnetic Fluid is forced Zero Very high Very Virtually Can fail
Bearing between two friction at high infinite in quickly due to
faces and held zero (usually some grit or dust or
in by edge seal speed, low limited applications, other
to a few may wear at contaminants.
hundred startup/shutd Maintenance
feet per own in some free in
second cases. Often continuous
at/by negligible use. Can
seal) maintenance. handle very
large loads
with low
friction.
Fluid or Faces of Zero Low No Indefinite. Active
Hydrody bearing are friction at practical Maintenance magnetic
namic kept separate zero limit free. (with bearings
Bearing by magnets ( speed, but electromagnet (AMB) need
electromagnets constant s) considerable
or eddy power for power.
currents ) levitation, Electrodynam
eddy ic bearings
currents (EDB) do not
are often require
induced external
when power.
movement
occurs, but
may be
negligible

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 Design Lab Manual

if magnetic
field is
quasi-
static
Flexure Material flexes Very low Low Very Very high or Limited range
Bearings to give and high. low depending of movement,
constrain on materials no backlash,
movement and strain in extremely
application. smooth
Usually motion
maintenance
free.

Fig.1.Diagram of journal bearing test rig showing the arrangement of the

parts

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Design Lab Manual

Fig.2. Bearing Nomenclature

Procedure:

Case (a):- constant speed

1. Fill the oil tank using required SAE grade oil under test & position the tank at
the desired level.
2. The motor is switched on and shaft is made to rotate at desired speed.
3. The pressure reading B1 to B6 are noted without any load on the pan
4. One kg of mass is placed on pan and corresponding pressure reading B1 to B6
to steady state are noted down
5. Step3 is repeated for different masses
Case (b):- constant speed
1. Place 2kg of mass on loading pan and corresponding speed, pressure reading
are noted down
2. Now varying speed pressure reading taken for different speed is considering
constant load

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 Design Lab Manual

Observations:

1) Diameter of journal =49.mm

2) Length of journal = 80.mm
3) Diameter of bearing = 50.mm
4) Angle between tapings = 180
5) Distance b/w each row = 15mm
6) Initial reading shown = 21.1
Table of Readings:

Case (a):- constant speed (N=600 rpm)

Sl. Load Manometer Reading (cm) [cm×10-2 = m]

No Kg N A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6

1. 0.5
2. 1.0
3. 1.5

 Pressure, P=W×h
Where, W=Weight density of mercury=13,600N/m3
h=manometer reading in m
P=13600×h×10-2
P=136h

Sl. Load Pressure N/m2

No Kg N A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6

1. 0.5
2. 1.0
3. 1.5

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Design Lab Manual

Case (b):- constant speed (1.5 kg)

Sl. Speed Mass Manometer Reading (cm) [cm×10-2 = m]

No (Rpm) (kg) B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6
1. 500 1.5
2. 600 1.5
3. 800 1.5
4. 900 1.5

Sl. Speed Mass Pressure N/m2

No (Rpm) (kg) B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6
5. 500 1.5
6. 600 1.5
7. 800 1.5
8. 900 1.5

Nature of graph:

Fig.3 Pressure Profile in a Journal Bearing

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Design Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT: 8
STRAIN ROSETTE
OBJECTIVE:

To determine principle stress and strain in a member subjected to combined loading

using strain rosette.

INTRODUCTION:

This setup has been designed to study the application of rosette strain gauge and to
find out maximum principal stress value and direction. In strain gauge technique a
very thin wire of the order of 5 to 10 micron diameter is pasted on a metal part by
means of suitable adhesive. The metal part is then subjected to load, which finally
results induction of strain in it. By knowing the strain values, stress values are
calculated by using standard strength of material relations. Hence the values of
stresses at various points of interest can be found out experimentally, resulting into
complete stress picture of the metal part under investigation. For investigating the
stresses in metal part the entire cases can be categorized in two groups:
 When direction of stresses is known
 When direction of stresses is unknown.
In first case it is easy to analyze because the direction in which the maximum
principle stress occurs is known and stain gauges can be oriented in already known
direction and single element strain gauges serve the purpose. However in second
case single element strain gauge will not serve the purpose, as such, three-element
rosette type gauges are used. Set-up consists of a hollow cylinder pasted with
rosette strain gauge. This cylinder can be pressurized by using foot pump. A
multichannel strain indicator is provided to measure output of each strain gauge.

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Design Lab Manual

Students can find out values of maximum stress at various pressures and compare
the same with theoretical values.
The purpose of strain rosette apparatus is to determine the magnitudes and
directions of principal stresses under bi-axial state of stress (plane stress condition).
A group of 3 to 4 strain gauges arranged in some configuration is called a rosette.
The different arrangements are:
1. 3 element rectangular rosette
2. 3 element delta rosette
3. 4 element rectangular rosette
Strain gauges are placed at certain angular positions. Theoretically, gauges in the
rosette can be placed at any angle but due to practical considerations, 2 or 3 sets of
values are used. In the 3-element strain rosette, the rectangular & delta
configurations are employed. In the former, 2 gauges are placed at right angles
while the 3 rd gauge makes an angle of 45 ° with both gauges. In the delta
configuration gauges are placed at an angle of 60°. It is necessary to measure 3
strains at a point completely defined by either stress or strain fields.

Three element rectangular rosette

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Design Lab Manual

Delta rosette

Three element rosette

THREE ELEMENTS RECTANGULAR ROSETTE ARRANGEMENT

Let, αA=0°, αB= 45° & αC= 90°

The three element rectangular rosette employs gages placed at 0°, 45° and 90°
positions, as indicated in Fig.

By measuring the strains , the Cartesian components of strains

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Design Lab Manual

can be determined by using above equation.

The principal strains and principal directions can be calculated using following
equations:

The solution for above equation yields two values for the angle θ. They are θ1,
which refers to the angle between the x-axis and the axis of maximum principal
strain and θ2, which is the angle between the x-axis and the axis of minimum
principal strain . The principal stresses can be calculated using equations
below:

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS & EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

01. Note down the young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
02. Ensure proper electrical connection for phase and neutral (230V, with
Earthing).
03. Switch ON the Mains and the console.
04. Ensure indicator are ON and glowing.

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Design Lab Manual

05. Select strain gauge to 1 & adjust the indicator to zero by turning the tare
knob & press the cal button.
06. Close the air valve & load the air by pressing the air pump.
07. Note down the strain & Release the air
08. Change the Selector knob position to 2 & make zero by turning the tare
knob & again press cal button.
09. Again load the air & note down the strain
10. Repeat the same for another strain.
11. After completion of the experiment release the air & Switch off the
instrument.

PRECAUTIONS AND THINGS TO REMEMBER:

1. Do not start the unit if the voltage is less than 180V.

2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral & earth connections correctly.

3. At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes.

OBSERVATION:

Material Used: Stainless Steel (Cylinder)

Outer diameter of the Cylinder = 100mm, Thickness = 0.8mm

Inner diameter of the cylinder = 98.4mm

Young’s modulus of cylinder: (E) = 2.068 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio of the cylinder: (μ) = 0.3

θA = 0O, θb = 45O, θc = 90O

Strain gauge in Rectangular Configuration

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Design Lab Manual

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load - Principal Principal

Sl Measured Orientatio Max.
Pressu strain stress
. Strain n shear
re N/mm2 N/mm2
N stress
Kg/cm
o 2 A B C €1 €2 σ1 σ2 θ1 θ2 N/mm2

Formula for Calculation:

Principal Stress:

E1 = ½ [(εa – εb) + ½ √(εa – εb)2 + (εc)2]

E2 = ½ [(εa – εb) - ½ √(εa – εb)2 + (εc)2]

Principal Strain:

σ1 = E/(1-v2) x (εa – v εb)

σ2 = E/(1-v2) x (εb – v εa)

Orientation:

Tan2θ = εc / (εa – εb)

θ1 = ½ tan-1 [(εc / (εa – εb)]

θ2 = 90 + θ1

RESULT:
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Design Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT: 8
CURVED BEAM
AIM: To determine the stresses of given cantilever beam subjected to
bending by making use of strain gauges mounted on inner and outer fibre
of the beam.

APPARATUS: Strain gauge mounted on the curved cantilever beam, Strain indicator,
loading equipment with weights.

Fig.1. Experimental setup of curved beam

THEORY:

All the structural members deform when subjected to external pull. The
deformation resulted may be normalized as percentage deformation of strain.

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Design Lab Manual

Figure.2. Elevation view in xy plane (left) and Parameters for a rectangular section (right)
The stress strain relation for uni-axial stress condition such as in simple tension test or at
the fiber and inner fiber of bending is expressed by the relation.

Note: formula is referred from Design of Machine Elements- 2, by JAGADEESHA T

Associate Professor Mechanical Engineering Department, ST. JOSEPH ENGINEERING
COLLEGE VAMANJOOR and MANGALORE.

Strain may be sensed directly or indirectly. The electrical resistance strain gauges
are inherently sensitive to strain. When these gauges are mounted on members and senses
strain. Their electrical resistance gets changed due to strain.

Electrical resistance of the strain gauges mounted on extremely loaded members. Bridge
circuit of such a circuit is defined as the ratio of actual bridge l/p if only a single gauge
sensing maximum strain were effective. In this circuit 4 is the bridge constant.
Strain measurement with help of strain gauges bounded in a curved cantilever beam.

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Design Lab Manual

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the system.
2. Set the channel selector to A position, it’ll indicate the inner strain value ɛa
3. Turn the knob to set zero position in no load condition.
4. Press cal button until the displays shows cal.
5. Now gradually increase the load from 0.5 kg to 2.5kg on increment of 2.5kg and note
the experimental strain readings which are displayed in strain indicator.
6. Repeat the experiment to note the value for outer strain.
7. Compare the theoretical values with experimental values

SPECIFICATIONS:

F =Load

M =Applied bending moment, N –mm

e = distance from the centroidal axis to the neutral axis, measured towards Centre===== of
curvature, mm

Ci = (rn- ri) distance from neutral axis to inner fiber (radius)

Co = (ro- rn) distance from neutral axis to outer fiber (radius)

ri= 27.5mm inner radius of curvature

ro = 37.5mm outer radius of curvature

rn = 32.5mm radius of neutral axis

r (rc) = 32.24mm radius of centroidal axis

A = width (b) ×thickness (t) = area of section, mm2.

b = 10mm, t = 8mm

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Design Lab Manual

E = young’s modulus = 2*105N/mm2

µ = Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

σi = Stress in the inner fiber, N/mm2

σo = Stress in the outer fiber, N/mm2

TABULAR COLUMN:
Experimental Values
Sl.no Load Inner Outer Moment Inner Outer
strain Strain N-mm Stress Stress
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 0.5
2 1
3 1.5
4 2
5 2.5
6 3
7 3.5
Theoretical Values Experimental Values with gauge
factor
Inner Strain Outer Strain Inner Strain Outer Strain

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Design Lab Manual

Formulae Used:

1. Maximum moment =
Where F→ Applied Load in N
→ Radius from Centre to neutral axis
Note: Formulae are referred from design data hand book by Mahadevan &
Balaveera Reddy Pg. no. 133.
2. The maximum compressive stress on outer fiber is

N/mm2

3. The maximum compressive stress on inner fiber is

N/mm2

Where → Distance from neutral axis to inner radius

→ Distance from neutral axis to outer radius
;
4. Strain at outer fiber is

5. Strain at inner fiber is

6. Actual Strain (Experimental Value)

Bridge Constant = 4

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Design Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO-9
GYROSCOPE
AIM: To find the angular velocity of precision.

APPARATUS: Stop clock, gyroscope tachometer, Weights.

THEORY:
Definitions: Gyroscope, Gyroscopic effect, Linear momentum angular momentum,
angular velocity of precession, applications of gyroscope, gyroscopic couple.

PROCEDURE:

1. Check the rotor for vertical position

2. Adjust the balance weights slightly if necessary
3. Keep the dimmer stat at required position
4. Start the motor by applying the voltage
5. Adjust the speed as required
6. Note down the rotor speed with help of tachometer
7. Speed is noted at steady state
8. Put the weights on the stud & at the same time start the stop clock & note down the
time for 450/900
9. Repeat the experiment for different weights & speed
SPECIFICATION:

 Mass of Rotor M = 3.81 Kg

 Diameter of rotor d = 0.25 m
 Distance between weights stud & center of disc = 0.25m
 Mass moment of inertia of disc I = mr2/2 = 0.0297 kg.m2

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Design Lab Manual

FORMULAE:
Angular velocity of disc  = 2N/60
Angular velocity of precision ( p) exp = angle turned / time taken
Angular velocity of precision ( p) theo = Mt/I

TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl Rotor Speed Mass Angle ‘’ Time ( p) exp ( p) theo
no ‘N’ rpm added in ‘sec’ rad/s
rad/s
‘Kg’

1. 0.3 250 7 0.0623 0.14

2. 5550 0.5 400 10 0.0693 0.2355

3. 1 1700 14 0.211 0.471

4. 1.5 1750 12 0.2469 0.7065

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

1.

2.
3.
4.

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