Student Name:- Kshitiz Gupta

Roll Number:- 1818748017

Subject Name:- Aerodynamics –II
Course Code: KAE-602
Year:- 3 RD YEAR Semester:- VI (6TH )

(Assignment contain 4 and 5)

 (Assignment -4)
1. Velocity measurement method in wind tunnel are
a) Hot wire Anemometery & Interferometer.
b) Laser Doppler Velocimetry & Particle Image Velocimetry
c) Particle Image Velocimetry & Shadowgraph
d) Laser Doppler Velocimetry & Venturimeter
Ans:- a) Hot wire Anemometery & Interferometer.
2. Which are important are non-dimensional parameters in wind tunnel?
a) Reynolds Number & Euler Number
b) Euler Number & Mach Number
c) Reynolds Number & Mach Number
d) Fraud Number & Waver Number
Ans:- a) Reynolds Number & Euler Number
3. What is mean by Wind Tunnel Balancing?
a) Force Balancing & Test section balancing
b) Force & Drag Balancing
c) Lift & Drag Balancing
d) Pitching momentum & Force Balancing
Ans:- d) Pitching momentum & Force Balancing

4. Highest total pressure loss occurs across is

a) Normal shock wave
b) Strong oblique shock wave
c) Weak oblique shock wave
d) Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan
Ans:- a) Normal shock wave
5. Two similar airfoils are tested in a subsonic wind tunnel at similar conditions. The chord of
second is double the first. Sectional Lift Coefficient of second is.............. the first.
a) double
b) same as
c) half
d) four times
Ans:- b) same as
Q-1 Explain different types of wind tunnel according to speed and write the advantages
and disadvantages.
Ans. There are many different kinds of wind tunnels. They are typically classified by the
range of speeds that are achieved in the test section, as follows:
Low-speed wind tunnel
High speed wind tunnel
Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
Supersonic wind tunnel
Hypersonic wind tunnel
Low Subsonic tunnel:

Low-speed wind tunnels are used for operations at very low Mach number, with speeds in
the test section up to 480 km/h (~ 134 m/s, M = 0.4). They may be of open-return type or
closed-return flow (also known as the Prandtl type) with air moved by a propulsion system
usually consisting of large axial fans that increase the dynamic pressure to overcome the
viscous losses.

Transonic tunnel: High subsonic wind tunnels (0.4 < M < 0.75) and transonic wind tunnels
(0.75 < M < 1.2) are designed on the same principles as the subsonic wind tunnels. The
highest speed is reached in the test section. The Mach number is approximately 1 with
combined subsonic and supersonic flow regions. Testing at transonic speeds presents
additional problems, mainly due to the reflection of the shock waves from the walls of the
test section. Therefore, perforated or slotted walls are required to reduce shock reflection
from the walls. Since important viscous or inviscid interactions occur (such as shock waves
or boundary layer interaction) both Mach and Reynolds number are important and must be
properly simulated. Large-scale facilities and pressurized or cryogenic wind tunnels are
used.
Supersonic wind tunnel: A supersonic wind tunnel is a wind tunnel that produces supersonic
speeds (1.2<M<5) The Mach number and flow are determined by the nozzle geometry. The
Reynolds number is varied by changing the density level (pressure in the settling chamber).
Therefore, a high pressure ratio is required (for a supersonic regime at M=4, this ratio is of
the order of 10). Apart from that, condensation of moisture or even gas liquefaction can
occur if the static temperature becomes cold enough. This means that a supersonic wind
tunnel usually needs a drying or a pre-heating facility. A supersonic wind tunnel has a large
power demand, so most are designed for intermittent instead of continuous operation.

Hypersonic wind Tunnel: A hypersonic wind tunnel is designed to generate a hypersonic

flow field in the working section, thus simulating the typical flow features of this flow
regime - including compression shocks and pronounced boundary layer effects, entropy
layer and viscous interaction zones and most importantly high total temperatures of the
flow. The speed of these tunnels vary from Mach 5 to 15. The power requirement of a wind
tunnel increases with the cross section, the flow density and is directly proportional to the
third power of the test velocity. Hence installation of a continuous, closed circuit wind
tunnel remains a costly affair.

Advantages:

 Easier, cheaper way to conduct experiments rather than flight tests.

 Many parameters are adjustable (wind speed, in certain wind tunnels also
temperature and pressure).
 Really clean, steady, laminar flow can be achieved.
 Fluid flow can be made visible with some mist, Schlieren, PIV or other methods.
 Instrumentation on the model can be more extensive than in flight tests.

Drawbacks:

 Limitation in size - almost everything has to be scaled down, which changes the
aerodynamic characteristics like Reynold’s number.
 Limitation in motions - aircraft maneuvers are difficult to simulate.
 Wind tunnel walls influences the flow - boundary layer and some sort of clogging.
 However both effects can be reduced with more expensive wind tunnel components.

Q-2 Explain working of various parts wind tunnel and their applications.

Modern tunnels provide much smoother airflow thanks to a fundamental design that
incorporates five basic sections:

the settling chamber,

contraction cone,
test section,
diffuser and
drive section.
Air is a swirling, chaotic mess as it enters the tunnel. The settling chamber does exactly what
its name implies: It helps to settle and straighten the air, often through the use of panels
with honeycomb-shaped holes or even a mesh screen. The air is then immediately forced
through the contraction cone, a constricted space that greatly increases airflow velocity.

Engineers place their scaled models in the test section, which is where sensors record data
and scientists make visual observations. The air subsequently flows into the diffuser, which
has a conical shape that widens, and thus, smoothly slows the air's velocity without causing
turbulence in the test section.
The drive section houses the axial fan that creates high-speed airflow. This fan is always
placed downstream of the test section, at the end of the tunnel, rather than at the
entrance. This setup allows the fan to pull air into a smooth stream instead of pushing it,
which would result in much choppier airflow.
Most wind tunnels are just long, straight boxes, or open-circuit (open-return) tunnels.
However, some are built in closed circuits (or closed return), which are basically ovals that
send the air around and around the same path, like a racetrack, using vanes and honeycomb
panels to precisely guide and direct the flow.
The walls of the tunnel are exceedingly smooth because any imperfections could act as
speed bumps and cause turbulence. Most wind tunnels are also moderately sized and small
enough to fit into a university science lab, which means that test objects must be scaled
down to fit into the tunnel. These scale models might be entire airplanes in miniature, built
(at great expense) with exacting precision. Or they might just be a single part of an airplane
wing or other product.

Engineers mount models into the test section using different methods, but usually, the
models are kept stationary using wires or metal poles, which are placed behind the model
to avoid causing disruptions in the airflow They may attach sensors to the model that record
wind velocity, temperature, air pressure and other variables.

Q-3 What is smoke tunnel? comparison between smoke tunnel and wind tunnel.

An experimental wind tunnel in which air movements are observed by means of smoke
filaments released at suitable points, It is a form of wind tunnel using thin jets of smoke to
show the motion of air.
A fan in the smoke tunnel draws smoke into the interior of the housing adjacent a smoke
detection device.

Comparison:
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the
interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground.
Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. while,
smoke flow and tufts being used on the flight vehicle, but the techniques are used more
often in wind tunnel testing. Smoke is used to visualize the flow that is away from the
surface of the model. Smoke can be used to detect vortices and regions of separated flow.
Q-4 Explain the concept of wind tunnel balancing and correction.
A wind tunnel balancing consist of a device that measures the aerodynamic loads a model
experience during a wind tunnel test. A balance is just a multiple axis force transducer.
Balances are designed to measure some or all of the three forces and three moments a
model experience. In aerodynamics terms, these forces and moments are called: Normal,
Side, and Axial Force and Pitch, Yaw, and Rolling moment.

Blockage corrections for the experimental results obtained for a small-scale wind turbine in
a wind tunnel are required in order to estimate how the same turbine would perform in real
conditions. The tunnel blockage is defined as the ratio of the wind turbine swept area to the
wind tunnel cross-section area.
Q-5 Explain any one Method for velocity measurement in wind tunnel.

Anemometers with wings operate like hydrometric wing. They are used for measuring flow
velocity in wind tunnels. Most famous anemometer with wings is Woltman-cycle, where the
rotation velocity of the cycle is equal to the flow velocity through the cycle. In the tube
anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually
graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due
to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to
obtain the actual wind speed.

Q-6 Explain any one Method for pressure measurement in wind tunnel.
To measure the pressure, long thin tubes connect the taps to a pressure transducer located
outside of the wind tunnel model. In this figure, the transducer is shown in a schematic
drawing. The transducer measures the difference in pressure between the pressure in the
tube and a reference pressure.
Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels. Air velocity through
the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic
pressure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the
airflow.
 (Assignment -5)
1. Why does helicopter have huge rotors?
a) Induced power is inversely proportional to rotor radius.
b) Power is Directly proportional to rotor radius Wing Loading.
c) inversely proportional to rotor radius Wing Loading is Directly
d) Proportional to rotor radius.
Ans:- a) Induced power is inversely proportional to rotor radius.
2. Induced power is directly proportional to rotor radius?
a) Quadcopter
b) Helicopter
c) Airplane
d) Cylocopter.
Ans:- b) Helicopter
3. How are the aerodynamic forces of the rotor controlled?
a) Feathering motion
b) Lag motion
c) Flap motion
d) Yaw motion
Ans:- a) Feathering motion

4. Fans develop their highest efficiency when in a relatively to

a) low speed flow
b) high speed flow
c) transonic flow
d) hypersonic flow
Ans:- b) high speed flow
5. Which of the following are functions of the tail rotor?
a) Lateral control & Sideways flight
b) Compensation for torque & Longitudinal control Lateral
c) control & Longitudinal control Compensation for
d) torque & Sideways flight
Ans:- b) Compensation for torque & Longitudinal control Lateral.
6. What does the cyclic pitch control of a helicopter do?
a) Tilts the tip path plane in the direction of desired movement.
b) Changes pitch on both blades equally.
c) Controls rotor RPM and manifold pressure Controls
d) Rotor RPM and Changes pitch.
Ans:- b) Changes pitch on both blades equally.
7. When increased the hovering efficiency, which parameter must be taken care of
a) High power by thrust ratio
b) High thrust by area ratio
c) Low induced drag
d) High rotor tip speed
Ans:- a) High power by thrust ratio
8. Whom are developed the momentum and propeller momentum theory
a) D. Bernoulli & Fraud & M Rankin
b) L. Euler & Fraud & M Rankin
c) D. Bernoulli & J. Kutta.
d) J. Kutta. & L. Euler.
Ans:- b) L. Euler & Fraud & M Rankin

Q-1 Enumerate the Fraud Momentum or Actuator disc momentum equations and
comparison with momentum equation.

Ans - In fluid dynamics, momentum theory or disk actuator theory is a theory describing a
mathematical model of an ideal actuator disk, such as a propeller or helicopter rotor.

The rotor is modeled as an infinitely thin disc, inducing a constant velocity along the axis
of rotation. The basic state of a helicopter is hovering. This disc creates a flow around the
rotor. Under certain mathematical premises of the fluid, there can be extracted a
mathematical connection between power, radius of the rotor, torque and induced
velocity. Friction is not included.

A device which converts the translational energy of the fluid into rotational energy of the
axis or vice versa is called a Rankine disk actuator. The real life implementations of such
devices are e.g. marine and aviation propellers, windmills, helicopter rotors, centrifugal
pumps, wind turbines, turbochargers and chemical agitators.

Q-2 Enumerate the airscrew coefficients and their applications.

The performance of an airscrew may be determined by model tests. As is the case with all
model tests it is necessary to find some way of relating these to the full-scale performance,
and dimensional analysis is used for this purpose. This leads to a number of coefficients,
analogous to the lift and drag coefficients of a body. These coefficients also serve as a very
convenient way of presenting airscrew performance data, which may be calculated by
blade-element theory, for use in aircraft design.
T = Cpn2D4h(Re, M, J)
The constant C and the function h(Re, M, J) are usually collected together, and denoted by
кт, the thrust coefficient. Thus, finally.

T = kTpn2D4
кт being a dimensionless quantity dependent on the airscrew design, and on Re, M and J.
This dependence may be found experimentally, or by the blade-element theory.

Q-3 What is blade elementary theory? Enumerate equations of blade elementary.

Blade element theory is particularly useful for studying airfoil and rotor performance. The
forces and moments developed on a uniform wing are modeled by the lift force, drag force,
and pitching moment. For a rotor with angular velocity ω, the linear velocity at each point
along the rotor is proportional to the radial distance from the rotor shaft.
Using the blade elemental lift and drag characteristics the working capacity of the

blade element may be found as :

Thrust produced,

dT = dL .cos φ – dD .sin φ
= ½ .ρ .VR 2 .c.dr. (Cl cos φ – Cd sin φ)

Torque to be supplied,
dQ = (dL .sin φ + dD .cos φ). r
= ½ .ρ.VR
2 .c.dr.(Cl .sin φ + Cd .cos φ)

Substituting for Resultant inflow velocity Incident and aligned to the blade element,
VR = V∞ /Sin φ,

and for Incoming flow Dynamic head based on forward velocity of the element
q = ½ ρ V∞2

Q-4 Explain the concept of hovering and climbing of a helicopter.

Hovering is when the helicopter is flown so that it maintains a constant position over the
ground. It is the main capability which differentiates helicopters from airplanes.

a helicopter generates its own gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage and
flight control surfaces. The end result is constant control inputs and corrections by the pilot
to keep the helicopter where it is required to be. Despite the complexity of the task, the
control inputs in Hovering are simple.
When in straight-and-level flight, any increase in the collective, while holding airspeed
constant, causes the helicopter to climb. A decrease in the collective, while holding airspeed
constant, causes the helicopter to descend. A change in the collective requires a
coordinated change of the throttle to maintain a constant rpm. Additionally, the antitorque
pedals need to keep the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis.

Q-5 Explain Methods of control collective and cyclic pitch and changes ‐ Lead ‐ Lag flapping
hinges of helicopters.

Name: Collective
Directly controls: Collective angle of attack for the rotor main blades via the swashplate.

Primary effect: Increase/decrease pitch angle of all main rotor blades equally, causing the
aircraft to ascend/descend.
Secondary effect: Increase/decrease torque. Note: in some helicopters the throttle
control(s) is a part of the collective stick. Rotor speed is kept basically constant throughout
the flight.

Used in forward flight: To adjust power through rotor blade pitch setting .
Used in Hover flight: To adjust skid height/vertical speed.

2) Name: Anti-torque pedals

Directly controls: Collective pitch supplied to tail rotor blades.

Primary effect: Yaw rate.

Secondary effect: Increase/decrease torque and engine speed (less than collective).

Used in forward flight: To adjust sideslip angle.

Used in Hover flight: To control yaw rate/heading.

3) Name: Cyclic(longitudinal)
Directly controls: Varies main rotor blade pitch with fore and aft movement .

Primary effect: Tilts main rotor disk forward and back via the swashplate.

Secondary effect: Induces pitch nose down or up .

Used in forward flight: To adjust forward speed and control rolled-turn.

Used in Hover flight: To move forwards/backwards.

4) Name: Cyclic(lateral)
Directly controls: Varies main rotor blade pitch with left and right movement.

Primary effect: Tilts main rotor disk left and right through the swashplate.
Secondary effect: Induces roll in direction moved .

Used in forward flight: To create movement to sides.

Used in Hover flight: To move sideways.

The blades are allowed to flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each other. The
horizontal hinge, called the flapping hinge, allows the blade to move up and down. This
movement is called flapping and is designed to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. The
flapping hinge may be located at varying distances from the rotor hub, and there may be
more than one hinge. The vertical hinge, called the lead-lag hinge or drag hinge, allows the
blade to move back and forth. This movement is called lead-lag, dragging, or hunting.

The third hinge in the fully articulated system is called the feathering hinge about the
feathering axis. This hinge is responsible for the change in pitch of rotor blades excited via
pilot input to the collective or cyclic.
Q-6 Explain procedure of calculation of maximum lift and Induced Power of the helicopter.

The lift formula or equation is CL ½ p V2 S.

This formula is used to quantify the factors or components that influence lift production.
The factors are coefficient of lift, air density, velocity, and surface area. Not all factors of the
equation are equal.

CL is the coefficient of lift. In general, this is the angle of attack on the rotor blade. Until the
stalling angle is reached, an increase in the CL will produce more lift.

½ p V2 This section of the formula is Dynamic Energy or Kinetic Energy. Basically,

dynamic/kinetic energy is derived from the movement of air. The p is for pressure or air
density.* The greater the density (lower pressure altitude) the more lift produced.

V2 is for velocity or the rotor RPM with regards to helicopter flight. As referenced by the
squared component, velocity is a major factor in lift production. A slight change in velocity
can have a significant impact on lift. This fact is one reason that low rotor RPM is a
significant issue with helicopters.
S stands for surface area. In helicopter flight, the surface area of the rotor blades does not
change. Unlike fixed-wing aircraft, rotor systems do not have flaps that can increase or
decrease the surface area.**

* The p is m for mass in some equations. With reference to lift, mass is the density of the
air.
Induced power is the power required to overcome the drag developed during the creation
of rotor thrust. With an increase in angle of attack, the airflow that moves down through
the rotor causes the total reaction lift vector of the blade to tilt rearwards, creating induced
drag.

Induced power is consumed to produce lift equal to the weight of the helicopter. From the
simple 1-D momentum theory the induced power of the rotor, Pi , can be approximated as

Pi=k⋅T⋅vi

where k is the familiar empirical correction to account for a multitude of aerodynamic

phenomena, mainly those resulting from tip losses and nonuniform inflow, and vi is induced
velocity.