Introduction to Electronic Communication

Communication means exchanging information from one place to another, it is

what Human beings do to convey their emotions,
their thoughts, ideas and feelings to one another. Communication is happening
from the beginning of humankind.

Most Humans communicated through the spoken words or with their gestures
and postures (Nonverbal communication). Later written communication was
developed.

Humans wrote letters to one another and eventually invented newspapers and
books. Although the bulk of huge of information is still oral, a huge volume of
information is exchanged by means of the written word.

Human communication has faced two barriers in all time; language barrier and
distance barrier.

• When humans of different tribes, races, and nation come together, they often
find that they do not speak the same language. This language barrier
continues today. But it can be overcome as humans are learning new
languages day by day.
• Communication at long distances is also another big barrier, most
communication, in the beginning, it was limited to face-to-face
conversation. However, for long-distance communication humans uses
signals with drums, horns or smoke signals.

Other early forms of long-distance communication were lighting a signal

fire, waving a flag (semaphores), but despite all these attempts of long-
distance communication, transmission distance was limited.

If the signal could be launched from a hill, mountain or high towers, the
distance of several miles could usually be achieved only.Human communication
took a huge turn in the late 19th century when electricity was discovered and its
many applications were explored. The telegraph was invented and the telephone
and the radio were discovered.It was the time when an exchange of
information took a great leap forward.
Important Milestone in Communication
history
An Electronic Communication, such as Telephone, Radio, and Television,
have increased our ability to share and convey information of long-
distance. Today they are the major part of our lives.

Despite these basic types of long-distance communication platforms, now

we have internet, we write E-mails to communication, we have social
media platforms like Google, Facebook, and Yahoo. These all types of
communication platforms have not replaced the old telephone, radio or
television but they have simply added a new way for people to interact with
one another.

It is hard to imagine what our lives would be like without

the knowledge and information that arrive from around the world
by electronic communication.

Ours is an information society, and a key part of it is communication.

Without electronic communications, we could not access the available
information in a timely way.

The so-called information superhighway of the future is an electronic

communication technology.

The Elements of an Electronic

Communication System:

All electronic communication system has three basic

elements, Transmitter, Medium or channel and a Receiver.

In real Human or Source generate a signal, that contains the information

and that signal is sent to the transmitter which transmits the information
over a communication channel. And then the message is picked by the
receiver and receiver gives that information to the desired destination say
human.
In this process. A noise is always added to the information through the
communication channel. A noise may be due to environmental effects,
temperature, or not proper working of an instrument.

Transmitter:
The transmitter is the collection of electronic components or a circuit.
Which is designed to convey the information into a suitable electrical form
for communicating with the channel.

It may be a simple microphone as most radio uses.

Communication Channel:
The communication channel is the medium by which the information is
sent from one place to another.

As a voice signal uses air medium for face-to-face communication. As that

an electronic communication uses an electronic medium for sending
information from one place to another.

For an Electronic communication, a medium may be the simple pair of

wires which transmit the information signal which is taken form
microphone.
On the other hand, a medium may be a wireless or Radio, Radio makes use
of electromagnetic spectrum where signals are communicated from one
point to another.

Receiver:
The receiver is also another electronic circuit, which accepts the
transmitted information from the channel and converts it back into a
human understandable form.

A receiver may be the Speaker or complex electronic receiver.

Noise:
A Noise is random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the
communication system through the communication channel and interface
with transmitted Information Signal and attenuates the information signal.

Noise may be generated by the thermal radiation of electronic

components, improper environmental conditions can also cause the noise
signal. Although such noise signals are the very low-level signal. But they
produce more serious problems in electronic communication.

For the most part it cannot be completely eliminated, however, it can be

reduced on some level.

Need of Modulation in Communication Systems

Modulation is simply a widely used process in communication systems in
which a very high-frequency carrier wave is used to transmit the low-frequency
message signal so that the transmitted signal continues to have all the
information contained in the original message signal.

What is the need for modulation in communication systems?

The message signals have a very low frequency due to which these signals
cannot be transmitted over long distances. Hence such low-frequency message
signals are modulated over the high-frequency carrier signal due to the
following reasons:

1. Practical Length of Antenna:

For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the antenna should be
comparable to the wavelength λ of the signal at least the height of the
antenna h should be λ / 4 in length so that the antenna can sense the variations
of the signal properly.

The low-frequency message signal has a very high value of λ which will require
a very high antenna (practically not possible).
For example: If we have to transmit a signal of 20 kHz then λ = C / f and height
of the antenna h ≈ λ where C is the wave velocity, here C = 3 × 108 m/s.
h ≈ λ = (3 × 108) / (20 × 103)
h = 15 km.
Hence, we need to modulate the message signal over the high-frequency carrier
signal so that we can have a practical value for the height h of the antenna.

2. Narrow Banding of Signal

An audio signal usually has a frequency range (20 Hz to 20 kHz), if it is directly

transmitted then the ratio of highest to the lowest frequency becomes (20 kHz /
20 Hz) = 1000. But if this audio signal is modulated over a carrier signal of
frequency 1000 kHz then the ratio of highest to the lowest frequency becomes:
(1000 kHz + 20 kHz) / (1000 kHz + 20 Hz) ≅ 1.2
Hence, we need modulation to convert a wideband signal into a narrow band
signal.

3. Frequency Multiplexing

It is practically not possible to distinguish between the different audio signals

when transmitted simultaneously through a single antenna as all of them lie in
the same spectral range. Hence, each of these signals is translated to a low-
frequency range before transmission which makes it quite easier to recover
them and distinguish each of them from one another at the receiver’s end.
4. Effective Power Radiated By Antenna

Power radiated by an antenna ∝ (l / λ)2 where l is the length of the antenna

and λ is the wavelength of the signal which is to be transferred through the
antenna. This relation clearly shows that when signals having a low frequency
and high wavelength is transmitted directly the power radiated by the antenna is
very low and the signal will vanish after traveling some distance.
Hence, to transmit such signals over long distances, we superimpose these low-
frequency signals over the carrier signal having a high frequency and short
wavelength so that the power radiated by the antenna of the same length will be
very large.

Types of Electronic Communication:

Electronic Communication is classified into three different ways:

1. One-way and Two-Way Communication:

2. Analog and Digital Communication:
3. Baseband and Modulated Signal:
In this article we will cover these all three different ways of electronic
communication step by step:

One-Way Communication:
One-way communication or simplex communication is the simplest
form of communication. In Simplex communication information travels
only in one direction.

the flow of Simplex communication

A common Example of One-way or Simplex Communication is TV
Broadcasting, RADIO, and Music. In these all types of Electronic
communication, information travels from source to destination through
one-way only.

Two-Way Communication:
The rest of electronic communication in the world is almost two-way
communication. Two-Way Communication is further classified into two
different ways.

1. Half Duplex
2. Full Duplex
For Example: When an individual person communicates with one another
over the telephone, each can transmit and hear information
simultaneously, such two-way
communication is referred to as Full
Duplex Communication.

Full Duplex Communication

Few Common Example of Full Duplex Communication is Telephone,
Two-way radio, Radar, and Sonar etc… Another form of two-way
communications is where only one person can transmit or receive
information at a time, this type of communication is known as Half
Duplex.

Half Duplex Communication

A common Example of Half Duplex Communication is walkie-
talkies, amateur radio.
Block Diagram of electronic communication systems
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of electromagnetic radiation according to

the wavelength or frequencies. It has a range of frequencies from 1Hz to Hz. The waves in
order of increasing frequencies are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, UV
rays, X-rays and gamma rays.Among these range, the frequencies between Hz to Hz are used
for communication.
The following diagram shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The first figure gives the full
range of frequency spectrum while the second figure elaborates that part of the spectrum
which can be used for data communication –

The section of the spectrum in the range of radio waves and microwaves has been divided
into a number of frequency bands as officially referred by ITU (International
Telecommunication Union). These bands are rated from VLF (Very Low Frequency) to EHF
(Extremely High Frequency).
The frequency bands and their uses in communication is tabulated as follows −
 Band Full Forms Frequency Propagation Uses
Name Range

ELF Extremely Low 30 – 300Hz Ground Power line frequencies

Frequency

LF Low Frequency 3 – 300 KHz Ground Marine Communications,

communication over twisted
pair

MF Medium 300KHz – Sky AM radio, communication over

Frequency 3MHz coaxial cables

HF High Frequency 3 – 30 MHz Sky Aircraft and ship

communications

VHF Very High 30 – 300 Sky and Line – FM radio, TV

Frequency MHz of - Sight

UHF Ultra High 300 MHz – Line – of - Sight TV, cellular phone
Frequency 3GHz

SHF Super High 3 – 30 GHz Line – of - Sight Satellite, microwave links

Frequency

EHF Extremely High 3 – 300GHz Line – of - Sight Radar, satellite

Frequency

Infrared Infrared Rays 300 Ghz – Line – of - Sight Consumer electronic goods
400THz

Visible Visible Light 400 THz – Line – of - Sight Fiber optic communications
Light rays 900 THz
Noise in Communication System

Definition:
Noise in a communication system is basically undesirable or unwanted signals
that get randomly added to the actual information carrying signal. Resultantly,
causes disturbances in the original signal being transmitted from an end to
another.

The presence of noise in the system causes interference in the signal being
transmitted and this ultimately causes errors in the communication system.
Practically, the addition of noise over the information carrying signal is an
unavoidable phenomenon. And this interference automatically hinders the
quality of the signal being transmitted.

Due to the reduction in the quality of signal the receiver experiences difficulty
in demodulating the transmitted signal. This eventually reduces system
efficiency.

Types of Noise in Communication System

Noise in the communication system is mainly classified on the basis of the
source that generates that noise.

So, on the basis of source noise in the communication channel are of 2 types:
1. External noise includes natural noise and man-made noise.

Natural Noise

Natural noise gets generated due to either natural phenomenon or atmospheric

actions like solar flares, radiation in space, electronic storms etc.

It is further classified into atmospheric and extraterrestrial noise.

Atmospheric Noise

The atmospheric actions produce false or spurious signals that get added with
the original signal thereby causing interference in the information signal. These
spurious signals propagate in the same manner as the original signal.

Hence the receiver at the other end collects both message as well as spurious
signals.
Extraterrestrial Noise

This type of noise is generated by either the sun or the outer space. This type of
noise is classified into two categories:

Solar Noise: Solar noise is generated by the sun. As Sun is a large body with
extremely high temperature thus it emits or releases high electrical energy in
noise form over a broad frequency range.
However, the intensity of the produced noise signal changes timely. This is so
because the temperature change of the sun follows 11 years of the life cycle.
Hence large electrical disturbances occur after the period of every 11 years.
While at other years the noise level is comparatively low.

Cosmic Noise: This noise originates from the stars present in the outer space.
As distant stars are also very high-temperature bodies and are also termed as the
sun. The noise generated from the star is similar to that generated from the sun.
Cosmic noise is also known as black body noise.
Not only the stars but the galaxies and other virtual point sources
like quasars and pulsars in the outer space produces cosmic noise.
Man-made noise
This type of extrinsic noise is also known as industrial noise. These are
basically the electrical noise that gets produced by the wear and tear of the
circuit being used. The source of man-made noise is electric motors, high
current circuits, florescent lights switch gears etc.

When these machines operate, arc discharge takes place and this discharge
generates noise signals in the communication system.

The frequency spectrum of man-made noise lies between 1 MHz to 600 MHz.

2 Internal Noise is the fundamental noise that gets generated by the electronic
equipment involved in the system itself. They are called so because these are
nothing but an integral part of the system.
Proper designing of the communication system can reduce or overcome noise
due to internal sources.

Internal Noise is classified as follows:

Thermal Noise

As we already know that an electrical signal is transmitted through a channel by

the help of conductors. So, the electrons present in the conductors move
randomly.

The random motion of the electrons is the reason for the thermal energy
received by the conductor. However, these free electrons are non-uniformly
distributed within the conductor.

Due to this a possibility also exist that at one end the number of free electrons
will be comparatively higher than at the other end.

This non-uniform distribution of electrons provides the average voltage to be

zero, however, the average power is not zero in this case.

So, this non zero power is nothing but the noise. And as it is the outcome of
thermal action. Hence also known as thermal noise power. Thermal noise is
sometimes referred as Johnson noise or white noise.
Shot Noise

Shot noise in a communication channel is the result of random variation in the

appearance of electrons and holes at the output side of the device. These random
movements are the result of discontinuities in the device which is being used by
the system.
The shot noise generates sound like several lead shots are striking over a metal
plate or tube.

It also occurs in pn junction diodes, as though movement of carriers within the

diode is due to the action of an external potential. But, sometimes their random
movement generates shot noise.

Thus we can say non-linearity or discontinuity in the system generates shot

noise.
Partition Noise

Here the name itself is indicating the cause for generation of this type of noise.

As it gets generated when the system is composed of multiple paths, and during
the flow, the current gets divided in these paths. These are nothing but the result
of random variation in the divisions. Due to this reason some devices offer low
partition noise while some offers, high.
Flicker Noise

It is also known as low-frequency noise and it occurs because of the variation in

the carrier density. Due to this variation or fluctuation, the conductivity of the
material gets varied.

So, when a direct current is allowed to flow through the conductor then
fluctuating voltage drop across in the conductor results in flicker noise voltage.

It is to be noteworthy here that, the mean square of flicker noise voltage is

directly proportional to the square of the current flowing through the device.

Transit Time Noise

It is also known as high-frequency noise. It arises when the charge carriers

require comparatively more time to travel from one end to another within the
conductor. This effect is called transit time effect.
For low-frequency applications, this effect is avoidable but for high-frequency
applications the effect is unavoidable. Due to this transit time effect, random
noise gets generated inside the device and is known as transit time noise.
What is Signal to Noise Ratio?
In terms of definition, SNR or signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio between the
desired information or the power of a signal and the undesired signal or the
power of the background noise.

Also, SNR is a measurement parameter in use in the fields of science and

engineering that compares the level of the desired signal to the level of
background noise. In other words, SNR is the ratio of signal power to the noise
power, and its unit of expression is typically decibels (dB). Also, a ratio greater
than 0 dB or higher than 1:1, signifies more signal than noise.

Aside from the technical definition of SNR, the way I define it in other terms is
by using a comparative. For example, say that you and one other person are
inside a large room having a conversation. However, the room is full of other
people who are also having conversations. Furthermore, a few of the other
individuals also have similar voice patterns to you and the other individual
involved in your discussion. As you can imagine, it would be difficult to
decipher which person is saying what.

Why is Signal to Noise Ratio Important?

In the previous comparison, you can get a better understanding of what is meant
by an unwanted signal or noise. As you can also imagine, it would be nearly
impossible to understand the other party involved in your conversation. Also, in
a scenario such as this, we would consider this to be a signal to noise issue or
the equivalent of a signal to noise ratio that is below acceptable parameters.

Now suppose the desired signal is essential data with a strict or narrow
tolerance for errors, and there are other signals disrupting your desired signal.
Again, it would make the task of the receiver exponentially more challenging to
decipher the desired signal. In summary, this is what makes having a high signal
to noise ratio so important. Furthermore, in some cases, this can also mean the
difference in a device functioning or not, and in all cases, it affects performance
between transmitter and receiver.

In wireless technology, the key to device performance is the device’s ability to

distinguish the applied signals as legitimate information from any background
noise or signals on the spectrum. This epitomizes the definition of the standards
SNR specifications are utilized to set. Furthermore, the standards I am referring
to ensure proper wireless functionality, as well.
 The Basics of Signal to Noise Ratio Calculations

In basic terms, SNR is the difference between the desired signal and the noise
floor. Also, in terms of definition, the noise floor is the specious background
transmissions that are produced by other devices or by devices that are
unintentionally generating interference on a similar frequency. Therefore, to
ascertain the signal to noise ratio, one must find the quantifiable difference
between the desired signal strength and the unwanted noise by subtracting the
noise value from the signal strength value.

Achieving your desired signal integrity can be difficult

at any stage of designing.

Hypothetically speaking, if your device's radio receives a signal at -65 dBm

(decibels per milliwatt), and the noise floor is -80 dBm, then the resulting signal
to noise ratio is 15 dB. This would then reflect as a signal strength of 15 dB for
this wireless connection. As I am sure you are aware, in terms of connectivity
in wireless networks, the experts state a requirement of an SNR of at least 20
dB to say, surf the web. However, the following is SNR requirements versus
SNR values:

• 5 dB to 10 dB: is below the minimum level to establish a connection, due to the

noise level being nearly indistinguishable from the desired signal (useful

information).

• 10 dB to 15 dB: is the accepted minimum to establish an unreliable connection.

• 15 dB to 25 dB: is typically considered the minimally acceptable level to

establish poor connectivity.

• 25 dB to 40 dB: is deemed to be good.

• 41 dB or higher: is considered to be excellent.

Although SNR is routinely in use to quantify the clarity or strength of electrical

signals, it can also apply to any form of signal (transmission). For example, it is
in use to describe isotope levels in ice cores, biochemical signaling between
cells, or audio sound clarity for car amplifiers and source units (DVD, CD, or
Digital). However, with audio components, the SNR is always a positive value.
For example, an SNR of 95 dB, means that the level of the audio signal is 95 dB
higher than the level of the noise. Which, in turn, means that an SNR of 95 dB
is better than one that is 80 dB.

How to Calculate Signal to Noise Ratio

SNR calculations can be either simple or complex, and it depends on the

devices in question and your available data. So, if your SNR measurements are
already in decibel form, then you can subtract the noise quantity from the
desired signal: SNR = S - N. This is because when you subtract logarithms, it is
the equivalent of dividing normal numbers. Also, the difference in the numbers
equals the SNR. For example, you measure a radio signal with a strength of -10
dB and a noise signal of -50 dB. -10 - (-50) = 40 dB.

As I stated earlier, calculating SNR can be involved, as well. So, for complex
calculations, you divide the value of the desired signal by the amount of the
noise and then take the common logarithm of the result, i.e., log (S ÷ N). After
this, if the signal strength measurements are in watts (power), you will then
multiply by 20. However, if they are units of voltage, then you will multiply by
10.

Furthermore, for power, SNR = 20 log (S ÷ N) and for voltage, SNR = 10 log (S
÷ N). Also, the resulting calculation is the SNR in decibels. For example, your
measured noise value (N) is 2 microvolts, and your signal (S) is 300 millivolts.
The SNR is 10 log (.3 ÷ .000002) or approximately 62 dB.
Signal to Noise Ratio Formula and Channel Capacity

Signal to noise ratio affects all wireless networks, and this includes Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, 4G, 4G LTE, and 5G, since their operation is dependent on radio signals.
Also, since they function through the use of radio signals, each of the
mentioned communication methods has a maximum channel capacity.
Furthermore, as the SNR increases, so does the channel capacity.

Overall, the channel capacity, the bandwidth, and the signal to noise ratio, all
affect the maximum capacity of communications channels. Moreover, this
discovery belongs to Claude Shannon, and he makes this correlation during
World War II. In today’s fields of electronics and science, engineers and
scientists alike, refer to it as Shannon's Law or the Shannon-Hartley theorem.

According to Shannon’s Law, the following formula depicts this correlation that
forms the capacity dependent relationship:
𝑺
C = W log2(1 + )
𝑵

Within this formula:

C equals the capacity of the channel (bits/s)

S equals the average received signal power

N equals the average noise power

W equals the bandwidth (Hertz)

The Shannon-Hartley theorem shows that the values of S (average signal

power), N (average noise power), and W (bandwidth) sets the limit of the
transmission rate.