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Aseptic Technique: Tomasz Bykowski and Brian Stevenson
Aseptic Technique: Tomasz Bykowski and Brian Stevenson
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes common laboratory procedures that can reduce the risk of culture con-
taminations (sepsis), collectively referred as “aseptic technique.” Two major strategies of aseptic
work are described: using a Bunsen burner and a laminar flow hood. Both methods are presented
in the form of general protocols applicable to a variety of laboratory tasks such as pipetting and
dispensing aliquots, preparing growth media, and inoculating, passaging, and spreading microor-
ganisms on petri dishes. Curr. Protoc. Microbiol. 11:A.4D.1-A.4D.11. C 2008 by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Keywords: aseptic technique r sterilization r bacteriology r Bunsen burner r laminar flow r
laminar hood r virology r cell culture
gas
rubber tubing
Figure A.4D.1 Bunsen burner. The gas burner consists of a vertical metal tube through which
a narrow jet of natural gas is directed. Air is drawn in via air holes located near the stand. The
gas/air mixture burns above the upper opening. The regulating collar can be turned to cover or
partly cover the air holes, which allows regulation of the amount of air sucked in and hence the
temperature and shape of the flame.
The Laminar Flow Unit laboratories, where they help prevent spread
A laminar flow unit (or hood) is a sophis- of viruses and some bacteria. Consult UNIT 1A.1
ticated appliance that can further help pre- as well as the resources in APPENDIX 1B
vent contamination of reagents and biological for additional information on biosafety and
cultures. Used correctly, it provides the work biocontainment.
space with clean, ultrafiltered air. It also keeps
room air from entering the work area and both
suspends and removes airborne contaminants STRATEGIC PLANNING
introduced into the work area by personnel. Contamination Risk Assessment and
The most important part of a laminar flow Space Organization
hood is a high-efficiency bacteria-retentive fil- Localizing potential sources of biological
ter, i.e., the HEPA (high-efficiency particulate contamination is an important part of arrang-
air) filter. A certified HEPA filter must cap- ing space when a room is used as a laboratory.
ture a minimum of 99.97% of dust, pollen, Benches for aseptic work should be organized
mold, bacteria, and any airborne particles with away from air conditioning vents, cooling
a size of >0.3 μm at 85 liters/min. The first fans, open windows, or blowers from heating
HEPA filters were developed in the 1940s by or refrigerating systems. Containers used for
the U.S.A. Atomic Energy Commission as part the disposal of biological material may con-
of the Manhattan Project (the development of tain large numbers of viable microorganisms,
the atomic bomb) to provide an efficient, effec- even when emptied. Some contaminants, e.g.,
tive way to filter radioactive particulate con- sporulating bacteria, yeasts, or fungi, are very
taminants. HEPA filter technology was declas- difficult to eradicate from the working envi-
sified after World War II, allowing extensive ronment. Waste should be kept very well cov-
research and commercial use. ered or, if feasible, in a different room, espe-
Laminar flow hoods are essential com- cially if using particularly harmful or sturdy
ponents of many biosafety level (BSL)-2 microorganisms.
Aseptic Technique
A.4D.2
Supplement 11 Current Protocols in Microbiology
General Cleanliness that are either flammable or would be de-
In principle, keeping high standards of natured by heat are usually filter sterilized.
cleanliness has to be a universally accepted A range of syringe-based or bottle-top fil-
norm in the biological laboratories. People ters of different pore sizes physically remove
should wear lab coats that are worn only in (exclude) living organisms and can be used
the laboratory. Researchers should wash their according to the suppliers’ instructions. Filtra-
hands often during the course of the day, es- tion devices may use either negative (vacuum)
pecially prior to any and all handling of bi- or positive pressure. An advantage of positive
ological cultures, media, or sterile supplies. pressure in filtering is that it reduces clogging
Dust and stains must be removed regularly, from precipitated salts.
and spills cleaned and decontaminated im- Most living organisms are retained by a
mediately. Bench tops and shelves should be 0.45-μm filter. That size filter is often used
washed immediately before all uses with 10% as a prefilter because it also clears the liquid
(v/v) household bleach (containing sodium of larger particulates. However, because many
hypochlorite). This solution will inactivate all bacteria can pass through 0.45-μm pores, a
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other potential 0.22-μm filter should be used to ensure steril-
contaminants. Alternatively, a solution of an- ization of the fluids. Viruses will pass through
tiseptic cleanser (e.g., Lysol), diluted accord- 0.22-μm filters, although they generally stick
ing to the manufacturer’s directions, is ade- to the membrane. Some bacteria, such as
quate. Organic disinfectants such as 70% (v/v) saprophytic Leptospira spp. commonly found
ethanol are generally less effective than bleach in domestic water supplies, may also pass
solutions because ethanol may evaporate too through 0.22 μm filters. If such potential
quickly to effectively sterilize surfaces and contaminants may cause difficulties, consider
may not completely inactivate all potential autoclaving water before using for solutions
contaminants. Outerwear may be covered with that need to be filter sterilized.
dirt or dust, and so should be kept in a cloak- Filtering procedures are usually carried out
room away from the work space. These simple in a laminar flow unit or on a bench equipped
rules of cleanliness will eliminate the bulk of with Bunsen burner (see below) to avoid
potential contaminations from the work area. recontamination of just-sterilized material.
Useful Materials to Have on Hand ing the machine after completion of the cy-
A list of simple materials that might be use- cle. Consider some basic rules that should be
ful in aseptic work and should be kept on hand applied while opening autoclave:
is presented in Table A.4D.1. Wear a lab coat, eye protection, loose
fitting thermal (insulating) gloves, and closed-
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS toe shoes.
Autoclaving Check that the chamber pressure is zero
Autoclaving produces steam, which can before attempting to open the door.
Stand behind the door when opening and Commonly Used
cause burns and requires a lot of caution in Methods for Cell
handling. The most important moment is open- use it as a shield. Slowly open a crack and Culture
A.4D.5
Current Protocols in Microbiology Supplement 11
wait for steam to be released. Beware of a rush Ultraviolet Light
of steam. Open the door fully to remove tray. Many laminar flow hoods are equipped with
After the slow exhaust cycle, open the au- ultraviolet (UV) lights, which can help re-
toclave door and allow liquids to cool 10 to duce contamination by inducing DNA damage
20 min before removing. Superheated liquids to potential contaminants. Such light is also
may suddenly boil over if the container is harmful to laboratory workers. Never look di-
moved. rectly at a UV light, as that can cause eye
Do not move hot bottles if the liquid is bub- damage. The UV light can also cause skin
bling or boiling. burns (sun burns) to anyone in the room. Con-
When removing liquids from the autoclave, sequently, UV lights should always be turned
point the opening of the container away from off whenever the room is occupied.
yourself and other people because the liquid
may suddenly boil and spray out the opening. TECHNIQUES FOR MAINTAINING
ASEPTIC CONDITIONS
Working with Open Flame Usually, there is no need to equip the lab-
Burners should be on only for as long as oratory with expensive paraphernalia just for
needed for a particular procedure. The blue culture of hardy bacteria such as Escherichia
flame of a hot Bunsen burner can be difficult coli, since that bacteria’s rapid growth rate
to see. Never leave an open flame unattended, generally allows it to out-compete any con-
not even for a few seconds. taminants. A typical laboratory bench supplied
Since burns are among the most common with a Bunsen burner is sufficient. Working
laboratory accidents, making sure that face, aseptically while using a cone of heat pro-
clothing, and hair are not above or near the duced by the burning gas has been the practice
opening of the burner tube is a crucial safety in laboratories worldwide since the 19th cen-
measure. Temperatures in the hottest region tury. It is straightforward and does not require
of the burner flame approach 1500◦ C, and ob- considerable financial outlays.
jects will heat extremely quickly. Any heated However, a laminar flow hood is the method
object, glass or metal, needs time to cool down of choice when a more rigid aseptic technique
before it can be safely touched. is required. The rich media used for eukary-
It is also absolutely necessary to remove otic cell cultures and many microorganisms,
flammable and combustible materials from coupled with their slow growth rates, necessi-
the vicinity of the flame. Nitrocellulose mem- tates high levels of security from contamina-
branes, commonly used for blotting tech- tion. For some organisms, work must always
niques, are extremely flammable. be performed inside a laminar flow unit to meet
Ethanol used for dipping culture spread- biosafety standards and to protect personnel
ers is an exception to the rule regarding against potentially harmful microorganisms or
flammables, but only small volumes (≤20 ml) viruses.
in glass beakers should be used at a time. Any aseptic work should be completed as
An accidental alcohol fire in a beaker can quickly as is comfortable to minimize the risk
be quickly extinguished simply by covering of contamination. Consider that working in an
the top of the beaker with a piece of alu- aseptic manner may take longer than when be-
minum foil. Keeping the alcohol beaker cov- ing less cautious. Reserve extra time to avoid
ered with such a piece of foil when not in use being rushed, which may result in spilling
will help reduce accidental fires and will slow or breaking important samples, dishes, or
evaporation. solutions.
A fire extinguisher should always be kept
nearby. Bench-Top Aseptic Work Using a
The tubing connecting the Bunsen burner to Bunsen Burner
the laboratory gas supply should be checked Before starting work, locate the gas and air
regularly. Latex rubber tubing tends to harden controls on the burner. They can be in different
and crack after exposure to air, making it a poor places on different models. In some cases, it
tubing choice. Silicone tubing (e.g., Tygon) is is necessary to use the laboratory gas valve
generally more durable. to control the gas flow rate. Once a Bunsen
Never use a Bunsen burner in a Class II burner has been adjusted for optimal air and
laminar flow hood. The heated air may disrupt gas flow, those settings can be left in place,
air flow and possibly damage the hood. making future usage more efficient.
Aseptic Technique
A.4D.6
Supplement 11 Current Protocols in Microbiology
1. Close the burner’s air control. If the 4. When finished using the burner, turn it
burner has its own gas control valve, shut it off at the laboratory gas valve. Do not leave a
and then open it allowing only small amount lit burner unattended.
of gas to get into the burner tube. CAUTION: Never leave a lit burner unat-
2. To ignite the gas using a flint-on-steel tended.
striker, hold it 2 to 3 cm above and slightly to
the side of the burner tube top. Squeeze and
release striker repeatedly until a spark ignites Handling and Pipetting Liquids
the flame. If using a match, light it and slowly All growth media, cultures, and sterile
bring it up from the bottom along the side of reagents should be manipulated inside the cone
the burner tube until the flame ignites. If a of heat that is created above and around a lit
match is stuck in the middle of the gas stream, Bunsen burner or within a laminar flow hood.
the high-pressure gas stream often blows out Bottles and test tubes should be arranged near
the flame before the burner can light. the burner but not directly within the flame.
3. If the initial flame is low on oxygen, it Brief (1 to 2 sec) flaming of the lips of tubes
is bushy orange in appearance and is not very and flasks should only be done when caps
hot (Fig. A.4D.2A,B). Open the air control are removed during transfer of liquids and
vent until the central blue cone of the flame cultures. This is especially important when
forms and a slight buzzing sound is audible the content is to be poured from a container
(Fig. A.4D.2C). If the flame is too small, grad- (e.g., pouring petri dishes or aliquots of large
ually increase both the supply of gas and air volumes of liquid).
flow to the burner. The hottest part of the flame The purpose of flaming is not to actually
is just above the central blue cone. sterilize, but to warm the opening and create
inoculating loop
hottest region (up to 1500 C))
A B C D
Figure A.4D.2 Adjusting the Bunsen burner and heating an inoculation loop. A lighted Bunsen burner with its air holes
closed produces a cool, yellow-orange flame (A). It is not particularly useful for heating things. The more the air holes are
open, the more blue and fierce the flame becomes (B,C). A properly adjusted Bunsen burner gives a blue flame containing
two cones: an outer, nonluminous pale blue cone and an inner, deeper blue cone (D). There is no combustion inside the
central cone. Temperatures in the part of the flame just above the central inner cone (where the inoculating loop is heated)
approach 1500◦ C. See text for more details.
Commonly Used
Methods for Cell
Culture
A.4D.7
Current Protocols in Microbiology Supplement 11
air convection currents up and away from the dust and other airborne contaminants. Pipets
opening. This canopy of warm, rising air helps should be removed in a manner that prevents
prevent the entrance of dust particles. Flaming the tips from contacting any potentially con-
should be performed immediately upon open- taminated surfaces. Remove pipets by insert-
ing and just before closing tubes and bottles. ing as little of the fingers as possible, and as
Lips of disposable plastic containers and con- the pipet is withdrawn, hold it away from any
tainers of flammable solutions should never be surface to prevent its contamination (including
flamed. Autoclaved beakers containing sterile the ends of other pipets, since they have come
wooden toothpicks do not have to be flamed. into contact with your hands, and are therefore
NOTE: The following instructions assume considered nonsterile).
the experimenter is right-handed. In the case Individually wrapped, presterilized plastic
of a left-handed individual, switch the hands pipets are an alternative to glass pipets, gen-
in the instructions from right to left, and vice erally inexpensive when purchased in small
versa. quantities, but expensive over long terms. Re-
member that the outsides of the wrappings are
Manipulating vessels containing liquids considered contaminated. Open from one end,
Most manipulations of cultures or sterile and then peel the wrapping backward, allow-
reagents in tubes, bottles, or flasks should be ing removal of the pipet without contact with
performed as follows: the outer surface. Bulk-wrapped, presterilized
1. Loosen closures (i.e., lids, caps, etc.) of pipets are somewhat less expensive, but it is
all containers prior to any manipulations. This often difficult to maintain sterility of the large
will ensure that a procedure will not have to quantities of pipets in each package.
be stopped midway.
2. Hold the container in your left hand at
a 45 degree angle, so that dust cannot fall in Using an Inoculating Loop
Before each use, an inoculating loop must
when it is open.
be sterilized using a burner, as follows:
3. Hold the instrument to be used for manip-
1. Place the junction between the loop wire
ulation (inoculating loop, pipet, needle, tooth-
and the handle just above the inner blue cone
pick, etc.) in the right hand.
(hottest point) until the wire turns red.
4. Grasp the container closure using the lit-
2. Slowly draw the wire through the blue
tle finger of your right hand, and lift from con-
flame, making sure that every part of the wire
tainer. Do not set the container closure down.
is heated to glowing red. The loop tip is heated
Doing so increases the risk of it becoming con-
last.
taminated from the bench top. Remember that
3. Cool the loop by making contact with
even a cleaned bench top is not sterile.
another sterile surface, e.g., an unused section
5. While continuing to hold the closure with
of an agar plate. Do not blow on the loop or
the little finger, lightly flame the container
wave it in the air to cool it. Such actions will
opening.
contaminate the loop.
6. Quickly manipulate the instrument into
4. The loop is now ready for immediate
the container, and then withdraw it.
use. Do not put the loop down or touch it to a
7. Lightly flame the container opening
nonsterile surface before using.
again.
5. Flame the loop again immediately after
8. Replace the container closure immedi-
use before setting it down.
ately.
As an alternative, presterilized inoculating
Transferring liquids from one test tube loops may be purchased. These are particu-
to another larly handy for use within a laminar flow hood,
1. Hold both tubes in the left hand. where a Bunsen burner should never be used.
2. Remove the closures from both tubes Plastic, disposable loops are available either
with little finger of right hand. individually wrapped or packaged in bulk.
3. Flame the lips of both tubes.
4. Take culture, reagent, etc., from first tube. Using Petri Dishes (Plates)
5. Add culture, reagent, etc., to second tube. Before pouring medium into sterile petri
6. Flame the lips of both tubes again. dishes, first remove the plates from their
7. Replace both closures. container (e.g., plastic sleeve), and arrange
them on the lab bench convenient to the
Storing and Using Pipets burner. Flame the lip of the container of lique-
Aseptic Technique Cans of sterile glass pipets should be kept in fied medium immediately before pouring the
horizontal positions, to reduce introduction of medium into the plates, and again after each
A.4D.8
Supplement 11 Current Protocols in Microbiology
5 to 10 plates that are poured. Remove petri allel layers at a uniform velocity with no dis-
dish lids only when needed for pouring the ruption between the layers. A cluttered hood
medium, and close immediately after. When or poor technique can easily overcome the de-
the lid is removed, it should be held over the sired airflow and reverse currents, potentially
plate as a shield and never placed on the bench introducing contaminants into the work area.
top Thoroughly read through the laminar flow
For all manipulations of cultures in petri unit supplier’s manual for detailed information
dishes, lids should be lifted for as short a time on the operation of a particular appliance, es-
as possible. Lids are never to be placed on the pecially with regard to the position of air ducts
bench top. Do not walk around the room with and the track of laminar flow.
an open plate. As with all other media, do not
breathe on open plates. Cleaning, disinfecting, and arranging
the space inside hood (before use)
Working in the Laminar Flow Unit Before starting work or re-entering the
An additional layer of security against hood, remove jewelry from the hands and
contamination is the use of a laminar flow wrists, tie long hair back, button up the labo-
hood. Although several modifications of the ratory coat, and roll up the coat sleeves. Wash
two major flow hood design types (horizontal your hands and forearms and don fresh dis-
and vertical) are commercially available (see posable gloves. Spray the exterior of gloves
Fig. A.4D.3), the vertical hood design is prob- with disinfectant and then rub the hands to-
ably the most commonly encountered nowa- gether before putting them inside the hood.
days. The major design concepts of both types Keep hands within the cleaned area of the hood
of hoods are similar. Room air is taken into as much as possible and do not touch hair,
the unit and passed through a prefilter to re- face, or clothing. Hand cleanliness is reduced
move gross contaminants (lint, dust, etc.). The each time bottles and other nonsterile items are
air is subsequently compressed and channeled touched, so the disinfecting procedure should
through the HEPA filter, which removes nearly be repeated periodically.
all of the bacteria from the air. Purified air To maintain efficient air flow, the Class II
flows out over the entire work surface in par- laminar flow hood should remain turned on
A horizontal B vertical
glass shield
work surface
intake
prefilter
work surface
Figure A.4D.3 Laminar flow hoods. Hoods with vertical (A) or horizontal (B) flow are the two major types of laminar flow
units. See text for details.
Commonly Used
Methods for Cell
Culture
A.4D.9
Current Protocols in Microbiology Supplement 11
24 hr a day. If turned off for any reason, it Remember that a laminar flow hood is not
should be turned on at least 30 min before use. a completely sterile environment. All the rules
The hood should be thoroughly cleaned before of aseptic work on the bench top apply to work
any use. Spray the working surface liberally in a hood. Minimize the time bottles or plates
with 70% (v/v) alcohol solution (denatured are open, avoid touching extraneous surfaces
ethanol or other industrial methylated spirit) with pipets, etc.
and swab immediately with lint-free wipes. In case of any spill, clean the work surface
Any object that is introduced into the lami- immediately with sterile, distilled water and
nar hood environment, even glassware or plas- follow by spraying liberally with alcohol. Use
tic containers marked as sterile, should be dis- a side to side motion, starting at the back of
infected by liberally spraying the outside with the hood and working forward.
70% ethanol. Always remove outer pouches If you fully comply with all the above in-
and wraps from disposable equipment (e.g., structions, chances for the introduction of sep-
pipets, loops, spreaders, cell scrapers) at the sis into the cultures or reagents are low. Never
edge of the work area just before the sterile become so engrossed in your work that you
contents are pulled into the hood. To help re- forget these basic rules.
duce introduction of contaminants from out-
side the hood, always keep a set of clean pipet-
Cleaning and disinfecting the space
tors inside for exclusive use.
inside hood (after use)
Leave a wide, clear space in the center
When finished using the hood, remove all
of the hood (not just the front edge) as a
unnecessary items, and then clean all surfaces
working surface. Arrange the area to have
by liberally spraying with 70% alcohol. Most
easy access to all of it without having to
laminar flow hoods are equipped with a UV
reach over one item to get another (especially
lamp, which helps kill introduced microor-
over an open bottle or flask). Reaching over
ganisms by irradiation. Since UV light is also
items increases chances of knocking things
harmful to humans, do not switch on the light
over, or transferring contamination through the
when anyone is working in the laboratory. Turn
workplace
on the UV light at the end of the work day to
Never place large objects near the back of
help keep down levels of potential contami-
the hood or clutter the area. Not only can these
nants.
objects contaminate everything downstream,
IMPORTANT NOTE: Before switching on
but they also disrupt the laminar flow pattern of
the UV light, remove all important samples
air, which normally suspends the contaminants
of living organisms to a sheltered location, so
and removes them from the area.
they are not affected by the harmful conditions.
A common mistake is to keep waste, old
cultures and media, empty boxes, notebooks,
manuals, protocols, pencils, and other unnec-
essary items inside the hood. Such objects TROUBLESHOOTING
should never be kept inside the laminar flow Most lapses in aseptic technique will be-
unit. come apparent by contaminations of cultures
or supposedly sterile media and reagents.
Working in a Class I or II laminar flow A simple method for checking the quality of
hood your aseptic technique is to perform manipula-
Perform all work at a distance of no less tions of medium without intentionally adding
than 6 in. from the front edge of the work bacteria. Incubate the medium overnight at
surface. At a lesser distance, laminar flow air 37o C, and then observe for signs of contami-
begins to mix with the outside air and contam- nant growth (e.g., turbidity).
ination is possible. A small amount of contamination is not al-
To ensure the proper air flow, maintain a ways evident until the medium is incubated
direct path between the filter and the area in- at an appropriate temperature or atmosphere
side the hood where the manipulations are be- conditions.
ing performed (nothing should touch the fil- Some bacterial cultures may grow briefly,
ter). Undesired turbulence may also be pro- then lyse. This may be due to bacteriophage
duced by coughing or sneezing into the hood, contamination as a result of poor aseptic tech-
quick movements, rotating, talking, etc. To nique. If this is suspected, thoroughly clean all
help keep air disturbances to a minimum, the laboratory benches and equipment with disin-
hood should be located out of the stream of fectants, and strengthen use of aseptic tech-
Aseptic Technique
traffic in the lab. niques.
A.4D.10
Supplement 11 Current Protocols in Microbiology
Many contaminations occur through the
poorly designed or defective air handling sys-
tems, possibly transferring microorganisms
from neighboring laboratories. Your facility’s
physical plant management should be con-
sulted if you suspect such possibilities, as your
laboratory’s air handling system may need to
be re-engineered.
Commonly Used
Methods for Cell
Culture
A.4D.11
Current Protocols in Microbiology Supplement 11