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Microbial Treatment Strategies
for Waste Management
Editor: Manikant Tripathi
OMICS eBooks
International
Dedicated to My Parents and Teachers,
Please incorporate it here.
Microbial Treatment Strategies
for Waste Management
Editor
Manikant Tripathi
Centre of Excellence, Department of Microbiology.
ISBN: 978-1-63278-079-9
DOI: 10.4172/978-1-63278-079-9
Published: September 2019

Printed: September 2019
Published by OMICS International

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III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is an immense pleasure to acknowledge the contributors who assisted in the

preparation of this edited book. I thank each of the authors for dedicating their
time and effort toward this book. I am thankful to all those who helped directly
or indirectly in the accomplishment of this work with their valuable guidance.
I express my deep gratitude to OMICS eBooks International publisher for their
excellent support. Special thanks to Christine for her advices and constant
coordination throughout publication process. I am also thankful to all my teachers
and family members for their ever blessings and supports.
Copyright © 2019 OMICS International
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IV
PREFACE
Population growth with global industrialization has caused major pressure on our
environment. The pollutants discharged from industries have harmful effects on
living beings throughout the biosphere most notably in soils, water and sediments.
Majority of the chemical contaminants entering into the ecosystems affect animals,
plants, and exerts serious health and ecological problems. Many toxic chemical
wastes include pesticides (agriculture), organic and inorganic (industries) and
household (domestic) wastes. Though, rapid industrialization and faster growth
rate are the requirements of a developing country. Thus, a holistic approach with
environmental consideration is essential for sustainable development. Sustainable
industrial development with environmentally sound green and cleaner production
is the major challenges for the next century.
Training programmes pertaining to environmental pollutants clean-up are needed
in which both the public and private sectors should participate. The important
strategies which are useful in the management of contaminants in the environment
include in-process treatment, end-of-pipe treatment, remediation of polluted
sites, modification of existing processes and introduction of new processes and
products. Several techniques are available for clean-up purposes, only some of
them have been proved to be routine application value. The technologies employed
for environmental pollutant clean-up are based on certain criteria such as whether
the technique offers a temporary solution or permanent one, cost effectiveness,
total elimination of pollutants, environment friendly and time taken for remediation
of contaminants.
Microorganisms are versatile in nature and adaptive to the changing environment.
The diverse metabolic activities of microorganisms are typically employed for
safe removal of environmental pollutants either through direct remediation or
indirectly through a transformation of the contaminants to a safer level. Other
physical and chemical treatment processes were also employed for pollution clean-
up. But, the physicochemical processes are not cost effective and ecofriendly.
Microbial treatment offers a green and cheap biological process for remediation of
environmental contaminants.
Among the biological methods, bioremediation has evolved as the most promising
one because of its economical, safe and environment friendly process for treating
organic and inorganic pollutants from various industries such as tanneries, pulp-
paper mill effluent, distillery effluent, biomedical wastes, domestic wastes, etc.
Microbial remediation of environmental contaminants has received increasing
attention as an effective biotechnological approach to clean up a polluted environment.
This book is intended to inculcate the present status, feasibility, and the significance
of microbial bioremediation strategies of industrial wastes to the academicians,
industrialists, students, researchers, environmentalists, agriculturalists,
professionals and the people who are enthusiastic to conserve the nature.
Manikant Tripathi
V
Authors
Dr. Manikant Tripathi
Assistant Professor (Guest)
DST-FIST Supported Department of Microbiology
Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh, University, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA
Dr. Rajeeva Gaur
Professor
Department of Microbiology
Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA
Dr. Shailendra Kumar
Associate Professor
DST-FIST Supported Department of Microbiology
Dr. Shashi Kant Yadav
Programme Coordinator
Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology
Kumarganj, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA
Dr. Rajeeva Pandey
Ex-Assistant Professor
Addis Adaba University
Ethopia
Dr. Soni Tiwari
UGC-DS Kothari Post Doctoral Fellowship
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, INDIA
Dr. Rudra Pratap Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Sciences
Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma
Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Sciences
Jhunjhunwala P.G. College, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA
Poonam Tripathi
M.Sc. Microbiology
Manisha Verma
M.Sc. Microbiology
Sarah Fatima
M.Sc. Microbiology
VI
CONTENTS
PREFACE VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VII
Chapter 1
Modern Biological Methods for Treatment of Tannery Effluent
1
Manikant Tripathi, Shailendra Kumar, Shashi Kant Yadav, Rajeeva
Pandey, Poonam Tripathi, Manisha Verma
Chapter 2
Biomedical Waste and its Management 10
Pradeep Kumar Sharma, Manikant Tripathi, Sarah Fatima
Chapter 3
The Application of Microbial Enzymes in Distillery Spentwash
19
Decolorization
Soni Tiwari, Rajeeva Gaur
Chapter 4
Advanced Treatment Technologies for Electronics Waste (E-waste) 29
Rudra Pratap Singh, Manikant Tripathi
VII
List of Abbreviations
AC: Air Conditioner

BAN: Basel Action Network
BIS: Bureau of Indian standards
BMW: Bio Medical Waste
BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPCB: Central Pollution Control Board
Cr: Chromium
CRTs: Cathode Ray Tubes
DO: Dissolved Oxygen
EPA: Environmental Protection Act
E-Waste: Electronic Waste
EU-WEEE: European Union Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment
IS: International Standard
IT: Information Technology
Kd: Kilo Dalton
LIP: Lignin Peroxidase
MNP: Mangnese Peroxidase
MOEF: Ministry of Environment and Forests
OECD: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development
PAH: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Pb: Lead
PBDE: Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers
PCB: Printed Circuit Board
pH: Hydrogen ion concentration
POP: Persistent Organic Pollutants
StEP: Solving the E-waste Problem
TDS: Total Dissolved Solid
TV: Television
USD: United States Dollar
VIII
Chapter 1
Modern Biological Methods for

Treatment of Tannery Effluent
Manikant Tripathi1*, Shailendra Kumar1, Shashi Kant Yadav2, Rajeeva
Pandey3, Poonam Tripathi1, Manisha Verma1
1
*Centre of Excellence, Department of Microbiology, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh
University, Faizabad-224001 UP, India
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Masoudha, Faizabad-224001 UP, India
3
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University,
Faizabad-224001 UP, India
Corresponding author: Manikant Tripathi, E-mail: manikant.microbio@gmail.com

*
Abstract
Industrialization is increasing every day in India. The environment is polluting
because of improper treated or untreated solid and liquid wastes discharged
from tanneries. Tanneries are one of the most polluting industries mainly
causing chromium and chloroorganics’ pollution in the environment. Such toxic
wastewater is polluting soil and groundwater that pose a serious health threat
to plants, human and animals. Several treatment techniques are used for the
cleanup of organic and inorganic toxicants present in such effluent. Conventional
physico-chemical treatment methods are costly and remediate toxicants from
the wastewater to some extent. They also generate a problem of secondary
pollution. Bioremediation (such as biosorption, bioaccumulation, bioreduction,
biostimulation and bioaugmentation) offers a practicable alternative as a means
to clean toxic chemicals from tannery effluent. These processes are influenced by
change in environmental factors. This article includes the various aspects of bio-
treatment of wastewater discharged from leather industry.
Keywords: Bioremediation; Chromium; Environment; Pollution; Tannery waste.
Introduction
Environmental pollution by toxicants results largely due to industrial activities.
Such toxic chemicals, once mobilized into the environment, they tend to persist,
circulate and eventually accumulate at different trophic levels of the food chain.
These pollutants pose a serious threat to the environment, and affect plants, animals
and humans (Garg et al. 2012). The problems linked with wastewater disposal
can generally be attributed to lack of satisfactory treatment policies, coupled with
Microbial Treatment trategies for Waste Management, Editor: Manikant Tripathi

Copyrights © 2019 OMICS International. All rights reserved.
1
ineffective legislation on the part of entrusted governmental regulatory authorities
(Garg et al. 2012).
Tanning industries convert animal skins and hides into leather employing
chromium compounds. The discharge of chromium-laden wastewater has
contaminated soils, sediments, and surface and ground waters. Other sources
of chromium pollution originate from metal finishing, petroleum refining, iron
and steel production, inorganic chemicals production and textile manufacturing
industries. Chromium waste discharged into the environment through many ways
such as pipe leakage, improper treatment and disposal practices. Cr6+ is toxicity,
carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic and designated chromium as a one of the
priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (Garg et
al. 2012).
In India, there are more than 2500 tanneries and most of them (~80%) are
engaged in chromium tanning process (Shukla et al. 2009).Tanning is the process
of treating skins and hide of animals to produce leather. Tanning hide into leather
involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making
it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition, and also possibly colouring
it. Chromium exhibit a wide range of possible oxidation state where the +3 state is
most stable energetically; the +3 and +6 oxidation states are the most commonly
found in chromium compound. The hexavalent chromium are more toxic than
trivalent chromium compound in term of solubility in water, permeability through
biological membrane and it is interaction with cellular protein and nucleic acid.
Cr is also an essential mineral which directly involve in carbohydrate, fat and
protein metabolism. However, at high concentration it is toxic, carcinogenic and
teratogenic. It is the major pollutants are being discharged from various industries
such as leather tanning industry, dyes and pigment manufacturing, wood
preservation and stainless steel production. In India, the standard limit for Cr6+
discharge in inland surface waters is 0.1 mg L-1 (IS: 2296; IS: 2490) (Bhide et al.
1996). Cr6+ is a strong oxidizing agent that reacts with nucleic acids and other cell
components to produce mutagenic and carcinogenic effects on biological systems
(McLean and Beveridge 2001).
There are several strategies (physical, chemical and biological) for treating
effluent contaminated with such organic and inorganic pollutants. However,
physical and chemical methods are not cost effective and eco-friendly. Whereas,
bioremediation offers a cost effective clean up approach to remove the organic
and inorganic toxicants from polluted sites. Microbes play a significant and
vital role in bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil and wastewater.
The bacterial growth occurs at temperature range from 20°C to 37°C. Naturally
occurring chromium in soil ranges from 10 to 50 mg kg-1. Its solubility, mobility
and bioavailability in soil strongly depend on the various oxidation states from -2
to +6. Depending on its oxidation state and concentration, chromium act as a toxic
or essential element for living organism.
Tannery industries consume a considerable amount of water in their
manufacturing process and serve as major sources of tanned and untanned solid
waste and liquid effluent which contain high organic Pb, salt and chromium.
Dissolve organic content consume a large amount of oxygen, and increase BOD
level produce organic acid and hydrolysis of these organic acid causes the decrease
2
in pH value. High BOD, TDS content cause decrease in DO (dissolve oxygen) of the
water system creating stress condition of the aquatic living organism (Kambole
2003).
Human health, fishes and other aquatic biodiversities are at risk of serious
threat because of the extensive use of chromium in tanning industries and
discharge of wastewater (Mohanta et al. 2010). Its deficit may lead to some disorder
in the growth and photosynthesis of plants to Plants play an important role in
environment. A biotic organism completely depends upon plants for the source of
food. Ecosystems are the connections among organisms and their environment
(Chowdhury et al. 2004). The hexavalent chromium is one of the heavy metals
cause carcinogenicity, and they are toxic to biotic organism. Chromium is present
in all plant tissues as an essential element, which means that both its deficiency
and excess can cause negative concequences to plants (Shanker et al. 2005). The
excess of chromium causes toxic symptoms in plants, such as disturbed water
balance (Wilting of leaves), chlorosis of young leaves and damage to the growth
apex and roots (Pederno et al. 1997). The leather industry is the major cause of
high influx of chromium to the biosphere, accounting for 40% of the total industrial
use. The toxicity of Cr6+ strongly depends on its concentration in the soil and its
uptake mechanism. A high concentration of chromium was found to be harmful
for plant life, reducing the protein contents, inhibiting the enzyme activity, and
causing chlorosis and necrosis.
Toxicity of hexavalent chromium affects adversely on plant growth and
development such as the germination process as well as in the growth of roots, stem
and leaves. Chromium also causes harmful effect on plant such as photosynthesis.
Cr6+ is considered the most toxic form of Cr, which is generally associated with
oxygen as chromite (CrO42--) or dichromate (Cr2O72-) oxyanions, Whereas Cr3+ is
insoluble in water, less toxic and mainly bound to organics in soil and aquatic
environments (Becquer et al. 2003).The contamination of soil and ground water is
due to the use of the toxicant and soluble Cr6+. The toxicity of Cr6+ posesa serious
threat to the environment and become a critical concern for plants, animals and
humans. Chromium is an essential metal which is participate in the metabolism
of glucose in humans and animals. The toxicity of Cr6+ can be remediated through
remediation techniques such as bioreduction, bioaccumulation, biosorption, and
immobilization of metal on matrix such as agarose, polyacrylamide, and sodium
alginate. Many microbes such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are reported by
several researchers for the treatment of Cr6+ polluted sites.
`Bioremediation is a process in which microorganisms are used to reduce
or eliminate an undesirable chemical contaminant. The major advantages of
bioremediation over conventional physicochemical and biological treatment
methods include low cost, good efficiency, minimization of chemicals, reduced
amounts of secondary sludge, regeneration of biosorbent and the possibility of
recovering the pollutant metal(s). Field-related studies that utilize microorganisms
for toxic metal remediation have been more sparse, but are now becoming more
prevalent. However, when undertaking field-scale bioremediation studies, it is
essential to conduct pilot scale research for the purpose of evolving an appropriate
management strategy, before starting actual field bioremediation (Garg et al.
2012). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss on biological methods for treating
tannery waste.
3
Physicochemical Properties of Tannery Effluent
The effluent released from tannery industry was turbid, brown in colour and
had an offensive odour. The colour of the effluent might be due to the presence of
biodegradable and non-biodegradable high molecular weight of organic compounds
and high amount of inorganic chemicals like sodium and chromium used during
the processing and odour may be due to the putrefaction of organic residues from
the processed skin and hides. The yellowish brown colour might be due to the
hindering the penetration of sunlight causing depletion in the rate of oxidation
process (Zahid et al. 2006; Ravibabu et al. 2007). The turbidity of of the effluent
might be due to the discharge of high concentrations of carbonates, bicarbonates
and chlorides of calcium, magnesium and sodium (Chakrapani 2005). The normal
pH range of water should be between 6.0 and 8.0 [Bureau of Indian standards
(BIS)]. The effluent had a high pH when compared to normal water indicating the
alkaline nature of the effluent due to the presence of high concentrations of salts of
sodium, potassium, chromium etc. (Voo and James 2002). The presence of higher
level of total suspended solids and total dissolved salts in the effluent might be
due to the presence of insoluble organic matter from the animal skin and unused
inorganic salts used for tanning (Nagarajan et al. 2005). The level of sodium and
potassium in the tannery effluent was found to be 2300 mg/L. Chromium and
sulfide are the most hazardous component of the tanneries effluent. The use of
excessive amounts of these chemicals in tanning process give rise to their high
concentrations in the effluent. Due to carcinogenic nature of chromium the
recommended limit for maximum amount of chromium in the effluent sample is
1.0 mg/L (Bhalli andQuiser 2006).
Treatment Methods for Wastewater

Wastewater causes water and soil pollution. Tanning industry is one of the
major industries of the world and the problem of treatment and disposal of these
wastes. Tanneries wastewater is treated in many ways. Conventional treatment
process includes primary, secondary and tertiary steps for wastewater treatment
on site. Treatment is necessary for removal of toxicants present in tannery
effluents and sludge. The basic effluent treatment principles and stages are quite
similar, worldwide and typically comprise: primary treatment involves segregation
of settleable solids: mechanical pre-treatment, including grease and grit removal,
solids separation by sedimentation, dewatering and disposal of the primary sludge
(plate and belt filter presses). Secondary (biological) treatment involves activated
sludge-based biological treatment to eliminate organic matter and forced aeration
by surface aerators and recycling of the activated sludge (floc).
However, the significant differences can be encountered in the level of
sophistication of the equipment installed, the extent of on- and off-line monitoring
and the way in which the method is implemented. For the same cause, performance
as well as investment and running costs also vary considerably. Tertiary treatment
employs extensive chemicals treatment, including Fenton/wet oxidation, mainly
to destroy the hard to break, residual COD. Effluent treatment includes both
physicochemical and biological methods (Fig. 1.1).
4
Figure 1.1. Different strategies including bioremediation for treating tannery wastes
Nowadays, bioremediation is an attractive alternative pollution mitigation

strategy that offers the possibility of using living entities to destroy or render
harmless various contaminants. Bioremediation process may be achieved at
relatively low cost with high efficiency. Moreover, bioremediation generally has
high public acceptance, and can often be carried out on site. By definition,
bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microbes, to degrade or
remove environmental contaminants and render them into non-toxic or less-toxic
forms. The microbes used in bioremediation may be indigenous to a contaminated
area or they may be isolated from other sources and brought to a contaminated
site. When microbes are added onto a polluted location to enhance remediation,
the process is referred to as bioaugmentation (Vidali 2001).
Microbes used for bioremediation, including Bacillus, Enterobacter, Escherichia,
Pseudomonas species; moreover, few yeasts and molds are also useful in
biotreatment of chromium-contaminated soil and water because they are capable
of biosorbing and bioaccumulating chromium (Garg et al. 2012). Nowadays,
genetic engineering of cells to alter their morphological and physiological features
has enhanced microbes in ways that may contribute to bioremediation efforts. The
use of non-expensive waste biomass, the low cost of biomass immobilization and
the possibility of biomass regeneration are key factors that should be considered in
selecting bioremediation as a strategy for removing toxic metals from wastewater
(Quintelas and Tavares 2001).
Factors such as pH, temperature, pollutant concentration, contact time,
inoculum concentration, co-existence of other heavy metals, presence of carbon-
nitrogen sources and other kinetic parameters may affect the performance of
bioremediation, and hence, must be considered before choosing bioremediation
as the preferred option at any particular location. Such factors regulate the
performance of applied treatment strategies in environment that are polluted by
various organic and inorganic pollutants.
Bioremediation Methods
Bioremediation process uses bacteria, algae and fungi or plants to degrade or
detoxify substances that are hazardous to human health or to the environment.
Bioremediation processes include biosorption, bioaccumulation and bioreduction
that are used to treat tannery waste. These are discussed in the following sections.
5
Biosorption
Biosorption is defined as “a non-directed physicochemical interaction that
may occur between metal/radionuclide species and the cellular components of
biological species”. Heavy metal ions can be entrapped in the cellular structure of
such organisms and subsequently be biosorbed onto binding sites present on it.
Biosorbents contain a variety of functional groups, including carboxyl, imadizole,
sulfhydril, amino, phosphates, sulfate, thioether, phenol, carbonyl, amide, hydroxyl
moieties, etc (Garg et al. 2012).
Biosorption is metabolism- dependent when living biomass is employed, and
metabolism-independent in dead cells. The biosorption process always involves
a solid phase which serves as the biosorbent (various biological materials). Due
to higher affinity of the sorbent for the sorbate species, the sorbate is attracted
and bound there by several mechanisms. The adsorption process continues until
equilibrium is established between the sorbent and sorbate species concentrations,
and its residual quantity in the solution (Garg et al. 2012). This adsorption is
based on mechanisms such as complexation, ion-exchange, coordination,
adsorption, chelation and microprecipitation, etc. (Garg et al. 2012). Biosorption
is advantageous over conventional methods in many ways. First, the process does
not produce chemical sludge, and it can be highly selective, more efficient, easy
to operate, and hence cost-effective for treating large volumes of wastewaters
that have low metal concentrations (Garg et al. 2012). Second, the biomass is
unaffected by other toxicants and unfavorable factors that are generally associated
with effluents. Third, the biosorbent can be regenerated and reused many times,
and fourth, the biosorption has short operation times (Tripathi et al. 2011).
Several researchers reported that bacteria are highly competent and efficient
adsorbents as a result of their high surface area-to-volume ratio. The other
qualities that bacteria have as biosorbents are their ubiquity, ability to grow
under controlled situations and their resilience to a wide range of environmental
situations (Quintelas and Tavares 2001). Metals biosorb to microbial cells via three
different processes: (i) extracellular accumulation/precipitation, (ii) cell surface
sorption/precipitation and/or (iii) intracellular accumulation (Garg et al. 2012).
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation occurs by several processes such as adsorption, intracellular
accumulation and bio-precipitation (Garg et al. 2012). Among living organisms,
bacteria are the first to interact with metals. Consequently, living organisms have
evolved processses for the active transport and/or extrusion of these metal ions,
thereby enabling the cells to regulate intracellular concentrations by relying on
metal-ion transport proteins. Microbial heavy metal accumulation often occurs
in two steps. The first step is rapid and passive metabolism-independent process
occurs in which metals are physically adsorbed at bacterial cell surfaces followed
by a slower phase occurs, that involves active-metabolism-dependent transport
into bacterial cells (Garg et al. 2012).
Bioreduction
Microorganisms are capable of altering the oxidation/reduction state of toxic
6
organometal contaminants through direct or indirect biological and chemical
process(es) (Tripathi et al. 2011; Tripathi and Garg 2014; Garg et al. 2012). Toxic
Cr6+ reduction occurs intracellularly. Bioreduction of Cr6+ to Cr3+ occur in various
bacterial species such as Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp. (Garg et al. 2013; Tripathi
et al. 2011, 2013).
Recovery and Recycling of Chromium

In conventional leather production, chromium tanning spent liquors containing
high level of chromium along with both organic and inorganic substances. Only
66 to 70% of chromium is used from the total utilized Cr for tanning, whereas 30
to 40% remains in the spent tanning liquor, which is usually sent to a wastewater
treatment plant. Several recovery techniques such as precipitation, membrane
processes, adsorption, and ion exchange have been used for this purpose. Among
these membranes process offers a better option for the recovery and recycling of
primary resources from spent liquors. The recovery and recycling of chromium
could help to rescue the economical and environmental cost which occurred as a
result of its proper discharge (Awan et al. 2003). The experimental conditions such
as temperature, pH and time need to be regulated to have more efficient recovery.
Phytotoxicity of Hexavalent Chromium

Cr6+ solubility in water is a threat for biota (Neiboer and Richardson 1980).
Although Cr can enhance growth of certain plant species at lower concentrations
(Shanker et al. 2009), it is highly toxic at higher concentrations and inhibits
many activities in plants and may even lead to their complete damage (Dube et al.
2003). In plants, Cr6+ toxicity include stunted plant growth including inhibition of
germination, root growth, seedling growth and induction of leaf chlorosis. Several
researchers reported that Cr toxicity affects the many plants growth such as
cereals, pulses and vegetables (Ganesh et al. 2006; Jun et al. 2009; Shanker et
al. 2009). Not only the terrestrial plants, even the aquatic plants have been found
to be affected by Cr6+; however, they show a great variability in their response
(Chandra and Kulshreshtha 2004). In fact, plants show a great variation in their
sensitivity/tolerance to Cr in the environment and Cr toxicity depends upon the
plant species (Lopez-Luna et al. 2009). Cr has also been reported to interfere with
structure and function of male gametophyte in kiwi inhibiting pollen germination
and pollen tube growth and induce alterations in pollen tube shape (Speranza
et al. 2007, 2009).
Conclusions and Future Recommendations

The fundamental principles for treatment of tannery effluents all over the
world are very much similar. Physicochemical methods are costly and not friendly
with ecosystem. Bioremediation is taken to be an attractive ecofriendly and cost
effective option for reducing the pollutants from contaminated water. The fungal
and bacterial isolates having suitable enzyme activity with optimized physical and
nutritional conditions which plays a significant role in the bioremediation process.
The use of immobilized bacterial biomass can be economically better option for
treating environmental toxicants than free bacterial cells. Further research is
needed to study the metabolic pathways and finding of catabolic genes involved in
toxicants removal. Moreover research is also needed to develop fast bioremediation
processes which are likely to provide an economically feasible process.
7
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survival and histopathological changes in different organs of Channa puntatus. Asian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Science 1: 294-302.
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biologically and chemically significant classification of metal ions. Environmental Pollution Series
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and development. Recent Research Developments in Phytochemistry 1: 173-179.
17. Quintelas C, Tavares T (2001) Removal of chromium (VI) and cadmium (II) from aqueous solution
by a bacterial biofilm supported on granular activated carbon. Biotechnology Letters. 23: 1349-1353.
18. Ravibabu MV, Nagaveni CH, Jamil K. (2007). Toxic effect of Industrial effluents on rat: analysis and
remediation methods. The Internet Journal of Toxicology 3: 51-60.
19. Shanker AK, Cervantez C, Loza-Tavera H, Avudainayagam S (2005) Chromium toxicity in plants.
Environment International 31: 739-753.
8
20. Shanker AK, Djanaguiraman M, Venkateswarlu B (2009) Chromium interactions in plants: current
status and future strategies. Metallomics: Integrated Biometal Science 1: 375–383.
21. Shukla OP, Rai UN, Dubey S (2009) Involvement and interaction of microbial communities in the
transformation and stabilization of chromium during the composting of tannery effluent treated
biomass of Vallisneria spiralis L. Bioresource Technology 100: 2198-2203.
22. Speranza A, Ferri P, Battistelli M, Falcieri E, Crinelli R et al. (2007) Both trivalent and hexavalent
chromium strongly alter in vitro germination and ultrastructure of kiwifruit pollen. Chemosphere 66:
1165–1174.
23. Speranza A, Taddei AR, Gambellini G, Ovidi E, Scoccianti V et al. (2009) The cell wall of kiwifruit
pollen tubes is a target for chromium toxicity: alterations to morphology, callose pattern and
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24. Vidali M (2001) Bioremediation. An overview. Pure and Applied Chemistry 73: 1163-1172.
25. Voo MS, James BR. (2002) Zinc extractability as a function of pH in organic waste amended soil.
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of hexavalent chromium and pentachlorophenol degradation by Bacillus cereus RMLAU1. African
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cells of native Bacillus cereus isolate: spectrometric characterization of PCP dechlorination
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29. Tripathi M, Garg SK (2013) Dechlorination of chloroorganics, decolorization and simultaneous
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Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 217: 75-140.
9
Chapter 2
Biomedical Waste and its

Management
Pradeep Kumar Sharma1, Manikant Tripathi2, Sarah Fatima3
1
Department of Environmental Sciences Jhunjhunwala P.G. College, Ayodhya
(Faizabad), INDIA
DST-FIST Supported Department of Microbiology, Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh,
2
University, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA

3
Corresponding author: Pradeep Kumar Sharma, E-mail: pradeepenviro2007@
*
yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Biomedical waste (BMW) are potential hazardous waste materials consisting of
solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory wastes which are hazardous to the health
of humans as well as other living organisms. So, it becomes one of the greatest
challenges of modern era to subdue the catastrophic effects of biomedical waste.
The activities that are usually performed as part of health care waste management
involve segregation, storage, collection, transportation and disposal of biomedical
waste. Considering the threats that biomedical waste pose to the nature, it’s
proper disposal is of extremely great importance. For proper disposal management
of biomedical waste the regulatory authority such as Ministry of Environment,
Forests and Climate Change also made Bio Medical Waste Management and
Handling Rules in 1998 and 2016. This chapter deals with problems of biomedical
wastes and their management.
Keywords: Biomedical; Human health; Infection; Pollution; Waste management.
Introduction
Biomedical waste is a bio-waste that comprises infectious (or potentially
infectious) materials. Apparently these wastes are of medical or laboratory origin
(e.g., packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory
waste containing bio-molecules or organisms that are restricted from environmental
release (Sharma 2013; Singh et al. 2014).
Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include
discarded blood, sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable
body parts (including those as a result of amputation), other human or animal
tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies

10
that may have been in contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory waste
that exhibits the characteristics described above. Waste sharps include potentially
contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and other
devices capable of penetrating skin (Hirani et al. 2014).
The activities such as diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases are
the major sources that are responsible for the production of biomedical waste.
Common generators (or producers) of biomedical waste include hospitals, health
clinics, nursing homes, emergency medical services, medical research laboratories,
offices of physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care, and morgues
or funeral homes. In healthcare facilities (i.e., hospitals, clinics, doctor’s offices,
veterinary hospitals and clinical laboratories), waste with these characteristics
may alternatively be called medical or clinical waste (Sharma 2013).
Biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs
from other types of hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal,
electronic or industrial waste. Medical facilities generate waste hazardous
chemicals and radioactive materials. Although these wastes may not be infectious
but their proper disposal is of utmost importance. Some wastes are considered
multi hazardous, such as tissue samples preserved in formalin (Garcia 1999; Nobel
1995).
The basic principle of good BMW practice is based on the concept of 3Rs,
namely, reduce, recycle, and reuse. It is rather easier to halt the generation of
such wastes that would later become a living nightmare than dealing with it
when things become horrendous. That is why BMW management methods aim at
avoiding production of waste or recovering as much as waste as possible, instead of
disposing it in future. Therefore, the various methods of BMW disposal, according
to their desirability, are prevented, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, treat, and lastly
dispose. Hence, the waste should be tackled at source rather than “end-of-pipe
approach” (Chartier et al. 2014).
Only about 10%–25% of BMW is perilous, and the remaining 75–95% is
harmless. The general population, health care workers, care takers are most likely
to get exposed to these hazardous waste while handling or during the period of
treatment or disposing waste. The hazardous part of the waste presents physical,
chemical, and/or microbiological risk to the folks (Li and Jenq 1993).
Sources Of Biomedical Waste

The main sources of biomedical waste are hospitals, medical clinics, laboratories
and pharmaceutical factories (Hirani et al. 2014). Other sources such as:
• Hospitals
• Nursing homes
• Clinics
• Medical laboratories
• Blood banks
• Mortuaries
• Medical research & training centers
11
• Biotechnology institution/production units
• Animal houses etc.
• Such a waste can also be generated at home if health care is being provided
there to a patient (e.g. injection, dressing material etc.)
Classification Of Biomedical Waste

Approximately 75-90% of the biomedical waste is non-hazardous and as
harmless as any other Municipal waste (Hirani et al. 2014). The rest 10-25%, of
noxious waste though mixed with non-hazardous waste, might be dangerous to
humans, animals as well as environment. Biomedical wastes can be categorized
based on their origin and physical, chemical or biological characteristics. It is
important to realize that if both these types are mixed together then the whole
waste becomes harmful (Devirajeswari et al. 2016; Sharma 2013). The types of
biomedical wastes are as following:
• General waste: All non-infectious wastes, similar to nature to domestic wastes.
• Pathological wastes: Tissues, organs, body parts, human fetuses and animal
carcasses, and most blood and body fluids.
• Radioactive wastes: Solids, liquids and gases from analysis procedures, body
organ imaging and tumor localization and treatment.
• Chemical wastes: Hazardous, toxic, corrosive, flammable, reactive or geno-
toxic or non-hazardous.
• Infectious wastes: Pathogens in sufficient quantity so that they pose a serious
threat, such as cultures from laboratories, wastes from surgery and autopsies
on patients with infectious diseases, wastes from patients in isolating wards or
undergoing haemo-dialysis and wastes associated with infected animals.
• Sharps: Which are any items that could cause a cut or puncture (especially
needles and blades).
Categories of Biomedical Waste
The Ministry of Environment and Forest established the Biomedical Waste
Management & Handling Rules in 1998 under the Environment Protection Act.
Under these set of guidelines specified by the act, it is the duty of the concerned
person who has the dominance over the institution or it’s premises which are
producing such atrocious waste, to take all possible steps to handle them with care
in order to lessen or nullify it’s adverse effect on human health & environment. It
consists of six schedules. Hirani et al. (2014) discussed about the classification of
biomedical waste. The rules classify biomedical waste into 10 categories (Hirani et
al. 2014) which is presented in Table 1.
Method of treatment and

Category Waste Content Components
disposal
Human Anatomical
No. 1 Human tissues, organs, body parts Incineration /deep burial
Waste
All types of Animal tissues, organs,
No. 2 Animal Waste body parts carcasses, bleeding parts etc Incineration /deep burial
generated by different health sectors
12
Microbiology & Wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks
Local autoclaving/ micro
No. 3 Biotechnology or specimens of microorganisms used
waving/incineration
Waste in research
Needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, Disinfections chemical
No. 4 Waste sharps
glass etc treatment
Incineration/Destruction
Discarded Medicines Out-dated, contaminated and discarded
No. 5 and disposal of drugs in
and Cytotoxic drugs Medicines
landfills
Blood contaminated cotton, dressings, Incineration, autoclaving/
No. 6 Solid Waste
soiled plaster casts, lines etc micro waving
Disinfections chemical
No. 7 Solid Waste tubing’s, catheters, intravenous sets etc
treatment
Waste generated from laboratory and Disinfections by chemical
No. 8 Liquid Waste washing, cleaning, house-keeping and treatment and discharge
disinfecting activities into drains
Ash from incineration of any Disposal in municipal
No. 9 Incineration Ash
bio-medical waste landfill
Chemical treatment and
No. 10 Chemical Waste Chemicals used in production of
discharges into
Biological Drains
Table 1 Categories of Biomedical wastes.
Depending on the category, different types of biomedical wastes are stored in

different coloured containers (Table 2). Schedule II gives standard colour codes for
different categories (Singh et al. 2014).
Objectives Of Biomedical Waste Management

• To minimize the production/generation of infective waste.
• Recycle the waste after the extent possible
• Treat the waste by safe environment friendly/acceptable methods.
• Adequate care in handling to prevent health care associated infections.
• Safety precautions during handling the Biomedical waste.
Process Of Biomedical Waste Management

Waste Survey
A survey is an important tool to identify the most harmful components of the
waste along with the amount in which it is generated, thereby making the waste
management practice almost infallible (Singh et al. 2014).
Waste survey is valuable in the aspect of:
• Make a distinction of types of waste.
• Enumerate the waste generated.
• Recognize the origin and type of waste generated at each stage.
• Determine the altitude of generation & disinfection within the hospital.
• To discern the type of disposal adopted.
13
Segregation
Segregation is the separation of biomedical waste on the basis of it’s nature
& type thus, it is the most essential process of bio-medical waste management.
Effective segregation only can ensure useful bio-medical waste management. The
BMWs have to be segregated in harmony to guidelines laid down under schedule
1 of BMW Rules, 1998. This is carried out by placing different kinds of waste
in distinct containers or coded bags at the point of it’s origin. Such practice
would reduce the huge heap of infectious waste and hence the treatment cost.
Segregation also helps to hold the spread infection and reduces the probability of
infecting other health care personnel (Singh 2014; Santra 2010).
Storage & Accumulation of Biomedical Waste

Waste accumulation and storage is generally done near the point of it’s origin or
the place where these waste are to be treated and disposed. Though accumulation
refers to the temporary holding of small quantities of waste near the point of
generation, storage of waste is categorized by longer holding periods and large
waste volume. Storage areas are generally located near where the waste is treated.
Any offsite holding of waste is also considered storage (Singh 2014).
Transportation of Wastes
The transportation of the biomedical waste should be done with ultimate care.
Carts, containers, trolleys and various other vehicles are employed to carry the
trash from one place to another. These vehicles must be sanitized on the daily
basis. Offsite carrying vehicle should be marked with the name and address of
transporter. The Bio-hazard sign should be painted on the vehicle. Appropriate
system for securing the weight during transport should be ensured. Such a means
of transport should be easily cleanable with rounded corners. All disposable plastic
should be subjected to shredding before disposing off to vendor. No unprocessed
bio-medical waste store more than 48 hours (Singh et al. 2014; Hirani et al. 2014).
Treatment And Disposal Of Biomedical Waste

Biomedical waste is the blend of various solid waste which is notorious for
it’s lethal, irreversible or reversible damage to the human health & environment
mainly because of it’s quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or infectious
characteristics when inadequately treated, stored, transported, disposed or
carelessly managed. There are many methods of treatment and disposal of
biomedical wastes (Grover 2006; Sharma 2013).
Incineration
Incineration is the most common method of treating and disposing of controlled
combustion so as to convert them into combustible residue and gaseous products.
The incinerators are equipped with the large storage bins, automatic feed hoppers
varied tubes of moving grates and ash discharging systems. These units are
capable of monitoring uniform temperature (760-9800C) for combustion and can
be equipped with pollution control devices such as gas scrubbers and electrostatic
precipitators (Santra 2010; Sharma 2013).
14
Secure Landfill
The secure landfill is the ultimate respiratory for all hazardous waste residues
and it should be considered as the last resort when all other efforts to eliminate
the waste problem fail. A secure landfill must be located in a land marginal
agricultural potential in a rural area at least 8 Km from populated areas and 750
meters from the nearest neighbor. It should have 1-5% surface slopes overlaying
deep impermeable clay and the maximum ground water table should be at least
1.5 meter below the bottom of landfill (Sharma 1998; Sharma 2013).
Autoclaving
For aeons autoclaves are used as a means to sterilize the medical instruments
hence making it possible to re-use the same tools several times without any
conceivable injury to the human health. Autoclaves are closed chambers that apply
both heat and pressure, and sometimes steam, over a period of time to sterilize
medical equipment. (Rutala and Mayhall 1992). The high temperature and pressure
treatment annihilate any microorganisms that may be present in medical waste
before disposing it into a traditional landfill, this process ensures that no further
contamination is done to the soil. Autoclaves can be used to process up to 90% of
medical waste, and are easily scaled to meet the needs of any medical organization
(Tunberg and Frost 1990; Turnberg 1996). Small counter-top autoclaves are often
used for sterilizing reusable medical instruments while large autoclaves are used
to treat large volumes of medical waste. Steam sterilization is most effective with
low-density material such as plastics, metal pans, bottles, and flasks. High-density
polyethylene and polypropylene plastic should not be used in this process because
they do not facilitate steam penetration to the waste load. Plastic bags should
be placed in a rigid container before steam treatment to prevent spillage and
drain clogging. Bags should be opened and caps and stoppers should be loosened
immediately before they are place in the steam sterilizer. Care should be taken
to separate infectious wastes from other hazardous wastes. Infectious waste that
contains noninfectious hazards should not be steam-sterilized (Devirajeswari et al.
2016).
The plastics (I.V. bottles, I.V. sets, syringes, catheters etc.), sharps (needles,
blades, glass etc.) should be shredded out but only after chemical treatment/
microwaving/autoclaving. Needles destroyers can be used for disposal of needles
directly without chemical treatment (Singh et al. 2014; Sharma 2013).
Chemical Treatment
For decontaminating medical waste include chemical treatment and radiation
the chemical are used Sodium Hypo-chloride and Ethylene Oxide Gas, this
technology is used to decontamination and reduce waste volume (Sharma 2013;
Hirani et al. 2014).
Biological Treatment of Biomedical Waste

It is impossible to altogether stop the production of biomedical waste or keep
storing it for a longer duration of time so, it becomes necessary to find out the
potential alternatives to destroy it or convert it into a less harmful substance. The
biological methods for disposal of BMW could be the suitable candidate for the
15
same purpose which include an emerging system called “Bio-converter”. It uses
a solution of enzyme to decontaminate medical waste, and the resulting sludge is
put through an extruder used to remove water for sewage disposal and the solid
waste is sent to landfill. Another method of environmental BMW disposal is the
use of biodegradable plastics. Many biomedical implants built with biodegradable
plastics undergo biological degradation with microbial extracellular enzymes.
These microbes utilize these biodegradable polymers as substrate under starvation
and in unavailability of suitable substrate. This way the BMW could be treated
using biological methods which do not render any serious threat to the nature and
we will get the desired results. Further research needs to be done for large-scale
economic manufacturing of biodegradable plastics so that problem of such waste
can be overcome. It is stated that biological reactions will not only decontaminate
the waste but also cause the destruction of all the organic constituents so that
only plastics, glass, and other inert will remain in the residues (Hirani et al. 2014).
Advanced Technology for Management of Biomedical

Waste
Placenta anaerobic bioreactor (pab)
Dr. T.V. Jacob of the Kerala Water Authority was approached by a group
of medical practitioners from a Koche University for assisting them to develop
alternative to incineration. Dr. Jacob found that incineration is not a natural
process. He desire on the line of deep burinal by using inoculums instead of line.
This process does not produce any odours or release toxic gases and leaves very
little sludge (Sharma, 2013).
Solar powered autoclave style sterilizer
The concept design suggested had to be such that it included environment
friendly method, incur minimum cost, assured complete sterilization and was
able to treat different waste streams. The design was completely solar powered
autoclave style sterilizer. It is portable and operates in sunny, cloudy, cold, windy
and winter seasons (Sharma, 2013).
Plasma pyrolysis
Pyrolysis involves the high temperature (545- 1,0000C) treatment of waste in
the absence of oxygen. In generation these high temperatures, the systems treat,
destroy and reduce the volume of clinical waste. In Gujrat based plasma centers
proposed for analysis will deal with a 15-100 kg of un-segregate waste per hour, at
an investment of 30,000 USD. The institute had proposed its trial installation in 5
key hospitals in Delhi and other places (Sharma 2013).
Impacts of Bio Medical Waste (BMW) On Human Health

and Environment
Impact on human health
Those handling of waste from often cleaners, sweepers, ward boys and lab
assistant in addition waste pickers and people living near hospitals being also
come in contact are affected. Nurses are also exposed to the waste generated from
16
the hospitals, ward or laboratory where disease linked with exposure to hospital
waste. High risks of spreading disease like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, yellow
fever, encephalitis, plaque, dengue fever and diarrhea may not be ruled out.
Different types of pathogenic microorganism responsible for disease in living being
such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio spp., Solanonella spp., Mycobacterium, Amoeba etc.
(Sharma 2013)
Impact on Environment: Medical waste includes both pathological and
radioactive wastes which cause adverse effects on environment. These wastes
cause air, water and soil pollution. A number of diseases such as cholera, plague,
dysentery, jaundice and malaria are reported due to biomedical waste (Sharma
2013; Santra 2010).
Biomedical Waste Management Rules/Regulation

For controlling the indiscriminate & unchecked disposal of hospital waste/
biomedical waste, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) notified
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998‛ and 2016. As per
these Rules, it is the duty of every ‘occupier’ i.e. a person who has the control over
the institution and or its premises, to take all steps to ensure that waste generated
is handled without any adverse effect to human health and environment. The
hospitals, nursing homes, clinic, dispensary, animal house and pathological lab
are therefore required to set in place the biological waste treatment facilities.
Benefits Of Biomedical Waste Management

Biomedical management plays a vital role in restricting any outbreak of
infectious diseases and protecting our society. Some benefits of biomedical waste
management are:
• Reduction in the cost of medical expenses due to reduced cases of infections
• Hygienic and healthy environment in medical centres.
• Low incidence of community and occupational health hazards
• Low impact on ecological system.
• Potential epidemics are prevented Low incidence of community and occupational
health hazards
• Improved public health and cleaner environment
• Improved image of the healthcare establishment and increased quality of life.
Conclusions and future recommendations

The biomedical waste from hospitals, clinics and laboratories cause
occupational health risks to those who generate or come in contact with such
waste. It is said that about 15% of all medical waste capable of transmitting many
infectious diseases such as hepatitis, gastro-enteric respiratory, ocular, genital
and skin infections. Since hospital waste has enormous potential to pollute
environment and contaminate other waste sincere efforts must be made to tackle
these problems. With increasing population, biomedical waste is also growing in
quantity. Therefore, proper supervision and treatment of biomedical wastes is a
17
prime concern. To minimize the problem of biomedical waste, it becomes crucial to
follow preventive measures and avoid any hazardous consequences to the nature.
References
1. Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 1998; notified by the Government of India.
2. Biomedical Waste Management.html. <http://www.ndcnihfw.org/html/Legislati ons/>
3. Chartier Y, Emmanuel J, Pieper U, Prüss A, Rushbrook P, Stringer R, editors. 2nd. Geneva,
Switzerland: WHO Press; 2014. Safe Management of Wastes from Health-Care Activities; pp.
1–146.
4. Garcia R (1999) Effective Cost-reduction Strategies in the Management of Regulated Medical
Waste. Am J Inf Cont 27(2): 165-175.
5. Grover PD (2006) Proceeding of national workshop on management of hospital waste, IInd; Jaipur,
pp. 15-16.
6. Hazardous waste data overview, www.epa.org; www.cpcb.delhi.nic.in
7. Hazardous wastes clean up information, www.clu-in.com.
8. Hirani D, Villaitramani KR, Kumbhar SJ (2014) Biomedical waste: an introduction to its management.
IJIRAE 1(8): 82-87.
9. Li CS, Jenq FT (1993) Physical and chemical composition of hospital waste. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 14: 145–50.
10. Manual for control of hospital associated infection: Standard operative procedures. National AIDS
control organization: Delhi; 1999: 50-66.
11. Ministry of Environment and Forest Webpage: http://envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/biomed.html.
12. Nobel JJ (1995) Waste disposal units: Pediatrics Emergency Care; April, 11(2):118-120.
13. Rutala WA, Mayhall OC (1992) Medical waste: The Society for Hospital Epidemiology Position
paper. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 13: 38-48.
14. Santra SC (2010) Biomedical waste management: fundamentals of ecology and environmental
biology. New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Kolkata, pp 273-281.
15. Sharma PK (2013) Survey of medical waste in district hospital and its management in Faizabad,
India. IJART 1(1): 36-40.
16. Sharma BK (1998) Biomedical waste. Environmental Chemistry, Goel Publishing House, Meerut,
pp. 71-84.
17. Singh H, Rehman R, Bumb S (2014) Management of biomedical waste: a review. Int J Dent Med
Res 1(1): 14-20.
18. Turnberg WL (1996) Biohazardous waste. John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York.
19. Turnberg WL, Frost F (1990) Survey of Occupational Exposure of Waste Industry workers to
infectious waste in Washinton State. Am J Public Health 80(10): 1262-1264.
20. Kalpana V, Satya D, Vinodhini S, Devirajeshwari V (2016) Biomedical waste and its management.
J Chem Pharm Res 8(4): 670-676.
18
Chapter 3
The Application of Microbial

Enzymes in Distillery Spentwash
Decolorization
Soni Tiwari1, Rajeeva Gaur2
1
UGC-DS Kothari Post Doctoral Fellowship, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
INDIA
2
Department of Microbiology, Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya
(Faizabad), INDIA
Corresponding author: Dr. Soni Tiwari, E-mail: st19795@gmail.com
*
Abstract
Sugar distilleries are one of the most polluting industrial sectors generating
huge quantity of wastewater that cause a severe ecological anxiety. Distillery
spentwash is described as dark brown color, acidic pH, high temperature, low
dissolved oxygen, high biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand
properties. Spentwash disposal into the ecosystem before treatment is harmful
and causes terrestrial and aquatic pollution. The dark color of distillery effluent
leads to decline of sunlight dispersion, decreased photosynthesis process in water
ecosystem, therefore becomes injurious to waterbodies. It also leads to reduction
in terrestrial basic pH and hindrance the seed germination. Different physical,
chemical, and biological techniques have been studied for distillery effluent treat-
ment. In current years, rising attentions has been going to microbial wastewater
treatment techniques. Decolorization of spentwash using microbial enzymes is
proficient and commercial technology. Microorganisms have been showed biodeg-
radation activities generally because of generating complex and non-specific enzy-
matic systems capable to remediate several forms of toxins from wastewater. The
central theme of this book chapter is also to investigate the function of microbial
enzymes in spentwash decolorization.
Keywords: Biodegradation; Distilleries; Enzymes; Microorganisms; Spentwash.
Introduction
The inadequate accessibility of non renewable energy assets and inconsistency
in raw oil and natural gas charges worldwide has raised the requirement in the
generation of bio-ethanol from farming resources for exploit as an optional energy,
trade solvent and in fermented food. In India, this requirement is estimated to

19
enhance because of recently structured legislation for addition of 5% ethanol with
petrol and expected to enhance up to 10% in near prospect (The gazette of India
2002). India is the highest sugar producing country. It has the second largest
network of molasses based distilleries in Asia generating approximately 2300
million litres of alcohol per annum (Chaudhary et al. 2013). In molasses-based
distilleries, 13 to 15 L of spentwash is generated during one liter of ethyl alcohol
generation (Ruiz et al. 2002; Singh et al. 2007).
Molasses spentwash is the useless product generated during the refinement
of alcohol from molasses. It has dark brown color, elevated temperature, acidic
pH and high level of suspended inert and unrefined substance (Chaudhary et al.
2013; Rajkishore and Vignesh 2012). Dark color of effluent is generally due to
existence of melanoidin. Melanoidin is an untreated complex produced during
Maillard Reaction, between amino acids and carbohydrates (Tiwari et al. 2012).
Distillery wastewaters are unsafe due to their high BOD and COD. Once drained
in aquatic system, its dark color hampers sunrays diffusion which influences
the photosynthetic mechanisms and DO level causes injurious effects on water
ecosystem, furthermore its discharge in terrestrial lands decrease soil basicity,
manganese accessibility, reduce seed germination and influences plant life (Verma
et al. 2011; Rani et al. 2013). Distillery spentwash has antioxidant activity and is
greatly deadly to biological system. Due to recalcitrant nature of distillery effluent,
it is essential to treat it prior to removal in biological system (Singh et al. 2007).
Several physico-chemical techniques like column filtration (Satyawali and
Balakrishnan 2008), flocculation (Liang et al. 2009a), adsorption (Onyango et al.
2011), chemical precipitation or coagulation (Chandra and Singh 1999; Liang et
al. 2009b), UV/H2O2 treatment (Dwyer and Lant 2008) and ozone oxidation (Kim et
al. 1985) has been accounted for degradation/decolorization of distillery spentwash,
however these methods are not viable at large scale due to cost-competitive and
obstruction of filtration devices. Furthermore, owing to soaring TDS it produces
enormous quantity of noxious slush and additional derived contaminants (Liang
et al. 2009b; Chandra et al. 2008a). In addition, the usual anaerobic absorption
and activated slush procedures are valuable in eliminating the BOD and COD from
distillery wastewater upto assured level. After anaerobic treatment, the color of
distillery spentwash becomes darker with maximum TDS due to complex nature of
melanoidin. Hence, extensive ventilation of spentwash does not alter its physico-
chemical natures still later than aeration.
Therefore, in modern days, the natural approaches with biological degradation
method of spentwash for optimization of different parameters at laboratory
conditions have drained interest of several scientists over to investigate the
viable tools because it may direct eco-sustainable and economical alternative to
chemical techniques (Kaushik et al. 2010). In microbial treatment by fungi such
as Geotrichum candidum (Kim and Shoda 1999), Flavadon flavus (Raghukumar and
Rivonkar 2001), Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Thakkar et al. 2006), Trametes sp.
(Gonzalez et al. 2000), Coriolus hirsutus (Miyata et al. 2000), Pleurotus florida,
Aspergillus flavus (Pant and Adholeya 2009a), Neurospora intermedia (Kaushik
and Thakur 2013), Fusarium verticillioides (Pant and Adholeya 2009b) and
yeast Citeromyces sp., Candida tropicalis (Tiwari et al. 2012), and Candida
glabrate (Mahgoub et al. 2016) have been mentioned for spentwash decolorization.
Decolorization of distillery spentwash by fungus has been stated more efficient
20
owing to occurrence of ligninolytic enzymes, which utilized melanoidin as a carbon
and nitrogen sources (Miyata et al. 2000; González et al. 2008). However, the big
level appliances of these procedures have limitations due to time-consuming growth
phase, enormous spore development, low pH range (3.0–5.0), and unfavorable
submerged surroundings for growth of fungus (Arimi et al. 2014). Hence, bacteria
are potential choice for maximum decolorization due to its quicker growth rate,
elevated ecological flexibility and high metabolizing ability of spentwash by
ligninolytic enzyme activity (Bharagava et al. 2009; Yadav et al. 2011). Several
researchers have been mentioned the bacterial decolorization of melanoidin
(Kumar and Chandra 2006; Chandra et al. 2009; Bharagava and Chandra 2009).
Although, due to compound character of melanoidin with combination of different
organic compounds, it illustrate variable absorption array which formulate other
complications to recognize the mechanism of melanoidin decolorization and nature
of its metabolic products. Majority of melanoidin decolorization method is stated
at 475 nm based on purified melanoidin absorption maxima during dialysis
process with specific molecular weight, whereas the melanoidin have mixture of
Maillard products. Thus, previous to going the decolorization of melanoidin, the
bioremediation of melanoidin with combination of compound Maillard reaction
products (MRPs) should be estimated for its degradability. However, no one
such study has been discussed so far for evaluation of melanoidin decolorization
as complete to review the potential of bacterial mix culture. Furthermore,
modern studies have discovered the privileged function of MnP for melanoidin
depolymerisation followed by laccase stimulation in bacterial decolorization (Yadav
and Chandra 2012, 2013). The function of microbial manganese peroxidase (MnP)
and laccase for melanoidin decolorization is fewer reported.
This book chapter presents and recapitulates the text existing on the structure,
character and properties of melanoidin. Further, the key component of this
chapter involve function of bacteria, fungi, yeast, algae and their enzymes sytem
facilitates in bio-remediation of melanoidin. Thus, this chapter has a key import in
the obstacle of ecological contamination.
Nature of Melanoidin
Distillery effluents contain melanoidin which are innate condensation yield of
sugar (carbonyl group) and amino acids (amino group) generated by non-enzymatic
Millard reaction. The generation of melanoidin is influenced by the reactants and
their concentration, nature of enzymes, type of buffers, temperature, incubation,
pH, water activity, existence of O2 and metal ions. Melanoidin is a recalcitrant
nature due to its compound configuration and xenobiotic quality. The empirical
formulaof melanoidin has been recommended as Dumping of distillery wastewater
(melanoidin) diminish sunbeam dispersion causing reduced photosynthetic
process and DO concentration in aquatic system (Fig. 3.1). C17-18H26-27O10N.
Fig. 3.1 Basic melanoidin structure formed from carbohydrates and amino acid (Cammerer et al., 2002)
21
Application of enzymes in distillery spentwash decol-
orization
The enzymatic action processes occurs between the physico-chemical and
biological system. It has hi-tech compensation and involves economical concern
to pertain it on a great extent. It has several prospective rewards more than the
conventional treatment. These includes: validity to biorefractory composites;
procedure either at high or low noxious waste concentrations; process over a broad
series of pH, temperature and salinity; lack of shock loading properties; deficiency
of delays coupled with the acclimatization of biomass; reduction in the slush
level and the alleviate of controlling the process (Karam and Nicell 1997). Current
study has paying attention on the improvement of enzymatic mechanisms for the
management of distillery other industrial effluents (Sangave and Pandit 2006a).
Several enzymes e.g. peroxidases, oxidoreductases, cellulolytic enzymes cyanidase,
proteases, amylases, etc. of different resources have been mentionted to take a
significant function in an array of wastewater treatment purposes (Klibanov et al.
1980; Klibanov & Morris 1981, Aitken and Irvine 1989; Duff et al. 1994; Ferrer et al.
1991; Dec and Bollag 1994). Though the enzymatic method linked with melanoidin
decolorization is yet to be finally implicit, it looks significantly related with fungal
ligninolytic systems. The white-rot fungi have a intricate enzymatic structure
which is extracellular and non-specific, and below nutrient-limiting circumstances
is proficient to decomposing lignolytic complexs, melanoidin, and polyaromatic
compounds that cannot be degraded by other microbial system (Benito et al.
1997). Several enzymes from plants and microbial system have been found to
play a crucial function in wastewater treatment procedures. Numerous reports
about decomposition of humic acids, melanoidin and associated complexs with
basidiomycetes have also recommended the involvement of at least single laccase
enzyme in fungi linked to Trametes genus. During the 1980s, the application of
enzymes other than laccase or peroxidases in the melanoidin decolorization by
Trametes was studied. Several workers reported that sugar-oxidase-type enzymes
like sorbose-oxidase or glucose-oxidase had melanoidin degradation activities.
Watanabe et al. (1982) have been reported that active oxygen (O2; H2O2) helps
in melanoidin decolorization formed during the reaction with sugar oxidases.
Degradation of melanoidin by microbial system comprises the enzymatic system
and flocculation occurs through microbial secondary metabolites. Ohmomo et
al. (1985) have been reported that C. versicolor Ps4a showed maximum (80%)
spentwash decolorization in absence of light under favorable environment. Complete
decolorization activity was performed by sugar-dependent and sugar-independent
intracellular enzymes. Sugar-independent enzymes could decolorize molasses
wastewater up to 20% in absence of light and 11-17% of synthetic melanoidin
under anaerobic conditions. Therefore, the involvement of these H2O2 generating
enzymes as a component of the compound enzymatic structure for melanoidin
decolorization via fungi should be taken into account for scheming any treatment
policy. Miyata et al. (1998) have also been studies on melanoidin decolorization
with the help of complex enzymatic system. Synthetic melanoidin decolorization
by C. hirsutus occurs due to peroxidases (MnP and MIP) and glucose-oxidase
(extracellular H2O2 produced), with fractional involvement of fungal laccase.
Bharagava et al. (2009) have been reported that bacterial extracellular enzyme
manganese peroxidase (MnP) showed maximum melanoidin decolorization under
22
favorable condition. Several workers have reported that MnP and laccase of white
rot fungus degraded different biopolymers like lignin and tannin (Arora et al. 2002;
Rubia et al. 2002). However, the complete function of bacterial MnP and laccase for
melanoidin decolorization has not been completely studied.
Mansur et al. (1997) have been reported that fungus Trametes sp. showed 60%
melanoidin decolorization after 8 days of inoculation with 20%, (v/v) distillery
effluent, after 5 days of fungal growth, the time at which higher laccase activity was
mentioned in the extracellular mycelium. The white-rot basidiomycete T. versicolor
is a prominent strain for humic acids degradation as well as of melanoidin color
compound. Dehorter and Blondeau (1993) isolated a 47 kDa extracellular Mn2+
dependent melanoidin decolorizing enzyme system from T. versicolor. This enzyme
system required oxygen for its activity like peroxidase. Homogeneous, little and elastic
pellets of T. versicolor were employed as inoculum for decolorization with several
nutrients such as NH4NO2 (ammonium nitrate), MgPO4 (manganese phosphate),
MgSO4 (magnesium sulphate) and KPO4 (potassium phosphate) and also sucrose
as carbon source (Benito et al., 1997). Maximum decolorization (82%) and N-NH4
removal (36%) was gained in the presence low sucrose and KH2PO4 concentration
as nutrient sources. Several studies have reported that lignin degrading enzymes
also help in melanoidin degradation. Coriolus strains have been found to producing
sugar oxidases by Intracellular H2O2. Several reports have been mentioned that C.
hirsustus also produce melanoidin decolorizing enzymes that catalyze reaction in
the absence of sugar and oxygen. Miyata et al. (1988) used C. hirsutus pellets for
melanoidin decolorization in melanoidin-containing medium. It was revealed that
extracellular hydrogen peroxide and two extracellular peroxidases, a manganese-
independent peroxidase (MIP) and manganese peroxidase (MnP) help in melanodin
decolorization process. Lee et al. (2000) isolated the dye-decolorizing peroxidase
from Geotrichum candidum Dec1 in the presence of molasses as a carbon source.
Constituent of molasses amended medium enhanced the generation of peroxidase
but repressed the degrading mechanism of the pure enzyme. It was reported that
the molasses inhibitory effect can be removed by dilution fractions of more than
25%. Recently D’souza et al. (2006) have been reported that laccase of marine
fungal showed 100% decolorization in the presence of 10% distillery spentwash
and its laccase generation amplified several folds due to presence of phenolic
and non-phenolic stimulators. Sangave and Pandit (2006a) has been studied a
mutual treatment method consisting of enzyme catalyzed in situ transformation of
contaminants followed by aerobic biological oxidation for the treatment of distillery
wastewater. It was recommended that pretreatment of distillery wastewater by
enzyme system directs to in situ generation of the hydrolysis yield, which have
different physical characters and are easier to digest than the related toxins by
the microbial system, leading to improve initial rates of aerobic oxidation yet at
minimum biomass production. Sangave and Pandit (2006b) has been applied
irradiation and ultrasound combination with enzyme system as pretreatment
method for distillery spentwash decolorization. The combination of the ultrasound
and enzyme achieved the better COD elimination proficiency when compared with
the processes as they were applied as stand-alone treatment methods. Thakkar
et al. (2006) have also been reported that P. chrysosporium producing melanoidin
decolorizing enzyme in molasses medium. Under static conditions, no one of the
microbial isolates could decolorize melanoidin nor generate lignin peroxidase, MnP
and laccase enzymes. Numerous microbial isolates generate lignin peroxidase and
MnP when cultured in flat bottom glass bottles under static conditions.
23
Various study have mention that increasing time duration, the activity of MnP
and laccase in the culture supernatant decreases and further bacterial incubation
mentioned gradual decrease of both enzyme activities. Melanoidin decolorization
and decolorizing enzyme efficiency is directly co-relation with each other. Yadav
and Chandra (2012) have also been reported that the induction of MnP and laccase
activity in bacterial culture supernatant initiates at 48 h and 96 h of incubation
and re sidual activity remain up to 192 h. Several worker have also been reported
that MnP and laccase of fungus also helped in distillery spentwash decolorization
(Pant and Adholeya 2007b; Raghukumar et al. 2004; Bharagava et al. 2009; Yadav
et al. 2011).
Raghukumar et al. (1999) have been reported that the extracelluar enzymes
like manganese dependent peroxidase (MNP), lignin peroxidase (LIP) and laccase
of white-rot basidiomycetous fungus F. flavus decolorizes different synthetic
dyes like Poly R and remazol brilliant blue R etc. On the other hand, a negative
relationship was found between melanoidin dcolorization and MnP concentrations
(Raghukumar 2000). The intensity of glucose oxidase activity also has parallel
with decolorization of molasses spentwash. Raghukumar et al. (2004) have been
suggested that H2O2 generated due to glucose oxidase activity which works as a
bleaching agent on distillery effluent, which has been further confirmed by lesser
melanoidin decolorization in the absence of glucose. In another study, when
starch amended medium used for decolorization, amylase activity induces and
generating reducing sugars, which are oxidized by glucose oxidase generating H2O2
as a byproduct results in maximum melanoidin decolorization (Raghukumar et al.
2004).
Future Recommendation and Research

Any industrial effluent which is in bulk having high BOD and COD with other
toxicants must be treated properly prior to disposal. Biotreatment is the only
remediation method with several existing technologies. Every technology has its
own limitation also. The oxidation pond technology is very efficient, but requires
much space and higher energy during aeration, also release high carbon dioxide
(CO2) flux along with methane production which is not ecofriendly. The bioreactor
technology is one of the safest methods but still require different architecture and
design depending on the nature of effluent and use of specific technology. There
are always scope of a new technology of effluent treatment or modification in the
existing technology which may give better result .The second author of this chapter
has worked in this field and develop several bioreactor model system to achieve
continuous production of microbial polysaccharides, pullulan. Further a model
system having immobilization of various bacteria and yeast or combination of
bacteria having degradation capacity of different types of xenobiotic compounds
of distillery effluents or any types of industrial effluent have been developed for
continuous decolorization. Therefore, there are always need of several modification
specially for the survival of microorganisms. In different zones and the equipment
based automation in bioreactor depending on the survival of the specific
microorganisms and its degradation capability without loss of biomass and specific
carbon/other nutritional requirements.
It has been experienced while operating biogas reactor, that the recycling of
24
methenogenic active biomass require some modification for smooth functioning
of the detector, authors are also trying to minimize energy in order to achieve
the fluid system through which floating surviving technology may capture the
biomass, which further progress to achieve and save the biomass in particular
zone with automation.
Conclusions
In modern time of research, attention has been raised in the field of
biodegradation by applying microorganisms. Various microbial systems like
bacteria, fungi yeast and actinomycetes, show better efficiency for melanoidin
decolorization. Therefore, a good perceptive of the microbial activities
responsible for the melanoidin decolorization and would give to enhancing the
competence of the overall treatment system. During decolorization it would
also be essential to recognize the last product of melanoidin. Genetically
modified microorganisms can be explored in upcoming time for enhancing their
decolorization effectiveness. Therefore, it can be recommended that decolorization
by microbes holds assure and can be subjugated to generate commercial, eco-
friendly biotechnology approaches for distillery spent wash treatment. Further
theoretically better-quality study efforts are essential for pointing; developing
novel bacterial isolates and perfection of practical application to proliferate the
application of bacteria for bio-degradation of industrial spentwash. Enzymatic
studies would be applied to know the melanoidin decolorization mechanism for
upcoming prospective. Such microbial cultures could be applied in bioreactors
for wastewaters treatment or scaling up for enzyme generation. Limitations
of these innovative tools and combination of different methods in the recent
treatment methods will most likely in the near prospect make both proficient
and economically feasible. Lastly, microbial decolorization engages a grouping
of microbiologists, biotechnologists, chemists and engineers and is supreme to
plug the ever widening space between the different disciplines.
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28
Chapter 4
Advanced Treatment Technologies

for Electronics Waste (E-waste)
Rudra Pratap Singh1, Manikant Tripathi2
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh University,
Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA
DST-FIST Supported Department of Microbiology, Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh,
2
University, Ayodhya (Faizabad), INDIA

Corresponding author: Rudra Pratap Singh, E-mail: rudraenviron@gmail.com
*
Abstract
Electronic waste (E-waste) has created a new threat to global environment.
The daily life style to advances in science and technology is based on electronics
and electrical equipment. In daily use these waste are generated from local to
global level and from domestic to industrial and scientific activities. The economic
growth is also important factors to generate advances in the electrical field and
also concern to waste generation. In the residential area the common E-wastes are
Electrical Bulb, tube light, mobile phone, grinders, televisions and air conditioners,
fan, motor pump etc. Similarly, in commercial area all these electrical equipments
are continuous utilized with their advancement. Whereas, Industrial area the
advanced electrical equipments are used for production of products and to increase
the efficiency of the production. The sophisticated instruments and related parts
are basically working on electrical performances. At global level consideration,
developed countries adopted advance management of generated e-waste, while
in countries under developing; E-waste is worsen by adopting/ replicating its
management in developed countries. In the present chapter, the E-waste generation
and composition, its impact, treatment, and disposal systems involved in E-waste
management are discussed. In the view of health hazard, E-waste generated to
hospital and their impact on human health is also discussed.
Keywords: Electronic waste; E-waste composition; E-waste treatment; E-waste
generation.
Introduction
Electronic waste (E-waste) consist several types of electric and electronic
devices that have ceased to be invaluable for the users. The growth of any country
is depend upon advances of science and technology especially information
technology (IT) sector as it increases efficiency of industry. The quick development

29
in technology results new version of electronic equipments as companies’ producing
smart freeze, superior televisions, smarter mobile phones, and other computing
instruments/ devices at high rate and potency. In present scenario, people require
advance electronic devices so manufacturing industries produced large quantity
of electronic products to complete the people need. Therefore, the fast growth and
use of computers including other electronic instruments are the major cause to
increase in E-waste in environment (Huisman et al., 2007). E-waste products
have exhausted their use through both white and brown goods (electronic devices)
such as refrigerators, computers, cell phones, etc. The present E-waste contains
multifaceted electrical wastes which flow in terms of different variety of products.
Fig. 4.1 Different E-waste generated from houses and shops.
In coming few years, it is estimated that more than one billion computers and
their parts will be out of date. U.N. University (2008) reported that, nearly 9 million
tons of E-wastes were manufactured across the members of the European Union in
2005. It was approximated that the total electrical and electronic wastes generated
between 2.5% and 2.7%, annually and will be reach approximately a total of 12.3
million tons. The cause is that the incensement of electronic appliances in the
market every year from developing to developed nations (Schluep et al., 2009). In
India, huge amount of the E-waste is generated from the mostly from the large
cities, all most about 90% Electronic and Electrical product waste consist under
three categories about 43% from large house hold appliances, 34% from IT and
communication equipment and 13% consumer electronic wastes [Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB), 2009].
30
Worldwide, E-waste composed of more than five percent of all solid wastes and
is increasing with the need of electronic products in developing and developed
countries. In India and China, according to Africa and Latin America reports,
marketing business of E-products sharply rise in future. It is also predicted that
a higher growth pattern of Electrical Goods will be influenced the need of people
and also upgrade in technology, change in design, and marketing (Huisman et
al., 2007). In last decade, high quantity of E-wastes are discarded by developing
countries, as well as developed countries and developing country imported several
heavy E-waste from the developed countries and resulted emerging economies
changes (Bigum et al., 2013). The administration of e-waste in developing nations
is challenging job due to deficit of technological and financial crisis, unauthorized
recycling of e-waste, and lack of technically skilled human resources. Various
kinds of E-wastes are produced due to development of technology rises that
cause adverse effects on the environment (Ongondo et al., 2011). The improperly
storage, collection, transportation, treatment and disposal are increases the risk
of E-waste pollution in the Environment. Therefore, around the world, control over
E-waste generation, proper treatment technology and disposal are burning issue
for environmentalist at local, national and global level. In the present chapter we
have discussed about the E-waste, generation of the E-waste, composition, impact
on environment and on health and E-waste treatment and disposal.
Identification of E-waste
E-waste is an electrical and electronic product with a circuit board (PCB) usually
accepted to electricity. Most of the literature discussed about the e-waste problems,
yet the definition of “electronic waste” is somewhat complex to describe. As per
European Union Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (EU-WEEE) Directive
(E.U. Directive, 2003) E-waste define as “Waste from electrical or electronic devices
refers to “all components, sub-assemblies, and consumables, that are part of the
product at the time of discarding”. Basel Action Network (BAN) Seattle, defined
“E-waste means “discarded electronic appliances using electricity, with a broad
range of e-products from large household devices that have been disposed by
users” (Puckett and Smith 2002). Organization of Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD, 2001) defined E-waste as “any instrument using an electric
power supply that has reached its end of life”.
Sinha and Ketriwal (2004) also described the E-waste. Solving the E-waste
Problem (StEP, 2015) describe “E-waste refers to the reverse supply chain that
collects products no longer desired by a given consumer and refurbishes for other
consumers, recycles, or otherwise processes wastes”. Reviewing to many literatures
on E-waste, there is no standard definition, and it is different in each country. So
that the question rises, which waste is called e-waste?
The definition given by the European is currently most acceptable definition of
E-waste as any waste electrical and electronic equipment ( EU-WEEE), in whole
or part, or rejects from manufacturing and repair processes that are discarded as
waste. E-waste is often described in terms of its cost and durability of products
used for data processing (The Economist, 2005).
The discarded computers, laptops, tablets, mobile phones, television sets,
washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners etc. are the common house hold
E-waste. As per the weight, televisions, refrigerators, air conditioners and washing
31
machines are categorized as major E-waste, whereas computers and cell phones
categorized as minor E-waste.
E-Waste Classification
The classification of E-wastes is based on type of components and composition.
E-waste contains both ferrous and nonferrous metals, glass, plastics, and others
(Figs. 4.2 and 4.3). There are six classes of materials which are reported under
E-waste. The steel and iron contribute the major part in electrical and electronic
wastes followed by plastics. The metals viz., gold, silver and platinum are the third
in abundance and have high costs.
E-Waste
Valuable Metal Ex.-

Basal Metal Ex.- Copper Gold (Au), and
(Cu) and Tin (Sn); Palladium (Pd), and
Particular Metal Ex.- Silver (Ag),
Lithium (Li), Cobalt
(Co), Indium (In), and
antimony (Sb);
Fig. 4.2 Composition of E-waste.
Fig. 4.3 E-waste contents (Source: Ongondo et al., 2011)
Many toxic heavy metals such as lead and cadmium are utilized in many
electronic instruments; when these metals exceed the recommended values, they
are referred as pollutants. They can damage the ecosystem if discharged improperly
(Daniel, 2016).
As per European Union directives, the most widely accepted classifications are
as discussed under:
a. Large household devices: refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, etc.
b. Small household devices: vacuum cleaners, toasters, grinders, etc.
32
c. Information technology (IT) and telecommunications appliances:
minicomputers, personal computers, laptops, notebooks, cell phones, etc.
d. Consumer based tools: televisions, video cameras, audio amplifiers, etc.
e. Lighting appliances: straight and compact fluorescent lamps.
f. Electrical tools: drills, sewing machines, soldering irons, etc.
g. Toys and sporting goods: racing car sets, video games, etc.
h. Medical appliances: radiotherapy instrument, pulmonary ventilators, analyzers,
etc.
i. Monitoring instruments: smoke detectors, heating regulators, thermostats, etc.
j. Automatic dispensers: for hot drinks, hot or cold bottles, solid products, etc.
E-waste Generation
The main threats with E-waste are monitoring over generation of E-waste as
it exert ever increasing pressure at global environment. The value of E-waste
generation data may vary in different regions of countries due to the definitions of
waste arising, used technological instruments, the utility models of the consumers,
and change in the living standards in whole world (Andarani and Goto, 2014). The
annual global E-waste production consist approximately 25-50 million tons, most
of the E-waste generated from developed countries such as United States (US) or
European Union member nations. Among several developed nations, Untied States
is the biggest generator of E-waste, as the total accumulation of 3 million tons
annually; and China take place the second largest country generating 2.3 million
tons/ year. Brazil consists to second most generate of e-waste via quantity among
developing/ emerging countries (Oliveira et al., 2012). E-waste generated from
numerous areas (domestic, commercial and Industrial area) but is not only limited
to (a) residue of materials arising from the electronic product manufacturing
process, (b) parts or spares including discarded electrical and electronic equipment
generated from a repair shop or a service center and (c) Outdated goods from
households/ governments/ institutions and other services.
Composition of E-waste
E-waste contains potentially toxic materials for health and environment.
The composition of E-waste (Fig. 4.2) depends on kind of electronic appliance,
the pattern, producer, date of manufacturing, and the age of scrap. Scrap from
IT and telecommunication systems contain a higher amount of precious metals
than scrap from household appliances (Chancerel et al., 2009). For example, a cell
phone contains about 40 elements, including base metals with copper (Cu) and
tin (Sn); particular metals like lithium (Li) cobalt (Co), indium (In), and antimony
(Sb); and valuable metals like gold (Au), and palladium (Pd), and silver (Ag), (Shao
et al., 2008; Blass et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2009). Special treatment of E-waste
is considered to prevent misuse/ not to waste valuable materials and rare earth
elements. The gold and palladium can be extracted more effectively from E-waste
compared to extraction from ores (Chancerel, 2009). E-waste contains contrast
due to PBDEs, and flame retardants that are mixed into metal, plastics and other
components to getting contrast (Fig. 4.3). Most of the electronic tools having circuit
boards and have heavy metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr),
33
lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and other toxic chemicals. These materials are not good for
the health and environment. Complex printed circuit boards generally build with
lead solder in electronic devices and are containing about 50 g/m2 of tin-lead in
circuit board (Widmer et al., 2005).
The prominent materials such as barium, cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, and
other rare earth metals are contained in end-of-life (EOL) cathode ray tubes
(CRTs) in computer monitors, and televisions. For example, items such as leaded
glass provide safety against X-rays produced in the picture projection in CRTs
(Chancerel et al., 2009). These are used in every house and are producing health
hazard simultaneously in family members. Japan strictly banned the disposal
of cathode ray tubes in landfills because of their toxic features. There is a great
challenge in designing and developing strategies for management of E-waste. The
varying composition of the different components is the consequence of advanced
technology, especially in the electronic parts (Robinson, 2009). It makes difficulties
to E-waste recycling and disposal strategies. Many factors affect the composition
of E-waste such as economic situations, presence of a reuse market, recycling
process, and programs for waste separation and regulation.
E-waste Disposal and Recycling

The land filling is commonly used method for E-waste disposal. Mostly, the
discarded electronic materials finally end-up in landfill sites with or directly burnt
in open areas so that releasing toxic and carcinogenic gases into the lower earth
atmosphere. In developing countries, the disposal of e-waste in the informal
sector is very basic so far as the protected techniques employed and practices
are needed to minimize the level of pollution and recovery (Yu et al., 2010).
There is lack of guidelines and information campaigns for the fate of E-waste
in developing countries. Especially, less sophisticated disposal patterns cause
potential environmental pollution and occupational health problems generated
through E-waste-derived chemical compounds (Babu et al., 2007). The challenges
for the disposal of E-waste were investigated in many research studies conducted
in developing countries such as India (Dwivedy and Mittal, 2012), China (He et al.,
2006) and Brazil (Oliveira et al., 2012). However, developed countries have applied
modern advance disposal technique and high-cost systems, which are less toxic
to environmental health. It is expected that E-waste management in developing
and developed countries’ are limited to socio-economic and legal contexts applied
in these nations. The country applied regulations that guided the disposition of
E-waste; in developing countries, they are applying commonly fragmented and
lack monitoring. Whereas, in developed countries, the regulations are stringent
and follow effective monitoring to minimize pollution and disposal of E-waste
(Gullett et al., 2007).
In India, 95% of the E-waste is being recycled from non-formal sectors and 5% of
the e-waste level is handled in formal unit. In metropolitan cities of India, there are
over 3000 units busy in non-formal sector for e-waste recycling. The E-waste take
backup by two ways either from retailers or from second hand shop and through
the processes involved in recycling. E-waste are generated locally in the NCR, Delhi
and imported from other places including overseas, had assumed huge volume
that the Delhi Government has plan to dispose off it in Haridwar, Uttar Pradesh.
(Kowsar et al., 2010). The recycling of valuables materials by units in formal sector
34
is carried out in protected environment and with due care to minimize any spoil to
the environment including society. The application of advanced technologies leads
to efficient recovery of metals in developed country. Some technology works with
zero-landfill approach in developed country. Few formal recyclers are adapting the
processes i.e., segregation, dismantling of e-waste till the size reduction stage of
printed circuit boards (PCBs).
The pre-processed PCB is exported by developed countries refineries for
recovery of precious metals and treating byproduct in eco-friendly manner. In non-
formal units simply adapted the collection of the e-waste from the rag pickers,
disassembly of the products for their useable parts, components, modules, which
are economically benefited to him. In order to address the E-waste issue, Ministry
of Environment and Forest (MoEF) has introduced adequate clauses in the
hazardous wastes (management, handling & transboundary) rules, 2008.
E-waste Impact on Environmental and Health

The E-waste has many toxic and carcinogenic gases, and heavy metals, which
have serious effects on the health of workers involved in the activity of recycling.
Kowsar et al. (2010) reported that more than 75 per cent persons involved
in E-waste activity and they are suffer from one or the other disease that can
directly be attributed to the result of unsafe recycling of E-waste. Other than
environmental pollutions, some of the health hazards are generated by E-waste
global. A multitude of health consequences may result from prolonged exposure to
these hazardous E-waste materials, such as negative birth outcomes, cancer, long-
term and permanent neurologic damage, and end-organ disease of the thyroid,
lungs, liver, and kidneys (Xu et al., 2012). Significant environmental impacts and
risks on workers by rudimentary disposal processes were analyzed across Indian
cities, like Bangalore (Wath et al., 2010), the increasing concentration of Copper
(Cu), Tin (Sn), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb), Indium (In), and bismuth (Bi) elements in soil
near informal recycling shops. As a result, increasing concentrations of Cu, Sn,
Bi, Cd, and Ag were reported in the hair samples of the workers (Ha et al., 2009).
Recycling of e-waste scrap is polluting not only the water but also the soil
and the air. A recent study on recycling of e-waste (Wong, 2007) pointed out
that the increasing concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such
as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), Polybrominated
Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals were detected in the Guiyu air
because of incomplete combustion of e-waste. Higher concentrations of Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals compounded more favorable conditions
for severe pollution of soils. The lax or zero enforcement or implementation of
existing regulatory framework or low level of awareness and sensitization, and
inadequate occupational safety for those involved in these processes exacerbate
e-waste management in developing countries compared to the EU and Japan,
which have well-developed initiatives at all levels aimed at changing consumer
behavior (Babu et al., 2007). Thus, there is need for developing countries to adopt
effective strategies to encourage re-use, restoring e-waste in specialized facilities
to prevent environmental contamination and human health risks (Manomaivibool,
2009).
35
The uncontrolled recycling of electrical and Electronic waste known as “backyard
recycling” by the so-called informal sector is the main concern in non- Organization
of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries such as India, China,
etc. Informal recycling is the most pressing environmental issue associated with
e-waste (Williams et al., 2008). Relevant case-studies about informal recycling of
e-waste performed by (Nnorom and Osibanjo, 2008; Tsydenova and Bengtsson,
2011) pointed out that primitive tools and methods such as open burning of plastic
waste, exposure to toxic solders, and acid baths to recover valuable materials and
components from WEEE with little or without safeguards to human health and the
environment result in the pollution of the land, air, and water. The excess levels
of e-waste exposure cause hazards to environment. Elevated level of e-waste in
environment is due to no criteria for reusability, and no legally binding guidelines
aimed at providing common understanding practices of handling in developing and
transition countries to manage e-waste. In China, there are several lesser printed
circuit board recycling areas in Guangdong Province, such as in Guangzhou,
Dongguan, Foshan, Shunde, Zhongshan, and Shenzhen (He et al., 2006).
Conclusions and Future Recommendations

E-waste is challenging component for Environment and health especially
in developing countries. It consist hazardous material and is negatively impact
the environment and then after affected human health. Developed countries
adapted restrictive policies to reduce the load of E-waste. While, developing
adapted alternate ways by which they can utilize them with in low cost therefore
suffering to high load of E-waste. By these activity humans and the environment
are under threat of E-waste pollution. These informal sectors and scientific data
of developing countries recognizing the E-waste related unfriendly practices.
Therefore, there is an urgent requirement to separately collect E-waste, effectively
treatment, and disposal. It is also needed to divert it from conventional landfills
and open burning, thus minimizing public health and environmental impacts. The
competent authorities of India and other developing countries need to establish
mechanisms for handling and treatment of E-waste. Environmentally friendly
E-waste management programs can be spread through campaigns, and awareness
program in country. Higher efforts are urgently required on improvement of the
current practices regarding E-waste management practices to reduce illegal trade
of e-waste, and to protect the environment and health also.
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38
About the Editor
Dr. Manikant Tripati

Dr. Manikant Tripathi is presently working as Assistant Professor
(Guest) in the Department of Microbiology, Dr. Rammanohar
Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, since 2015. He has also served
as Lecturer in the Department of Microbiology in Jhunjhunwala
Post Graduate College, Ayodhya (INDIA) from 2013 to 2015. He has
completed B.Sc. (2000-2003) in Industrial Microbiology, Chemistry
and Botany from Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,
Gorakhpur (INDIA) in 2003. He joined Master program (2003-
2005) in Microbiology, Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh University,
Ayodhya (INDIA). Thereafter, he joined Ph.D. (2008-2013) on the
topic entitled “Simultaneous bioremediation of chromium (VI) and
pentachlorophenol from tannery effluent” from Dr. Rammanohar
Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya (INDIA). Dr. Manikant Tripathi
has participated in several international/national conferences/
workshop. He received Best Poster Award (in a National Conference),
Young Scientist Award, Excellence in Research Award and Excellent
Teaching Award by various Biological Societies of INDIA. He received
“Research Fellowship in Sciences for Meritorious Students” by
University Grants Commission, New Delhi and qualified ICAR-NET
in the year 2014 conducted by Agricultural Science Recruitment
Board, India. He has published 32 research papers and 15 review
articles in journals of national and international repute with 356
Google Scholar citations, h-index 11 and i-index 11. He has guided
01 postgraduate student for their dissertation work. His current
area of research is Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology.
978-1-63278-079-9
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Treatment Methods for Wastewater

Nowadays, bioremediation is an attractive alternative pollution mitigation

Recovery and Recycling of Chromium

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Biomedical Waste and its

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Sources Of Biomedical Waste

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The Application of Microbial

Microbial Treatment trategies for Waste Management, Editor: Manikant Tripathi

Future Recommendation and Research