Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Precast Concrete Structures - Hubert Bachmann, Alfred Steinle
Precast Concrete Structures - Hubert Bachmann, Alfred Steinle
Precast Concrete
Structures
Dr.-Ing. Hubert Bachmann, Department Manager
Ed. Züblin AG
Structural Engineering (TBK-S)
Albstadtweg 3
D–70 567 Stuttgart
Cover photo: The “Dancing Towers”, Hamburg/Germany; two office towers of 80m and 70m height,
under construction.
(Photo: Ed. Züblin AG)
c 2011 Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG,
Rotherstr. 21, 10245 Berlin, Germany
All rights reserved, particularly those of translation into other languages. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by
photocopy, microfilm or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without permission in writing
from the publisher.
The reproduction of product descriptions, trade names and other designations in this book does not imply that these may be freely
used by any person. These may be registered trade names or other designations protected by law even when they have not been
specifically identified as such.
All books published by Ernst & Sohn are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors and publisher accept no liability
whatsoever for the accuracy of information contained in this or any book or for printing errors.
ISBN 978-3-433-02960-2
Electronic version available. O-Book ISBN 978-3-433-60096-2
in memoriam
Building with precast concrete components is as old as building with concrete itself. It
was only in the second half of the last century, however, that this form of construction
took on its industrialised form. Factors that contributed to this were, in particular, the de-
velopment of heavy lifting equipment, the use of mechanised steel moulds and, more re-
cently, automated manufacturing systems, for suspended floor elements especially.
This work on precast concrete construction was first published in 1988 as part of the
Beton-Kalender. A second version by the authors Alfred Steinle and Volker Hahn appea-
red in the same publication in 1995. These essays were turned into a book which was pub-
lished in 1998 as part of the Bauingenieur-Praxis series of the Ernst & Sohn publishing
house. A further treatise appeared in the 2009 edition of the Beton-Kalender, this time
with Hubert Bachmann joining the original authors, and it was that version that became
the second edition of the book in German.
Inevitably, there have been some changes to the standards over the past 10 years. For
example, the publication, following a long period of preparation, of the new DIN 1045
“Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures”.
This standard has been approved by the building authorities for use in the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany since September 2002 and since 1 January 2005 is the only standard that
may be used for concrete works. It was drawn up on the basis of the Euronorm EN 1992-1
“Design of concrete structures” (previously known as Eurocode 2) and therefore repre-
sents the translation of this Euronorm into national German practice.
Furthermore, we are witnessing a fundamental change in the design of precast concrete
components.
The creation of the European Single Market led to the publication of the Construction
Products Directive, which has been in force in Germany in the form of the Construction
Products Act (Bauproduktengesetz) since 1992 and in the meantime has become part of
the building regulations of the federal states which were revised to take account of this le-
gislation. The directive renders it necessary to establish harmonised product standards
specifically for the various precast concrete products so that in the end it will be possible
to use all such components – labelled with the CE marking – throughout the European
Union.
With modern methods of construction making use of industrial methods of manufacture,
which includes construction with factory-precast concrete components, the design of the
individual elements, and also the entire structure, is heavily influenced by the factory pro-
duction. On the manufacturing side, the growing trend towards mechanisation and auto-
mation in production is evident.
The development of high-performance concrete provides us with the chance of em-
ploying these for precast concrete construction in particular because factory production
presents excellent conditions for their use. For example, the first precast concrete compo-
nents made from ultra-high-strength concrete for bridges and façades have already been
produced. Besides the industrial production of batches and series of components, we
are seeing more and more one-offs being produced, which take advantage of the excellent
production options in order to achieve a high standard of quality. These tendencies will
become even more obvious as more and more progress is made in the development of
concrete as a building material.
The authors’ aim in writing this book is to map out the boundary conditions of factory
prefabrication for architects and structural engineers and also to demonstrate the opportu-
nities presented by this method of construction – in the expectation that this will contri-
bute to the ongoing development of precast concrete structures.
Stuttgart, November 2010 A. Steinle H. Bachmann
Ed. Züblin AG
Authors
Alfred Steinle (b. 1936) turned Hahn’s lecture notes into a manuscript in the early 1970s,
which then became the starting point for this book. After a number of years in bridge-
building, Alfred Steinle also became heavily involved in precast concrete construction
at Züblin. His theoretical work covered bridge-building with torsion and section defor-
mations in box-girder bridges and in precast concrete structures within the scope of the
6M system with corbels, notched beam ends and pocket foundations. In addition, he
was a key figure in many precast concrete projects such as the 6M schools, the University
of Riyadh, schools with foamed concrete wall panels in Iraq, Züblin House and the
construction of a modern automated precasting plant. Alfred Steinle retired in 1999 and
by that time he had risen to the post of authorised signatory in the engineering office at
Züblin headquarters.
Hubert Bachmann (b. 1959) began his career in 1976 with a training course on concrete
and precast concrete construction in a precasting plant. After studying construction engi-
neering and completing his doctorate at the University of Karlsruhe, he accepted a post in
the structural engineering office of Ed. Züblin AG, where he has worked since 1993. His
duties include the detailed design of structures of all kinds plus research and development
in the civil and structural engineering sectors. He has been presenting the series of Hahn
lectures at the University of Stuttgart on the subject of the prefabrication of concrete com-
ponents since 2003.
The authors were or are also intensively involved in construction industry associations,
numerous technical bodies plus national and international standards committees dealing
with precast concrete construction.
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
Preliminary remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Standards, leaflets and directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 The advantages of factory production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 European standardisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Preliminary remarks
Chapter 1 contains general information about precast concrete construction, its history
and the status of the relevant Euronorms. Chapter 2 explains the design of structures based
on precast concrete elements and the design of the precast concrete elements themselves.
Chapter 3 deals with joints. And to conclude this book, chapter 4 takes a look at the actual
manufacture of precast concrete elements so that the reader gains a full understanding of
this form of construction and can take into account the needs and intricacies of production.
All this is seen from the viewpoint of the German construction industry. But with a view to
the European Single Market and the activities of German companies abroad, the status of
precast concrete construction in other countries is also considered to a certain extent.
The authors have confined themselves in the main to structures in general. However, the
fact that precast concrete construction has been able to secure sizeable market shares in
many other areas of construction through the development of economic bespoke solu-
tions should not go unmentioned. The following are just some areas where precast con-
crete construction has had considerable impact:
x Bridges
x Tunnelling (tunnel segments)
x Pipes, pipe bridges, towers, masts, piles
x Detached houses
x Prefabricated basements, retaining walls
x Room modules, prefabricated garages
x Noise barriers
x Railway sleepers, slab tracks, guided bus tracks
x Agricultural structures
x Cooling tower trickle fill structures
The reader is referred to the specialist literature dealing with these specialist areas. This
book also only describes structural or architectural precast concrete elements for build-
ings and structures and not “concrete products”, i.e. small-format components manufac-
tured and stocked in great numbers and available from trade outlets, e.g. sewage pipes,
paving stones, etc.
The list of references has been extended since the previous edition. The references in the
text have been retained on the whole because they contain potential solutions to funda-
mental problems that are still relevant today.
Earlier articles on the theme of precast concrete construction worth consulting are those
in the Beton-Kalender [1–3]. By the same token, reference to the general literature on re-
inforced concrete construction has been omitted and the reader is referred to the corre-
sponding articles in the Beton-Kalender, unless they concern areas that also touch on the
specific problems of precast concrete construction. Readers who wish to obtain a com-
pressive overview of this subject are recommended to consult Koncz’s three-volume
work dating from the 1960s [4] and the brochures published by the Fachvereinigung
Table 1 DIN standards of NA 005 (NABau, Building & Civil Engineering Standards Committee)
relevant to precast concrete construction (many available in English)
Table 2 DBV leaflets and status reports (Deutscher Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e.V., German
Concrete & Building Technology Association) (some available in English in the DBV’s “Concrete Best
Practice” publication)
Edition Title
Building technology
2005 Multi-storey and basement car parks
2006 Structural carcass/building services interfaces – 2 parts
2006 Limiting cracking in reinforced and prestressed concrete
2002 Concrete cover and reinforcement
Concrete technology
2001 Steel fibre-reinforced concrete
2002 High-strength concrete
2004 Self-compacting concrete
2004 Concrete surface – concrete boundary zone
1996 Unformed concrete surfaces
2007 Special methods for testing wet concrete
Construction works
2004 Fair-face concrete
2004 Avoiding problems in placing concrete
2006 Concrete formwork
Construction products
2002 Spacers and chairs for reinforcement
2008 Bending back reinforcing bars and requirements for bar casings
1996 Sealing materials for joints in buildings
1997 Release agents for concrete – part A: advice for selection and use
1999 Release agents for concrete – part B: tests
Construction works in existing buildings
2008 Guidelines
2008 Fire protection
2008 Concrete and reinforcing steel
4 Preliminary remarks
Table 3 FDB leaflets (Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e.V., German Precast Concrete
Construction Association) (No. 1 available in English, all others in German only)
Table 4 DAfStb directives (Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton, German Reinforced Concrete
Committee) (available in German only)
Edition Title
1989 Heat treatment of concrete
1995 Production of concrete using residual mixing water as well as concrete and mortar
residues
2000 Loading tests on solid structures
2001 Protection of and repairs to concrete components (parts 1–4)
2003 Self-compacting concrete (SCC directive)
2004 Concrete construction in connection with substances hazardous to water
2004 Concrete to EN 206-1 and DIN 1045-2 with recycled aggregates to DIN 4226-100
2006 Concrete with prolonged working time (retarded concrete)
2006 Production and use of cement-bonded grouts
2007 Measures to prevent damaging alkaline reactions in concrete (alkali directive), parts
1–3
1 General
The corporate goal behind the use of a production method that is to establish itself in the
marketplace must be: to produce a product better or cheaper or faster than the competition.
The optimum situation would be if each “or” could be replaced by “and”. So what is the
situation with construction using precast concrete elements?
a) Improved quality
x Production in an indoor environment results in better working conditions with corre-
spondingly better productivity than would be the case on a building site, and that
has an effect on quality, too.
x In the factory production situation, training makes it easier to compensate for the on-
going severe shortage of skilled workers in the construction industry.
x Steel moulds can be used for standard elements or large batches, which enables a high
degree of dimensional accuracy to be attained.
x Factory production enables a specific concrete quality to be achieved.
Only through factory production is it possible to produce concrete components with
architectural textures and colours, especially for façade designs.
As with other branches of industry outside the construction sector, factory production
results in more efficient quality management.
b) Lower production costs
x The main purpose of precast concrete construction is to reduce the cost of the formwork.
Several components can be produced in the same formwork, i.e. mould. And of
course, large batches are advantageous. Although mould types suited to the method
of production (e.g. rigid moulds with few fold-down parts) demand a design approach
that suits the production, this does lead to high mould reuses.
x Another reason for precast concrete construction was undoubtedly the reduction or to-
tal elimination of scaffolding costs.
x Factory production enables the use of mechanisation and automation, which in turn
can result in a substantial reduction in the number of working hours necessary. However,
if a factory’s capacity is not fully exploited, this can be a disadvantage because of the
ensuing high proportion of fixed costs.
x Material savings arise from the possibility of using thin component cross-sections cor-
responding to the structural requirements, i.e. double-T or T-sections instead of rectan-
gular sections. The advantage of the (possibly) lower weight of the concrete is in many
cases only made possible through the higher quality of the concrete due to the factory
production methods. One typical example of saving material and weight is resolving a
solid slab into a hollow-core slab. And this is only possible with precast concrete con-
struction.
x Prestressing is easy to achieve in the form of pretensioning in the prestressing bed.
x One considerable cost factor for a precasting factory is of course the cost of transport,
which limits the radius of activities and consequently the potential market for a pre-
casting plant and hence its size. This does not represent a hindrance for the precast
concrete market as a whole because there are now proficient precasting works within
economic reach of any location.
c) Faster construction
x One big advantage of precast concrete construction is the potential to shorten the con-
struction time. For example, wall and suspended floor elements can be produced simul-
taneously, even while the foundations are still being built. Production, and to a large
extent erection as well, can take place during the winter.
x No extensive, elaborate on-site facilities are required. The structural carcass is dry and
ready for immediate loading immediately after erection.
x The financial savings associated with a shorter construction time and the chance of gen-
erating revenue at an earlier date are important, often underestimated, reasons for pre-
cast concrete construction, particularly for industrial buildings.
x However, it should not be forgotten that structures made from precast concrete compo-
nents often require a higher planning and design input. On the other hand, this input can
be substantially reduced by using a standardised precast component system. The first
CAD applications in reinforced concrete construction originated in precast concrete.
Prefabrication, i.e. the building of components remote from their intended location in the
structure, followed by subsequent erection is a method of construction that is as old as
building with reinforced concrete itself. However, the development of modern construc-
tion with precast reinforced concrete components from its origins to a form of industria-
lised building only took place over the past 60 years. Ref. [20] contains a detailed descrip-
tion of the development of prefabricated housing in Germany up to 1945.
Even though we might not be able to designate the first reinforced concrete flower tubs or
boats of Joseph Monier or Joseph Louis Lambot in the mid-19th century as prefabricated
“components” (Fig. 1.1), the first serious trials with structural precast reinforced concrete
components did take place around 1900 (e.g. Coignet’s casino building in Biarritz,
France, in 1891, and the prefabricated railway signalman and gatekeeper lodges of Hen-
nebique and Züblin in 1896, Fig. 1.2) [17].
This development continued in the first half of the 20th century throughout Europe and
the USA, albeit only tentatively. The main reason for this was the lack of larger and flex-
ible lifting equipment during this period.
The real breakthrough did not come until after the Second World War [18]. In a first phase
from 1945 to 1960 it was the extraordinary demand for housing that presented the build-
ing industry with a huge challenge. During this period it was the French (e.g. Camus, Es-
tiot) and Scandinavian (e.g. Larsson, Nielsen) systems that provided decisive momentum
1.2 Historical development 7
for construction with large-format panels. Their patents – through licensees – also domi-
nated the German market.
In the second phase, about 1960 to 1973 (see also [18]), growing prosperity led to a rise in
demand for owner-occupied housing with a higher standard of comfort. Inflationary ten-
dencies resulted in a huge amount of investment in property, and the increasing shortage
of skilled workers was another reason that forced production to be transferred to factories,
which in turn helped precast concrete construction to achieve a breakthrough.
Alongside housebuilding, the increased need for more schools, colleges and universities
led to the establishment of fully developed loadbearing skeletal frame systems with col-
umns, beams and long-span floors (7.20 m/8.40 m). Buildings for industry and sports
centres resulted in standardised product ranges for single-storey sheds made from precast
columns and prestressed rafters and purlins or sawtooth roofs.
The third phase, about 1973 to 1985, was marked by a serious crisis for the German con-
struction sector, first and foremost housebuilding. This was compensated for to a certain
degree by increased demand in the oil-exporting countries. Housing, school, university
and office building construction projects were carried out in those countries, which
opened up completely new dimensions in the industrialisation of precast concrete struc-
tures. However, the fall in the price of oil led to this compensatory business almost drying
up in the early 1980s.
In the years after 1985 a general economic upswing resulted in colossal improvements for
the construction sector as well. However, the high wage and social security costs forced
precasting plants to switch to mechanised and automated methods of production.
Since late 1989 Germany has seen renewed demand for housing to meet the needs of im-
migrants plus migrants from former East Germany. The opening of the border with the
former German Democratic Republic in 1990 resulted in major challenges for the build-
ing industry in the ex-GDR.
8 1 General
Fig. 1.3 Concrete products and prefabricated elements in Germany: concrete products in total
compared to large-format precast concrete elements (top); large-format prefabricated elements for
structures (bottom)
New noise abatement legislation is one of the results of the growing awareness of envir-
onmental aspects, which has led to an increased demand for products such as noise bar-
riers.
1.3 European standardisation 9
But the increased demand for building work after German unification was short lived. In
the period from about 1994 to 2004, the construction sector experienced almost 10 years
of decline, coupled with a drastic reduction in the number of employees and a rise in the
number of insolvencies, even of large companies. This fact is also revealed by the produc-
tion statistics for concrete goods and precast components, which are shown in Fig. 1.3.
Fortunately, we have seen a change in fortunes since 2005.
The creation of the European Single Market has been accompanied by the vigorous devel-
opment of European codes of practice. Most important here is the adoption of the “Con-
struction Products Directive” (CPD) by the European Commission. This has been in force
in Germany in the form of the Bauproduktengesetz (Construction Products Act) since 1992
and is crucial to the building industry. In the meantime, the building regulations of Ger-
many’s federal states have been updated because the individual states will continue to
be responsible for building regulations. The CPD defines “essential requirements” to be
satisfied by “construction works” (and not just the construction products) in a general
form.
These are:
1. Mechanical resistance and stability
2. Safety in case of fire
3. Hygiene, health and the environment
4. Safety in use
5. Protection against noise
6. Energy saving and heat insulation.
These requirements are concretised in six “base documents”, which are intended to form
the foundation for “mandates” for preparing harmonised European standards (or direc-
tives for European approvals). These mandates must also include requirements for cate-
gories and performance classes for individual products (e.g. for static loads only, fire
safety rating, etc.). The Euronorms (EN) then have to be drafted by the European Com-
mittee for Standardisation (CEN, based in Brussels). Products for which “conformity”
with these harmonised Euronorms can be verified will in future be labelled with the CE
marking (see also section 4.5). To date, the European Commission has issued the CEN
with mandates for the standardisation of 30 product families.
The standardisation work is carried out in so-called Technical Committees (TC) or Sub-
committees (SC) and their associated Working Groups (WG) or Task Groups (TG).
Once a CEN standard has been adopted by the “qualified” majority of the EEC and
EFTA member states, all member states are obliged to adopt this standard, even if it
was not “mandated” by the European Commission. In the case of “mandated” standar-
dised Euronorms, no changes or additions are then possible when these are incorporated
into the building legislation of Germany’s federal states (a situation that is different from
the DIN standards in the past) because that would lead to new “trade barriers”.
10 1 General
Fig. 1.4 Systems for attestation of conformity procedures according to the Construction Products
Directive (CPD) [29]
One key new development is that the supreme building authorities of the federal states
have now published the “Construction Products Lists A, B and C” – standardised docu-
ments compiled by the Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik (DIBt, German Institute of
Building Technology) [28].
Construction Products List A Part 1 contains construction products that have to comply
with building authority requirements (e.g. suspended floor slabs, reinforcing steel, etc.).
This corresponds to the building authority approval of the past.
1.3 European standardisation 11
Construction Products List A Part 2 contains construction products that require only a
National Test Certificate (e.g. non-loadbearing lightweight partitions).
Construction Products List B contains all those construction products that may be placed
on the market and traded according to EU regulations and which carry the CE marking.
Every mandated product standard includes an annex ZA, which defines the requirements
regarding the CE marking and the procedure for the attestation of conformity [29–31].
Attestation of conformity procedure 2S applies to precast concrete products: initial
type-testing of the product, factory production control and certification by an approved
body (see Fig. 1.4).
Construction Products List C contains those construction products that have only a minor
significance (e.g. gutters, screeds, etc.). They may not carry the “ mark”, the German
symbol of conformity.
Annex ZA permits the use of a simplified label for the CE marking according to Fig. 1.5.
The details of the product must be stated in an accompanying document according to Fig.
1.6. The design documents mentioned in this are the drawing of the element and the struc-
tural calculations.
At the time of preparing this chapter (late 2007), only two precast reinforced concrete
components may be marketed with the CE marking:
– Prefabricated reinforced components made from lightweight aggregate concrete ac-
cording to DIN EN 1520
– Prefabricated reinforced and prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs according to DIN
EN 1168
Consequently, only these currently appear in Construction Products List B Part 1 (edition
2007/1), in section 1.1.6.
In addition, the German building authorities now require NABau (Building & Civil Engi-
neering Standards Committee) to draw up a so-called National Application Document
(NAD, DIN 20000 -XXX) for every harmonised standard so that the respective Euronorm
Table 1.1 Application of the product standard for “precast concrete floors”
can be used with and is compatible with building regulations in Germany. When an EN
standard is introduced, a period of co-existence is defined during which both the DIN
standard and the EN standard may be used.
A precast concrete floor, and its allocation to national and international design and mate-
rials standards, is given here as an example of the practical application of a product stan-
dard (see Table 1.1). The period of co-existence for this standard ended on 1 May 2008.
Its incorporation in Construction Products List B is imminent [32].
On the national level, the work of the CEN is accompanied by so-called DIN mirror com-
mittees, which in the main supervise the work of a TC. There are currently about 80 CEN/
1.3 European standardisation 13
TCs active for the construction sector. Those CEN/TCs currently active and relevant to
precast concrete construction are listed below together with the standards for which
they are responsible.
CEN/TC 250 is working on the design standards (Eurocodes), with SC 2 playing the lead-
ing role for concrete construction. Since late 2007 all Eurocodes have been available in
trilingual editions. Ref. [26] reports on the current status of European standards for con-
crete, and ref. [27] on the situation regarding reinforcing and prestressing steels. Accord-
ing to the current state of knowledge (late 2008), it will first be possible to use EC 2 with
the corresponding German application rules in 2010.
Designing a building made from industrially prefabricated parts calls for certain princi-
ples to be adhered to during the planning work (see also [33, 34]).
It is important to be familiar with the particular features of precast concrete elements that
result from their method of production. Modular dimensions should be defined for the
structure and the interior fitting-out and the building divided up into horizontal and ver-
tical grids [35]. The transport dimensions and the loads to be lifted in the factory and
on the building site are critical factors for precast concrete buildings. The fire protection,
thermal performance and sound insulation requirements as well as the imposed loads for
the structural design are all governed by the use of the building.
The horizontal stability of multi-storey buildings calls for early coordination, not only
with the structural engineer, but with the manufacturer as well. The provision of stiffening
cores or walls made from precast concrete components or in situ concrete has far-reaching
consequences for the design sequence and on-site construction times.
It is advisable to use standardised elements for the loadbearing structure, especially for
smaller buildings. Large construction projects tend to generate their own rules and also
permit the use of their own systems, although it is then very important to consider the pro-
duction engineering requirements if an economic design is to be realised.
The design of the interfaces between the individual elements is influenced by the struc-
tural requirements, but also by the routing of building services. Sensible use of the stan-
dard openings provided in the structural carcass or appropriate beam notches is usually
only achieved when the structural carcass and the interior fitting-out can be built by the
same contractor, i.e. in a turnkey project [10].
The design of the façade determines both the form and the architecture of the building as a
whole. In addition, the façade, the “external skin” of the building, must satisfy all the
building physics requirements that the environment places upon it. One key design deci-
sion is: To what extent does the façade contribute to the loadbearing function? Or is it
only a curtain wall?
In this book, all these points can only be dealt with in outline.
Early planning and coordination of all those involved in the construction project are cru-
cial in order to achieve an optimum building design in terms of architecture, functionality
and economics. This begins with the architect and includes the building services and
building physics consultants, structural engineers and designers plus the fabrication and
erection personnel.
2.1.2 Tolerances
The production process gives rise to dimensional deviations of the actual size from the
nominal size [36, 37]. For example, dimensional deviations in precast concrete compo-
nents ensue due to inaccurate transfer of the design dimensions to the mould, deformation
of the mould during concreting, deterioration of or wear-related flaws in the mould.
However, the production process for a building also includes the erection work, which re-
sults in additional positioning tolerances that essentially depend on the methods of mea-
surement employed.
In addition, dimensional deviations occur as a result of the deformations of the individual
components or the entire structure. These deformations may be load- or time-related (e.g.
as result of shrinkage and creep).
2.1 Boundary conditions for precast concrete design 17
Table 2.1 Tolerances for prefabricated components of plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete
according to DIN 18203-1
sions (e.g. between columns) plus limits of size for window or door openings depending
on the nominal sizes.
Limit values are also specified for angular and flatness deviations and also out-of-plumb
deviations for columns, checked by way of permissible perpendicular measurements
(DIN 18202; see Tables 2, 3 and 4). These may no longer be added to the limits of size.
This corresponds to the box principle of ISO 4464 (now withdrawn), according to which
the actual dimensions of a component or an opening must always lie within the limit di-
mensions (Fig. 2.3).
The permissible flatness deviations do not include the flatness of the components with re-
spect to each other, which must be considered additionally. For example, the steps be-
tween adjacent prestressed concrete planks are often unavoidable and the admissibility of
such steps must be regulated separately.
By contrast, DIN 18203-1 (see Table 2.1) specifies the manufacturing tolerances for the
precast concrete components themselves, divided into limits for length, width and
cross-sectional sizes of linear elements or floor, wall and façade panels. The angular tol-
erances for planar panels and slabs and the cross-sections of linear components are also
shown.
Ref. [36] is a commentary on DIN 18201 and DIN 18202. It contains advice for planners
concerning tolerances and also proposes a method for checking the alignment of columns
in frame structures and single-storey sheds.
Structures with accuracy requirements according to DIN 18202 should always be
checked and monitored using surveying techniques. Conventional measurements by the
foreman using a profile board, line and extending tape measure are by no means ade-
quate! However, the German standards do not include any details about permissible de-
viations for measurements.
pffiffiffi
According to ISO/DIS 4463, limits of size of e2K · L [mm] (distance L in m) at inter-
vals of i 4 m are permissible (see also [37]),
where
K w 5 for earthworks, and
K w 2 for structural works.
For many situations, defining minimum requirements for tolerances according to the
standard is adequate in practice. However, this does not necessarily mean that this is ade-
quate for the “fitting together”. That can only be established following an appropriate fit
calculation which, however, presumes knowledge of the production accuracy achievable.
And the tolerances specified form the foundation for this. Whether the manufacturer of
the precast concrete components also erects and assembles these is also a crucial factor.
Where this is not the case, all subcontractors would insist on the inaccuracies to which
they are entitled and only the additive method remains if disputes are to be avoided.
Fit calculations taking into account the law of the propagation of uncertainties can cer-
tainly yield savings, e.g. in jointing materials, for contractors who have the entire produc-
tion process (measuring, production and erection of the precast concrete components) un-
der control in terms of tolerances. Examples of such calculations can be found in [37, 41,
42].
Furthermore, with structures built from precast concrete elements, the tolerances at the
supports are especially important. It must be guaranteed that the as-built tolerances match
those on which the structural calculations were based. Permissible tolerances that influ-
ence stability must therefore be specified on the working drawings. The tolerances of
built-in items and connectors are specified in [38] together with a simple method for a
fit calculation.
2.1 Boundary conditions for precast concrete design 21
It is also vital to consider every detail of the erection sequence when designing the ele-
ments.
The type of erection must be taken into account: horizontal, i.e. elements positioned
storey by storey with a tower crane, or vertical, i.e. bay by bay over the full height of
the building with a mobile crane (Fig. 2.4).
Typically, tower cranes can handle only relatively light loads, albeit at a large radius and
through a full 360h. However, the largest tower crane used in Germany to date was able to
handle a load of 30 t at a radius of 40 m.
Mobile cranes can lift heavy elements, but only from a position with a firm, stable base.
And owing to their limited working radius and restrictions on the slewing circle with out-
riggers extended, they often have to be repositioned during the work. These days, mobile
cranes with a capacity of 400 t are relatively inexpensive. This is because it is the hire per-
iod and not the actual cost of the crane itself that governs. For example, it takes almost a
whole day to reposition a 500 t crane. Cranes mounted on crawler tracks are used where
even greater lifting capacities are required. Although crawler-mounted cranes with lifting
capacities of up to 1300 t take approx. 1–2 weeks to set up, their crawler tracks mean that
Fig. 2.4 Types of erection and typical crane dimensions with loads
2.1 Boundary conditions for precast concrete design 23
precast concrete elements are easily transported and positioned anywhere on the building
site, provided adequate manoeuvring space is available.
Of course, both types of erection can be combined on one building project, and adapted to
suit the conditions, with the tower crane remaining on site for the duration of the entire
works and mobile cranes being hired by the day as required.
One interesting example of such a detailed coordination of both forms of erection can be
seen in Fig. 2.5, Züblin House. On this project, erection was divided into four phases (see
also Figs 2.125 and 2.149) [44].
Precast concrete components are being increasingly incorporated into composite precast/
in situ concrete designs. In this approach it is possible to exploit the advantages of prefab-
ricated production (complex geometry, surface finish, formwork savings for large series,
etc.) and build the precast concrete elements into an in situ concrete structure. Attention
should be given to making sure that the elements are not too heavy to be positioned
with a tower crane. If this is not possible, then the use of an additional mobile crane
should be concentrated into one period because otherwise the cost of having two cranes
on site will make itself felt.
(a)
(b)
(1a) (1b)
Fig. 2.5 An erection sequence divided into four phases using the example of Züblin House.
Phase 1: Vertical erection of columns with mobile crane; (a) section through building, (b) positions of
tower cranes and slewing circles for horizontal erection. (1a) Erection of façade columns, (1b) erection
of internal columns.
2.1 Boundary conditions for precast concrete design 25
(2a) (2b)
(2c) (2d)
Fig. 2.5
Phase 2: Horizontal erection of perimeter beams, inverted channel section floor units and floor planks
with four tower cranes. (2a) Erection of L-shaped perimeter beams on façade columns, (2b) erection of
inverted channel section floor units on internal columns, (2c) positioning the floor planks, (2d) con-
creting the floor slabs.
One typical example of a not readily flammable building material (class B1) is the light-
weight wood-wool board. Certain testing regulations for furnace tests apply for the clas-
sification of the building materials.
Joint sealing compounds or strips belong to class B1 or B2 depending on their composi-
tion. They may be incorporated between concrete components in certain minimum depths
and maximum joint widths. Elastomeric bearings fall into class B2. Only class A1 mate-
rials may be used for the sealing materials in expansion joints that must satisfy fire protec-
tion requirements, e.g. mineral-fibre boards, asbestos foams or fibres and aluminium sili-
cate fibres (see Fig. 2.13).
Components are classified according to their fire resistance; the fire resistance ratings are
given in Table 2.5. The fire resistance of components is therefore specified according to
fire resistance rating and building materials class. For example, the abbreviated form
for a fire resistance of 90 minutes is F 90.
Suffixes A, B, or AB are added to designate the combustibility:
F 90 -B: general
F 90 -AB: essential components incombustible (loadbearing structure and enclosing
elements)
F 90 -A: all components incombustible
The current regulations for multi-storey buildings generally specify an F 90 rating for
loadbearing components. The commonest requirements for building components are F
30 -A and F 90 -A. The loadbearing structure of a high-rise building must comply with
F 120 -A above a height of 60 m. And even F 180 -A above a height of 200 m (see also
the High-Rise Building Directive of the Hessen Ministry of the Interior).
DIN 4102-3 contains further requirements (e.g. additional impact loads) for fire walls
and non-loadbearing external walls, which include spandrel and fascia panels as well as
room-high, room-enclosing external walls.
Parts 5 to 8 of DIN 4102 – mentioned here for completeness although they apply less to
concrete construction and more to building services and interior fitting-out – deal with the
fire protection of fire stops, lift enclosures, glazing and ventilation ducts and assign them
appropriate fire resistance ratings (e.g. T 90, G 90, L 90, K 90, where T w door, G w
glass, L w ventilation and K w flaps). The resistance of roof coverings to flying sparks
is another aspect covered by these parts.
In Germany the fire protection requirements are generally defined in the building regula-
tions of each federal state together with the provisions for their implementation. How-
ever, the terms fire-retardant, fire-resistant, etc. are used here, which must be allocated
to the respective DIN 4102 terms in the introductory decrees, as listed in Table 2.5.
The federal state building regulations only cover standard buildings for standard uses
(e.g. housing and offices) and therefore special facilities for special uses are dealt with
in special legislation. The following are just a few examples:
2.1 Boundary conditions for precast concrete design 27
F 30 i 30 fire-retardant
F 60 i 60
F 90 i 90 fire-resistant
F 120 i 120
F 180 i 180 highly fire-resistant
Section 2.6.5 deals in more detail with the design of individual precast concrete elements
to meet fire protection requirements.
The fundamental considerations regarding the stability of frame building structures are
described in detail in [50]. A number of general thoughts on this subject are summarised
below and the problems specific to precast concrete construction examined in more de-
tail.
When planning stabilising shear walls or cores, the aim should be to create a statically de-
terminate arrangement on plan in order to prevent restraint forces in the floor diaphragms
as a result of shrinkage or temperature changes. In addition, it is essential to ensure that
the stabilising cores or shear walls are positioned in a way that minimises the rotation
of the building on plan in the case of a uniformly distributed horizontal load due to
wind and eccentricity. Shear walls must be positioned in at least two non-parallel direc-
tions and on at least three axes (Fig. 2.8).
With statically determinate bracing systems, it is the deformation capacity of the columns
that governs the maximum building size for a frame structure. According to [50], lengths
of 100 m and more are possible without expansion joints in a frame structure. The defor-
mation capacity of the columns depends on the accuracy of the representation of the stiff-
nesses in the cracked condition. Critical here are the cross-sectional values but, first and
foremost, the magnitudes of the axial forces to be carried by the columns [52].
The deformation capacity of the columns can be increased by including pinned supports
for the columns or sliding bearings for the first floor slab above the underside of the foun-
dation, although such measures only need to be provided at the columns furthest from the
core (Fig. 2.9).
In the case of statically indeterminate bracing systems, non-uniform temperature changes
result in restraint forces between suspended floors and stability components (Fig. 2.10)
(see section 2.2.2.5). Joints are usually the most appropriate means of avoiding restraint
forces provided simple and clearly arranged joints are possible (Fig. 2.11). Fig. 2.12
30 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.9 Measures for increasing the deformability of columns and walls
for horizontal floor expansion
shows possible joint arrangements, and Fig. 2.13 shows joints that satisfy fire protection
requirements, where such are necessary. Expansion joints always represent a source of
potential damage – details that require substantial input to rectify. Their design should
therefore be carefully thought out and the appropriate drawings and installation instruc-
tions must be prepared. Quality control on the building site is essential for guaranteeing
proper construction. Damage often occurs as a result of unintentionally filling the entire
joint with concrete (constructional measures to prevent loss of grout) and incorrect instal-
lation or the installation of the wrong bearings.
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 31
Therefore, constructing buildings without joints is something that should always be con-
sidered. Where a building is to be constructed without joints, then the following aspects in
particular must be considered:
– The actual expansion due to temperature changes and shrinkage
– The deformability of the stability components (including horizontal precast concrete
floors), especially in the cracked state
– The creep deformability of the concrete
– The conditions during construction
A careful study of the problem using modern methods of calculation often leads to expan-
sion joints being omitted.
At the very least a check should be carried out to ascertain whether the joints need to be
continued over the full height of the building or whether the upper floors of tall buildings
could be built without joints (Fig. 2.14) [53]. It is always only the lowest floors that are
affected most by restraint forces (if we neglect the fire loading case in the upper storeys).
In Züblin House (Fig. 2.15) each of the two 94 m long blocks is divided by one joint. This
positioned the cores somewhat off centre and so these were strengthened by two cross-
walls on the two central axes. The two floor diaphragms were connected together near
one of these two walls by means of a shear key (joggle or castellated) joint that is able
to move in the longitudinal direction of the building, which means that both floor dia-
phragms can be supported on the cross-walls. The topmost floor of the building was built
without any joints. The ensuing restraint forces can be accommodated by this floor slab
and the cores.
Stiffening shear walls can also be offset storey by storey, although in that case the shear
forces in the walls will have to be transferred via the corresponding floor diaphragms
(Fig. 2.16). The forces, and the floor deformations in particular, must be taken into ac-
count in the structural calculations. It must be guaranteed that the forces can be trans-
ferred between the vertical and horizontal stability elements. Openings in the floor are
common at shear walls and service cores in particular, and these hinder the transfer of
forces. The shear wall moment cannot be carried via the floor diaphragm acting as a mem-
① Stiffening walls
② Building joint with shear key
Fig. 2.15 Building stability ③ Horizontal forces from atrium roof beams in floor above 5th storey
and joint positions ④ Post-tensioned prestressed concrete for walkways above 5th storey
for Züblin House [44] ⑤ Service cores for stability
brane, instead must be transferred to the foundations via the neighbouring columns in the
form of a couple. Shear walls offset in different storeys must therefore match the struc-
tural grid.
Fig. 2.17 Core wall, subjected to vertical and Fig. 2.18 Horizontal loads on core due to
horizontal loads restraining forces caused by eccentric column
loads
With an orthogonal arrangement of the stability elements, i.e. the normal case, the wind
loads are examined separately for the two main axes of a building. These add up to the fol-
lowing for the entire structure:
where
cf aerodynamic force coefficient
ze reference height
Aref reference area for force coefficient
q dynamic pressure
The pressure coefficient cpe, which depends on the reference area, should be used for cf.
This figure can be read off from the table in Fig. 2.20, which depends on the area of the
building on the windward side and the ratio of building height to building depth (h/d). In-
termediate figures between 1 and 10 m2 can be obtained by linear interpolation (Fig.
2.21).
The reader is referred to DIN 1055- 4 for suction loads perpendicular to the direction of
the wind.
In the normal case and when assuming a mixed terrain profile in categories II and III
(mixture of individual structures and suburban development, also industrial areas), the
following pressure profile can be assumed for the velocity-related wind pressure q(ze):
36 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Table 2.6 Simplified dynamic pressure assumptions for buildings up to 25 m high to DIN 1055-4
(only wind zones 1 & 2 shown)
h J 10 m 10 m I h J 18 m 18 m I h J 25 m
Fig. 2.22 Comparison of simplified dynamic pressure assumption q and standard case
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 37
Fig. 2.24 Inclined position and reduction factor as functions of the number of columns
Fig. 2.25 Out-of-plumb loading case to DIN 1045 (for vertical stability components)
above, the decreasing likelihood that all adjacent columns have an identical inclination
means that the angle may be reduced by a coefficient an. However, this means a maximum
reduction of only a little less than 30 % (Fig. 2.24).
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 39
Fb w Sd ðTÞ M (3)
40 2 Design of precast concrete structures
where the static total load Fb and the design acceleration Sd are functions of the natural
period of vibration of the structure. The design acceleration (design response spectrum)
is obtained from the elastic response spectrum taking into account the non-linear, or
rather ductile, behaviour of the structure. The response spectrum here describes the mag-
nitude of the maximum response (e.g. acceleration) of a linear elastic single-mass vibra-
tor, with period of natural vibration T, to the design earthquake. Fig. 2.26 shows the ex-
ample of a design acceleration plus the influence of the structure’s ductility.
The response spectrum for determining the accelerations of the structure is generally the
governing factor. It is principally dependent on the following parameters:
x Seismic zone and resulting ground acceleration
zone 0 – 0 m/s2 ground acceleration
1 – 0.4 m/s2
2 – 0.6 m/s2
3 – 0.8 m/s2
x Subsoil and ground classes
classes A, B, C and R, S, T
x Importance category of building
category I e.g. agricultural buildings
category II residual buildings
category III schools, department stores
category IV hospitals, safety/security facilities
x Structure ductility behaviour classes 1 and 2
The corresponding ductility (behaviour) factor is defined as follows:
Rel
qw (4)
Rnl
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 41
and corresponds to the quotient resulting from the elastic component resistance and the
non-linear (ductile) resistance. For reinforced concrete structures this value lies between
q w 1.5 (e.g. stability provided by walls) and q w 3.0 (e.g. stability provided by frame).
DIN 4149 lays down appropriate constructional rules for this. A lower ductility (q w
1.5 or even 1.0) should be assumed for structures built from precast concrete elements.
In particular, a value of q J 1.5 should always be assumed for the design of foundation
elements.
The total seismic load determined in this way can be apportioned according to the eigen-
mode or, for simplicity, linearly, taking into account the respective storey mass (Fig.
2.27). This simplified approach only applies to regular systems that can be calculated
as plane systems in both directions. A three-dimensional calculation is necessary for irre-
gular systems.
The torsional vibrations of the building must be considered in addition to the horizontal
loads. If the system is almost symmetrical on plan and on elevation and it can be assumed
that the centre of gravity of the mass coincides approximately with the centre of gravity of
the stability elements (centroid of horizontal loadbearing elements), then an accidental
torsion load may be considered in the following simplified form:
x
d w 1 S 0,6 (5)
Le
Here, the horizontal load of the individual stability components must be increased by the
factor d. Fig. 2.28 illustrates the calculation graphically.
Fig. 2.29 Eigenmode for a building calculated with the help of an FEM analysis
All methods of calculation based on the response spectrum method are permissible. The
methods can be subdivided into the simplified response spectrum method, which is based
on a single-mass vibrator and must comply with certain application rules, the multi-modal
response spectrum method, which is based on a multiple-mass vibrator and takes into ac-
count several eigenmodes and mass participations (modal masses), and the three-dimen-
sional modelling of the building, taking into account the true mass distribution and the ac-
celeration values for the individual stability elements. The delayed occurrence of indivi-
dual maximum loading values can be taken into account in this last method. Fig. 2.29
shows an example of the first eigenmode of a building based on a three-dimensional ana-
lysis.
The equation for determining the period of natural vibration given in the 1981 edition of
DIN 4149 can still be used for the simplified method:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X n
H 1
T1 w 1,5 S mi z2i (6)
3EI Ck JF iw1
Therefore, the influence of foundation rotation can also be taken into account approxi-
mately for pad foundations. The dynamic subgrade modulus – which is much higher
than the static subgrade modulus – must be used as well as the moment of inertia of the
foundation. Foundation rotation does not normally have to be considered for buildings
that rely on service cores and shear walls for their stability.
Using this period of natural vibration it is possible in the simplest case, with the asso-
ciated response spectrum and ductility factor, to determine the static equivalent load
and apportion it to the storeys according to Fig. 2.27.
The (internal and external) stability must be verified for the static equivalent loads calcu-
lated. The earthquake loading case combination according to DIN 1055-100 must be ap-
plied here. Reduced imposed loads must be considered in addition to the dead loads. The
combination coefficient c2 (DIN 1055-100) can be further reduced by the factor f (DIN
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 43
4149). The snow loading case must also be considered among the variable loads when
carrying out the seismic design.
The most unfavourable combination is required when considering seismic actions in two
planes (x- and y-directions): 1.0 · Ex with 0.30 · Ey or 0.30 · Ex with 1.0 · Ey. This is gener-
ally only critical when stability is provided by fixed-base columns.
The factor of safety for the actions is gE w 1.0, whereas the factor of safety for the materi-
als should be taken as gM w 1.5 for concrete and gM w 1.15 for reinforcing steel.
Where stability is provided by way of fixed-base columns, these should be checked for
buckling, also for the earthquake loading case. For simplicity, this analysis is not essential
when the horizontal load due to seismic actions is dominant, i.e. when the following con-
dition is satisfied:
Ptot df
uw J 0,10 (7)
Vtot h
where
Ptot vertical load
Vtot associated shear force due to earthquake
h column height in storey
df relative horizontal deformation in storey due to earthquake
The latter can be calculated from the horizontal deformations assuming elastic material
behaviour, increased by the ductility factor q used earlier.
Great attention must be paid to the detailed design of the structure. The following points
are especially important for precast concrete elements:
– Structural connections at all supports for precast concrete components (e.g. pin shear
connectors).
– Securing of “non-loadbearing” components.
– Floors designed as horizontal diaphragms.
– Structural and preferably ductile connections to bracing and stiffening components.
– Structural connections between foundation components so that no relative deforma-
tions ensue between foundations; exceptions are possible depending on the subsoil
(see DIN 4149 section 12.1.2).
– Ductile and load-carrying design of core walls with openings, “soft” storeys in parti-
cular, which can lead to a storey-by-storey failure of the entire stability element,
should be avoided.
– Use of highly ductile steel in the tension zones of stability elements; walls and floors
may be reinforced with steel of normal ductility, likewise shear links and lattice beams
in the floors.
44 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Temperature loads are variable action effects according to DIN 1055-100. With an elastic
calculation of the restraint forces, the factor of safety according to DIN1045-1 section
5.3.3 may be taken as gQ w 1.0. If the analysis is carried out taking into account the
cracked components, a factor of safety of gQ w 1.5 should be used.
The method of analysis is considerably simplified if the stability components are ar-
ranged symmetrically on plan. The following cross-sectional values are assumed for the
individual stability components:
1. Flexural stiffnesses EIy, EIx (kNm2)
2. Shear stiffnesses GAsy, GAsz (kN)
3. Torsional stiffness GIT (kNm2), made up of
a) St. Venant torsional stiffness
b) Bredt torsional stiffness
4. Warping stiffness ECM (kNm4)
Asy and Asz designate the shear area. The following generally applies:
ð 2
1 t
w dA (8)
As Q
A
F) Closed seg- Equivalent flexural stiffness EI*z EIy Equivalent torsional stiff-
mented section Equivalent shear stiffness GA*Sy GASz ness GIT
(Warping stiffness ECM)
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 47
Abandoning the idea of assuming that floor diaphragms are rigid increases the number of
degrees of freedom considerably. The greater computing requirement is only justified in
the case of especially soft floor diaphragms (e.g. large openings). In such cases it will be
necessary to make use of universal linear-member programs for calculating three-dimen-
sional frames, or FEM programs. And the disadvantage of grillage programs [61] is that
stability elements positioned transverse to the loading direction cannot be taken into ac-
count.
GIT 2
k2 w h J 0,25 (9)
EIW
the torsional stiffness GIT theoretically no longer has any influence (h w height of
building).
2. Ignoring the warping stiffnesses ECM of several stability components is always possi-
ble if they are low compared to the total warping stiffness of the system. This is mostly
the case with stability elements held apart by struts. The total warping stiffness EIw of
a stability system is calculated as follows:
X
n
EIw w E CMi S Iyi y2i S Izi z2i (10)
iw1
3. The shear deformation of beams is low compared to their bending deformation. There-
fore, the shear stiffness of the stiffening plates can assumed to be infinitely large where
several storeys are involved. Provided the stiffness and loading are constant over the
height, the transverse distribution of the loads is then also constant over the height.
However, comparative calculations indicate that the shear deformations of the walls
in the case of stocky stability systems or in the lower storeys of tall buildings can
lead to a considerable redistribution of shear forces.
4. The main axes of the stability elements are assumed to be parallel with or perpendicu-
lar to the loading direction. Torsional moments (Iyz) are not considered.
The simplifications 1– 4 above mean that the equations according to [50] apply:
Coordinates of the shear centre M0 of the total system:
P
n P
n
Iyi yi Izi zi
iw1 iw1
y0 w , z0 w
P
n Pn
Iyi Izi
iw1 iw1
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 49
2.2.3.3 Interaction of shear walls, shear walls with series of openings and
frames
Where stability elements with different deformation behaviour, such as shear walls, seg-
mented shear walls and frames, are designed to act together, then the relationship between
their flexural and shear stiffnesses must be sensibly organised before the distribution of
the horizontal loads can be calculated. Equivalent cross-sections for frames and segmen-
ted shear walls must be determined beforehand when the computer programs used for
checking the stability of the building permit only solid plates or thin-wall cross-sections
as stability elements.
a) Segmented shear walls
The structurally equivalent shear wall is determined in such a way that its deformation un-
der horizontal loads matches the deformation of the segmented shear wall as closely as
possible. The calculation can be carried out in two steps as follows:
50 2 Design of precast concrete structures
1. Determination of the deflection at the top and further deflection by means of manual
calculations or computer.
The usual manual methods for segmented shear walls [50, 62, 63] are based on a
method of calculation that replaces the single “rail” with a continuous row of lamellae
(Fig. 2.31). Therefore, the flexural stiffness of a segmented shear wall lies between
that of a solid shear wall (rigid anchors) and two separate shear walls. The magnitude
of the rail’s moment of inertia is specified in [50] or [63] for a rail at floor level. A crit-
ical study of the use of an equivalent frame model for shear walls and high-rise build-
ing cores can be found in [81].
Special programs for plates now allow plane systems to be calculated on desktop com-
puters. They permit almost all conceivable geometrical irregularities to be taken into
account:
– Openings
– Holes
– Individual linear-type elements
– Different thicknesses
Internal forces and design proposals can be output for all elements.
2. Determination of the unknown I* (moment of inertia) and A* (shear area) for the
equivalent solid plate from equations (1) and (2) according to Fig. 2.32.
b) Plates with large openings
Openings in shear walls are common in the lower storeys, i.e. in the zones with the high-
est shear forces. Such openings considerably diminish the stiffness of any shear wall.
Fig. 2.33 shows an example of a shear wall with a large opening at ground floor level.
The equivalent shear wall is divided into two areas with different cross-sectional values.
The calculated cross-sectional values of the equivalent shear wall can be entered directly
into a program for determining the horizontal load distribution.
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 51
Fig. 2.32 Segmented shear wall and associated equivalent shear wall
(More accurate calculations with FEM programs for plates and determination of equiva-
lent cross-sectional areas according to Fig. 2.32).
d) Three-dimensional systems
Manual calculations for three-dimensional stability elements with series of openings are
only possible when a corresponding plane system can be found by exploiting symmetries.
But everyday FEM programs should be used for general systems.
One common case is the perforated hollow box. If this is symmetrical about its axes on
plan, the bending action effects can be dealt with by means of a plane system. However,
in the case of torsion action effects, a realistic model must be found that lies between the
two extreme cases of
– two U-sections, and
– one closed hollow box-section (Fig. 2.35).
As the closed hollow section yields far less under torsion loads than the two open sec-
tions, it is necessary to design the “rail” to be as stiff as possible in order to come as close
as possible to the closed section. With a suitably stiff rail (rigid anchors), the warping
stiffness can be neglected, although this represents an approximation. In this case the
Bredt torsional resistance of the section can be calculated easily in two steps:
1. For a plate of thickness d with regular openings, an equivalent plate of thickness t* (I
d) without openings is first determined based on the assumption that both plates ex-
hibit the same shear stiffness (Fig. 2.36). In doing so, the system length l1 or h1 asso-
ciated with the weaker cross-section can be reduced according to the principle of
St. Venant if the depths of the “rail” and “post” cross-sections are very different.
The equations given in Fig. 2.37 can be used for calculating the symmetrical case.
An evaluation of the equations shows that the equivalent wall thickness is very low
when either the rail depth or the width of the plates adjacent to the opening, i.e. the
posts, is small.
where
A w (b - d) · (bl - d)
s w length of one wall with constant thickness t
Assuming that post shear forces are distributed continuously over the height, a general
method of calculation was developed in [64] for perforated high-rise building service
cores which also takes the warping stiffnesses into account. This method serves as a basis
for a computer program [65] which also permits the coupling with other stability ele-
ments.
Fig. 2.36 Determining the equivalent thickness t* for a hollow-box wall with a series of openings
54 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.37 Equivalent wall thickness of symmetrical hollow-box wall with a series of openings
For reasons of economy, however, walls of precast concrete components are installed
without grouting the joints afterwards – case b). During design, the anchorage effect of
the floors is frequently totally neglected and therefore the wall reinforcement is overde-
signed. The example below explains a method of calculation that takes the anchorage ef-
fect of the floors into account. There is no grout in the vertical joints of the wall shown in
Fig. 2.39. The wall elements are supported on the floors and the horizontal joints are
packed or grouted. However, the vertical loads are generally not sufficient to cancel out
the tensile stresses in the horizontal joints, which means that it often becomes necessary
to include longitudinal reinforcement at the edges of the plate to bridge over the horizon-
tal joints.
In this example the vertical load is ignored and the wall calculated for the given horizontal
load only. The system acts like a multi-ply cantilever beam connected by individual an-
chors. A severely deformed zone develops in the vicinity of the anchors due to the transfer
of the anchor shear forces into the two adjoining shear walls. According to the principle of
St. Venant, this disruption decays at a distance from the point of transfer roughly equiva-
lent to the depth of the floor diaphragm.
A computer program is used to design the shear wall. Fig. 2.39 shows the chosen element
mesh. In the vicinity of the anchors, the element mesh is refined to square elements with a
side length equal to the depth of the floor. The powerful elements used can also cope with
the abrupt transition to the quite large elements shown here. The result indicates that only
about one-third of the total moment at the base of the wall (1752 kNm) is transferred to
the three plates in the form of bending moments. The axial forces transferred via the an-
chors into the outer plates form a couple that carries about two-thirds of the total moment.
The maximum anchor force of 86.7 kN can be resisted by shear reinforcement in the floor
slab.
With knowledge of the horizontal deformations, an associated equivalent shear wall can
now be determined easily according to the previous section (see Fig. 2.32):
0,198 20 124
I* w 2,33 m4 (37%)
(3 1,084 s 4 0,519) 30000
0,198 20 122
A* w 0,32 m2 (26%)
(0,519 s 0,354 1,084) 13000
The ratios of the cross-sectional values of the equivalent shear wall to the solid shear wall
are given in brackets (h q b q d w 12.00 q 7.24 q 0.20 m; l w 6.33 m4; As w 1.21 m2).
With a grouted vertical joint and an assumed joint stiffness of K w 4500 MN/m2, accord-
ing to [67] the reduced moment of inertia and the shear area are as follows:
6,33 0,93
Il w w 4,45m ð70%Þ
4
(15)
2,88 7,24 2
1S
3 S 0,25 12,00
Alw 1,21m2 ð100%Þ
If the anchor effect of the floor slab or the grouted vertical joint were to be totally ignored,
the equivalent cross-sections would be the totals of the individual cross-sections:
3 2,403 0,2
IL w w 0,69 m4 ð11%Þ
12
3 2,40 0,2
AL w w 1,20 m2 ð100%Þ
1,2
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 57
One further simplification is the assumption that the elements are arranged symmetrically
about the axes, which means that the wind load does not cause any rotation.
The calculation of the horizontal load distribution is carried out with a computer program.
The storey height is 3 m, the thickness of the stiffening shear walls 0.25 m.
Equivalent cross-sectional values were established beforehand for the wall with the open-
ing according to Fig. 2.33. The increase in the shear force proportion in the outer shear
walls in case a) as we proceed down the building is clear from the diagrams. If the shear
deformations were to be ignored, then the shear force proportion would remain constant
over the height. In case b), on the other hand, the weakening of the shear wall cross-sec-
tions at the bottom of the wall mean that almost the entire shear force is allocated to the
core.
ing to second-order theory is based on determining the horizontal force distribution ac-
cording to the previous section.
1. Distribution of the horizontal loads due to wind, earthquake, foundation rotation and
eccentricity over the stability elements (shear walls, cores, frames).
2. Analysis of the individual stability elements under horizontal and vertical loads taking
into account the horizontal deformation. Here, about 55–70 % of EII according to [50]
or [68] can be assumed for EIII. The additional loads resulting from the second-order
theory calculation are applied to each individual stability element; however, this
ignores the influence of the coupling through the floor diaphragms for the additional
loads. The building’s stability is verified by proving the stability of each individual
stability component. The influence of foundation rotation is taken into account by
elastic fixity in the ground. The torsion spring constant should be assumed to be as fol-
lows:
Ed
cf w IF ce w IF pffiffiffiffiffiffi ([71], S. 527) (16)
0,25 AF
where
c@ torsion spring constant (MNm)
IF moment of inertia of base area (m4)
ce subgrade modulus (MN/m3)
AF base area (m2)
Ed coefficient of compressibility of soil for short-term loading (MN/m2).
The analysis according to second-order theory can be omitted when it is established be-
forehand that the system is stable. DIN 1045-1 specifies stiffening criteria (previously la-
bility coefficient or its inverse) to ease the assessment of the stability. These provide in-
formation on the yielding capacity of the stability components. However, strictly speak-
ing, the use of these criteria is linked to further restrictive conditions as well as the as-
sumption of rigid floor diaphragms:
1. The centroid axis on plan and the stiffness axis of the total stability system coincide
(coaxiality).
2. Stability components have thin-wall cross-sections and their properties are constant
over the height.
3. Vertical loads are identical in all storeys and run longitudinally along the centroid axis
on plan.
4. All storeys are equal in height.
5. Foundation rotation is neglected.
Even if not all of these conditions are met, a rough analysis of the building stability is still
possible. In cases of doubt, however, a more accurate analysis will be needed.
60 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Accordingly, the analysis according to second-order theory is unnecessary when the fol-
lowing applies:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 Ecm Ic
j 1=ð0,2 S 0,1 mÞ for m J 3
hges FEd
j 1=0,6 for m j 4 (17)
Similarly, an assessment criterion for the rotational stability was derived in [69] and [50].
The following applies to systems with highly asymmetrical arrangements of stability ele-
ments or where torsional rotations cannot be neglected:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 u u
uPEcm Iv S 1 uPGcm IT
t t
hges FEd,j rj2 2,28 FEd,j rj2
j j
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iw i2x S i2y
where
m number of storeys
htot height of loadbearing structure from top of foundation or a non-deformable re-
ference plane
rj distance of column j from shear centre of total system
FEd sum of design values of vertical loads, with gF w 1.0
FEd,j design value of vertical load on column j, with gF w 1.0
Ecmlc sum of nominal flexural stiffnesses of all vertical stability components
Ecmlv sum of nominal warping stiffnesses of all components providing stability against
rotation which act in the direction considered
GcmlT sum of torsional stiffnesses of all components providing stability against rotation
(St. Venant torsional stiffness)
Generalisations for torsion, such as considering mixed torsion and the calculations for
non-coaxial systems, are described in [69, 70]. Foundation rotation can change the result
of the stability criterion substantially. The stability condition has been extended in [68]
depending on the moment of inertia of the base area and the subgrade modulus of the sub-
soil.
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 61
ea w aa1 l0 =2 (19)
or individual, very soft but it rigidly connected columns are taken into account automati-
cally. Performing the deformation analysis for the total system avoids the shortcomings of
the model column method for linear members and results in a much better assessment of
the real situation (see also [72]).
ments during production. The disadvantage of the latter is that it can increase the number
of different production positions substantially (Fig. 2.44).
The longitudinal reinforcement in the joints acts as the tensile bending reinforcement for
the plate or as the tension hangers of a truss model. The compressive forces in this truss
are generally carried away diagonally via the joints. In order to transfer this shear in the
plate it is sufficient when the joints can transfer shear forces in the longitudinal direction
of the joint, acting like a hinge (Fig. 2.45a). This is achieved through the use of an appro-
priate shear key, in the case of very high loads by welding the edges of the joints together
via cast-in steel items. If the joints also have to transfer load-distributing out-of-plane
shear forces, then a shear key must be formed in both directions (Fig. 2.45b). Accommo-
dating the ensuing horizontal expansion forces can likewise be achieved via the longitu-
dinal reinforcement in the transverse joint (Fig. 2.46).
Transferring thrust and shear forces in the diaphragm joints can also be via achieved
looped reinforcement in the joints. However, this is a nuisance during production because
then the side panels of the floor unit moulds are penetrated by the loops and, in addition,
threading the longitudinal joint reinforcement through the loops on site is laborious. One
remedy is to use specially developed looped wire rope connections which can transfer
both in-plane and out-of-plane forces (see also section 3.3).
64 2 Design of precast concrete structures
The horizontal component of the diagonal compressive forces resulting from the shear
force action effect is carried via the floor diaphragm to the longitudinal reinforcement
in the transverse joints.
It is certainly the case that with floor diaphragms made up of individual precast concrete
units, far more favourable loadbearing and deformation behaviour is achieved when in-
stead of just one perimeter tie, longitudinal reinforcement is positioned in every joint,
which of course must be suitably anchored in the perimeter member. Besides their func-
tion as tension hangers, i.e. as shear reinforcement (“links” or “stirrups”) in the floor dia-
phragm, the longitudinal reinforcement in the joints also has to accommodate the wind
suction loads and the tie-back forces due to eccentricity. This is why they must be an-
chored in the outer columns or – with a structural grid offset internally – must incorporate
these with loops. For in the end these have the task of holding the structure together ade-
quately in the event of accidental loads (earthquake, explosion).
The design of the floor diaphragm also essentially depends on whether it transfers the hor-
izontal loads to the vertical stability elements (walls or cores) via compression or tension,
and whether the force transfer is continuous over the entire depth of the diaphragm or
merely concentrated over relatively narrow shear walls.
The joints should be as narrow as possible to facilitate the transfer of the shear forces.
However, they must be wide enough to accommodate the longitudinal reinforcement ne-
cessary, also at laps, and allow the (low-shrink) grout to be easily poured and compacted.
Fig. 2.47 shows a precast concrete suspended floor construction with longitudinal joint
reinforcement that is anchored in the columns. Other potential floor connections are de-
scribed in [74].
There is no uniform concept for the design of the perimeter tie and the joint reinforce-
ment. Truss action models are appropriate for their design [75]. In principle, when choos-
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 65
ing a suitable truss action model, it must be ensured that the load can be carried with mini-
mal deformations. The flow of the forces should therefore preferably take place via the re-
latively stiff struts.
It is normal to carry all the tensile forces via a single tie around the perimeter (Fig. 2.48a).
However, it is frequently impossible to incorporate this tie with the appropriate an-
chorages and corner details. It may well be better to distribute the tensile forces over sev-
eral joints, as shown in Fig. 2.48b. The advantage of this solution is that the tying-back of
the support reactions can be distributed over several places.
In single-storey sheds it is frequently possible to omit the roof bracing completely be-
cause the horizontal forces are carried directly by the columns. If it is necessary to form
a plate in the plane of the roof, this can either be achieved via the roof covering itself or
via a truss, the chords of which are formed by two neighbouring rafters (see Figs 2.49
and 2.50).
Where the roof covering is made from autoclaved aerated concrete panels, pumice con-
crete hollow-core planks [76] or trapezoidal profile metal sheeting, the approval docu-
mentation for these products contains the construction details necessary for achieving a
plate effect with the individual elements.
66 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.48 Truss action models for floor diaphragms with perimeter support
Fig. 2.49 Floor diaphragm formed by coupling Fig. 2.50 Züblin House, roof plate over glass
beams together atrium formed by coupling two rafters together
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 67
Fig. 2.52 Service shafts as stiffening cores Fig. 2.53 Stiffening core with masonry internal
walls
ble-headed studs is ideal because of the rotating head (Fig. 2.57). The best solution is to
support beams or floor slabs in pockets (Fig. 2.56).
Internal landing slabs can be attached to stair shaft walls via steel sections and grouted
joints (Fig. 2.58).
Shear walls made from precast concrete elements according to Fig. 2.54c are particularly
common in large-panel construction. Storey-high precast concrete elements should be
70 2 Design of precast concrete structures
used in such designs. The shear forces in the joints must be analysed. The reinforcement
designed to accommodate the splitting of the shear force into a horizontal tension compo-
nent and a diagonal compression component may be concentrated at the level of the floor
slabs according to Fig. 2.59 for walls whose total width is greater than the storey height.
Shear reinforcement (e.g. loops) distributed over the height of the joint is recommended
in [73] for vertical wall joints between precast concrete elements at the corners (L-, T-,
U-cross-sections on plan) (see Fig. 2.60). Reinforcement concentrated at the level of
the floor diaphragms only cannot prevent the joint opening.
The horizontal joints in walls of precast concrete components are primarily loaded in
compression. Transferring the shear forces is then generally guaranteed via friction.
Shear keys such as those shown in Fig. 2.61 will be necessary in certain cases. Any tensile
forces that occur (see section 2.2.3.4) can be accommodated by welding (Fig. 2.62),
screw couplers (Fig. 2.63) or approved built-in items plus screw couplers (Fig. 2.64).
Stiffening according to Figs 2.65 and 2.66 is employed for frame structures that are con-
ceived as fully prefabricated systems. Further design and construction advice for shear
walls made from precast concrete components can be found in [77] and other publica-
tions.
Using frame systems (Fig. 2.54f) to provide stability is generally only worth considering
for special cases. One example is the structural carcass for a paper mill (Fig. 2.68). The
rigid connection between beam and column (Detail A) is achieved with the help of screw
couplers that are subsequently pressed tight. Screw couplers with metric or conical
threads are now available. The shear force is transferred via a corbel, or rather via the
grout filling in the gap between beam and column. Detail B shows the hinged but laterally
restrained support for the roof beam at the column. Remarkable here is the separate trans-
fer of the vertical support reaction via the cast-in neoprene bearing pad and the horizontal
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 71
Fig. 2.60 Deformation of joints between longitudi- Fig. 2.61 Core wall with horizontal shear key
nal and transverse stability girders with different joints for high shear and low axial forces
reinforcement arrangements [73]
support reaction via the cast-in shear connectors. The neoprene pad allows the vertical
support reaction to be distributed over a large area. Similar designs are described in
[78–80].
Whether stiffening walls or cores are to be made from precast concrete elements or in situ
concrete should be clarified with the contractor at an early stage because this has a deci-
sive influence on the sequence of planning and building operations. Walls of precast con-
crete elements are generally somewhat more complicated and require more input during
planning and therefore require an appropriate lead time for the technical work, which,
however, can be recouped by the faster erection. On the other hand, in situ concrete cores
can, or rather must, be built prior to the arrival of the precast concrete elements on site, i.e.
at the same time as the elements are being produced in the factory. Whether this is possi-
ble is not only a question of the separation into different trades, but also a question of the
time of year in which the building work can take place. Such decisions can only be
reached on an individual basis taking into account costs and timetables.
72 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.62 Welded joint between wall elements Fig. 2.63 Screwed joint between wall ele-
ments
Fig. 2.64 Joint between wall elements with (a) dowels plus grout, and (b) special cast-in
wall starter units PSK (Peikkor)
74 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.65 Stair shaft assembled from precast concrete components (production building for
Siemens AG; contractor: DYWIDAG)
First of all, every floor level must include a continuous perimeter tie no more than 1.2 m
from the edge. This should be able to accommodate a tensile force of
where li is the span in [m] of the end bay of the floor diaphragm perpendicular to the peri-
meter tie being considered. Joints between reinforcing bars can be lapped or welded. Laps
should be designed with a length of ls w 2 · lb and should be secured with shear reinforce-
ment (links, U-bars, etc.).
Internal ties must be provided in two directions at 90h to each other and at their ends they
must be structurally connected to the perimeter tie. They should be able to accommodate a
tensile force of
FEd w 20 ½kN=m
In floors in which the perimeter ties are positioned in the joints between the precast con-
crete elements, a minimum force per joint amounting to
ðl1 S l2 Þ
FEd w 20 ½kN I 70 ½kN
2
should be assumed (l1, l2 in [m], see Fig. 2.67). Perimeter columns and external walls
must be connected at every floor level; design tensile force FEd w 10 kN/m of façade,
although the maximum force per column does not have to exceed FEd w 150 kN. Corner
columns should be anchored in two directions, and here the outer perimeter tie may form
part of the anchorage.
In the case of buildings built using large panels and having five or more storeys, the walls
must also be interconnected with vertical ties in order to prevent a floor collapsing in the
case of the failure of the wall below, e.g. due to a local explosion. The perimeter tie should
form part of a system that “bridges over” the damaged area. These ties should extend the
full height of the building and in the damaged condition be able to accommodate the de-
sign value of the load acting on the floor immediately above the failed wall.
76 2 Design of precast concrete structures
(a) Erection
(b) Section
Fig. 2.68 Stability provided by frames (Holtzmann paper mill; contractor: Züblin)
2.2 Stability of precast concrete structures 77
The design of structural precast concrete elements is essentially determined by the pro-
duction methods. The principal dimensions are limited by the transport restrictions de-
scribed in section 2.1.3.
in Fig. 2.70, hollow-core slabs are available in various depths. Spans of up to 18 m can be
achieved with slabs approx. 40 cm deep. The standard width is 1.20 m.
The highly eccentric prestressing causes upward creep in the slabs and the different defor-
mations of the individual elements can lead to considerable problems at joints, particu-
larly with the smaller depths. This aspect should be tracked during storage of the ele-
ments. The lack of space in the joints between the individual elements can cause problems
when attempting to use the slab as a horizontal diaphragm for stability purposes, which is
often necessary. This aspect requires careful planning. Certain voids can be partly filled at
the supports in order to accommodate large in-plane loads, with the reinforcing bars then
functioning as “dowels” between adjacent bays (Fig. 2.71).
80 2 Design of precast concrete structures
structural design of conventionally reinforced precast concrete floor slabs can be found in
[94], where these differ from DIN 1045-1.
Slab depths are generally between 14 and 20 cm in order to achieve spans of 6–7 m for
loads of 5 kN/m2. Spans of up to 10 m are possible with a slab depth of 30 cm. The long-
itudinal edges are cast with shear keys where necessary so that in-plane and out-of-plane
forces can be transferred across the joints between elements. Hollow-core slabs can al-
ways be erected without the need for any temporary propping.
Fig. 2.73 Cross-sectional values of double-T floor units (Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertig-
teilbau e.V.)
ary erection condition, the two bottom chords can be included in the tension reinforce-
ment required for structural purposes. DIBt National Technical Approvals are available
for various types of lattice beam.
The floors are designed according to DIN 1045-1. The diagonals in the lattice beams and
the rough top side of the plank guarantee an adequate bond with the in situ concrete top-
ping, which means that the floor can be designed like a solid slab cast in one operation.
A continuity effect in the slab can be achieved in a simple way by adding top reinforce-
ment to the lattice beams on site. It is also easy to lay any additional reinforcement that
might be needed to achieve a horizontal diaphragm effect.
2.3 Loadbearing elements 83
A discussion surrounding the FEM design of floor slabs spanning in two directions can be
found in [101] and [103]. According to these reports, FEM can also be used for precast
concrete floor systems provided there is no joint within the torsion zone (0.3 · Lmin) (or
the reinforcement for the transverse direction is laid in the in situ concrete topping) and
the depth of the joint does not exceed one-third of the total slab depth. The reinforcement
from a design for an in situ concrete slab can be used here provided the span reinforce-
ment transverse to the span of the precast concrete elements is continuous across the floor
84 2 Design of precast concrete structures
slab and is calculated according to the ratio of the different structural depths. The bar dia-
meter should not exceed 14 mm and the reinforcement required for flexural tension
should not be greater than 10 cm2/m. The introduction of the new DIN 1045-1 means
that the permissible shear stress is currently still limited to 0.25 · VRd,max.
It is now also possible to construct composite plank floors supported on individual col-
umns (i.e. flat slab with no floor beams). Special lattice beams are required to resist
punching shear.
Where composite plank floors, like hollow-core slabs, are required to span up to 5 m
without any temporary propping during erection, then the single-bar top chord of the lat-
tice beam can be replaced by a channel-shaped, buckling-resistant sheet steel section that
is filled with concrete at the same time as casting the precast concrete plank (Fig. 2.77).
This type of suspended floor is especially economic with high storey heights if the extra
cost of the lattice beam is lower than the cost of providing temporary propping. This sys-
tem (trade name “Montaquick”) is also approved for non-static loads [96].
Erection and concreting of the floors without temporary propping can be achieved by
using prestressed floor elements. To do this, the concrete plank is pretensioned with wires
positioned almost in the centre of the depth. Spans of approx. 8 m during erection are then
possible (Fig. 2.78) with prestressed concrete planks about 8–10 cm deep. Thermal ex-
pansion in the longitudinal direction would lead to restraint forces when using lattice
beams. Therefore, shear reinforcement can only be achieved with the help of additional
shear links. The shear connection between precast and in situ concrete is achieved by
way of the bond between the two, although a positive form of shear connection should
be provided at the supports. The use of prestressed composite plank floors is regulated ex-
clusively via DIBt National Technical Approvals.
A T-beam slab for longer spans is achieved by using conventionally reinforced or pre-
stressed precast concrete beams, with shear connectors protruding from the top, to sup-
port composite plank floors spanning at 90h to these (Fig. 2.79). This creates a horizontal
diaphragm as well as a continuity effect in the transverse direction.
Fig. 2.76 Two-way-spanning composite Fig. 2.77 Lattice beam for stable composite
plank floor with punching shear reinforcement plank floor during erection (Montaquick, Kaiser-
at columns (flat slab) Omnia systems)
2.3 Loadbearing elements 85
(a)
Fig. 2.79 Cross-sections for beams, downstand beams and wall panels
(Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e.V.)
2.3 Loadbearing elements 87
(b)
Fig. 2.79 contd.
88 2 Design of precast concrete structures
(c)
Fig. 2.79 contd.
2.3 Loadbearing elements 89
(d)
Fig. 2.79 contd.
the torsion in the webs is minimal, and depending on the position of the grid with respect
to the façade, complete or half perimeter beams can be used. Building services can be rou-
ted in the voids between the webs.
90 2 Design of precast concrete structures
(a)
Fig. 2.81 Roof beam cross-sections (Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e.V.)
92 2 Design of precast concrete structures
(b)
Fig. 2.81 contd.
2.3 Loadbearing elements 93
Fig. 2.82 Different roof pitch solutions Fig. 2.83 Beam web openings, standardised
2.3.3 Columns
The standard cross-section for precast concrete columns for single-storey sheds is rectan-
gular, whereas the square form is generally preferred for multi-storey buildings (Fig.
2.86), where a constant cross-section throughout all storeys is the best solution in order
to achieve uniform support and connection details, especially with respect to the interior
fitting-out. Multi-storey buildings up to five storeys high are built with continuous col-
umns. However, such long columns should not be too slender because their flexibility
can then cause serious problems during transport and erection. The standard cross-section
for columns in conventional buildings is 40 q 40 cm. In taller buildings with spliced col-
umns, the splices should be offset in different storeys in order to improve stability during
erection.
Columns with a circular cross-section are also possible. However, if these are cast in ver-
tical moulds, then only storey-high columns are possible, which adds up to a considerable
number of splices. Circular columns can also be cast horizontally as hollow columns with
very high concrete strengths using the spun concrete method, although such a form of
production requires special facilities [93].
The best solution in terms of mould design is when corbels are positioned on two opposite
sides (Fig. 2.87). A third corbel on the top during production is also possible. Corbels on
four sides are to be recommended in exceptional cases only because of their difficult pro-
duction. One example of this is the University of Riyadh [91, 92], which was designed so
rigorously as a precast concrete structure that all the columns could be produced in the
same type of mould. A double steel mould with an automatic dropside mechanism was
developed according to a uniform scheme for the 2600 columns (Fig. 2.88). This enabled
corbels to be positioned on all four sides where necessary. In the early years of school and
university building, when unidirectional structural systems were still the goal, peripheral
or annular corbels were designed so that there would be support for beams in both direc-
tions (see [3]). This type of corbel is very awkward in terms of mould and reinforcement
and should be avoided. More recently, there have been more and more attempts to create
concrete façades with special architectural effects again, which are economic when the
2.3 Loadbearing elements 95
concrete also has a loadbearing function. This leads to architectural façade columns, e.g.
as in the case of Züblin House. A relatively elaborate mould was required for this project.
But thanks to the simple and clear concept of the building, it was possible to produce all
the façade columns in one type of mould, which included the “lugs” for three upper floors
(Fig. 2.89) so that the columns only had to be spliced once or twice. Each mould was used
96 2 Design of precast concrete structures
more than 100 times. These two examples, the University of Riyadh and Züblin House,
show how a project-related breakdown into prefabricated parts can certainly be sensible
and economic, even though these differ from the planning principles for industrialised
building systems in general.
More and more storey-high precast concrete columns are being used, especially for com-
posite precast/in situ concrete structures. One reason for this is the faster construction
time for high-rise buildings, for instance, with the column splices in the form of simple
butt joints according to section 3.1.1. A steel plate is usually specified to cope with the
Fig. 2.89 Standard column for Züblin House; spring-loaded, “breathing“ column mould [94]
2.3 Loadbearing elements 97
Fig. 2.90 Butt joint between precast concrete columns for Triangel Tower in Cologne
(contractor: Züblin)
high loads normally encountered in high-rise buildings. The force transfer at the level of
the suspended floors requires particular attention (Fig. 2.90) [104 –106].
2.3.4 Walls
The precast concrete wall is the characteristic loadbearing element of large-panel con-
struction (see [90, 98]). This section looks at internal walls only; external walls are dealt
with in section 2.4 “Precast concrete façades”.
According to DIN 1045-1, a minimum thickness of 8 cm is adequate for loadbearing pre-
cast concrete walls in conjunction with continuous floor slabs. However, the wall thick-
ness is generally governed by the minimum bearing dimension required for the floor ele-
ments. Internal walls are therefore between 14 and 20 cm thick (see Fig. 2.79d). Further-
more, it is sound insulation and structural fire protection requirements that are the main
criteria for internal walls. A 14 cm thick concrete wall ensures adequate sound insulation.
This same wall thickness is also adequate for a fire wall or a F 90 fire resistance rating. In
addition, concrete internal walls also help to achieve summertime thermal performance
requirements thanks to their good thermal mass.
Composite precast/in situ concrete walls (Fig. 2.91) represent an ideal combination of the
advantages of both types of construction. The expensive formwork operations are trans-
ferred to the factory and the finished, cast wall is monolithic with a smooth surface both
sides. Such walls have in the meantime secured a significant market share for themselves.
They are used in almost all buildings and have also been used for civil engineering works
[107]. Owing to their fast erection, such composite walls are especially suitable for those
walls that would require formwork on one side only when cast on site (e.g. building
against existing works, etc.). However, the design loads should not be too large because
there is a limit to the amount of reinforcement that can be placed between the precast
“leaves”. The in situ concrete should be at least 10 cm thick, which together with the
98 2 Design of precast concrete structures
two outer precast leaves each 6 cm thick, results in a minimum wall thickness of 22 cm.
Slimmer walls are possible in certain circumstances but the concreting operations must
then be planned in great detail.
Composite walls are also useful where, for tall walls, the weights of precast concrete
panels would exceed the lifting capacities of the cranes available (Fig. 2.92).
One important application for composite walls is in basements. Initially used only for in-
ternal walls, they are being increasingly used for external walls, and also for impermeable
2.3 Loadbearing elements 99
concrete basements. The DAfStb directive covering impermeable concrete [108, 109]
specifically mentions this system. A key advantage is that any cracking is restricted to
the joints between the precast concrete wall elements. But in the end, good-quality work-
manship at the joints and a minimum in situ concrete thickness of 20 cm are critical to
their impermeability. Currently there are still misgivings in some circles concerning the
discrepancy between theory and practice because the risk of flaws and the quality de-
mands are very high [110].
2.3.5 Foundations
Foundations are heavy and therefore usually cast on site. Nevertheless, precast concrete
foundations are also feasible. Fig. 2.93 illustrates the “evolution” of this form of con-
struction. The pad foundation with separate smooth-sided pocket on top, which was com-
mon for many years, has been replaced by the true pocket foundation (Fig. 2.95) with a
pocket formed in the foundation itself, which is more economic [99]. Foundations can
therefore be shallower and the separate pocket, whose expensive forming and reinforcing
processes always had to be carried out in a separate operation, is no longer necessary.
However, a column inserted into a pocket always requires an adequate key between the
base of the column and the walls of the pocket so that the axial forces can be transferred
to the foundation via skin friction. It is relatively easy to fix trapezoidal battens to a drop-
Fig. 2.95 Column pocket formwork: a) corrugated sheet metal tube, b) formwork box with special
corner fittings
side column mould (Fig. 2.94). And pockets are in many cases formed with permanent
formwork in the form of a corrugated square sheet metal tube (Fig. 2.95a).
Mould boxes with special unplasticised PVC corner connections and clamping bolts are
available. The bolts are undone for demoulding so that the four mould sides can be sepa-
rated from the concrete with a light blow from a hammer (Fig. 2.95b). Which mould form
is more economical depends on the particular costs, the particular situation.
Precast concrete columns complete with precast concrete foundation already attached
have been available for some time (Figs 2.93 and 2.96). This overcomes the need for a
column–foundation connection detail and the foundation can be produced in the works
together with the column. Once on site, the precast concrete element is lowered onto a
layer of blinding and aligned with steel shims before grout is pumped underneath to cre-
ate a structural bond between the underside of the foundation and the subsoil. Vertical
pipes must be provided in the foundation to ensure good distribution of the grout and pre-
vent air pockets. The system leads to a further shortening of the construction time and to
foundations at a shallower depth. The disadvantage of the system is the bulkiness of the
precast concrete element (column S foundation) and the ensuing economic transport.
Transport restrictions mean that in one direction the foundation can be no more than
3 m wide. However, in situ concrete can be used to increase the size of a foundation on
site.
In the University of Riyadh project, the connections – as is very common in the USA –
were designed by American engineers according to the principles common to structural
steelwork. The columns were fitted with cast-in steel base plates that were then screwed
to holding-down bolts cast into the foundations (Figs 2.93 and 2.97). This system is be-
coming more and more popular in Germany, too.
The disadvantage of a high steel content within the connection is balanced by the advan-
tages of the easy fabrication of the base plate, the easy casting of the foundation (no
pocket required, etc.) and the relatively shallow structural depth of the foundation. This
2.4 Precast concrete façades 101
can be very advantageous on sites where, for example, there is a high ground water table.
With moderate column loads, the steel plate can be omitted completely and separate an-
chorage elements used instead. It is vital to cast the holding-down bolts into the founda-
tion as accurately as possible using a template and to protect these against damage until
column erection begins. Tolerances of approx. e5 mm are possible. The system allows
the full column fixity required for the structural design to be achieved if required, but
also merely temporary erection fixity. These days, it is no longer common to pack the
joint; grout is used instead, which is pumped in via tubes, which also prevent air pockets.
In contrast to the design of structural elements, where the manufacturing requirements are
the primary concern, the design of components for the external envelope of a building is
mainly determined by the demands of architecture and building physics. As the building
envelope is in this case not a homogeneous surface, but rather an assembly of individual
102 2 Design of precast concrete structures
elements, great attention must be paid to the appearance, functions and constructional as-
pects of the joints and fixings. Façades made up of precast concrete elements are dealt
with in general in [7, 111, 112, 134]; more recent architectural developments are pre-
sented in [9], for example.
After many years of steel-and-glass architecture, we are now witnessing a revival of “ar-
chitectural” façades. The precast concrete elements used – in contrast to conventional
concrete façades – are required exclusively for appearance purposes and reveal the di-
verse design options available with precast concrete. Another interesting development
is the use of building envelopes made from small-format, thin façade panels of glass fi-
bre-reinforced high-strength concrete.
This section will first deal with conventional façades made from precast concrete ele-
ments, the requirements they must satisfy and the details, before taking a look at new ar-
chitectural developments.
bly also with facing leaves of brickwork, stone or metal. So with all these advantages it is
not surprising that precast concrete façades are used not only on precast concrete build-
ings, but also to clad in situ concrete and structural steelwork as well.
Concrete façades are normally found in the form of three-ply sandwich panels, with fa-
cing leaf, thermal insulation core and loadbearing leaf, which are manufactured in one op-
eration and erected as complete units (Fig. 2.99a). The layer of thermal insulation, usually
made from PS or PU rigid foam boards, should preferably be positioned closer to the
outer side of the wall panel. Conventional precast concrete sandwich panels with the layer
of insulation concealed behind render (Fig. 2.99b), or a central layer of insulation and thin
concrete facing leaf (Fig. 2.99a), or a rendered, single-leaf façade of dense lightweight
concrete (Fig. 2.99d) represent good solutions for everyday room temperatures of 19–
22 hC and interior humidities of 50 – 60 % (i.e. in office and residential buildings, includ-
ing kitchens, bathrooms, etc.) and at the same time comply with the minimum thermal re-
sistance requirements with respect to vapour diffusion. A vapour barrier is unnecessary
with such forms of construction. The building physics requirements of buildings with
specific requirements (cold stores, swimming pools, etc.) must be given special consid-
eration. The diffusion behaviour of the wall construction must be checked for the winter-
time thermal performance (Fig. 2.100).
By contrast, concrete walls with internal thermal insulation (Fig. 2.99c) and a lining of
plasterboard are generally insufficient because condensation collecting on the cold inter-
nal surface is excessive and therefore cannot dry out properly. A vapour barrier (e.g. alu-
minium foil) on the inside of the thermal insulation, i.e. between insulation and lining, is
essential in such situations. Such a vapour barrier may also be necessary in conjunction
with a thick facing leaf.
The vapour diffusion can be improved by employing a façade with a ventilation cavity,
i.e. an air space between facing leaf and thermal insulation (Fig. 2.99e), instead of a sand-
wich construction. This cavity, which should be at least 4 cm wide, allows water vapour
to escape to the outside air. This form of construction permits the use of a much denser
facing leaf, e.g. ceramic tiles, even sheet metal.
Fig. 2.100 Temperature and pressure gradients plus the zones of usable thermal mass
depending on the position of the layer of thermal insulation [116]
If, for example, for production reasons, sheeting is required adjacent to the thermal insu-
lation in order to contain, for example, mineral fibre insulation, then this may only be
placed on the warm side of the layer of thermal insulation. Whether the more expensive
mineral fibre insulation needs to be used for the thermal insulation at all is another matter,
however. Polystyrene is less expensive, easy to work and also unaffected by water, but it
is combustible. An incombustible material is therefore required around windows to pre-
vent the spread of fire. As a rule, edges must be finished with an incombustible thermal
insulation material or a fire stop detail.
The acoustic behaviour of concrete façades is essentially governed by the windows and
not by the precast concrete elements themselves. This aspect will not be looked at further
here.
ning between these are in the form of loadbearing L-beams with thermal insulation at-
tached at the precasting plant. The facing leaf to the spandrel panels was mounted later
(see also Figs 2.116 and 2.125). Joint intersections are likewise absent from the façade
shown in Fig. 2.103b. Fig. 2.103c shows a horizontal ribbon façade that incorporates ex-
ternal fire escape balconies.
In the USA, loadbearing façades that extend the full height of the building are especially
popular for buildings up to three storeys high, likewise wide, storey-high loadbearing pa-
nels for multi-storey buildings. The reinforcement required just for demoulding, transport
and erection is in most cases perfectly adequate for loadbearing purposes. Production,
transport and erection limitations restrict multi-storey wall panels to a height of about
12–14 m. Buildings with loadbearing façades up to 20 storeys high have been built in
the USA [119].
106 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Two-storey-high loadbearing façade panels were used for a 12-storey hospital in Chi-
cago, with adjacent panels offset by one storey in order to avoid continuous horizontal
joints. Loadbearing façades are particularly economic when they can also provide build-
ing stability functions and strengthening ribs fit into the architectural concept. However,
the thermal insulation to a loadbearing façade usually has to be attached on the inside,
with the associated disadvantages.
It is always more sensible to position the loadbearing structure within the thermal insula-
tion of the building envelope (see Fig. 2.104 and [120]). It should be remembered here
that the windows must be attached to the loadbearing structure, or the loadbearing leaf
of the sandwich panel, and not to the facing leaf, which is subjected to deformations.
Only in the case of fenestrate façades can windows also be attached to the facing leaf.
Waterproof seals and avoiding thermal bridges around windows are aspects that must
be given due attention.
One area that is still severely neglected is the design of precast concrete façades with re-
spect to their weathering and ageing behaviour. Many sins were committed in the past
which have given precast concrete construction a poor reputation. This can certainly be
attributed to German architects’ poor acceptance of construction with concrete façades,
in contrast to their colleagues in the USA, for instance. This leads to the numerous design
options not being recognised and therefore not being included in university curricula. It is
obvious that, as with stone façades, we cannot prevent the weather from having an effect
on the surface. And the weathering effects are similar to those of stone or brick buildings.
However, the accumulation of dust and dirt is normally less visible on the small-format
patterns of bricks or stones than on the much larger and often smooth surfaces of concrete
façades [119].
Therefore, the aim should be to achieve a “dignified ageing” – a skill of the master-
builders of the Middle Ages – through the choice of the right façade structure, segmenta-
tion and detailing. Soiling is unavoidable and regular cleaning is expensive. So we should
be aiming at achieving uniform soiling that possibly and hopefully underscores the struc-
ture of the façade. We then speak of a patina. To achieve this, we must consider the poten-
tial water run-off for the façade (Fig. 2.105) [121]. Water run-off is almost always the sole
cause of objectionable soiling. The water must therefore always be channelled or “ca-
mouflaged” by the structuring of the surface. Water should never be allowed to remain
on concrete surfaces; adequate falls must always be included so that the water can drain
away. The quantity of rainwater, its velocity and its angle of incidence are different on
each side of a building, and also vary over the height of the building. So, as with other
structures, we cannot expect all parts of the building to exhibit the same degree of ageing.
When considering the construction details, we must pay special attention to sloping sur-
faces, projections, rainwater drips, parapets, eaves and verges, also surface textures and
colours, window openings and joints.
Glass in particular should be protected against water draining from concrete surfaces. The
ensuing hydroxides (alkalis with high pH value) can etch glass in air. Rainwater drips ac-
cording to Fig. 2.106 must be incorporated into facing leaves at horizontal or low-pitch
window head details. Façades with a sufficiently coarse surface texture and glass surfaces
set back deep within the façade structure generally exhibit uniform soiling.
Flat roofs require parapets with a minimum overhang to prevent wind driving rainwater
over the roof and onto the façade. The top edge of a parapet must fall back towards the
roof and must be finished with a sheet metal capping that projects min. 15 mm beyond
the façade to form a rainwater drip. The joints in the sheet metal capping should always
2.4 Precast concrete façades 109
coincide with the real or dummy joints in the parapet elements in order to avoid ugly
streaks on the concrete façade.
The surface finish is important for the ageing behaviour as well as the initial appearance.
Smooth concrete surfaces are harsh and unsightly, and quickly develop streaks during
rainfall. Although more dust and dirt can collect on exposed aggregate surfaces, their ap-
pearance nevertheless remains acceptable. The grains of aggregate interrupt and distri-
bute the run-off water and therefore prevent unattractive streaks. Vertical ribs in the sur-
face structure help to ensure a controlled, vertical water run-off and prevent uncontrolled,
sideways distribution. Dust and dirt collect in the grooves between the ribs and thus em-
phasize the ribbed structure (Figs 2.107 to 2.109).
All these surface designs should of course consider the requirements of production in or-
der to guarantee an economic façade.
Here again, the maximum permissible transport dimensions and erection weights should
be exploited to the full. The smaller the elements, the greater their number, which in turn
results in more operations during loading/unloading and erection, more fixing points and
more joints, and hence higher costs. If the architecture requires the scale of large façade
elements to be reduced, then the answer is to include dummy joints (Fig. 2.110).
Economic production is achieved by being able to remove façade elements from rigid
moulds, which means a min. 1:10 taper on all edges and openings. This taper should be
increased to min. 1:5 in the case of several openings per element or ribbed panels. All ar-
rises in contact with the mould should be chamfered. Likewise, the transition from rib to
main body of panel should be rounded if at all possible in order to prevent cracking (Fig.
2.111).
112 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.112 Recommended values for designing the joint width and permissible
minimum joint widths for buildings according to DIN 18540 Table 2
a) Joint waterproofing with elastic sealing compounds (e.g. Thiokol) to DIN 18540
(Fig. 2.112)
Sizing joint widths for joints with sealing compounds is carried out taking into account
the fact that the sealing compounds may not be overstretched, i.e. Db/b I 25 %. The table
in Fig. 2.112 lists the nominal values for planning purposes and the minimum joint widths
in the finished structure according to DIN 18540.
Such joints can be used virtually anywhere and do not place any particular demands on
the wall construction. However, they are sensitive to large tolerances, they can only be in-
stalled at certain outside temperatures (5 hC I T I 40 hC, dry wall edges), which makes
them unsuitable for the countries of the Middle East, for example, and their durability is
limited. Fig. 2.113 shows joints between sandwich panels. The horizontal joint in the
loadbearing leaf of the panels is filled with cement mortar. The outer sealing compound
is installed on a closed-pore foam strip which is inserted first.
b) Drained joints
In this type of joint the sealing function is essentially achieved by the shape of the wall
panel edges. The horizontal joint is in the form of a “threshold” that is high enough to
act as a barrier against driving rain, i.e. preventing wind forcing the rain beyond the
higher part of the joint. This results in a minimum threshold height of 10 cm for the high-
est moisture load group to DIN 4108-3 (which applies in coastal regions and the foothills
114 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.113 Joints in sandwich panel Fig. 2.114 Drained joint: with step in horizontal
walls filled with permanently elastic sealing joint and sealing strip inserted into vertical joint
compound afterwards
of the Alps, also to high-rise buildings), in all other cases min. 8 cm. The joint should be
1.0 –1.5 cm wide and the angle of the front face of the threshold should be i 60h, prefer-
ably 90h. In addition, the joint should be made windproof by inserting a mineral wool
rope or mortar packing between the wall panels.
The vertical joint is in the form of a pressure-equalising (i.e. ventilated) joint, as shown in
Fig. 2.114. PVC channels are cast into the concrete wall panels into which a baffle is in-
serted during erection to form a barrier against the rain. The cast-in channels serve simul-
taneously as pressure equalisation spaces in which rainwater can collect and drain down-
wards, escaping safely to the outside at the next horizontal joint. A wind barrier according
to Fig. 2.114 is necessary where the joint passes through the entire wall construction, also
through the loadbearing leaf.
Drained joints of the type described above are generally unaffected by tolerances and un-
foreseen joint movements as a result of settlement or even earthquakes.
Such joints can be completed irrespective of the weather conditions. Baffles are durable
and can also be obtained in any RAL colour provided the order is large enough. Fig.
2.116 shows quite clearly how a prudent architectural design with half-round strengthen-
ing sections at the edges of the elements create space for the inclusion of a groove into
which a baffle can be inserted [126].
2.4 Precast concrete façades 115
Fig. 2.116 Façade intersection sealed with preformed profiles on Züblin House
116 2 Design of precast concrete structures
d) Joint waterproofing with precompressed sealing strips (DIN 18542:2009) (Fig. 2.117)
This type of waterproofing involves bonding a precompressed sealing strip made from
impregnated polyurethane foam to one side of a joint before erecting the next panel, or in-
serting it into the finished joint afterwards. The precompression is subsequently relieved
and the strip seals the joint, within given tolerances. The effect is therefore not chemical,
but rather purely physical. Relieving the precompression takes place faster in warm
weather and correspondingly slower in cold weather.
Stainless steel with special properties is compulsory for façade fixings outside of the
loadbearing leaf with its insulating and waterproofing functions. Only steel grades
1.4401 and 1.4571 to DIN EN ISO 10088 und DIN EN ISO 3506 may be used (see also
DIBt Approval Z 30.3- 6 covering fasteners and components made from stainless steels).
Stainless steels with the well-known manufacturer’s designation V2A do not comply with
this requirement – only V4A steels. Type-tested fixings always consist of steels “ap-
proved for anchorages in reinforced concrete construction”. Always adhere to the infor-
mation given in the respective approvals when designing and machining stainless steels
because these sometimes differ considerably from normal structural steels.
Fig. 2.118 Schematic layout for retaining Fig. 2.119 Support anchor principles of
anchors [122] various manufacturers
118 2 Design of precast concrete structures
of the facing leaf should be avoided wherever possible. Torsion anchors are generally re-
quired where unintentional eccentricities due to inaccuracies, openings or erection loads
must be accommodated. Wind loads on type-tested retaining anchors are generally based
on DIN 1055- 4; the new 2005 edition with its higher suction coefficients for the corners
of buildings should be consulted. Special investigations are usually required when facing
leaves cantilever beyond the loadbearing leaf.
Uniform temperature deformations cause bending moments in the retaining anchors. Ac-
cording to DIN 18515 “Cladding for external walls”, a temperature difference of e50 K
should normally be allowed for.
Where a facing leaf passes around a corner of the building, then a suitable gap should be
left during production to permit the facing leaf to deform without restraint (Fig. 2.120).
Such a gap is unnecessary with short corner cladding panels whose movement fulcrum
is at the corner.
The temperature gradient DT through the thickness of the facing leaf, which can occur
several times each day, causes curvature (Fig. 2.121) and consequently tensile or com-
pressive forces in the retaining anchors which increase with the thickness of the facing
leaf. Facing leaves should therefore be no thicker than 8–10 cm, with the larger figure ap-
plying to profiled façades in exposed aggregate concrete. The temperature gradient is
greater in façades with a ventilation cavity because there is no helpful build-up of heat
in front of the layer of insulation as is the case with sandwich panels. Additional calcula-
tions will be necessary if it is not possible to achieve a minimum-restraint anchorage with
a four-point retaining anchor system [129–131].
2.4 Precast concrete façades 119
The reinforcement in the facing leaf generally consists of one layer of minimum reinfor-
cement, but additional reinforcement is generally necessary in the vicinity of the support
anchor. Additional reinforcing bars are recommended around the perimeter and around
window openings in order to control cracking [122]. Including an additional bar at 45h
at each window corner to control cracking is usually not possible because a concrete
cover of 3.5 cm to the outside should be regarded as the minimum. The retaining anchors,
generally round steel dowels, should be distributed as evenly as possible over the surface,
preferably on a square grid. Additional anchors along the edges may be necessary to cope
with demoulding. However, providing more anchors than is absolutely necessary should
be avoided because they have a negative effect on the thermal resistance [132].
A suitable concrete mix and a low-shrink concrete are important considerations for the
production of façade panels. Adequate curing is important for any facing leaf that projects
beyond the loadbearing leaf and is therefore exposed on both sides (see section 4.3.1).
Facing leaves with smooth surfaces should be limited to a length of 5– 6 m, indeed
3.50 m is recommended in [120]. Somewhat longer lengths are sometimes possible
with heavily structured surfaces where smaller, less visible cracks are acceptable or de-
fined cracking points are created by including dummy joints. Facing leaves suspended
free from restraint in front of a ventilation cavity can be built with longer lengths without
joints than is the case for the facing leaves of sandwich panels.
A ventilation cavity can be created with the help of special 40 mm thick studded sheets or
by installing polystyrene blocks (approx. 4 pcs./m2). Timber wedges, which are removed
again after demoulding, are used where larger quantities are being produced (Fig. 2.122)
[127]. Ref. [133] the use of sand fillings to create an air space.
designed to carry self-weight at least. In doing so, however, the cracking load of the con-
crete should never be exceeded.
Fixings must be able to accommodate erection tolerances of min. e2.5 cm. They should
be designed in such a way that erection ties up the crane for only a short time and the final
alignment and tightening can be carried out once the panel has been detached from the
crane hook. Erection personnel should not need any special scaffolding and should not
2.4 Precast concrete façades 121
be exposed to any unnecessary risks during the positioning and fixing. Fasteners with
adequate protection against corrosion are essential (see FDB leaflet No. 2 covering corro-
sion protection of inaccessible steel connectors for precast concrete elements – available
in German only).
A multitude of fixings for façade panels is available on the market. It is possible to distin-
guish between certain basic types depending on their configuration and method of carry-
ing the forces. However, each type has its own particular merits and demerits [133]:
1. Connections using cast-in reinforcement, where the façade is connected monolithi-
cally to the floor slab (Fig. 2.124).
Advantages: large tolerance adjustment options, good protection against corrosion,
good fire resistance, economical production.
Disadvantages: a temporary retaining fixing is required during erection which can in
turn have a serious negative effect on the overall economy.
2. Welded connections
Advantages: very easy to adjust on site.
Disadvantages: no chance for façade to deform with respect to loadbearing structure,
risk of cracking in the vicinity of the welds, trained welders needed on the building
site at the right time, problem of designing the connection to achieve an adequate
fire resistance, ties up the crane for a long time during erection.
3. Boots and corbels
Continuous boots (Fig. 2.123a) or individual corbels (Fig. 2.125). Special shims are
necessary when the expected movements are large. Fixing is achieved mostly by
way of cast-in dowels that are inserted through the boot/corbel and subsequently
122 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.124 Façade held in place with cast-in reinforcement: (a) offices and retail building, Stuttgart
(contractor: Züblin), (b) detail of façade fixing with cast-in reinforcement
grouted; a plastic sleeve can help to achieve a certain degree of horizontal deforma-
tion. Boots/corbels can be positioned at the top or the bottom. They can also be in
the form of cast-in steel sections.
Advantages: easy and quick form of connection, possibility of later adjustability with-
out the need to hire expensive cranes, good corrosion protection and adequate fire re-
sistance, limited tolerance accommodation, but this can be doubled if merely a hole for
the dowel is initially left in the floor slab construction and the dowel subsequently in-
serted through the holes in both panel and slab and then grouted in place.
Disadvantages: creation of a thermal bridge at the boot/corbel, certain difficulties in
ensuring adequate deformation possibilities.
4. Suspension anchors
The above connections all have one disadvantage in common: it is difficult for them to
accommodate shrinkage and temperature changes without causing restraint forces. To
overcome this, they are therefore fitted only in loadbearing leaves in thermally insu-
lated parts of the structure. Zero-restraint support for a facing leaf in front of a ventila-
tion cavity can only be achieved with articulated suspension anchors (Fig. 2.127).
Advantages: small thermal bridge, flat façade panels with no protruding corbels/boots are
better for storage and transport, easy to adjust for tolerances, good for suspended façades
with ventilation cavities, can be subsequently secured with anchors, adjustable in all three
directions.
Disadvantages : relatively expensive forms of construction using stainless steel, difficult
to obtain adequate fire protection.
124 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.128 Erecting a cranked façade element Fig. 2.129 Honeycomb-type façade to la-
(Phaeno, Wolfsburg; architect: Zaha M. Hadid) boratory building at University of Wageningen,
Netherlands (architect: Rafael Vinoly)
Germany and can only be used in conjunction with an Individual Approval for a particu-
lar project. A number of projects have already been completed in France, however: façade
panels with an area of up to 4.40 m2 and a thickness of just 20 mm were used for the
Rhodia company’s development centre in Aubervilliers (Fig. 2.131a), and the façade of
the RATP bus depot (Fig. 2.131b) has a surface finish reminiscent of LEGO bricks!
The elements of this latter façade are 30 mm thick.
Façade panels with glass fibre textile reinforcement and made from high-strength fine-
grained concrete evolved out of research into building with textile-reinforced concrete
(TRC). Developed in the 1990s, the principles for its loadbearing behaviour and design
are now available, which means that further applications are now possible. Ref. [139]
provides an insight into the technology of textile-reinforced façades (Fig. 2.134).
The textiles are produced from engineered high-performance fibres and materials such as
alkali-resistant (AR) glass, carbon or plastics. The individual fibres are called filaments
and have diameters from about 10 to 30 mm. During production, hundreds or thousands
of these filaments are bundled together to form so-called filament yarns. Engineering tex-
128 2 Design of precast concrete structures
(a)
tiles, in the form of knitted or woven fabrics, are then manufactured from these yarns (Fig.
2.132).
The production costs are still higher than those of conventionally reinforced concrete but
the AR glass fibres represent the most economic alternative in this respect. The main ad-
vantage of TRC façade panels is certainly their thinness, brought about by the fact that
there is no steel reinforcement requiring a certain concrete cover in order to guarantee
protection against corrosion. The panels, which can be produced in thicknesses between
15 and 30 mm, are very low in weight, which in turn leads to savings in fixings. In parti-
cular, the thick layers of thermal insulation called for these days place substantial loads on
anchor systems because of the greater eccentricity of the facing leaves or suspended fa-
çade panels.
The fine-grained concrete mixes used, with maximum aggregate sizes of 1–2 mm, enable
not only the production of high-quality fair-face concrete surfaces, but also keen-edged
2.4 Precast concrete façades 129
parts and profiles that offer architects great design freedoms. The well-known surface
finishes and colours possible with conventional concrete can continue to be used. The re-
latively high rate of shrinkage must be taken into account for larger components and nar-
row joint widths.
It is possible to use TRC façade panels for both the facing leaves of sandwich elements
and for suspended façade panels. Both types have already been used in conjunction
with an Individual Approval on a building for RWTH Aachen University (Fig. 2.133).
A National Technical Approval has already been granted for TRC suspended façade pa-
nels [140]. One critical factor is certainly the fixing of these very thin concrete elements
– just 20 mm! Special cast-in anchors are used [141]. These panels can be produced with
great accuracy up to sizes of 120 x 60 cm and require only very narrow joint widths of ap-
prox. 3 mm.
Ref. [142] describes an unusual use of textile-reinforced façade panels. In contrast to con-
ventional batch production, the outer envelope of a venue for events in Friedrichshafen
was designed to imitate a pebble (Fig. 2.135). Accordingly, a total of 124 elements in var-
130 2 Design of precast concrete structures
ious shades of anthracite and sizes up to 4.0 x 5.30 m were produced with a leaf thickness
of 25 mm. A full-scale model made from polystyrene foam served as the mould. These
parts, also manufactured and installed according to an Individual Approval, are con-
nected to the structural steelwork frame by means of cast-in steel parts.
The above examples show that research into new concretes and composite materials are
showing promising developments for façade construction which present an alternative
to steel-and-glass façades. The numerous architectural options are opening up a wide
range of creative opportunities for architects to continue designing new types of concrete
façade.
2.5 Connections
It is necessary to design connections so that the individual floor units, beams, columns
and wall or façade panels can be assembled to form the loadbearing structure. In doing
so, it is always vital to consider the needs of production and erection as well as the struc-
tural and constructional aspects. Apart from the architectural and building physics re-
quirements, all connections must also consider the routing of building services. In a frame
structure (Fig. 2.137) the beam/internal column connection is joined by the beam/peri-
meter column detail, and here the beams may be parallel with or at 90h to the façade.
And for the façade itself, it is also necessary to clarify the junctions with the internal
and external corner columns (Fig. 2.136).
Such connections can have a considerable effect on the entire frame system, especially
when the interior fitting-out grid is offset from the structural grid or when there are main-
tenance or fire escape balconies in front of the façade (Fig. 2.138). The aforementioned
connections must be designed for the standard floor, raised ground floor and roof. Interior
fitting-out details specific to buildings and single-storey sheds made from precast con-
crete elements can be found in [8].
Generally, only through teamwork is it possible to consider the diverse boundary condi-
tions so that an optimum design can be achieved with optimum economy. Such coopera-
tion between architect, engineer, building services consultant, precast concrete manufac-
turer and transport and erection contractors should take place as early as possible.
A number of examples of connections are shown on the following pages, some of which
are also shown in [6] (see also Fig. 2.148). For example, Fig. 2.139 shows a beam/internal
column connection with corbels on just two sides and various beam types.
As downstand beams are almost exclusively designed as single-span members with stati-
cally determinate support conditions, they require a correspondingly wide compression
zone. This advantage is offered by a beam in the form of an inverted channel section. An-
other advantage of such a beam is that its webs can pass either side of the column and thus
provide a zone for routing services (see Fig. 2.141). Furthermore, it can also cantilever
beyond the final column without the need for corbels on three sides of the column (see
Fig. 2.147). Inverted channel section beams with web ends that pass either side of the col-
umns cannot be lowered into position from above (with the beam horizontal) in the case
2.5 Connections 131
Fig. 2.136 Extract from a catalogue for an industrialised building system (6M system, Züblin) [97]
132 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.137 Connections in a frame system Fig. 2.138 Building corner detail with fire
escape balconies
of multi-storey columns with corbels on the sides and so it is advisable to cut back the
flange to such an extent (Figs 2.139b and d) that the beam can be positioned horizontally
but at an angle between the columns and then twisted into position. If this is not possible,
then lowering from above with the beam hanging at an angle (i.e. with diagonal pull) will
be unavoidable.
Rectangular beams should be connected to the floor slab, e.g. composite plank floors, via
starter bars to form T-beams wherever possible.
A considerable structural depth will be required for the floor where there are many ser-
vices below the soffit, e.g. ventilation ducts in air-conditioned buildings. The most eco-
nomic solution in such a case is to support floor slabs and beams without notches (Fig.
2.140a). However, in buildings with only a few building services below the floor, notch-
ing the floor slabs and ends of beams is usually preferred in order to minimise the struc-
tural depth of the slab and hence the overall height of the storey (Fig. 2.140b). For in-
stance, double-T floor units can be notched over the full depth of their webs. Moreover,
the web ends of double-T or inverted channel section floor units can be notched at an an-
gle to provide some space for routing services (Fig. 2.142). The reinforcement in such a
2.5 Connections 133
Fig. 2.142 Angled notches at ends of beams Fig. 2.144 Holes drilled through the 10 cm
for accommodating building services thick flange of a double-T floor unit after erection
case then continues upwards at an angle, following the flow of forces, and must be an-
chored accordingly (see section 2.6.2). Fig. 2.143 shows potential connections between
double-T floor units and various beams.
The following opening widths are necessary for services:
Gas 5 cm
Electrics 5–7 cm
Water 7.5 cm
Heating 15 cm
Drainage 25–50 cm (1:50 to 1:100 fall)
Ventilation ducts 0.50 –1.50 m2 (40 – 60 cm deep)
Fig. 2.145 illustrates the principles for positioning services with respect to the loadbear-
ing structure.
Openings in the floor slab, where they are not standard openings adjacent to columns, for
example, can be formed in the finished structural carcass by means of core drilling on site
(Fig. 2.144). Normally, such drilling should not be carried out before the positions are ap-
proved in writing by the structural engineer. Forming the openings at the precasting plant
2.5 Connections 135
Fig. 2.145 Potential solutions for positioning building services in and adjacent to loadbearing
members
means that the large batches of floor units, or sometimes even beams, are disrupted. This
is less a problem for production, where it is easy to form such openings, but more a pro-
blem for the organisation and the technical operations. On the general arrangement draw-
ings such elements are only indicated by a different number; the openings are only shown
on the individual element drawings. In addition, elements with various openings must be
produced, stored and supplied at the same time as erection is taking place, which leads to
considerable organisational input.
Suspended ceilings are not required in housing and often not in office buildings with
naturally ventilated individual offices either. In such cases flat soffits are necessary,
which can be achieved with composite plank floors or hollow-core slabs. Junction boxes
for ceiling lights can be incorporated in the planks at the precasting works, although this
means that the connecting cables must be laid at the same time as placing the reinforce-
ment for the concrete topping.
Fig. 2.146 shows the connections between floor systems of conventionally reinforced
hollow-core slabs and downstand beams or walls. The voids in the slabs can also be
used for routing building services, and penetrations in the region of a void up to a width
or diameter of 15 cm are possible without additional structural measures.
Fig. 2.147 shows examples of different façade arrangements to accommodate heating
systems.
The connection details for Züblin House are shown in Fig. 2.149. In this building the fa-
çade is structural, i.e. the columns are simultaneously loadbearing and decorative ele-
ments. The composite plank floors are supported on L-shaped perimeter beams from
which the decorative façade panels were suspended in a separate operation. With this
type of design, the building physics requirements become a critical design factor for the
façade. The thermal insulation in the spandrel panels was attached to the outside of
136 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.147 Design examples for façade junctions (6M system, Züblin)
2.5 Connections 137
each perimeter L-beam at the precasting plant, whereas it is positioned internally at the
columns (with suitable vapour barrier, see also Fig. 2.104) and was installed afterwards
on site. The remaining thermal bridge at the column corbel is in this case less of a problem
because this is an inward-facing corbel and does not result in a cooling rib effect as would
be the case with, for example, an outward-facing beam boot.
The composite plank floors in this building are supported on inverted channel section
units in the middle bay, which above the corridors provide space for the building services
(which are concealed behind a suspended ceiling). There are no suspended ceilings in the
offices of this building. The junction boxes for the surface-mounted luminaires were cast
in during production of the planks. All other electricity supplies are provided via conduits
below the window sills and switches were incorporated in the lightweight corridor walls
at the fitting-out stage. The constructional problems posed by connections are dealt with
in more detail in the next section.
2.6 Current design issues 139
Here, only the actual joint between old and new concrete may be used for the joint width
(see Fig. 2.151b). As this adhesion component does not normally accommodate the shear
force present, especially for the shear action in the beam, the reinforcement required must
be calculated from the following:
Fig. 2.151 Shear joint to DIN 1045-1: (a) with shear key (joggle or castellated joint),
(b) examples of definition of joint width, (c) shear force diagram showing joint reinforcement required,
(d) comparison of design results
2.6 Current design issues 141
The adhesion and friction coefficients plus the surface conditions should be taken from
section 10.3.6 of DIN 1045-1. In order to take into account the difficult conditions re-
garding the quality of the joint design, especially in the case of smooth joints, DIN
1045-1 limits the angle of the strut to 45h. If u i 45h, the joint is not permissible and
the design of the joint must be changed.
Similarly to EC 2, the simultaneous effect of all loadbearing components is assumed
when designing to DIN 1045-1/A1:2008 [145]. Removing the limit to the strut angle
means that now even smooth joints can be realised with appropriate reinforcement.
However, it should be pointed out that only a few test results are available for smooth
joints (and even fewer for very smooth joints), which means that the appropriate care
must be exercised with such joints [146].
The design value of the shear force acting at the interface between concrete topping and
precast concrete element is calculated as follows:
Fcdj VEd
vEd w (23)
Fcd z
where
VEd design shear force
Fcd w MEd/z longitudinal force in flange cross-section under consideration
Fcdj longitudinal force component in additional cross-section
z lever arm for internal forces
The design value for the admissible shear force
Line Column 1 2 3
where
a angle of reinforcement crossing the joint
In order to avoid the failure of the inclined strut, the upper limit for the admissible shear
stress is given by the following equation:
However, this value, too, must be seen in the context of the roughness of the joint because
otherwise every joint, no matter how smooth, could be loaded up to the effective value of
the shear force provided adequate reinforcement was included.
According to DIN 1045-1/A1 section 10.3.6, shear joints are classified according to the
roughness of the contact surface as follows:
x Very smooth – contact surface of precast concrete cast against steel or smooth timber
mould.
x Smooth – surface trowelled or produced using slipforming or extrusion methods.
x Rough – surface roughened with a rake after concreting (3 mm tines at approx. 40 mm
spacing), or by exposing the aggregate, or by other methods that result in an adequate
loadbearing behaviour; see also DAfStb booklet 525 [147] (German only) for defini-
tions of surface roughness.
x Shear key – although this must be in the form as shown in Fig. 2.151a, or by using ag-
gregate of size dg j 16 mm and exposing it over a depth of at least 6 mm.
When casting an in situ concrete topping or concrete-filled joint, the surfaces must be free
from cement laitance, sawdust, ice and oil. Dry surfaces should also be avoided. The con-
sistency of the in situ concrete should be soft or fluid, and the concrete must be carefully
compacted. Table 2.8 lists the coefficients for adhesion, roughness and strut failure.
Fig. 2.151d compares the amount of shear reinforcement required and the maximum per-
missible shear force.
2.6 Current design issues 143
Reinforcement in the form of shear links should be provided for at least 50 % of the shear
force in the case of greater loads.
Lattice beams alone can function as reinforcement ensuring composite action. Therefore,
there must be a distance of min. 2 cm between shear joint and top chord of lattice beam.
Fig. 2.153 Design of corbels using the diagonal strut model [194] to DIN 1045-1:2001
2.6 Current design issues 145
ac
T1 O F S H i 0,5 F
0,85 d
If no sliding bearing has been specified, then a minimum horizontal force H w 0.20 · F
should be assumed for the construction.
The lower limit of 0.5 · F for the tensile force applies to deep wall corbels and in practice
represents limiting the angle u of the strut to 60h with respect to the horizontal. Very deep
corbels require main reinforcement not only near the top surface of the corbel.
Assuming the compressive stress is limited to scw J 1.0 · fcd, the design of the diagonal
struts in [156] leads to the definition of a minimum corbel depth as follows:
3,58 FEd
min d j (28)
fcd bw
This value is not dependent on ac/h and is intended to apply as long as the design for bend-
ing of the cantilever does not require a greater depth. This limit lies at about ac/h w 1.1.
When ac/h i 1.1, the design can be carried out according to Fig. 2.153, although where
longer corbels are involved, there should be a direct transition to the design for bending
of the cantilever.
Far more important than determining the reinforcement exactly is, however, a properly
engineered, sensible corbel detail. The designer should always remember that owing to
the small dimensions of this component even small tolerances and deviations can in prac-
tice lead to considerable changes in the boundary conditions for the design. In principle,
the utilisation should therefore be limited, the reinforcement should not be skimped and
the planning and quality control work should be carried out carefully. The potential pro-
blems are totally disproportionate to the potential savings in reinforcement or concrete.
The following design criteria must be taken into account:
a) Specifying the corbel depth to limit the stresses
b) Specifying the corbel length to ensure adequate anchorage of the tension reinforcement
c) Combining the size of the bearing with the reinforcement layout
d) Detailed planning of the reinforcement layout (scale drawings)
The shear links in particular must be especially carefully planned. In principle, the shear
links prevent the premature failure of the strut by resisting the tensile splitting forces. In
the case of stocky corbels, horizontal shear links should be provided for a force of
whereas it is the vertical shear links that become more and more critical as the slenderness
of the corbel increases. Fig. 2.156 shows a reinforcement proposal depending on the slen-
derness of the corbel.
The prerequisite for a well-functioning corbel is of course adequate anchorage for the ten-
sion reinforcement in the corbel. With large bar diameters this is best achieved by using a
welded anchor plate (see section 3.2.1) or a welded transverse bar. For in situ concrete
corbels it is recommended to specify a maximum concrete cover in addition to the usual
minimum concrete cover in order to comply with tolerances for the position of the tension
reinforcement.
The following points are important if adequate anchorage is to be provided in the form of
horizontal loops (the end of the incoming beam should be considered similarly in this si-
tuation and a bearing pressure of s j 0.2fck is assumed).
2.6 Current design issues 147
Fig. 2.156 Recommended shear link reinforcement for corbels (according to [195])
The loop (also known as a hairpin bar) should be overcompressed by the bearing pressure
so that the usual concrete cover at 90h to the plane of the loop is adequate. In that case a
loop diameter of dbr w 15ds (or a bending roller diameter dbr w 4ds in the case of link-type
bars, i.e. with a straight section between the two bends) is possible for bar diameters ds J
16 mm (or dbr w 7ds for bar diameters ds j 20 mm).
The reinforcement in the (if necessary) notched end of the beam should be anchored be-
hind the front edge of the support. According to DIN 1045-1, the following applies:
2 2 As,erf
lb,dir w lb,net w aa lb (30)
3 3 As,vorh
j 6ds for link-type shear reinforcement (dbr j 4ds)
j 0.3 · aa · lb j 10ds for loops (dbr j 15ds)
where
aa w 0.7 for link-type shear reinforcement (DIN 1045-1 Table 26) and aa w 0.5 for loops
with dbr w 15ds and
ds fyd
lb w (31)
4 fbd
according to DIN1045-1.
The shortest support length with lb,dir w 6ds is generally only possible when the reinforce-
ment provided is more than two to three times that actually required.
Similarly, the reinforcement in a column corbel must be anchored from the back edge of
the support forwards to the end of the corbel over a length of lb,dir in the case of a constant
bearing pressure.
Consequently, this results in the minimum lengths for corbels and notched beam ends gi-
ven in Fig. 2.157. Here, the maximum possible tolerance between beam and column must
be taken into account for the dimension Dl. With sliding bearings the possible travel must
148 2 Design of precast concrete structures
also be included. In addition, it should be ensured that the bearing pad is so soft that any
unevenness in either contact surface is compensated for and the beam does not bear, for
example, solely on the back edge (which could be the case with a prestressed cambered
beam) or solely on the front edge of the support. In order to take into account non-uniform
bearing pressures, the bends in both loops (beam and corbel) should begin at least on the
axis of the bearing so that with the same loop diameter a complete circle is formed on plan
(Fig. 2.157). Furthermore, the edge of the bearing should terminate a distance equal to the
concrete cover dimension c1/2 back from the respective axis of the loop reinforcement:
not much more, so that the loop remains overcompressed, and not less, so that the two op-
posing loops always overlap sufficiently.
The minimum length of the corbel therefore depends on the required bearing length bL
and the respective corbel or beam end clearances v and the maximum permissible toler-
ance Dl:
where
c1 ds
vTr,K w S S 2
c (33)
2 2 Tr,K
If the anchorage length lb,dir is not adequate in this situation, the bearing length, and hence
the corbel length, must be increased accordingly. It is essential to note that the construc-
tion tolerances permissible for the positioning of the reinforcement and the bearing pad
and for the component dimensions tend to be used more or less to the full in practice.
Therefore, where (small) dimensions are fully exploited, adherence to the dimensions
should be guaranteed by quality control measures.
Similarly, the corbel
the total of the required bearing width tL plus the extra width
width is
on both sides c21 S d2s S c3
bw w tL S c1 S ds S 2c3 (34)
The reader should refer to section 2.6.5 for information on the size of corbels necessary to
meet fire resistance requirements.
More details about bearings can be found in section 3.1.2, and retrofitted corbels are dealt
with in section 3.2.6.
There are new developments regarding the optimisation of the reinforcement. In particu-
lar, the use of double-headed studs has alleviated the problem of anchoring the reinforce-
ment properly.
Double-headed studs (Fig. 2.158) enable the anchorage to be positioned exactly below
the bearing. An overdesign so that the anchorage length can be reduced is no longer ne-
cessary, and that usually means less reinforcement is required. Experimental studies
have verified the familiar failure through the reduction in the area of the compression
zone at the base of the corbel. The load-carrying capacity is therefore equivalent to that
of a corbel with conventional reinforcement. A National Technical Approval has already
been issued for one product [148].
One practical advantage of double-headed studs is that it is possible to increase the size of
the corbel at a later date. Such threaded studs also reduce the complexity of the moulds,
and providing a shear key means we can assume a monolithic joint between corbel and
column. The effective structural depth therefore begins at the lowest key within the depth
of the column.
Bracket solutions familiar in structural steelwork have appeared recently as corbels in
precast concrete structures (Fig. 2.159). The cast-in items fitted flush with the face of
the concrete are completed on site with a steel bracket and result in a completely con-
cealed corbel. Fire protection is guaranteed by filling the joint with grout. Design is car-
ried out according to the manufacturer’s specification.
The design of notched beam ends is described in detail in [157, 158, 193–195]. According
to those publications, the two truss action models shown in Fig. 2.160 can be used for the
150 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.158 Corbel with double-headed studs Fig. 2.159 Steel corbel (Peikko system)
(Halfen system)
design. Care should be taken to ensure adequate anchorage of the reinforcement beyond
the nodes of the truss model. A notched beam end functions in a similar way to a frame
corner with a positive moment. In both cases diagonal reinforcement to limit crack propa-
gation as a result of the high notch stresses in the uncracked condition is normally the
most effective way of controlling the usually very early cracking in the internal corner
of the notch. Often, the most appropriate approach is to employ a – from the construc-
tional viewpoint – combined truss action model. In practice it is usual to choose truss ac-
tion model (a) for moderate loads and a combination of the two for heavier loads. The
authors recommend assigning 60 % of the load to each model and installing combined re-
inforcement.
The minimum depth of the notch can be estimated by limiting the strut to
4 Ad
min dk j (35)
b fcd
However, it is normally the anchorage length required and the space necessary for the re-
inforcement that govern the depth of the notch.
2.6 Current design issues 151
The design of notched beam ends is based on truss action models in [75], too. Concerning
the question of whether TV w A is adequate for the design of the support reinforcement in
truss action model (a), the reader is referred to the tests described in [157], in which the
steel stresses in the vertical and diagonal suspension reinforcement were measured.
The force to be suspended was smaller than the support reaction A (Fig. 2.161) in all the
tests carried out. The reason for this was given as the potential supplementary arching ef-
fect corresponding to Fig. 2.162. Of course, important with truss action model (a) is that
the reinforcement for TH in the bottom of the beam nib does not end in the beam before the
first diagonal strut C3, but rather is anchored towards the centre of the beam from the point
at which it intersects this strut. It is then – as the tests have shown – adequate to design TV
for the support reaction A only without any surcharge. The additional transverse tensile
forces due to anchoring the force TH are then taken by the shear links further inside.
The normal shear force design is adequate for these links. With a diagonal suspension ac-
cording to truss action model (b), TD w A/sin a.
152 2 Design of precast concrete structures
2.165 shows an example of how a support detail with such a steel nib functions. The sus-
pension for the shear force is provided by the shear links and a double-headed stud which
transfer the force to the cantilevering steel beam that transfers the load to the support. The
design is carried out according to the manufacturer’s specification and approval docu-
mentation. As Fig. 2.165 indicates, the arrangement of the reinforcement must be worked
out in detail.
An angled notch is used only rarely these days. It is important here to choose the angle
such that theoretically virtually no shear stresses occur, which means that shear reinforce-
ment in the angled part of the web is no longer required. This type of support detail has
advantages when it comes to routing building services (see section 2.5), but also the big
advantage that the beam is loaded directly from above and the load does not need to be
suspended from above via a continuous boot at the bottom. From the constructional view-
point, however, it is important to ensure an extremely good anchorage for the tensile
bending reinforcement because of the shallow-angled strut. In most cases it will be neces-
sary to provide anchor plates to ensure a good anchorage.
Continuous boots or individual corbels are very common in conjunction with inverted T-
beams and perimeter L-beams (Fig. 2.166). With such beam types the load on the boot
must be suspended within the web of the beam. Where there is a boot on both sides and
154 2 Design of precast concrete structures
a symmetrical loading (uniform load), suspension reinforcement for the total load applied
at the bottom is frequently provided in practice in addition to the reinforcement required
for shear.
However, additional reinforcement for just 50 % of the suspended load is adequate, apart
from in the vicinity of point of zero shear, provided the “offset” of the shear force result-
ing from a detailed consideration of the truss action model is also taken into account (see
[75]).
A one-sided boot supporting a uniformly distributed load represents a similar case. Here,
assuming an additional force of
a
DT w F 1S (37)
b
is usually well on the safe side. In this case, too, the fact that part of the force has already
been taken into account in the usual design of the section for shear and torsion is ignored.
For simplicity, Fig. 2.166b ignores the fact that a part of the torsion moment is resisted by
a horizontal couple resulting from the closed shear flow in the equivalent hollow cross-
section. These influences are dealt with in [159] but assuming for simplicity that the sys-
tem lines of the equivalent hollow cross-section are identical to the centroid axes of the
shear links. Here, the additional force DT with respect to the design of the section for
shear and torsion is specified as follows:
5 3a
DT w F S jF (38)
8 4b
This value is valid for the limiting case of a deep L-beam with z/h f 0 (Fig. 2.166c) and
lies on the safe side for other z/h ratios.
Individual corbels or point loads on a boot should be treated differently to this. In such si-
tuations the width over which the load is applied must be considered and the “suspension
reinforcement” concentrated in the vicinity of the effective loading zone. The total sus-
pended load can be taken as
a
DT w F 1S (39)
b
2.6 Current design issues 155
which lies on the safe side. However, in the zone in which this concentration of reinforce-
ment is effective, the shear reinforcement resulting from the shear force and torsion mo-
ment components of the load under consideration do not have to be included additionally.
With such boots it is important to realise that the normal reinforcement arrangement con-
tradicts the principles given above for notched beam ends in some respects (Fig. 2.167).
For example, it is not usual to have a horizontal loop below the bearing pad, but rather a
vertical link, and the bearing pad or bearing strip is positioned at a distance of only c2
from the edge of the boot. This is possible with maximum bearing pressures up to about
sk I 0.08 fck. But the resultant of the support reaction (taking into account potential tol-
erances) must be applied within the top longitudinal bar in the boot such that a certain
clearance of about c1 remains before the start of the bend in the link. Further, the direction
of the bend in the web link does not correspond to the requirements of the suspension re-
inforcement for notched beam ends. This means that the inclined compressive force C in
the boot is supported on the bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the web and a corre-
spondingly small inner lever arm z must be chosen. In the case of heavily loaded separate
corbels at the bottom edges of beams, providing horizontal loops in the corbels below the
bearing pad according to Fig. 2.157 and additional loops to suspend the load in the web
are unavoidable.
A floor slab, e.g. in the form of double-T units, must be connected rigidly to a perimeter
beam as shown in Fig. 2.168 if torsion in the latter is to be avoided in the final condition.
The upper compression contact is achieved by a grout filling, the lower tensile force
transferred via a dowel, surrounded by loops, or – in the case of heavier loads – by weld-
ing together anchor plates cast into the web of the double-T unit and the boot, or via screw
couplers. The dowel is cast into the boot and fits into a corrugated sleeve in the web of the
double-T unit, which is filled with grout after erection. When using inverted channel sec-
tion floor units, the tension reinforcement can be laid in the grouted joint and anchored to
the perimeter beam via a screw coupler.
When planning boots on the bottoms of beams, it is essential to consider the fact that the
beam must be supported temporarily during construction unless it has been designed for
torsion loads.
156 2 Design of precast concrete structures
Fig. 2.168 Rigid connection between floor slab and perimeter beam
Table 2.9 Lateral buckling moment for ideal elastic material, forked support and T- or I-cross sections
with single or double symmetry and Iy II Ix
k1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi k1 E pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Mk EIy GIT 0,4 Iy IT
1 l
Loading max M k1 k1
jw
p
M p 1.00
q l2 3.54 1.12
8
Table 2.10 Reduction factors h for determining the lateral buckling load for duopitch roof beams [163]
Crane slings for lifting roof beams usually have to be attached to two intermediate points
(see [3]). The risk of lateral buckling therefore decreases as the suspension height in-
creases. The best solution is to support the beam roughly at its quarter-points because lat-
eral buckling is then impossible. However, it must be remembered that the elasticity of the
crane sling means that only a reduced suspension height can be effective.
158 2 Design of precast concrete structures
1. Limit state consideration: the potential twisting of the beam is limited by the moment
that can be accommodated about the weak axis of the cross-section.
4Biegung w 4ges. s 40
Mz,Rd
4Biegung w s 40 (41)
My,Sd
2. Limit state consideration: the potential twisting of the beam is limited by the maxi-
mum torsion moment that can be accommodated without reinforcement, which corre-
sponds to the cracking moment.
ðl
MT (x) MT (x)
4Torsion w dx (42)
GIT (x)
0
where
Fig. 2.171 Equilibrium in the deformed system Fig. 2.172 Deformed position of beam
The potential limit twist of the beam therefore represents a cross-sectional value made up
of the following components:
4 (x)
4grenz (x) w 40 S min Biegung (43)
4Torsion (x)
These are compared with the real deformations due to external loads.
If these are now smaller than the limit deformation that can be accommodated by the
cross-section, then stability against lateral buckling can be regarded as guaranteed.
In their publication [179], König and Pauli scrutinise the formula given in EC 2-1-1 sec-
tion 4.3.5.7 in which stability against lateral buckling is considered to be adequate when
l0 J 50 b
(44)
h J 2,5 b
where
l0 distance between lateral supports
b width of compression flange
h depth of beam
Their findings show that a beam can be regarded as at risk of lateral buckling as soon as
the load-carrying capacity for biaxial bending using second-order theory is reduced by
2.6 Current design issues 161
Fig. 2.174 Non-rigid forked support Fig. 2.175 This top flange was
for resisting lateral buckling obviously a bit too narrow!
more than 10 % compared to the acceptable ultimate moment as a result of primary bend-
ing. The following empirical formula has been derived from this:
s ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l0 3
bj 4
h (45)
50
(see Fig. 2.173; also DIN 1045-1 section 8.6.8 (2)). As a result of this work, the DAfStb
application guidelines for EC 2 part 1 have reduced the above condition to
l0 J 35 b
(46)
h J 2,5 b
Mann (in [168] and [169]) attempts to attribute the lateral buckling problem of a slender
reinforced concrete roof beam to the buckling of the top flange due to compressive bend-
162 2 Design of precast concrete structures
ing forces. The actual verification of lateral stability is confined here to an additional ana-
lysis of the safety of the beam at the ultimate limit state. This beam has a top flange width
b w vb (v w reduction factor) which depends on an ideal slenderness l, an ideal eccen-
tricity e and the reinforcement in the compression flange m0, and can be designed using
the design tables for slender compression members or with the help of appropriate com-
puter programs, for example.
The reader is referred to [161] and its extensive bibliography for details of the lateral
buckling analyses for reinforced concrete beams according to Rafla or Röder/Mehlhorn,
which are very complicated to use in practice. Mehlhorn, Röder and Schulz describe an
approximation method with the help of an ultimate limit state analysis for biaxial bending
in [176] where they use examples that use the partial safety factors according to the Euro-
code. This method is based on [177], which is compared with another solution in [178].
An attempt to derive a sufficiently accurate rough verification of stability against lateral
buckling, based on Rafla, can be found in [170]. Mattheiß specifies a method of estimat-
ing a laterally stable compression flange width in [186].
Forked supports for beams can be constructed according to the typical details for frame
construction shown in Figs 2.176a and 2.177a. With the types of support shown in Figs
2.176b and 2.177b, the lack of shear resistance in the elastomeric bearings makes it neces-
Fig. 2.176 Support details for T-section beams Fig. 2.177 Support details for I-section beams
(Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau (Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau
e.V.) e.V.)
2.6 Current design issues 163
sary to include shear connectors to resist horizontal forces. The horizontal forces there-
fore tend to concentrate around the upper cut-out, which must be taken into account
when designing the connecting part. With a form of lateral restraint according to Fig.
2.174, it may be necessary to take into account the spring stiffness of the fork, as shown
in [171]. According to DIN 1045-1 section 8.6.8, the fork should be designed in such a
way that it can handle the following torsion moment:
leff
Td w Vsd (47)
300
where
Vsd vertical design shear force at support
leff effective support width of beam
How the stiffness of the fork affects the lateral buckling behaviour has been investigated
in [187]. The shear links at the end of the beam and the end anchorage of the longitudinal
reinforcement must be arranged in such a way that this torsion moment can be accommo-
dated, i.e. the link closer bars must be designed with laps. Furthermore, it should be re-
membered that the torsion moments must be analysed right down to the foundations.
Fig. 2.178 Pad foundation showing Fig. 2.179 Distribution of moments and
arrangement of reinforcement arrangement of reinforcement for axial loads
The standard design of the foundation can be carried out separately for the load compo-
nents due to axial force and bending moment. The design for the axial force component
can be carried out for the section along the edge of the column (Fig. 2.179):
NSt b c 2
MBem
N w 1s (48)
8 b
which has been confirmed by tests and is also valid for monolithic foundations. The bend-
ing reinforcement for the axial force component may be distributed uniformly over the
width in the case of a small foundation width. But if b i c S d, then the bending reinfor-
cement should be graduated to match the bending moment diagram. The design for bend-
ing caused by the moment component MSt is resisted by an “equivalent beam” of width b1
w c S d (Fig. 2.180).
The resulting amount of reinforcement AM s is distributed over a width of b2 w 0.5 · b1 and
bent up behind the pocket in the foundation to function as vertical starter bars. The hori-
zontal reinforcement required, which depends on the offset of the bent-up foundation re-
inforcement and the tension reinforcement in the column, is identical for reasons of equi-
librium:
2.6 Current design issues 165
a M
S w AS
AH (49)
l
where
a distance between vertical starter bars and longitudinal reinforcement in column
l difference between embedment depth and anchorage length (Fig. 2.181)
This is a type of frame corner with two frame legs with different cross-sectional dimen-
sions where the peripheral ties must be suitably connected.
According to [172], the punching shear analysis in the fully grouted state can be carried
out in the same way as for a monolithic foundation according to DIN 1045-1. An angle
of 34h should be assumed for the punching cone; according to DAfStb booklet 525, this
angle should be increased to 45h in the case of stocky foundations. In that case 100 %
of the bearing pressure acting in this circular cross-section can be deducted from the
punching load. Likewise, the shear capacity vRd,ct may be increased in relation to the cir-
cular cross-sections ucrit, 1.5d/ucrit, 1.0d.
Fig. 2.181 Truss action model in vicinity of Fig. 2.182 Effective ultimate shear stresses
pocket plotted against slab slenderness [172]
166 2 Design of precast concrete structures
However, the tests have revealed that the necessary safety against punching is not quite
attained in stocky foundations with
1 2d
0,75 J w J 1,0 (50)
l (bsc)
The reason for this is the lower transverse pressure acting on the shear joint in the top third
of the joint. Initially, vertical shear planes running from top to bottom appeared in very
stocky foundations, which only manifested themselves as a diagonal, outward shear crack
at a certain depth. Designers are therefore recommended to reduce the shear capacity vRd,ct
by a factor of 2.2–1.7 · (1/l) in the punching shear analysis for the above slenderness
range.
A separate analysis of punching shear for the self-weight of the column, acting via its base
plate, must be carried out for the base of the pocket for the temporary condition during
construction.
A simple method for checking punching shear for an eccentric load is given in [172] (Fig.
2.183). According to this, the shear stresses are determined for the most heavily loaded
quarter of the plate. The resulting shear force here is the content of the stress body cut
off at an angle reduced by the bearing pressures on the associated quarter of the area of
the punching cone. According to EC 2, increasing the critical shear force by a factor b
w 1.4, as with perimeter columns, and then designing the foundation as though it were
loaded concentrically is an acceptable approximation for taking into account an eccentric
loading. The reader is also referred to [173] and [192] for the analysis of punching shear.
2.6 Current design issues 167
Table 2.11 Minimum widths and minimum reinforcement edge distances for reinforced and pre-
stressed concrete beams to DIN 4102-4
inforced elements is arranged around the perimeter of the component. Additional reinfor-
cement within the cover is necessary when the concrete cover c exceeds 50 mm.
Standard, non-continuous plastic bar spacers do not have an influence on the fire resis-
tance rating [201]. On the other hand, cast-in channels can have an effect on the reaction
to fire of a reinforced concrete component. The u-values required must be verified by a
test certificate.
The minimum cross-sectional areas and edge distances for corbels and notched beam ends
are given in Fig. 2.185. Joints between components with a width a J 30 mm can be ne-
170 2 Design of precast concrete structures
glected and the component surfaces within the joint can be regarded as being not exposed
to the fire. At openings in webs, the remaining cross-section of the tension flange should
be i 2 b2min. Openings with a diameter I 100 mm may be ignored.
The minimum depth of reinforced or prestressed concrete floor slabs with no plaster to the
soffit should be d j 100 mm in order to comply with the F 90 requirements. This value
also applies to the total thickness D of floor slabs with an incombustible bonded screed,
although in that case the depth of the precast concrete floor unit must be d j 50 mm
and that of the screed dE j 25 mm. Table 2.12 shows the minimum slab dimensions
and the minimum reinforcement edge distances.
In hollow-core slabs, Anet/b i 100 mm and the minimum distance between bottom of void
and soffit must be du j 50 mm.
The minimum edge distance of the span reinforcement for simply supported solid or hol-
low-core slabs is u w 35 mm for F 90 (see also Table 2.12).
Table 2.12 Minimum depths and minimum reinforcement edge distances for solid reinforced and
prestressed concrete floor slabs to DIN 4102-4
1) The u-values must be increased by the Du-values according to DIN 4102-4 Fig. 1 in the case of
solid prestressed concrete slabs.
2) The minimum depth of slabs exposed to fire on more than one side (e.g. cantilevering slabs)
DIN 4102- 4 does not mention prestressed hollow-core slabs. But applying the provisions
correspondingly would result in a requirement of u w 50 mm when using prestressing
strands of grade St 1570/1770, which would require additional reinforcement within
the depth of the cover. A lower u-value can only be achieved by using carbonaceous ag-
gregates or additional reinforcement (see [45]), or by reducing the permissible stresses in
the prestressing steel. This is one of the reasons why this type of floor slab is not in wide-
spread use in Germany.
Table 2.13 Minimum sizes and minimum reinforcement edge distances for reinforced concrete
columns to DIN 4102-4
Min. cross-sectional dimensions of non-clad reinforced concrete columns 1) for exposure to fire on
more than one side and a utilisation factor a1 as follows:
Utilisation factor a1 w 0.2
Column length min. lcol
min. size h in mm 120 120 150 180
associated min. edge distance u in mm 34 34 34 37
Column length max. lcol
min. size h in mm 120 120 180 240
associated min. edge distance u in mm 34 34 37 34
1) Minimum dimensions for compression members within helical or horizontal bars provided no higher values
are specified: F 30: h w 240 mm, F 60 to F 120: h w 300 mm
In composite plank floors the planks must also be at least 50 mm deep in order to meet the
F 90 requirements. An average um value can be calculated from the positions of the addi-
tional reinforcing bars, the mesh reinforcement in the plank and the longitudinal bars of
the lattice beam, which must then be i 35 mm (Fig. 2.187).
In the case of reinforced concrete columns (Table 2.13) of minimum size it is the length and
the degree of utilisation that are critical. The utilisation factor is the ratio of the axial force
2.6 Current design issues 173
Table 2.14 Minimum thicknesses and minimum reinforcement edge distances for reinforced con-
crete walls to DIN 4102-4
1) Reductions are possible for walls with render/plaster on both sides according to DIN 4102-4 sections 3.1.6.1 to
3.1.6.5; however, the minimum wall thickness is h w 60 mm for non-loadbearing walls, h w 80 mm for
loadbearing walls.
present in the fire loading case to the load-carrying capacity of the design condition (Nfi,d/
NRd). As a result of the reduction in the loads and the factor of safety in the fire loading
case, a utilisation factor of 0.7, for example, means that the column is generally 100 % uti-
lised in the design condition. However, Table 2.13 applies only to columns restrained
against rotation at both ends in braced buildings. Furthermore, Table 2.13 can only be
used for the column lengths given in the table. One remedy for columns pinned at one
end is to carry out the design with a longer buckling length. Up until now it was not pos-
sible to use simplified methods of calculation for columns in the form of a vertical canti-
lever. But a simplified method of analysis with which such columns can be designed for
the fire loading case has been developed in [351]. The method covers the normal range of
applications and can also be used for laterally restrained columns by selecting a suitable
buckling length.
In the case of fully utilised room-enclosing walls exposed to fire on one side and with a
slenderness according to DIN 1045-1, the minimum thickness of a wall complying with
F 90 requirements is h w 140 mm and the minimum reinforcement edge distance u w
25 mm (Table 2.14). Lower values apply if the wall is not fully utilised. The same values
apply when a fire wall is loadbearing, except that the slenderness is limited to hs/d I 25.
For a loadbearing multi-layer separating wall the minimum thickness of the wall should
be h w 300 mm and the minimum reinforcement edge distance u w 55 mm (see also
[198]).
174 3 Design of precast concrete structures
Segmented walls with doors and windows are dealt with in DIN 4102- 4. The reader
should also refer to [188] for information on the fire protection analysis of pier cross-sec-
tions in fenstrate façades.
Joints [175] between precast concrete floor units must be filled with mortar or concrete in
accordance with Fig. 2.188. From the fire protection viewpoint, joints up to a width of
3 cm may also remain open if the floor units are provided with an in situ concrete topping
according to Fig. 2.186c. Joints between ribs must be closed off with mortar as shown in
Fig. 2.188b. The relevant width b necessary for determining u and us may be related to
both ribs in the case of a joint width I 2.0 cm.
Joints between precast units in roofs may also remain open up to a width of 2 cm provided
a layer of thermal insulation i 8 cm thick complying with building materials class A is
laid on the top of the units.
3 Joints between precast concrete elements
Whereas one of the key features of in situ concrete is that the structure is “built from one
mould” as it were, in precast concrete construction the individual, prefabricated parts are
only assembled to form a structure at a later point in time. The joints between the indivi-
dual elements must therefore transfer the forces in some appropriate way. A summary of
joints in precast concrete construction can be found in [202] and [74]. Although in many
instances joints have to be designed to accommodate axial forces, shear forces and bend-
ing moments, compression, tension and shear joints will be treated separately in this
chapter.
Saleh has carried out further investigations [210]; a summary can be found in [209].
Fig. 3.1 Different types of compression joint: (a) soft Fig. 3.2 Reduced area for determining
bearing, lateral tensile stresses due to lateral spreading local bearing pressure
of jointing material, (b) hard constricted bearing, lateral
tensile stresses due to reduction in transfer area, (c) hard
non-constricted bearing, lateral tensile stresses due to
redirection of load component in longitudinal bars and
concrete encasement.
A column joint with a hard bearing over the full area is essentially the normal case for
heavily loaded column joints. The load-carrying capacity can be calculated using the fol-
lowing equation taken from DIN 1045-1:
NRd w k Ac,n fcd S As fyd
where
1,0 for steel end plate
kw
0,9 for reinforcement in end face
Lateral tensile stresses build up in the ends of the column elements directly adjacent to the
joint as a result of the redirection of the load component in the column reinforcement and
the concrete (see Fig. 3.1c).
The investigations of König and Minnert [211] led to the publication of DAfStb booklet
499 with new design proposals for butt-jointed precast concrete columns made from
high-strength concretes. For butt joints in normal-strength concrete, see also [212].
We basically distinguish between two types of butt joint detail (Fig. 3.3):
– those with a steel plate, and
– those with reinforcement in the end faces.
The investigations have shown that using steel plates in the column end faces is a very ef-
ficient way of preventing lateral strains in the mortar joint and the resulting stresses tend
to be low. Further, the total load component in the longitudinal reinforcement can be car-
ried via the mortar joint so that there are no stresses due to the end anchorage of the long-
itudinal reinforcement (Fig. 3.3) in the vicinity of the joint.
3.1 Compression joints 177
Fig. 3.3 Compression of longitudinal reinforcement in a test column with and without steel plate on
end of column [211]
When using reinforcement in the end faces, on the other hand, only a part of the force in
the reinforcing bars is carried via end bearing. The larger part is transferred into the sur-
rounding concrete via bond stresses. The higher concrete stress must be resisted by per-
ipheral reinforcement at the base of the column above the joint (Fig. 3.4); adequate per-
ipheral reinforcement is essential here. The lateral tensile stresses in the mortar joint
must be resisted by the reinforcement in the column end faces.
In working out the joint detail, care should be to taken to ensure that the reinforcement in
the end face is built into the column directly without concrete cover and that the diameter
of the bars does not exceed ds w 12 mm. The outer nodes of the mesh must be positioned
on the outside faces of the column and the intersections must be carefully welded. The
spacing of the bars must be J 5 cm and the shear links should be positioned as shown
in Fig. 3.5.
178 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
Fig. 3.6 Reduction factor k for the admissible Fig. 3.7 Additional transverse reinforcement at
design force of concentrically loaded column wall joints
joints plotted against amount of longitudinal re-
inforcement and thickness of mortar joint (inter-
mediate values may be obtained by linear inter-
polation)
joint thickness [206]. In doing so, however, the reduction factor should not exceed 0.9,
which is in line with DIN 1045-1.
The reduction factor k here is a function of the geometrical degree of reinforcement r and
the joint thickness hj. The lateral tensile reinforcement necessary for this should be deter-
mined according to the acknowledged design methods.
According to DIN 1045-1, in a joint where axial and shear forces act simultaneously, the
shear forces can be neglected when VEd I 0.1 · NEd.
When designing compression joint zones within wall joints supporting suspended floors
on one or both sides, it is necessary to take into account lateral tensile stresses caused by
rotation of the floor at the support. That can be dealt with in a simple way according to
DIN 1045-1 section 13.7.2 by assuming that only 50 % of the loadbearing wall cross-sec-
tion is used in the stress analysis for the wall above and below the joint.
However, DIN 1045-1 states that 60 % of the loadbearing wall cross-section may be taken
into account in the design if transverse reinforcement is provided in the wall above and
below the joint (Fig. 3.7). This must be able to accommodate the following design tensile
force at least:
asw w h=8
asw in cm2/m, h in cm
The spacing of the transverse reinforcement sw in the direction of the longitudinal wall
axis must be
h
sJ
200 mm
(the smaller figure governs)
180 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
and the diameter ds of the longitudinal reinforcement Asl at the base of the wall must at
least 6 mm.
A cross-section proportion i 60 % can then be considered if this is verified by test results
that reproduce the true support conditions accurately [226].
Fig. 3.8 Support zone: (a) Fig. 3.9 Horizontal support for a beam
elevation, (b) plan outside the plane of the bearing
3.1 Compression joints 181
The support length a may need to be longer where sliding bearings are in use. Likewise, in
the case where a beam is not restrained horizontally in the plane of the support (Fig. 3.9),
the gap t1 will need to be widened to allow for the effects of rotation about the joint.
sm J 1,2 G S (52)
3.1 Compression joints 183
The reinforcement should be arranged to handle the influences due to both Zq und Zs. The
amounts of reinforcement required for splitting tension and lateral tension are then as
follows:
where Zs j 0.1 · F
In most instances the bottom tension reinforcement provided in the longitudinal direction
over the support anyway is adequate for the reinforcement required at a depth of 0.2a for
the lateral tensile force. Additional reinforcement is required for the splitting tensile
force; the reinforcement in the transverse direction is achieved by reducing the spacing
of the shear links.
Action effects due to permanent loads parallel to the plane of the bearing (e.g. out-of-
plumb, earth pressure, etc.) are not permitted.
The following check is relevant for action effects due to restraint and brief external loads
for category 1 (but not category 2, where slippage of the bearing is not to be expected or is
unimportant):
The eccentricity resulting from the rotation may need to be taken into account for cate-
gory 1 as follows:
a2
ew a (57)
2t
when designing the adjoining components.
Any influence due to compression of the bearing only needs to be analysed in exceptional
circumstances. As the deformation curves are not linear, the compression component due
to imposed loads is smaller than the component due to the total load.
Extremely smooth contact surfaces have a negative effect on elastomeric bearings be-
cause frictional engagement between the different materials is then impossible; release
agent and similar substances worsen the situation.
So the characteristics of the loadbearing and deformation behaviour require construc-
tional measures that would be unnecessary to this extent when using other bearing mate-
rials. Apart from accommodating the lateral tensile forces near the support surface as a re-
sult of restricting lateral strain at the contact faces, as mentioned above, protecting the ar-
rises where the permissible bearing pressures are used to the full calls for special care. To
do this, the following recommendations should be followed (which are taken from [218]):
x Arrises should always be cast with chamfers because this offers the elastomeric bear-
ing only a small contact area in the unreinforced edge zone in the case of excessive
swelling.
x The lateral tension reinforcement (calculated, for example, according to [219]) should
not be fixed more than approx. 30 mm below the support surface.
x The zone below the bearing shown in Fig. 3.12 must be reinforced. Dimension r1 is
chosen to allow the contact area to enlarge without damage upon the bearing being
squashed by a vertical load and rotation, in the event of horizontal displacements
and in the case of inaccurate installation of the bearing. Reinforcement is to be in-
cluded according to one of the proposals illustrated. Where the reinforcement simulta-
neously functions as the tensile bending reinforcement in a corbel, the additional re-
quirement regarding adequate end anchorage of the reinforcement remains unaffected
(see section 2.6.2).
x Concentrations of reinforcement in the vicinity of the front face of the support should
be avoided because this weakens the bond between the concrete cover and the load-
bearing concrete and can result in shell-like spalling.
x Care should be exercised to ensure accurate cutting to length, bending and fixing of
the edge reinforcement.
x Bent reinforcing bars from the longitudinal column reinforcement or from corbel
bending reinforcement are generally unsuitable as edge protection owing to the large
bend radii and the unfavourable distribution transverse to the support. On the other
hand, horizontal loops or meshes with closely spaced bars enable an effective and at
the same time economic reinforcement layout.
x Irrespective of the reinforcement near the surface, appropriate tensile spitting reinfor-
cement is always required at an appropriate distance from the surface and in a size and
distribution suitable for the splitting tensile forces (Fig. 3.10).
b) Special forms of unreinforced elastomeric bearings
The compression behaviour of elastomeric bearings can be influenced by perforations,
studs or other surface textures or cross-sectional forms, also the use of sponge rubber
(see below) [220]. The aim is always to achieve a more uniform stress distribution,
even in the case of greater unevenness. The voids cause the bearing to yield at first under
the load, the degree of yielding decreasing gradually as the voids are filled with the bear-
ing material, so the resistance to the deformation increases progressively.
DIN 4114 treats such bearings as normal solid bearings when the thickness t is replaced
by the theoretical value tr for a solid pad with the same volume and the same area on plan.
Whereas the standard is limited to square, rectangular or circular bearings, a design pro-
posal for strip-type rubber bearings for prestressed hollow-core slabs published in [221]
will be described below (Fig. 3.13).
A minimum bearing length according to section 3.1.2 is required for these strips, but this
value must be equal to 1/125 x span at least. There must be a clearance of 30 mm between
the edge of the bearing and the edge of the concrete in order to avoid spalling at the edges.
This therefore results in a bearing length of approx. 40 mm when we take into account the
aforementioned minimum bearing length. Tests on prestressed hollow-core slabs with ty-
pical dimensions and spans bearing on rubber strips with Shore hardnesses 40 and 60 and
sponge rubber with a density of 0.5 g/cm3 have resulted in a recommendation for the latter
of 20 mm wide strips with thickness t w 8–10 mm. This means that a compression of 3–
4 mm as a result of the load and compensating for unevenness leads to a residual gap un-
der full load of min. 2–3 mm. The sponge rubber recommended for bearings is supplied
in rolls and chloroprene rubber is also available.
c) Sliding bearings
Unreinforced or reinforced elastomeric bearings of suitable thickness can be used where
small relative movements between two components must be permitted. But for larger
movements it may be necessary to install special sliding bearings. There are many types
available but they do not have National Technical Approvals, instead in some cases are
subject to voluntary official quality control measures. These bearings for buildings con-
sist of lubricated or non-lubricated films (0.2– 0.5 mm) or sheets (3–5 mm). The materi-
als used are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polya-
mides (PA) or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), with the last of these being the most sui-
table, but also the most expensive (trade names: Teflon, Hostaflon, etc.). In the meantime,
carbon fibre-reinforced plastics (CFRP) are also being used.
The films and sheets are enclosed in foams or elastomers because otherwise they are too
thin to compensate for unevenness or to prevent excessive edge pressures in the case of
rotation. Only sliding bearings adequately laminated to an elastomer to achieve a mini-
mum thickness of 4 mm in total may be used as intermediate pads between precast con-
crete components. This is not a true sliding bearing, but rather a “deformable sliding bear-
ing”. The coefficient of friction depends on pressure, material, temperature, lubrication,
sliding velocity, bonding at perimeter and number of movements, i.e. a whole range of
parameters. The friction coefficients determined by the manufacturers – often under la-
boratory conditions only – differ from those suitable in practice, in some cases quite sig-
nificantly. A value of m w 0.10 can be assumed as a cautious characteristic value [222].
d) Reinforced elastomeric bearings
Reinforced elastomeric bearings for higher loads are square, rectangular or circular on
plan. Their reinforcement is in the form of flat sheet steel or textile plies positioned at a
uniform spacing and symmetrically about the central plane. They are bonded to the elas-
tomeric plies by way of hot vulcanising.
However, before opting for a more complex, more expensive reinforced elastomeric bear-
ing, it is always important to check whether the requirements to be satisfied by the bearing
can be met by an unreinforced elastomeric bearing. This is the case for the majority of
bearing details in precast concrete construction.
188 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
The use of reinforced elastomeric bearings is covered by DIN 4141-14 “Reinforced elas-
tomeric bearings” and National Technical Approvals. Ref. [208] contains further details
of reinforced elastomeric bearings.
Reinforced elastomeric bearings differ from unreinforced elastomeric bearings in the fol-
lowing ways:
x Whereas unreinforced elastomeric bearings are made from sheets that can be cut to
suit the respective application, reinforced elastomeric bearings are only available in
the sizes fabricated by the suppliers.
x The permissible pressures depend on the size of the bearing and lie between 10 N/mm2
for the small ones and 15 N/mm2 for the large ones. The reason for the higher values of
the reinforced bearings, compared to the unreinforced bearings, is that squeezing-out
of the bearing as it prevents lateral strain is checked by the sheet metal incorporated
during vulcanisation.
x The permissible shear deformations, related to the ply thickness t, are the same as for
unreinforced elastomeric bearings. But as thicker bearings with T w n · t are permissi-
ble for reinforced bearings, the permissible shear deformations are increased by a fac-
tor of n for the same value of t.
x In terms of rotation, the total rotation 4 w n · a applies accordingly, where a is the an-
gle of rotation per elastomer ply.
x Apart from the tensile spitting forces caused by local loads, it is not necessary to take
into account any further lateral tensile forces for reinforced elastomeric bearings.
Fzd
sEd;m w J 1,4 Gd S J 7 Gd (58)
A
where
Fzd design value for vertical load
A plan area of bearing
Gd design shear modulus of elastomer
S form factor for elastomeric material
The bearing forces and bearing movements are determined as characteristic values ac-
cording to the rare loading combination of DIN 1055-100. The characteristic values re-
sulting from the individual actions (increased by the respective partial safety factors)
are used for calculating the resulting design values for movement – displacements and ro-
tations – and the forces at the ultimate limit state.
b) All bearings that cannot be designed according to a) require some form of National
Technical Approval. This is the case, for example, when bearings according to a) are to
be used for higher loads, or other types of bearing or other materials (EPDM, ethylene
polypropylene diene monomer rubber) are to be used. Besides some form of approval,
these bearings require a design concept. At the moment, a so-called application standard
is being drawn up which will specify a method of analysis. Therefore, all the information
given below reflects the current status of discussions in the committee responsible for the
new standard and has not been finalised. The application standard must function within
the scope of two limiting values: the lower value is formed by the simple verification to
DIN EN 1337-3 and the upper value is the current limit of a 20 N/mm2 bearing pressure
based on experience.
In terms of the climatic influences, we distinguish between components fitted within in-
sulated building envelopes and components exposed either frequently or permanently to
the outside air.
The analysis of the bearing is carried out on the basis of a deformation-related calculation
concept instead of DIN EN 1337-3. In doing so, we distinguish between an accurate and a
simplified analysis.
The average bearing pressure is limited in order to restrict the lateral spread or sagging of
the bearing:
Fzd
sEd,m w J sRd,m
A
The design value of the admissible average bearing pressure sRd,m can be found in the re-
levant National Technical Approval or DIN EN 1337-3. Both the angle of rotation of the
component at the support and a geometrical imperfection should be taken into account for
the rotation at the support aEd,tot :
The angle of rotation aEd,tot of the bearing should be limited in such a way that there is no
contact between the edges under the design values. As the bearings themselves can ac-
commodate very large pressures or deformations without the elastomer being damaged,
avoiding damage to the adjoining components constitutes the actual limit state.
The eccentricity as a result of the restoring moment due to rotation of the bearing must be
taken into account when designing the adjoining components. In future this data will be
available in the relevant National Technical Approval.
The shear distortion in the bearing due to component displacements and brief external
loads tan gEd should be limited as follows:
fabrication, and may only be carried out in the open air when a protective tent is erected
around the work to prevent the shielding gas being blown away by the wind.
Also possible these days are welded connections involving stainless steel grades 1.4401
and 1.4571 to DIN EN ISO 10088 (see also DIBt Approval Z-30.3- 6 covering products,
connections and components made from stainless steels) and carried out according to
DIN EN ISO 17660 -1. However, special electrodes are required for this. When designing
joints involving both normal and stainless steel, the different thermal expansion beha-
viour of these two types of steel must be taken into account in order to avoid restraint
stresses and failure. Galvanic corrosion can occur when these two types of steel are in
contact in the presence of an electrolyte, e.g. water, which, however, is not a problem
when the steel is embedded in concrete.
DIN EN ISO 17660 -1 provides detailed information about the design and detailing of
welded connections between steel reinforcing bars and between reinforcement and steel
sections. The basic rule is to provide fillet welds (Fig. 3.14) and lapped or spliced joints
(Fig. 3.15), which should be preferred to butt joints or T-joints (Fig. 3.16) because they
are easier to produce and have significant loadbearing reserves.
Fig. 3.14 Fillet welds along the sides of reinforcing bars or other steel parts to DIN EN ISO 17660-1
Fillet welds around the ends of bars (T-joints) are very prone to errors. The recommenda-
tion for structural calculations (when there are no results available from welding tests) is
to carry out such fillet welds only for those details where the bar passes through a plate
(Figs 3.16a and 3.17) with exactly the same load-carrying capacity as the bar. This ap-
proach is based on company tests and complies with [227]. Where the bar must finish
flush with an anchor plate for constructional reasons, e.g. at short supports or corbels,
then the type of joint shown in Fig. 3.16c is not to be recommended. As the aforemen-
tioned tests have revealed, such a joint carries I 50 % of the force in the bar in some si-
tuations. The type of welded joint shown in Fig. 3.16b can be used if a flush fitting is un-
avoidable, but this detail can carry only 75 % of the load in the bar, unless specific suit-
ability tests have proved that the full load-carrying capacity can be assumed.
The loadbearing effect of the welded joint shown in Fig. 3.16a is the result of the wedging
effect of the relatively small annular weld in particular. Failure occurs through a cone-
shaped shearing-off of the projecting bar, which is why this should not be less than
1.0 · ds if at all possible. However, the aforementioned tests have shown that it is not ne-
cessary to provide a weld with 0.4 · ds. Instead, a simple wedging with a throat size of a
w 7 mm is adequate (Fig. 3.17).
Where the loads are not predominantly static, DIN 1045-1 Table 12 specifies that butt
joints between bars in tension may only be carried out with flash welding (FW). Electric
arc and MAG welding are only suitable for bars in compression, and then only within cer-
tain limits.
3.2 Tension joints 193
Welded joints in structures in seismic regions must be given special attention. DIN 4149
section 8.3.5.3 specifies that welded connections between reinforcing bars are not per-
missible for any stability components for which a higher degree of ductility is presumed
(class 2). The requirements to be met by filler metals given in DIN 4149 section 9.3.1.3
must be adhered to for welded connections in steelwork.
The welded connections in precast concrete construction are frequently based on reinfor-
cing bars projecting from the precast concrete components which are then either welded
directly together or to splice plates and the whole joint then encased in concrete on site
(see Fig. 2.44). The projecting bars must be long enough to permit minimal bending in or-
der to accommodate tolerances. Good access for the welder and the welding equipment is
essential. The reader should consult FDB leaflet No. 2 (available in German only) for in-
formation about corrosion protection.
Fig. 3.20 Examples of cast-in parts: (a) channel, (b) plates with welded headed studs,
(c) pigtail anchor
3.2 Tension joints 195
Fig. 3.21 Failure mechanisms in shear tests [232]: (a) local spalling,
(b) inadequate edge distance (€ujj =d I 8), (c) inadequate edge distance (€
u? =d I 8)
196 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
Fig. 3.25 Types of shear connector system for different degrees of longitudinal displacement
Type II includes a sleeve for the dowel which is nailed to the inside of the mould; there is
no need to drill a hole in the mould for the dowel. After demoulding, the dowel is inserted
into the sleeve and cast into the adjoining component once the joint is finished.
Such shear connectors are highly advisable when, for example, movement in the longitu-
dinal direction of the connector is necessary once a bearing or expansion joint has been
compressed and a shear force still has to be resisted.
The development of these proprietary “shear load connectors” has continued in the mean-
time and now they are available in the forms shown in Fig. 3.25, available with different
degrees of freedom and covered by National Technical Approvals [231, 240]. In conjunc-
tion with suitable additional reinforcement, these fittings can be used as loadbearing con-
nections between components.
raising the units, only half the load acts on the transport fixings because the other half
is still supported on the factory floor.
x Non-uniform and impact loads can occur when lifting a precast concrete component
out of the mould, also during raising and lowering them either in the factory or on
the building site. The magnitudes of those loads depend on the skill of the crane opera-
tor. Cranes with precision hosting mechanisms are available in the precasting plant
and these are generally operated by experienced personnel, which means that the im-
pact loads remain low and can generally be ignored even though the concrete strength
is at its lowest during the handling in the plant. This is also true for the latest mobile
cranes. A global increase in the safety factor for the transport fixings system in order
to cover the impact events that, theoretically, can occur during improper handling is
not justifiable on economic grounds. It is up to the respective personnel on site and
in the factory to handle the components carefully.
Transport fixings that can be detached with a cable or pneumatically via remote control
help to ease positioning operations in many instances and reduce the risks to erection per-
sonnel.
Neglecting the duty of care necessary during the planning of transport fixings counts is
not worthwhile when we consider what accidents and damage might be caused by falling
parts and also the time wasted when attaching crane slings and hooks.
The only important aspect is that the cast-in parts, of which there are normally two or four
per component, should not be too expensive (because they remain in the component and
are probably never used again).
The pretensioning force Z that can be achieved with a torque MD and lightly oiled, high-
strength friction-grip (HSFG) bolts can be calculated with good accuracy using the fol-
lowing equation:
5 MD
ZðkNÞ w (60)
ds
(MD in Nm and bolt diameter dS in mm)
The following equations can be used to estimate the dimensions of the anchor plate for
transferring the tensile force in the bolt to the concrete:
pffiffiffi
plate thickness: t reqd [mm] w 3.4 3 Z (Z in kN)
plate area: AD reqd [cm2] w 0.8 · Z (Z in kN)
These are based on tests [236] carried out with concrete grade C20/25 (B 25) and a
through-hole with a diameter of about 1.5ds.
The reader is referred to the very detailed information given in [236] regarding the fire re-
sistance and corrosion protection of bolted connections. All components that are to be ret-
rofitted with corbels must of course be checked to ensure that they can carry the additional
loads.
Fig. 3.29a shows a reinforced concrete corbel fixed to a concrete component with preten-
sioned HSFG bolts. The friction force needed to carry force V is activated by tensioning
3.3 Shear joints 203
with force Z, which is why force Z for this corbel detail has to be much greater than that in
Fig. 3.29b.
The authors of [236] provide further information about this corbel detail:
x Filling the joint with grout is unnecessary, and this does not mean that extreme re-
quirements are placed on the flatness of the contact faces.
x When the HSFG bolts have been properly galvanised, then the drilled hole for each
bolt does not have to be pressure grouted in order to reduce the risk of corrosion.
This simplifies the exact adjustment of the corbel. An appropriate final detail – mortar
fill, possibly in recesses with special mortar, or an “Isoternit” protective cap – can
guarantee a fire resistance rating of F 90 to F 120.
Tests [237] on the corbel detail shown in Fig. 3.29b have revealed that this type of corbel
is ideal for retrofitting situations, where a corbel was never envisaged in the first place.
The sizing is carried out according to the rules of structural steelwork. The hole for the
round dowel is drilled with a core drill. The hole should be only a few millimetres larger
than the diameter of the dowel that is grouted into the hole.
In the tests, this type of corbel was loaded to failure with 2.1 times the service loads.
3.3.1 General
The design of shear joints for cross-sections subsequently finished with in situ concrete
has already been dealt with in section 2.6.1. According to DIN 1045-1, the same equation
can be used for other types of shear joint as well.
Fig. 3.30 shows in graphical form the loading components that contribute to transferring
shear. The first component comprises the adhesion between the grout in the joint and the
precast concrete component, the second component corresponds to the friction force due
to an axial stress perpendicular to the joint, and the third component is the reinforcement,
which also activates a friction force and can be explained by way of shear-friction theory
[242].
In shear-friction theory (see Fig. 3.31) it is assumed that even a minor crack at a joint sub-
jected to shear is sufficient to transfer the load to the steel crossing the joint. This happens
because with a relative displacement of the contact faces the roughness in the crack sepa-
rates the faces and therefore the steel bars across the joint are subjected to a strain.
This gives rise to a compressive force in the joint which enables the shear force to be re-
sisted by friction forces. In principle, the reinforcement therefore performs the same func-
tion as an external compressive force applied perpendicular to the axis of the joint. The
dowel effect of the reinforcement is small by comparison (see section 3.2.3) and is gener-
ally neglected.
If the reinforcement crosses the joint at an angle, the proportion projected onto the shear
joint contributes directly to resisting the shear force acting in this direction.
The edges of the longitudinal joints of floor diaphragms made from aerated concrete com-
ponents or prestressed hollow-core units cast using slipformers or extruders are relatively
smooth because of the production process. Various research projects have therefore been
carried out for these products and these have verified that the stiffness of perimeter or in-
ternal connecting beams, which act as dowels, make a considerable contribution to trans-
ferring shear forces.
A simple design concept for one- or two-storey residential buildings has been developed
for aerated concrete components based on full-scale tests [247].
DIN 1045-1 section 10.3.6 can be used to verify the shear joints in prestressed concrete
suspended floors [248]. In doing so, it should be noted that the joints must be classed
as smooth and the value for the shear force may not exceed hF · 0.15 N/mm2. The effective
shear force may be distributed over the entire length of the joint as follows:
A
vEd w J vRd,ct J hF 0,15 N=mm2
L
where hF w h - 20 mm effective joint depth.
Only predominately static loads are permissible.
Whereas DIN 1045-1 section 13.4.4 assumes floor diaphragms, these days walls, made
up of precast concrete components, are to an increasing extent also being produced to
function as loadbearing plates in various structural systems. The analyses can be carried
out according to DIN 1045-1 section 10.3.6. Up until now, the curves shown in Fig. 3.35,
derived by Schwing [67] from comprehensive tests, were the most widely used for precast
concrete construction. These allow various shear key geometries for various loading si-
tuations, as depicted in Fig. 3.33, to be calculated and designed. Although the curves
should also apply to smooth joints, with a somewhat higher factor of safety, a shear key
is always recommended for loadbearing joints. Taking into account the global factor of
safety of 2.5 recommended by Schwing for a shear key joint, this results in the following
shear capacity per unit length for a B/Fu ratio J 0.5:
206 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
Fig. 3.33 Typical loading conditions in the joints Fig. 3.34 Shear key geometry
of precast concrete plates [67]
Fig. 3.35 Curves for determining the amount of reinforcement required in the joint [67]
3.3 Shear joints 207
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b1 k fck B
vRd w a S b r fyk SsN j vEd (61)
glc Fu
where
Table 3.1 Factor k for eq. (61)
glc w 1,76
B h1 b1 k k
w
Fu h2 b C12/15 0.95 C30/37 0.908
a w 0,04 [MN/m2]
C16/20 0.95 C35/45 0.885
b w 0,44 [s]
C20/25 0.95 C40/50 0.862
r w amount of reinforcement C25/30 0.93 C45/55 0.839
fyd w fyk=g [MN=m2 ]
s
sN w compressive stress
0 J r fyk S sN J 3,80 [MN=m2 ] k
Using the shear key geometry given in DIN 1045-1 Fig. 35 results in a B/Fu value of 0.5.
Fig. 3.36 compares the curves according to Schwing with the DIN 1045-1/A1 analysis.
Excellent agreement has been achieved for typical axial forces.
In practice the reinforcement required is often concentrated in the transverse joints cross-
ing the shear joint (see Fig. 2.59). To allow for this, Schwing recommends increasing the
amount of reinforcement by a factor of 1/0.85.
A number of manufacturers have developed special cast-in fittings for joints to simplify
the provision of shear key and reinforcement. These form, or rather replace, the shear
key with profiled sheet metal, and the reinforcement is provided in the form of looped
Fig. 3.36 Comparing curves with DIN 1045-1/A1 for a joint geometry of B/Fu w 0.5
208 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
cables to simplify installation (Fig. 3.37). Such fittings can accommodate shear forces of
up to vRd w 90 kN/m. After installing these units, the joints are finished with high-
strength mortar, which is specified in the appropriate approval documentation along
with the permissible tolerances and the minimum component thicknesses. Interaction
with out-of-plane forces (e.g. wind loads on a wall plate) is possible. It should be noted
that as a result of the cable loops, cracks are always somewhat wider (Dw w 0.1 mm)
than is the case with reinforcing bars.
Special shear connectors have been developed for connecting wall plates and columns
(Fig. 3.38).
Fig. 3.39 Failure mechanisms for unreinforced, dowel-reinforced and loop-reinforced joints (ac-
cording to [244] and [245])
Fig. 3.40 Examples of joints between precast concrete elements to DIN 1045-1 (dims. in mm)
210 3 Joints between precast concrete elements
However, this equation only applies for concrete grades up to C45/55 and slabs up to
20 cm deep. The joints in deeper slabs should be similarly narrow, i.e. altered in propor-
tion to their depth only. In unreinforced joints it is the concrete nib that fails. We can
therefore assume that the admissible joint shear force will then increase roughly in pro-
portion to the depth (of the concrete nib). The ratio of expansion force to shear force is
smaller anyway, corresponding to the steeper angle of the compressive force.
The authors’ own tests on 10 cm deep slabs with unreinforced joints with a form as shown
in Fig. 3.42 and a C20/25 filling to the joint resulted in minimum shear forces at failure of
Vu w 27.2 kN/m, which with a safety factor of 3.0 corresponds to a permissible shear
force of approx. 9 kN/m. The horizontal component H of the inclined compressive force
D, which in this case is equal to roughly twice the shear force V, acts as an expansion force
and must be transferred via the floor diaphragm to the longitudinal reinforcement in the
3.3 Shear joints 211
transverse joints (Fig. 3.42). In reinforced joints the joint expansion forces are resisted by
the joint reinforcement itself.
Regarding the joint form, it can generally be said that a nib according to Figs 3.40 and
3.42, where the depth of both upper and lower nib is about 1/3 h, is the best solution.
The joint should be kept as narrow as possible. At the bottom it only has to compensate
for the tolerances and at the top it should be just wide enough to allow the mortar filling
to be installed and compacted properly and also so there is enough space for any joint re-
inforcement, including any laps.
Reinforcement in the concrete nib is recommended where the shear forces are significant,
but is unnecessary in the case of low loads (e.g. wind loads on walls). This is because the
tensile strength of the concrete in the nib is critical and the admissible shear force has al-
ready been multiplied by the appropriate safety factor.
Ref. [249] describes tests on joints in hollow-core slabs. These floor systems were de-
signed for loads that are not predominantly static, for uniformly distributed loads of up
to q J 12.5 kN/m2 and fork-lift trucks up to 35 kN.
The analysis of the transfer of shear forces transverse to the joint may be carried out ac-
cording to [147], for prestressed hollow-core slabs as well, but only for imposed loads
of q I 2.75 kN/m2 and with an upper limit according to the approval documentation.
4 Factory production
The factory production methods for precast concrete have continued to develop further
towards industrialised, i.e. mechanised, methods in recent years. And at the moment,
automation, too, with the help of the latest CAD/CAM technologies, is also starting to in-
filtrate precast concrete construction. The precast concrete industry is being forced to in-
vest substantial sums of money to secure its share of the market in the face of competition
from other forms of construction. In this respect, it is the flexibility of the production fa-
cilities that is attracting great attention because large repetitive series are becoming things
of the past [250].
The majority of industrialised methods used for the production of structural precast con-
crete components for buildings can be assigned to one of the following two basic techni-
ques:
– Circulation flow production
– Production in long lines or beds
Both methods require a certain throughput, however.
The circulation flow production method [251], in which the elements, on pallets, are trans-
ported through the factory from one operation to another on roller conveyors or traver-
sers, is the typical method for planar elements such as wall panels and floor units. These
days, flow production systems are designed to achieve good flexibility.
Flow production has two main advantages:
x Better organisation of the entire production procedure. The materials required can be
made available without internal transportation and the individual workers carry out
the same work at the same place each time.
x Lower plant costs because the individual operations are carried out at workstations
specially designed for those operations and, for example, vibratory compactors or hy-
draulic systems for moulds only need to be provided once and therefore can be
equipped with more functions.
Besides the very common horizontal flow method with longitudinal conveyors and trans-
versers for heat treatment in curing chambers, there is also space-saving vertical flow
method with longitudinal conveyors on upper and lower levels connected via raising
and lowering stations. The actual production takes place on the upper conveyor, curing
in tunnel-like conveyors on the lower one [260].
However, flow production is not used exclusively for planar-type elements; it is also em-
ployed for stairs and linear components, for instance [265]. The different ways in which
“series production” can be carried out these days are described in [252] and the factory
production of four complete individual housing units every day using the latest techni-
ques is described in [253]. Refs. [254] and [250] present more recent developments in
the field of the production of elements for large-panel construction, and also discuss how
battery moulds for walls can be integrated into flow production systems.
Pretensioning forces must be resisted by the moulds themselves where prestressed ele-
ments are produced in the flow production method (see also section 4.4.2).
Floor elements are particularly suitable for production on long lines [255]. For example,
up until recently, precast planks for composite plank floors were produced almost exclu-
sively on long lines, with compaction being carried out by vibratory carriages running be-
low the bed or by external vibrators attached with quick-action couplings. However, the
large factory floor areas required for this, the mobile workstations and the relatively
long transport distances have seen a move towards pallet production in newer plants,
with automatic stacking systems in the curing chambers (Fig. 4.1) [256].
Fig. 4.1 Flow production system for the production of precast concrete planks (Nuspl)
4.1 Production methods 215
individual component, CAM methods have already been used on many occasions for
milling the surface geometry. To do this, “permanent formwork” – generally made from
polystyrene – is produced by the computer-controlled milling machine and placed as a
lining in the mould. Almost any surface geometries can be modelled in this way. The
side panels to the mould must be correspondingly deeper in order to accommodate the lin-
ing. When using polystyrene, however, a slightly rough surface finish must be expected
because individual beads of polystyrene are lost from the surface during the milling work.
Fig. 4.6 Fixing the reinforcement for a floor unit with a computer-controlled robot [256]
Fig. 4.7 shows the mould and a finished element for an HGV test track. The random sur-
face was calculated with a CAD system and transferred to the milling machine for the per-
manent formwork. Every element in this test track is unique.
4.2 Types of concrete in precast concrete construction 219
Fig. 4.7 Precast carriageway for an HGV test track with milled mould lining (Züblin)
We have seen major developments in concrete technology in recent years. The following
types of concrete are acceptable to the building authorities and can be used without re-
strictions:
– Normal-strength concretes up to grade C50/60 [270]
– High-strength concretes up to grade C80/95 [292]
– Lightweight concretes up to grade LC60/66
– Self-compacting concrete according to the 2003 DAfStb directive on the subject [297]
The following types of concrete may only be used in conjunction with a National Techni-
cal Approval or Individual Approval:
– High-strength concretes of grades C90/105 and C100/115
– Steel fibre-reinforced concretes [293]
A DAfStb directive is available for this latter type of concrete, but in draft form only at
present. The latest developments are taking place in the following fields:
– Ultra-high-performance concretes (UHPC)
– Textile-reinforced concretes (TRC) [291]
(see also section 2.4.5).
In addition, there are very many special concretes such as:
– Impermeable concrete
– Acid-resistant concrete
– Coloured concrete
– Concrete with high frost resistance
– Concretes reinforced with glass, synthetic and other fibres [298]
– Combinations of the above types of concrete [295, 296]
The types of concrete interesting for precast concrete construction will be briefly de-
scribed below. Of course, concrete technology now covers a wide field, and the interested
reader should refer to the publications mentioned above.
220 4 Factory production
All the aforementioned types of concrete are perfect for use in precasting plants. This is
because the concrete is mixed and used directly in such plants, the moulds are already
available, the concrete is easy to work and the working conditions are ideal. Therefore,
almost all the first uses of such concretes on a commercial scale have taken and continue
to take place in precasting plants or with precast concrete elements. This trend offers the
precast concrete construction industry good opportunities now and in the future.
4.2.2 Strength
Early demoulding so that the moulds can be used again without delay requires a concrete
that sets quickly. Once a compressive strength of about 5 N/mm2 has been reached, the
skin of cement laitance on the surface is no longer pulled off during demoulding.
But higher strengths are usually necessary for lifting the elements out of their moulds and
storing them until curing. For example, transport fixings require a certain concrete
strength. The safe working loads for such fixings are specified for a compressive strength
of 15 N/mm2 (see also DIN 1045- 4). If such a strength cannot be guaranteed, then the
safe working loads must be reduced accordingly, or the anchor embedment depth in-
creased.
4.2 Types of concrete in precast concrete construction 221
Higher compressive strengths are required for components that must be prestressed (see
section 4.4.2). DIN 1045-1 prescribes the permissible bond stresses for anchorages de-
pending on the compressive strength of the concrete at the time of prestressing.
Particularly lightweight concretes such as foamed concrete (see section 4.2.4) represent
an exception here because they exhibit much lower strengths than other types of concrete.
Their compressive strength depends primarily on their density and for the types used for
reinforced concrete, i.e. density i 1.5 kg/dm3, is about 3 N/mm2 after one day, 9 N/mm2
after seven days [268].
The early strength requirement derived from the needs of production is so high that the
final strength necessary for structural and constructional reasons is in most cases guaran-
teed. Concrete grade C35/45 or C45/55 is used as a rule. It is therefore mostly the strength
needed at the time of demoulding that governs the concrete mix, not the final strength.
Manufacturers therefore use rapid-hardening cements (42.5 R or 52.5 R), reduce the
water-cement ratio by using a high cement content (350 kg/m3 and more) or a plasticiser,
work with a stiff consistency (sometimes so-called earth-moist), or – but rarely – add an
accelerator.
The plasticisers available today enable the production of concretes with very low water-
cement ratios (w/c 0.25– 0.35), which means that concrete strengths up to grade C70/85
are readily possible. These high-strength concretes had already been in use in precast con-
crete construction for a number of years – albeit not taken into account in structural ana-
lyses – before they were included in DIN 1045-1. Silica fume must be added (preferably
in the form of a suspension) to achieve strengths up to grade C80/95. The silica fume
brings about a further increase in strength of approx. 20 %, but no increase in the elastic
modulus, and more early shrinkage. The latter can cause shrinkage cracks in the new con-
crete component. Careful curing is therefore vital. Curing times for high-strength con-
cretes should be approx. 1–2 days longer than normal-strength concretes. Water loss
must be prevented, indeed, water may even need to be added during curing.
The mechanical properties of high-strength concretes cannot be deduced from the proper-
ties of normal-strength concretes by linear extrapolation because high-strength concretes
are far more brittle. Fibres, mostly steel fibres, can be added to high-strength concrete in
order to improve its deformation capacity. Besides a lower ductility, high-strength con-
222 4 Factory production
cretes also exhibit a lower fire resistance, or rather in the event of a fire the concrete cover
spalls off earlier [301]. The DAfStb directive on high-strength concrete calls for mesh re-
inforcement within the concrete cover in order to prevent losing the entire concrete cover
and exposing the longitudinal reinforcing bars. Polypropylene fibres (approx. 2–3 kg per
1 m3 concrete) are steadily replacing the mesh reinforcement. These fibres melt as the
temperature rises and the ensuing voids reduce the water vapour pressure which would
otherwise lead to the undesirable, abrupt loss of the concrete cover. Very high cement
contents were sometimes used in the early years of these developments, which led to a
dough-like consistency and the need for intensive mixing; the sensitivities of the con-
crete, excessively early setting, etc. were relatively high. Replacing part of the cement
by pulverised fuel ash (PFA) has a good effect on consistency and workability. These
days, the workability of high-strength concrete is very similar to that of normal-strength
concrete, but intensive compaction is especially important, and the intensity of compac-
tion must be increased. Currently, high-strength concrete is mainly used for components
in compression [106, 299, 300]. Ref. [292] contains an extensive bibliography on this
subject.
Reducing the w/c ratio, or the water/binder ratio, further has resulted in the development
of ultra-high-strength concrete. The cement content is approx. 600 –1000 kg/m3, with mi-
crosilica contents of 250 kg/m3. The binder content is approx. 500 kg/m3 and is roughly
double that of normal-strength concrete. Ultra-high-strength concretes are generally pro-
duced with an aggregate size of max. 2 mm. Heat treatment increases the strength of the
concrete even further. For example, strengths of up to 200 N/mm2 can be achieved by cur-
ing at temperatures of up to 90 hC, and up to 800 N/mm2 with temperatures of up to
400 hC. All the details given above regarding the properties of high-strength concrete ap-
ply to ultra-high-strength concrete even more so.
Ultra-high-strength concrete is frequently referred to as ultra-high-performance concrete
(UHPC) because it is extremely durable as well as being extremely strong [302]. Its very
dense microstructure results in extremely good resistance and in that respect UHPC is
particularly useful for drainage installations with high acid contents. In addition, an at-
tempt is being made to exploit the high compressive strengths for prestressed components
[303] as well as compression members [304]. The aim of some developments is to mini-
mise the steel reinforcement in the concrete, indeed, even eliminate it completely! The
first applications, each completed with an Individual Approval, have already been built,
e.g. the Gärtnerplatz Bridge in Kassel, Germany. Fig. 4.8 shows the ultra-high-strength
concrete being poured into the mould to produce the bridge deck.
Ultra-high-strength concrete has already been used in France and Canada, where it is mar-
keted by Lafarge under the trade name DUCTAL. The first footbridges in Canada and Ja-
pan have now been joined by unreinforced façade panels (see also section 2.4.5).
4.2 Types of concrete in precast concrete construction 223
Fig. 4.8 Bridge deck made from ultra-high-strength concrete: (a) production, (b) erection (ELO)
Fig. 4.9 Bridge deck made from self-compacting concrete: (a) concreting,
(b) finished surface of deck (Züblin)
Fig. 4.10 Lightweight noise barrier made from textile-reinforced concrete (Züblin)
(a) Textile-reinforced sandwich element; (b) Finished noise barrier
i.e. they are not primary loadbearing elements and so must be used in conjunction with
structural steelwork or in situ concrete. Their low self-weight and the diverse architec-
tural design options mean that they can be used for refurbishment work and for adding ex-
tra storeys to existing buildings. All the surface finishes possible with conventionally re-
inforced precast concrete components can be used. The method of production is, how-
ever, similar to that of a synthetic material (GFRP).
Synthetic fibres are also becoming important as well as steel fibres – and in Germany, too.
One main problem with their use is their lack of durability in the concrete in many in-
stances. However, this does not apply to polypropylene fibres, which are highly alkali-re-
sistant. As mentioned above, these fibres are therefore used for improving the behaviour
of high-strength concretes in fire. Another significant development is the use of textile-
reinforced concrete, which is explained in more detail in section 2.4.5. The textile reinfor-
cement is based on developments with short glass fibres and makes use of alkali-resistant
types of glass as well as carbon or synthetic materials (polypropylene) for producing
yarns which are then made into woven fabrics or braiding. We have already witnessed
the first applications, carried out with Individual Approvals. One example is the develop-
ment of a lightweight noise barrier by Züblin. This is a sandwich element measuring 66 q
530 cm and consisting of 10 –15 mm thick textile-reinforced concrete facings and a
mineral wool core (Fig. 4.10). The reader is also referred to the DBV leaflet on glass fi-
bre-reinforced concrete (in German only).
If the concrete surface is not treated or worked in any way after demoulding, then it is the
outermost layer of the concrete, the cement laitance, that is solely responsible for the ap-
pearance of the concrete. The properties of the coarse aggregate are then irrelevant and
only the constituents of the cement paste – sand, cement and water – need to be chosen
to suit the requirements. A high water-cement ratio produces a light-coloured surface.
The colour depends on the type of cement (blastfurnace cement w light grey, white ce-
ment w off white, oil shale cement w brownish) and the colour of the sand. It can also
be varied by adding pigments.
Synthetic inorganic pigments, especially iron oxide pigments in the three primary colours
red, black and yellow, are mostly used for colouring concrete [269]. Brown colours can be
produced by mixing the primary colours. Chromium oxide green is used for producing
shades of green, titanium dioxide for shades of white. Cobalt blue is available as a blue
pigment, which, however, like chromium oxide, is very expensive. The pigments are
available in powder, liquid (i.e. slurry) or granulated form [284]. Organic pigments,
like those used for producing lacquers, are useless for concrete because of their poor
light-fastness and because they would be decomposed by the alkaline concrete. Carbon
black, which is frequently used for producing very dark concrete bricks and blocks, fades
in sunlight and so a permanent colouring cannot be guaranteed. However, the mineral
pigments iron oxide (for shades of yellow, red, brown and black) and chromium oxide
(for blues and greens) are light-fast and alkali-resistant. The use of white cement results
in more vivid colours with a lower pigment content, e.g. only a tenth of that needed
with grey cement. It should be remembered that the subsequent lime secretions on the sur-
face of the concrete (efflorescence), which are normally washed away by the rain after a
few years, are more noticeable on darker surfaces. This effect is caused by the migration
of the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the pore water from the interior of the concrete to
the surface. There, the deposits combine rapidly with the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air
to form limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) which is not readily soluble in water and
therefore creates light-coloured patches or streaks on the concrete [270]. The application
of a water-repellent coating can reduce these blemishes (see section 4.3.3). Structured
surfaces or segmented components are the best solutions for disguising irregularities in
the surface roughness and colour of the concrete surface or efflorescence (see section
2.4.2). Research findings on the subject of efflorescence are summarised in [285].
The colour of the cement paste also determines the appearance of concrete components
with finely brushed and washed or sandblasted surfaces (see section 4.3.2). However,
some of the coarse aggregate, the gravel or chippings, is exposed by this treatment and
the result is a surface reminiscent to the fracture surfaces of sedimentary rocks. A con-
crete mix with a constant grading curve [271], and in some circumstances selected coarse
aggregates, is best for such a finish.
Where the aggregate is exposed to a greater depth, the typical exposed aggregate look,
then it is primarily the coarse aggregate that determines the appearance. Gravel or chip-
pings with a certain colouring and size are then necessary and should account for 50 –
60 % of the aggregate with gap grading (e.g. 2–8 mm). The colour of the exposed gravel
or chippings can be emphasized by using white cement or by adding a pigment to the bin-
4.3 Producing the concrete in the factory 227
der. White cement should be used with a whitish aggregate, appropriate pigments added
to the cement matrix for coloured aggregates. Efflorescence is less visible on exposed ag-
gregate surfaces with a coloured aggregate than is the case with finely brushed and
washed or unworked concrete surfaces.
Types of concrete with expensive coloured aggregates can be used purely as a thin facing
layer in order to reduce the cost of materials. Of course, this solution can only be used in
conjunction with horizontal precasting. A concrete distributor with an appropriately fine
distribution will be needed.
The coarse aggregate must be firmly anchored in the cement matrix if the hardened con-
crete is to be worked with stonemason’s tools afterwards (see section 4.3.2). A strong
concrete with a constant grading curve is best for such finishes.
Concrete for profiled moulds (e.g. ribs or textures) is generally the same as that used for
the normal loadbearing concrete. Only in the case of narrow profiles is it necessary to re-
duce the maximum size of the aggregate accordingly.
Hardening the concrete at a high temperature (e.g. above 30 hC) increases the amount of
the reaction products of the cement, which boost the early strength, but reduces the num-
ber of cement bonds contributing to the final strength. Heat-treated concrete components
therefore exhibit a lower final strength than components made from an identical concrete
mix but stored in cool conditions. This effect is enhanced if the components are not stored
until they have set before starting the heat treatment [311]. Curve a in Fig. 4.11 shows the
ideal progress of heat treatment [312]. According to this, a total storage time of about 10
hours is necessary.
This is usually too long for practical operations. Indeed, the heat treatment is intended to
speed up the work! A short period of heat treatment is therefore generally employed: Fig.
4.11 curve b and – with preheating of the wet concrete – curve c [315]. New studies have
confirmed, however, that the durability of the concrete components can suffer in severe
weather conditions [316]. Mind you, these studies were carried out after damage had
been discovered on outdoor horizontal railway sleepers, which apart from the consider-
able dynamic loads were also exposed to moisture and frost effects that would never af-
fect vertical façade elements or interior components.
Curing the concrete also includes the cooling phase. Moisture treatments improve the
density of the concrete surface and hence its resistance to penetration by carbon dioxide
and pollutants, also water, which at the same time increases the resistance to frost and
abrasion. Curing must be carried out according to the corresponding DAfStb directive.
However, it is rare for a moisture treatment to be completed because delivery deadlines,
lack of storage space or “overbooked” lifting equipment make this impossible.
A curing membrane is sometimes sprayed onto the wet or fresh concrete. Before using
this method, however, it is important to clarify whether paint is to be applied to the con-
crete surface at a later date because the membrane impairs the bond of water-based disper-
sion paints. A suitable curing membrane will then be required, e.g. a finally dispersed ac-
rylic dispersion, which is compatible with a solvent-based coating [317].
It is certainly the case that the curing of external components influences the durability of
the components just as much as, for example, the concrete mix [318]. Clients who require
more extensive curing measures than those described in the DAfStb directive – depend-
ing on the influences to which the finished component will be exposed – must define
these as separate items in the specification. The ongoing development of precast concrete
component manufacture should therefore also consider the organisation and provision of
the facilities required for curing such elements.
pending on the type of retarder and the coating thickness, enabling the cement laitance to
be removed with a brush and jet of water once the concrete in the core of the component
has hardened to such an extent that it can be removed from the mould. With some sub-
stances the concrete surface begins to harden as soon as the component is removed
from the mould and comes in contact with the air, but others only after they are struck
by the jet of water and the substance is diluted by the water, and with yet others the hydra-
tion of the cement is practically permanently inhibited.
Sandblasting [319] of the previously hardened concrete surface achieves a similar appear-
ance to light water-jetting but the surface of the exposed grains of aggregate are some-
what roughened by this technique and they lose their natural shine. This is of course
not important with angular grains of coarse aggregate with naturally rough surfaces.
Sandblasting requires adequate protective measures to protect the surroundings against
dust, e.g. sandblasting tents. Quartz sand is still used for sandblasting concrete (in con-
4.3 Producing the concrete in the factory 231
trast to metals) because the abraded concrete itself contains the quartz sand substances
that are harmful to the lungs. Washing the surface with acid has largely been replaced
by surface retarder methods for health reasons [320]. The surface of the hardened con-
crete can be worked in other ways: flame cleaning [321] or mechanical stonemason meth-
ods such as bush-hammering, scabbling, grinding, etc. (see DIN 18500 “Cast stones”).
What all these methods have in common is that they split the exposed grains of aggregate
and allow these fractured surfaces with their strong natural colours to dominate the ap-
pearance. However, such techniques are very labour-intensive and are only used on spe-
cial projects. Apart from grinding, they cause minor cracks in the remaining surface
which afterwards should be sealed with a hydrophobic substance. Grinding can be used
to create very high-class façades as good as natural stone. Large-format precast concrete
façades require bulky and expensive grinding plant, however. Ref. [323] describes one
new method of production for façade elements.
A less expensive variation on the stonemason-like working of the surface is achieved by
casting the concrete with ribs and subsequently breaking off the ribs with a suitable ham-
mer. The fractured surfaces are coarser than with bush-hammering. Fig. 4.13 shows ex-
amples of finished surface structures.
ker and more vivid colouring, an effect that is particularly beneficial when using coloured
concrete. Rain can wash off deposits of dust and dirt more easily from a surface treated in
this way.
Coating the surface with solutions or dispersions to which pigments have been added has
an even stronger effect on the appearance of the concrete. Such coatings are known as
sealants when applied as a very thin film (up to 0.3 mm). These contain just enough pig-
ment to change the colour of the concrete but not conceal its texture, i.e. they are like a
glaze finish. They can be used to compensate for fluctuations in the natural colour of
the concrete surface and at the same time provide protection. The structure of the concrete
surface remains visible.
Opaque paints for concrete are about twice as thick and are available in a vast range of
colours. They are mainly in the form of dispersions. The water vapour permeability be-
comes more important as the thickness of the coating increases, and the permeability of
dispersions is greater than that of solutions with the same coating thickness.
As mentioned in section 4.2.5, pigments for exterior paints should be alkali- and UV-re-
sistant. These are generally pure mineral pigments, some of which are obtained from rare
earths. Unlike when mixing different paints to obtain a certain shade, the colour from one
batch to another cannot be kept identical when manufacturing colourants with pure pig-
ments and so whenever possible only paints from the same batch should be used for a pro-
ject in order to avoid discrepancies.
Organic pigments, which are suitable for coating timber and metal, do not have the neces-
sary alkali resistance. Coatings in bold colours are possible, but there is a risk that they
will heat up to a greater extent than more muted colours and expose the components to
more extreme temperatures, which in turn can lead to higher vapour pressures. Such
bold colours should therefore be restricted to smaller areas only or be applied in the
form of stripes.
Far fewer demands are placed on coating materials for interior components because they
do not need to be UV-resistant and in most cases can be renewed without the need for ex-
tensive scaffolding. And indoors the water vapour permeability is less important than
with external components. The coating materials for interior use are therefore corre-
spondingly cheaper. Precast concrete components should not be painted until they have
been installed in order to avoid soiling and damage during transport, storage and erection.
Paints are not the only finishes possible; plaster, render and stone or ceramic tile finishes
can also be completed in the precasting plant (Fig. 4.14). Such finishes always call for
especially careful handling during transport and erection. If such finishes are not attached
until after erection, they can be adapted to suit the actual as-built dimensions that result
from the inaccuracies during construction, and also cover up minor damage. When at-
taching tiles or similar finishes to the finished precast concrete components, it is impor-
tant to check that the adhesive is compatible with the release agent and will remain perma-
nently elastic in order to prevent damage caused by the different thermal expansion beha-
viour of the materials either side of the adhesive joint. Panels of tiles should be kept sui-
tably small, separated by permanently elastic joints.
Cast-in parts
Min. values for bending roller diameter dbr (reinforcing bar types III + IV)
ds link
cside
clink clink
ds < 20 mm : dbr 1 = 4 ds cside > 5 cm & > 3 ds : dbr 2 = 15 ds
ds ≥ 20 mm : dbr 1 = 7 ds cside ≤ 5 cm or ≤ 3 ds : dbr 2 = 20 ds
Special dimensional tolerances (where different from DIN 18202 and DIN 18203)
Surface finish
Mould rough Chamfers, x = _____ cm
Trowelled Exposed aggregate, type ___ / colour ___
Rubbed Worked finish, type ___ / colour ___
Floated Rough for concrete topping
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
In- Date Name Revision In- Date Client Checked Production Erection _____
dex dex
Concrete strength class B____ ____ m3 LB____ ____ m3
B____ ____ m3 Density class ________
Compressive strength of concrete for transport ≥ ____ N/mm2
Client:
Project:
Site:
Component: Mould
Reinforcement
No. Part Weight (t) Structural No. Project No. Drawing No.
return to their original shape after demoulding and push off the outer layer of cement lai-
tance. And where there is a soft lining in the mould, which can be the case with textured
finishes for façade panels, for instance, bar spacers can press into the lining. In such situa-
tions it may be necessary to suspend all the reinforcement from cross-beams.
Precasting plants generally make use of reinforcing steel grade BSt 500 S in accordance
with DIN 488. The fact that only weldable steel is used these days is a major advantage
for precast concrete construction with its many cast-in parts for joints and connections.
Reinforcing cages for linear elements such as beams and columns are generally as-
sembled outside the mould, i.e. prefabricated, whereas the reinforcement for floor slabs
is generally fixed directly inside the mould (double-T units, precast planks, hollow-core
slabs).
Assembling the reinforcement for beams or T-beams within the mould calls for open
shear link cages to simplify the fixing of the longitudinal bars. So-called closer bars are
then fixed on top to close off the open shear links. Shear links made up into cages with
the help of welded longitudinal bars can be stacked more easily if the straight bars are
placed outside the links (Fig. 4.17) [325, 326].
Fixing the reinforcing bars directly from a coil is a technique that is already being used in
many precasting plants, especially for the smaller bar diameters (6–14 mm). There is no
wastage and the work can be carried out practically without interruption. Several dia-
meters are permanently available (Fig. 4.18). The processing costs per tonne of steel for
the small bar diameters in particular are disproportionately high when compared with
the larger diameters.
The DIBt can issue approvals for reinforcing steel in coils [327], which means that there
is nothing to stop the widespread use of this practice in Germany. The first publication by
the manufacturers and the processing plants for reinforcing steel in coils shows just how
hectic the developments are in this field [328]; the demand for reinforcing steel in coils
increased more than 10 -fold between 1985 and 1990 [331] and has probably doubled
236 4 Factory production
Fig. 4.17 Stackable shear link cages: Fig. 4.18 System for processing reinforcing bars
(a) stack of shear link cages with internal directly from coils
longitudinal bars, (b) stack of shear link
cages with external longitudinal bars
again since then. Hot-rolled ribbed steel grade S 500 WR is approved for processing di-
rectly from the coil. The same application conditions apply as for grade BSt 500 S.
Since 1986 there has also been an approval available for using “cold-worked stainless
steel ribbed reinforcing bars of grade BSt 500 NR” directly from the coil for diameters
up to 14 mm. This steel can also be welded to non-alloyed steels. Only the bond beha-
viour is relevant for the concrete cover; it is not necessary to increase this to take into ac-
count the environmental conditions. However, its high cost means that this type of steel is
used in special cases only, e.g. filigree façade elements or starter bars in highly corrosive
conditions.
Processing reinforcing steel directly from the coil for helical column reinforcement has
long since been standard for pipes, for example. This led to the development of similar
machines for making up reinforcing cages for square or octagonal columns and rectangu-
lar beams, which, for example, was used successfully for reinforcing the precast concrete
components for the University of Riyadh (Fig. 4.19).
Besides the automatic straightening and cutting machinery with which the reinforcing
bars are processed directly from the coil to form straight bars, there are also automatic
link bending machines that turn the steel into finished shear links. The straightening
and cutting machines used in precasting plants can frequently handle up to four different
diameters simultaneously and continuously [329, 330]. Problems with the direct control
of automatic bending plant are discussed in [332]. The trend seems to be towards the auto-
matic process-controlled fixing of reinforcing bars. Such systems are already available
for floor slabs, for instance (see Fig. 4.5).
In the meantime, the first fully automatic welding stations fully integrated into the pro-
duction line are appearing, too. These are used to weld bars (directly from the coil) al-
4.4 Installing the reinforcement in the factory 237
ready straightened and cut to length into planar reinforcement in the form of “just-in-time
bespoke meshes” [260].
135 kN/strand), but prestressing beds with up to 15 MN are necessary for bridge beams.
Short prestressing beds for panels and double-T units are also used, especially for flow
production systems, in which the prestressing force is braced against the stiff steel mould,
which generally requires only minimal strengthening for this.
The disadvantage of straight prestressing is that the prestressing force does not corre-
spond to the bending moment diagram of a single-span beam. It is positioned too low at
the ends of the beam and this leads to tensile stresses in the top here. One way of overcom-
ing this problem is to place some of the strands in sleeves at the ends of the beam to pre-
vent them bonding with the concrete. But if the strands are to follow the bending moment
diagram, then bent (harped) strands are unavoidable. This is carried out either once in the
middle, as was sensible with, for example, double-T units with long notches at the ends
according to Fig. 4.22, or twice, e.g. at the quarter-points of the beam (Fig. 4.23). In duo-
pitch roof beams the pitch of the top flange is used as the angle for harping the strands. In
other precast concrete components, e.g. prestressed hollow-core slabs, the only way of
solving the problem may be to include additional prestressing in the top.
The hold-down anchors for bent strands are either anchored in the base of the mould or
forced downwards hydraulically via cross-frames. Once the concrete has hardened, the
hold-down anchors are released and the openings grouted. The elastic limit (fp0.1k) of
the prestressing steel may not be exceeded at the harping points of the strands, and here
the extreme fibre stresses for strands may be calculated with half the nominal diameter.
This can lead to relatively large radii when exploiting the permissible prestressing bed
stress (0.9 fp0.1k or 0.8 fpk). The jaws in the chuck assemblies should certainly have
rounded edges and be made from a softer steel than the prestressing strands if at all
possible. Trials with seven-wire strands have revealed that with typical harping point an-
gles of up to approx. 10h, rounding diameters of 100 or 200 mm are possible (Fig. 4.24).
The pretensioning is transferred to the concrete either by releasing the jacks positioned
between the perforated plates of the anchorages and the abutments or by burning through
the strands, although the steel loses more and more of it is strength as it heats up. In the
latter method, the cutting process should be carried out so that the stresses are introduced
as symmetrically as possible in both directions. When producing prestressed hollow-core
slabs, the individual units are cut to length by sawing (see Fig. 4.3c).
Eccentrically prestressed elements have an upward camber after demoulding, when only
their self-weight is effective. Inaccuracies in the prestressing force and different elastic
moduli at the time of prestressing lead to different offset dimensions, which are often dif-
Fig. 4.22 Prestressed double-T unit with bent (harped) prestressing strands
240 4 Factory production
ficult to deal with during erection. The strength of the concrete at the time of transferring
the pretension also has a major influence on creep and shrinkage.
Prestressing bed elements are often heated to achieve the early strength necessary. The
prestressing bed stresses do not alter when tensioning against the steel mould and heating
the mould and wet concrete evenly. The situation is different in the prestressing bed with a
zero-friction mounted mould. The heat treatment normally begins after the concrete has
started to set. At this point in time the bond between the concrete and the prestressing
steel is already beginning to take effect. When the concrete and the mould expand against
the external abutments of the prestressing bed, the prestressing force is either wholly or
partly transferred to the concrete cross-section at an early stage because the thermal ex-
pansion of the element relieves the relatively short unbonded length of the prestressing
strand between end of element and anchorage. So the heat treatment may only begin after
a period of storage, during which the bond stress takes effect. Otherwise, the elongation
of the steel – and hence the prestressing bed stress – must be increased by an amount equal
to the thermal expansion. This effect does not occur when there is a friction connection
between precast concrete component and prestressing bed, as is the case with prestressed
hollow-core slabs cast in long prestressing beds.
It is important to take into account the higher relaxation losses of the prestressing steel
caused by the higher temperature during the heat treatment of the concrete. These losses
consist of, on the one hand, accelerated prestressing force losses due to relaxation and, on
the other, the thermal loss of the initial prestress (Fig. 4.26). Relaxation values are given
in the prestressing steel approval documentation.
When introducing the pretension into an eccentrically prestressed beam, there is a ten-
dency for the beam to curve upwards and support itself on its outermost bottom corners.
With notched beam ends there is then the risk that the beam has already developed cracks
in the corner of the notch by the time it is transferred to the storage yard (Fig. 4.25). This
can only be avoided by including a soft intermediate pad in the mould beneath the support
nib. Such notched beam ends with straight ends to the prestressing strands in the bottom
must be reinforced like conventionally reinforced notched beam ends (see section 2.6.2).
The main structural feature of pretensioned prestressed precast concrete components is
the direct transfer of the prestress at the ends of the component. This is achieved via the
bond between the prestressing strand and the surrounding concrete and is amplified by
the so-called Hoyer effect in which the cross-section of the strand widens because the
prestress decreases towards the end of the component and thus increases the lateral com-
pression on the prestressing strand [147]. The various bonding properties of the prestres-
sing wires must be considered here. The pretension must be applied at a very early stage
in order to avoid delaying the demoulding of the precast concrete component. The per-
missible bond stresses based on the concrete strength according to DIN 1045-1 Table 7
must always be taken into account in the analysis of the prestressing force transfer. If
no cracks occur in the concrete cross-section within the calculated transfer length for
the prestressing force, then further analyses are unnecessary. This is normally the case.
If, however, only a minimal prestress is desired and the amount of conventional reinfor-
cement is increased, then coping with the tensile force by way of reduced bond stresses
must be checked [338–340, 346].
The results of the first studies into the use of self-compacting concrete in conjunction
with prestressed components are now available; the studies are ongoing [341]. The tests
did not reveal any significant differences between self-compacting and normal-weight
concrete, which means that in the future we can expect to see self-compacting concrete
being used in prestressed concrete construction as well.
Tensile forces, as well as bond stresses, occur in the concrete due to the spread of the load
in the prestressing force transfer zone. We must distinguish between bursting, tensile
splitting and end face tension effects [337]. In roof beams and double-T floor units, the
resulting tensile stresses are handled by shear links. In prestressed hollow-core slabs
the special production process precludes the use of shear links. In this case adequate con-
crete cover in conjunction with a high concrete strength, which is achieved with extru-
sion, enable the tensile strength of the concrete to be exploited to resist these tensile
forces with an adequate factor of safety. For this reason, elements without conventional
reinforcement which are pretensioned in the prestressing bed require calculations for
bending failure and flexure-shear failure plus an analysis of shear-tension failure, i.e. a
limit to the inclined primary tensile stresses in the zone without bending cracks and an
analysis of the anchorage capacity.
Many tests on prestressed precast concrete floor slabs have revealed that the shear-tension
capacity is always more significant than the flexure-shear failure in such elements [348].
The National Technical Approvals for prestressed precast concrete floor slabs include the
appropriate analyses.
Satisfying the requirements placed on the product “precast concrete component” is the
topmost priority of any precast concrete manufacturer.
Defining the quality of a product right from the very start is gradually becoming an intrin-
sic element in a quality management system based on the DIN EN ISO 9000 set of stan-
dards, which these days is normal for the management systems of manufacturers. The
quality management system controls all the steps in the processes surrounding a precast
concrete component, from receiving the order to providing after-sales services for com-
ponents already delivered and in use.
The quality control measures performed on the precast concrete component itself are only
part of a set of diverse activities. The measures ensure, in the form of conformity checks,
that the requirements placed on the manufacturer, the method of production and the con-
4.5 Quality control 243
crete produced are in compliance with the various regulations (DIN EN 206-1, DIN 1045
parts 1– 4, DIN 1048-5, DIN EN 12350 parts 1–7, DIN EN 12390 parts 1– 4, etc.).
Conformity checks take place at the levels of production control and monitoring.
Production control looks at internal procedures. The manufacturer’s own quality control
is the prime focus here, which is recorded, e.g. in the factory production control manual,
according to defined tests and inspections.
Different requirements are placed on the monitoring and certification of precast concrete
components depending on the intended usage of the component and the requirements
placed on it by the building authorities (see Construction Products List A, B or C). In Ger-
many the monitoring takes place in accordance with the quality assurance associations of
the federal states, which are approved by the supreme building authority. The results of
the monitoring visits every six months are recorded in test certificates and monitoring re-
ports. According to the building authority status of the precast concrete components, this
“external monitoring” is expressed in the following ways:
– product certificate (P) (no building authority requirements),
– conformity certificate () (for applications covered by building authority require-
ments – see Construction Products List A), or
– certificate covering factory production control (2S) (prescribed by European Con-
struction Products Directive).
Quality control is carried out according to DIN 1045, which distinguishes between con-
crete categories 1 and 2. Category 1 covers concretes for secondary purposes, the moni-
toring of which is carried out by the manufacturer only. Concretes belonging to category
2 may only be produced under the control of a concrete specialist, e.g. “E certificate”. The
production control is carried out by the manufacturer and covers the following areas:
– Selection of raw materials
– Concrete mix design
– Production of concrete using materials subjected to QA measures (e.g. to DIN EN
206-1),
– Factory production control (DIN 1045- 4)
– Checks on the finished product
The production control is monitored and certified at regular intervals by the aforemen-
tioned monitoring bodies. A German conformity mark () on the delivery document
for a precast concrete component indicates to the recipient that the precasting plant sup-
plying that component is subjected to external monitoring and complies with require-
ments placed on its manufacturing operations.
5 References
[1] Gaede, K.: Fertigteile aus Beton und Stahlbeton. Beton-Kalender 1958, Teil II, pp. 271–291.
[2] Beck, H., Schack, R.: Bauen mit Beton- und Stahlbetonfertigteilen. Beton-Kalender 1972, Teil II,
pp. 159–256.
[3] Paschen, H.: Das Bauen mit Beton-, Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonfertigteilen. Beton-Kalender 75/82, Teil
II, pp. 575–745 75/82, Teil II, pp. 533–696.
[4] Koncz, T.: Handbuch der Fertigteilbauweise. Bauverlag, Wiesbaden, 1973, vol. 1/73, vol. 2/67, vol. 3/70.
[5] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau: Betonfertigteile für den Wohnungsbau.
Verlag Bau S Technik, Düsseldorf, 2002.
[6] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau: Betonfertigteile im Geschoss- und Hallenbau
(Verlag Bau S Technik GmbH, Düsseldorf, new edition 2009).
[7] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau: Fassaden – Architektur und Konstruktion mit
Betonfertigteilen. Verlag Bau S Technik, Düsseldorf, 2000.
[8] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau: Ausbaudetails – Entwurfshilfen für den Fertigteilbau.
Verlag Bau S Technik, Düsseldorf, 2002.
[9] Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch. Bauverlag, Wiesbaden, published annually.
[10] Hahn, V.: Systembau aus Stahlbetonfertigteilen und Zusammenarbeit mit dem Architekten. Presentation,
Betontag 1973.
[11] Hahn, V.: Hat Industrialisierung im Bauwesen noch eine Chance? Der Architekt 1983, No. 10.
[12] Berufsförderwerk für die Beton- und Fertigteilhersteller. Handbuch: Betonfertigteile, Betonwerkstein,
Terrazzo. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1991.
[13] Bindseil, P.: Stahlbetonfertigteile. Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1991.
[14] Bruggeling A. S. G., Huyghe G. F.: Prefabrication with Concrete. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1991.
[15] Kotulla, Urlau-Clever: Industrielles Bauen – Fertigteile. expert verlag, 1987.
[16] Cziesielski et al.: Lehrbuch der Hochbaukonstruktionen. Teubner, Stuttgart, 1991.
[17] Meyer-Bohe, W.: Geschichte der Vorfertigung. Zentralblatt für Industriebau 1972, No. 5, pp. 186–191.
[18] Kühn, G., Göring, A., Beitzel, H.: Neue Technologien für die Baustellen der Zukunft, Band I: Hochbau.
Federal Ministry for Regional & Urban Planning, 1976, No. 04.018.
[19] Rausch, H.: 10. Deutscher Fertigbautag – Rückblick und Ausblick. BMT Fertigbau 1985, No. 11,
pp. 420-426.
[20] Junghanns K.: Das Haus für alle. Zur Geschichte der Vorfertigung in Deutschland. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin
1994.
[21] Breitschaft, G.: Harmonisierung technischer Regeln für das Bauwesen in Europa. Beton-Kalender 1994,
Teil II, pp. 1–17.
[22] DIN: Bauen in Europa, Beton, Stahlbeton, Spannbeton. Beuth Verlag, Berlin 1992.
[23] Litzner, H.-U.: Grundlagen der Bemessung nach EC2, Vergleich mit DIN 1045 und DIN 4227.
Beton-Kalender 1994, Teil I, pp. 671–864.
[24] Kordina, K. et al.: Bemessungshilfsmittel zu EC 2 – Teil 1, Planung von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetontrag-
werken. DAfStb No. 425, 1992, 2nd ed..
[25] DBV: Beispiele zur Bemessung nach Eurocode 2. Bauverlag, Wiesbaden, 1994.
[26] Meyer, H.-G.: Europäische Normen für Beton-Herstellung und Verarbeitung. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik 1993, No. 8, pp. 67–72.
[27] Schießl, P.: Europäische Normen für Betonstahl und Spannstahl und europäische Regelungen für
Spannverfahren. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 9, pp. 64–72.
[28] Mönnig, F.: Anwendungsregeln und Normen für Hohlplatten in Deutschland und Europa. Vortrag,
Stuttgart, 1993.
[29] Leitfaden für die CE Kennzeichnung von konstruktiven Fertigteilen. Fachvereinigung Deutscher Beton-
fertigteilbau e.V., 2007.
[30] Springborn, M.: Inverkehrbringen und Verwendung von Bauprodukten – die Bauproduktenrichtlinie und
ihre Umsetzung. DIBt-Mitteilungen 1/2007.
[31] Schwerm, D.: Die europäischen Produktnormen für das Bauen mit Fertigteilen – praktische Umsetzung.
Beton Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2008.
[32] Furche, J.: Neue Regelungen für den Fertigteilbau – Produktnormen für Elementdecken und andere Bau-
teile mit Gitterträgern, 52nd Betontage 2008, pp. 98–99.
[33] Stengler, W.: Planungs- und Konstruktionsgrundsätze. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik, Fertigteilforum
1979, No. 2–4 & 8.
[34] Polonyi, S.: Konstruktionsirrtümer. Bauwelt 1978, No. 23, pp. 869–873.
[35] Kerschkamp, F., Portmann, D.: Allgemeine Grundsätze zur Maßkoordinierung im Bauwesen. DIN 18000
report, NA Bau 1988.
[36] Toleranzen im Hochbau nach DIN 18202, pub. by ZDB, 2007.
[37] Ertl. R.: Toleranzen im Hochbau, 2nd, updated & revised edition. Rudolf Müller Verlag, Cologne, 2008.
[38] FDB leaflet No. 6: Passungsberechnungen und Toleranzen von Einbauteilen und Verbindungsmitteln,
2006.
[39] Tiltmann, K. O.: Was kostet die Genauigkeit im Betonfertigteilbau? Baugewerbe 1977, No. 5, pp. 21–26.
[40] Tiltmann, K. O.: Toleranzen bei Stahlbetonfertigteilen. Müller Verl.-Ges., 1977.
[41] Paschen, H., Sack, W.-M.: Maßtoleranzen und Passungsberechnung im Stahlbetonskelett-Fertigteilbau.
Bauverlag, Wiesbaden, 1980.
[42] Paschen, H.: Bewertung und Behandlung von Maßtoleranzen im Fertigteilbau. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik 1981, No. 10, pp. 1–13.
[43] Ostheimer, H.: Einführung in das Genehmigungs- und Erlaubnisverfahren im Transportbereich. Kaisser
Verlag, Salach, 1981.
[44] Hahn, H., Sack, M., Steinle, A.: ZBLIN-HAUS. Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1985.
[45] Kordina, K., Meyer-Ottens, C: Beton Brandschutz Handbuch, 2nd ed. Verlag Bau S Technik, 1999.
[46] Seiler, H.: Brandschutz im Industriebau. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1983.
[47] Kordina, K., Richter, E.: Zur brandschutztechnischen Bemessung vorgespannter Fertigteile. Betonwerk
S Fertigteil-Technik 1984, No. 8, pp. 540–546.
[48] Hasenkrüger, E.: Bauen mit Betonfertigteilen – Lösung eines Transportproblems. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1991, No. 10, pp. 45–50.
[49] Hosser, D., Richter, E.: Brandschutzbemessung von Stahlbetonstützen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
2007, pp. 109–113.
[50] König, G., Liphardt, S.: Hochhäuser aus Stahlbeton. Beton-Kalender 2003, Teil 1, pp. 1–66.
[51] Hock, B., Schäfer, K., Schlaich, J.: Fugen und Aussteifungen in Stahlbetonskelettbauten. DAfSt, No. 368,
1986.
[52] Schlaich, J., Schober, H.: Fugen im Hochbau – wann und wo? Der Architekt 1976, No. 4.
[53] Boll, K.: Anordnung von Dehnfugen bei tragenden Skeletten des Hochbaus. Die Bautechnik 1974, No. 3,
pp. 94–98.
[54] Stoffregen, U., König, G.: Schiefstellung von Stützen in vorgefertigten Skelettbauten. Beton- und Stahl-
betonbau 1979, No. l, pp. 1–5.
[55] Mann, W.: Erdbebenbeanspruchung von Tragwerken und Auswirkung auf Fertigteilkonstruktionen.
Fertigteilforum 1981, No. 11, pp. 9–14.
[56] Eibl, J., Häussler-Combe, U.: Baudynamik. Beton-Kalender 1997, Teil 2, pp. 755ff.
[57] Bachmann, H.: Erdbebensicherung von Bauwerken, 2nd ed. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 2002.
References 247
[58] Schäfer, H.: Die Berechnung von Hochhäusern als räumlicher Verband von Scheiben, Kernen und
Rahmen. Dissertation, Darmstadt TH, 1969.
[59] Beck, H., Schäfer, H.: Die Berechnung von Hochhäusern durch Zusammenfassung aller aussteifenden
Bauteile zu einem Balken. Bauingenieur 1969, No. 3, pp. 80–87.
[60] Schrefler, B.: Zur Berechnung aussteifender Systeme allgemeiner Art von Hochhäusern. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 1971, No. 9, pp. 145–153.
[61] Johannsen. K.: Berechnung der Aussteifungssysteme von Geschoßbauten mit Trägerrostprogrammen.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1976. No. 2, pp. 47–50.
[62] Rosman, R.: Die statische Berechnung von Hochhauswänden mit ffnungsreihen.
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 1965.
[63] Sassenberg, H.: Riegelbiegesteifigkeit in gegliederten Scheiben. Bauingenieur 1982, No. l, pp. 17–18.
[64] Becker, G.: Die Berechnung gegliederter Hohlkästen. Dissertation, Darmstadt TH, 1974.
[65] Franzmann, G., Liphardt, S.: Programm HAUS Benutzerhandbuch. KfK-CAD report, Kernforschungs-
zentrum Karlsruhe GmbH.
[66] Leonhardt, F., Cziesielski, E.: Beitrag zur Berechnung von Wänden des Großtafelbaus. Die Bautechnik
1967, No. 9, pp. 314–316.
[67] Schwing, H. :Wand- und Deckenscheiben aus Fertigteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1980, No. 5,
pp. 296–301; No. 6, pp. 375–382.
[68] Lachmann, H.: Der Einfluß von Fundamentverdrehungen auf die Stabilität (“Labilitätszahl”) von Hoch-
bauten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1983, No. 8, pp. 216–217.
[69] Brandt, B.: Zur Beurteilung der Gebäudestabilität nach DIN 1045. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1976, No. 7,
pp. 177–178.
[70] Brandt, B., Schwing, H.: Kriterien zur Vernachlässigung des Windnachweises. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
1977, No. 3, pp. 53–59.
[71] Kordina, K., Quast, U.: Bemessung von schlanken Bauteilen, Knicksicherheitsnachweis. Beton-Kalender
1994, Teil I, pp. 493–587.
[72] Graubner, C. A., Scholz, U.: Zum Knicksicherheitsnachweis schlanker Stahlbetondruckglieder mit
Knicklängenbeiwert b i 2. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1986, No. 8, pp. 217–220.
[73] Mehlhorn, G., Schwing, H.: Tragverhalten von aus Fertigteilen zusammengesetzten Scheiben. Research
report, Institute for Solid Construction, Darmstadt TH, 1976, No. 33.
[74] Stupre Study Group for Building with Precast Concrete Components, Netherlands. Kraftschlüssige
Verbindungen im Fertigteilbau, Deckenverbindungen. Beton-Verlag, 1981.
[75] Schlaich, J, Schäfer, K.: Konstruieren im Stahlbetonbau. Beton-Kalender 2001, Teil II, pp. 311ff.
[76] Mehlhorn, G., Schwing, H., Klein, D.: Deckenscheiben aus Bimsbetonhohldielen. Beton- und Stahl-
betonbau 1976, No. 6, pp. 142–148.
[77] Stöffler, J., Abraham, R.: Aussteifung von Industriebauten mit vorgefertigten Scheiben. Betonwerk S
Fertigteil-Technik 1983, No. 13, pp. 5–10.
[78] Kreitmann, E., Thoma, F.,Wolff, R.: Neubau eines Gebäudes für eine Papier- und Streichmaschine in
Hagen-Kabel. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1982, No. l, pp. 23–27.
[79] Schulz, W., Kaufmann, K.-G.: Bau einer Papiermaschinenhalle. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1983, No. 2,
pp. 40–44.
[80] Fischer, G.: Entwurf und Konstruktion von Hallen für Papierfabrikationsanlagen. Beton S Fertigteil-
Technik 1989, No. 5, pp. 57–63.
[81] Avramidis, I. E.: Zur Kritik des äquivalenten Rahmenmodells für Wandscheiben und Hochhauskerne.
Bautechnik 1991, No. 8, pp. 275–285.
[82] Hogeslag, A. J., Stramm, J. P.: Discrete Connections. FIP Symposium, Budapest, 1992, pp. 505–513.
[83] Koncz, T.: Ein Vierteljahrhundert Planung und Ausführung konstruktiver Bauteile. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1985, No. 9, pp. 600–609.
248 5 References
[84] Rösel, W., Stöffler, J.: Beton-Fertigteile im Skelettbau. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 1984, pp. 30–65.
[85] Schmalhofer, O.: Planerische und statischkonstruktive Grundlagen für das Bauen mit Stahlbetonfertig-
teilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1982, No. 12, pp. 2–6.
[86] Grüneis, H.: Betonfertigteile als konstruktive und gestalterische Elemente. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik. fertigteilforum 1987, No. 19, pp. 8–12.
[87] Schwerm, D.: Bauen mit Stahlbetonfertigteilen. BBauBl 1982, No. 12, pp. 851–857.
[88] Steinle, A.: Maßkonfektion für Geschoßbauten. Beispiele von Industriebauten im 6M-System. Züblin-
Rundschau 1976, No. 7/8, pp. 9–12.
[89] van Acker, A.: Bemessung von Spannbeton-Hohlplatten und Plattendecken. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik 1986, No. l, pp. 35–38.
[90] FIP: Design of Multistorey Precast Concrete Structures. FIP Recommendations, Thomas Telford,
London, 1986.
[91] Landauer, B., Hiller, M.: Herstellung von Stahlbetonfertigteilen für die King-Saud-Universität in
Riyadh/Saudi Arabien. Züblin-Rundschau 1982, No. 14, pp. 20–25.
[92] Steinle, A.: CAD/CAM im Massivbau-Rechnerunterstützung bei Planung und Herstellung der Stahl-
betonfertigteile für die Universität Riyadh. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1983, No. 7, pp. 190–196.
[93] Rudersdorf, F. A.: Schleuderbeton-Rundstützen, Gestaltungselemente für die Architektur als vorgefer-
tigtes Bauteil höchster Qualität. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1989, No. 12, pp. 38–43.
[94] Stahlbeton-Hohlplatten nach DIN 1045-1. DIBt-Mitteilungen 36 (2005), No. 3.
[95] Schnell J., Ackermann F., Nitsch A.: Tragfähigkeit von Spannbeton-Fertigdecken auf biegeweichen
Auflagern. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 102 (2007), No. 7, pp. 456ff.
[95-1] Hegger, J.: Bemessung und Konstruktion von vorgespannten Decken im Hochbau. Der Prüfingenieur,
Oct 2003.
[96] Schießl, P.: MONTAQUICK – Entwicklung und Anwendung einer montagesteifen Fertigplatte.
Betonwerk S Fertigteiltechnik 1981, No. 4, pp. 214–216, No. 5, pp. 291–296.
[97] Hahn, V., Steinle, A.: 6 M-System. Bauen S Wohnen 1972, No. 5, pp. 233–236.
[98] Schwerm, D.: Bauaufgabe Wand – gelöst mit großformatigen Betonfertigteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik 1979, No. 9, pp. 515–525.
[99] Steinle, A.: Zum Tragverhalten von Blockfundamenten für Stahlbetonfertigteilstützen. DBV presenta-
tion, Betontag 1981, pp. 186–205.
[100] Schwarzkopf, M.: Elementdecke – das Deckensystem mit einem umfassenden Einsatzbereich.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 6, pp. 54–61.
[101] Bechert, H., Furche, J.: Bemessung von Elementdecken mit der Methode der Finite Elemente.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 5, pp. 47–51.
[102] Goldberg, G., Schmilz, M., Land, H.: Zweiachsige Lastabtragung bei Elementdecken.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 7, pp. 86–89.
[103] Land, H.: Teilfertigdecken. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1994, No. 5, pp. 93–95, No. 6, pp. 108–118.
[104] Mühlbauer, S., Stenzel, G.: Kompaktstützen aus hochfestem Beton, Konstruktion und Bemessung.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 98 (2003), No. 12, pp. 678–686.
[105] Weiske, R.: Durchleitung hoher Stützenlasten bei Stahlbeton-Flachdecken. Dissertation, Braunschweig
TU, Massivbau und Brandschutz, No. 180, 2004.
[106] Falkner, H., Eierle, B., Henke, V.: HH-Stützen – schlanke Betonfertigteile aus Hochleistungsbeton.
Beton S Fertigteil Jahrbuch 2003, pp. 130–139.
[107] Forster, J.: Doppelwandplatten – die innovative Lösung. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch, 2003,
pp. 208–212.
[108] DAfStb: Richtlinie Wasserundurchlässige Bauwerke aus Beton, 2003, und Berichtigung zur
WU-Richtlinie, 2006.
[109] DAfStb: Erläuterungen zur DAfStb-Richtlinie Wasserundurchlässige Bauwerke aus Beton, 2006.
References 249
[110] Hohmann, R.: Elementwände in drückendem Grundwasser – Diskrepanz zwischen Theorie und Praxis?
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 102 (2007), No. 12.
[111] Schmalhofer, O.: Fassaden aus Stahlbetonfertigteilen. Bauingenieur 1985, pp. 211–216.
[112] Strumpf, K.: Neue Entwicklungen der vorgefertigten Stahlbetonfassade. DBZ 1983, No. l, pp. 77–81.
[113] Haferland, F.: Das Wärme-, Diffusions- und schalltechnische Verhalten von Beton-Außenwänden.
Betonfertigteilforum 11/1971. Betonstein-Zeitung 1971, No. 3, pp. 3–22.
[114] Energieeinsparverordnung (Energy Conservation Act), EnEV 2007.
[115] Middel, M.: Die Energieeinsparverordnung: Chancen für die Betonbauweise im Wohnungsbau.
Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2003, pp. 172–180.
[116] Brandt, J., Krieger, R., Moritz, H.: Außenwände aus Betonbauteilen: Wärme-, Schall- und Brandschutz.
Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 1983.
[117] Cziesielski, E., Raabe, B.: Tauwasserschutz. Bauphysik 1985 6/82, 2/83, 1/84, 4/84, 3/85, 4/85, 6/85.
[118] Recknagel, Sprenger: Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klimatechnik. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich, 1986.
[119] PCI: Architectural Precast Concrete (various brochures covering: design, weathering, cladding, load-
bearing walls, joint details, etc.), PCI, Chicago.
[120] Hofbauer, H.: Bauphysikalische bauspezifische Problemstellungen und Vorschläge zu ihrer Konstruk-
tive Lösung. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1982, No. 12, pp. 7–14.
[121] Huberty, J. M.: Fassaden in der Witterung. Beton-Verlag 1983.
[122] Cziesielski, E., Kotz, D.: Betonsandwich-Wände, Bemessung der Vorsatzschalen und Ausbildung der
Fugen. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 1984, pp. 66–122.
[123] Cziesielski, E.: Belüftete Fugen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1978. No. 8, pp. 441–447.
[124] Martin, B.: Joints in Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, 1977
[125] Stiller, M.: Das Verarbeiten von Fugenmassen im Betonfertigteilbau. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1968,
No. 7, pp. 156–159.
[126] Steinle, A.: Das Züblin-Haus. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1985. No. 6. pp. 374–383.
[127] Halfen, facade fixings. Company Brochure 11/2006.
[128] Deha: Verbundanker-Systeme, Fassadenankersysteme, Transportanker-Systeme. Company brochure
1996.
[129] Cziesielski, E., Kotz, D.: Temperaturbeanspruchung mehrschichtiger Stahlbetonwände. Betonwerk S
Fertigteil-Technik 1984, No. l, pp. 28–29.
[130] Utescher G.: Der Tragsicherheitsnachweis für dreischalige Außenwandplatten (Sandwichplatten) aus
Stahlbeton. Die Bautechnik 1973, No. 5, pp. 163–171.
[131] Utescher, G.: Beurteilungsgrundlagen für Fassadenverankerungen. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin,
1978.
[132] Krieger, R.: Bauphysikalische Fragen bei Betonfertigteil-Wandtafeln. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1983, No. 2, pp. 84–89.
[133] Huyghe, G.: Verankerungen und Transportanker für Fertigbauteile. B1BM 84, 1984, pp. 650–686.
[134] Taylor, H. P. J.: Precast Concrete Cladding. Edward Arnold, London, 1992.
[135] Lutz, Lenisch, Klopfer, Freymuth, Krampf: Lehrbuch der Bauphysik, 2nd ed. Teubner Verlag, Stuttgart,
1989.
[136] Mehl, R.: Außerirdisch intelligent – Das Phaeno in Wolfsburg. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2007,
pp. 8ff.
[137] Mehl, R.: Haus hinter Gittern – Laborgebäude in Wageningen. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2008, pp. 8ff.
[138] Mehl, R.: Die Schöpfung und das Licht – Gemeindezentrum in Mannheim-Neuhermsheim.
Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2008, pp. 32–37.
[139] Hegger, J., Will, N., Schneider, H. N., Schätzke, C., Curbach, M., Jesse, F.: Fassaden aus textilbewehr-
tem Beton. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2005, pp. 76–82.
250 5 References
[140] National Technical Approval No. Z-33.1-577: Fassadenplatten aus Betonwerkstein mit rückseitig einbe-
tonierten Befestigungselementen zur Verwendung bei hinterlüfteten Fassaden. DIBt 2004.
[141] Curbach, M. Speck, K.: Lasteinleitung in dünnwandige Bauteile aus textilbewehrtem Beton mit kleinen
Dübeln. Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben V 426 des DAfStb, Institute for Solid Construction,
Dresden TU, 2003.
[142] Lukas, B.: “Bodensee Kiesel” – Ein Veranstaltungssaal in Friedrichshafen. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch
2008, pp. 70–74.
[143] DIN 1045-1: Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures – Part 1: Design construction. Jul
2007
[144] DIN 1045-1/A1: Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures – Part 1: Design construction.
Amendment. Jan 2008
[145] Tillmann, M.: Verbundfugen im Fertigteilbau – Entwicklung der technischen Regelwerke.
Beton- S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2008.
[146] Zilch, K.; Müller, A.: Grundlagen und Anwendungsregeln der Bemessung von Fugen nach
EN 1992-1-1. Final report, DIBt research project, Chair of Solid Construction, Munich TU, Apr 2007.
[147] DAfSt, No. 525, Erläuterungen zu DIN 1045-1, Berlin, 2003.
[148] National Technical Approval No. Z-15.6-204: Halfen HDB-E-Anker zur Verankerung in Rahmenend-
knoten und Konsolen. DIBt, Berlin, 2002.
[149] Daschner, F., Kupfer, H.: Literaturstudie zur Schubsicherung bei nachträglich ergänzten Querschnitten.
DAfSt 1986, No. 372.
[150] Daschner, F.: Versuche zur notwendigen Schubbewehrung zwischen Betonfertigteilen und Ortbeton.
DAfSt 1986, No. 372.
[151] Nissen, L, Daschner, F., Kupfer, H.: Verminderte Schubdeckung in Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträgern
mit Fugen parallel zur Trägerrichtung und nicht vorwiegend ruhender Belastung. DAfSt 1986, No. 372.
[152] Rehm, G., Eligehausen, R., Paul: Verbund in Fugen von Platten ohne Schubbewehrung. Kurzberichte
aus der Bauforschung 1980, 3/80–36, pp. 191–194.
[153] Daschner, F., Kupfer, H.: Durchlaufende Deckenkonstruktionen aus Spannbetonfertigteilen mit ergän-
zender Ortbetonschicht. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1983, No. 11, pp. 714–721.
[154] FIP: Shear at the interface of precast and in situ concrete. FIP, Wexham Springs, 1982.
[155] Suikka, A.: Verbund-Konstruktionen mit Hohlplatten. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1986, No. 5,
pp. 315–316.
[156] Steinle, A.: Zur Frage der Mindestabmessungen von Konsolen. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1975, No. 6,
pp. 150–153.
[157] Steinle, A., Rostasy, F. S.: Zum Tragverhalten ausgeklinkter Trägerenden. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Tech-
nik 1975, No. 6, pp. 270–277.
[158] Steinle, A.: Zum Tragverhalten ausgeklinkter Trägerenden. Presentation, Betontag 1975, DBV e.V.
1975, pp. 364–376.
[159] Graubner, C.-A.: Zur Bemessung von Stahlbetonbalken bei unsymmetrischer Belastung aus Konsolbän-
dern. Bauingenieur 1984, vol. 59, pp. 221–223.
[160] Raths, Charles H.: Spandrel Beam Behavior and Design, 1983, pp. 62–130.
[161] Deneke, O., Holz, K., Litzner, H.-U.: bersicht über praktische Verfahren zum Nachweis der Kippsi-
cherheit schlanker Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträger. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1985, No. 9,
pp. 238–243; No. 10, pp. 274–280; No. 11, pp. 299–304.
[162] Zilch, K., Staller A., Johring A.: Vergleichende Untersuchungen zum Tragsicherheitsnachweis kippge-
fährdeter Stahlbeton- u. Spannbetonträger nach Theorie 2. Ordnung. Bauingenieur 1997, pp. 157–165.
[163] Rafla, K.: Näherungsverfahren zur Berechnung der Kipplasten von Trägern mit in Längsrichtung
beliebig veränderlichem Querschnitt. Die Bautechnik 1975, No. 8, pp. 269–275.
[164] Stiglat, K.: Die Kippsicherheit von Beton- und Stahlbetonbalken. Presentation, Checking Engineers
Conference, Freudenstadt, 1971.
References 251
[165] Klang, H.: Einfluß der Elastizität der Aufhängevorrichtung auf die Kippstabilität des an zwei Punkten
aufgehängten Trägers. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1965, No. 11, pp. 271–273.
[166] Stiglat, K.: Näherungsberechnung der kritischen Kipplasten von Stahlbetonbalken. Bautechnik 1971,
No. 3, pp. 98–100.
[167] Dilger, W.: Veränderlichkeit der Biege- und Schubfestigkeit bei Stahlbetontragwerken und ihr Einfluß
auf Schnittkraftverteilung und Traglast bei statisch unbestimmter Lagerung. DAfStb 1966, No. 179.
[168] Mann, W.: Kippnachweis und Kippaussteifung von schlanken Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträgern.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1976, No. 2, pp. 37–42.
[169] Mann, W.: Anwendung des vereinfachten Kippnachweises auf T-Profile aus Stahlbeton. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 1985, No. 9, pp. 235–243.
[170] Streit, W., Mang, R.: berschläglicher Kippsicherheitsnachweis für Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonbinder.
Bauingenieur 1984, pp. 433–439, also 1985, pp. 368.
[171] Streit, W., Gottschalk, H.: berschlägige Bemessung von Kipphalterungen für Stahlbeton- und Spann-
betonbinder. Bauingenieur 1986, pp. 555–559.
[172] Dieterle, H., Steinle, A.: Blockfundamente für Stahlbetonfertigstützen. DAfStb 1981, No. 326.
[173] Kordina, K., Nölting, D.: Tragfähigkeit durchstanzgefährdeter Stahlbetonplatten. DAfSt, 1986, No. 371.
[174] Holz, K.: Baulicher Brandschutz mit Beton (Teil 4). Brandschutztechnische Bemessung waagerechter
Bauteile (Balken und Platten, etc.). Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1982, No. 11, pp. 676–681.
[175] Meyer-Ottens, C: Baulicher Brandschutz mit Beton (2. Teil); Fugen, Lager und Sonderbauteile.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1982, No. 9, pp. 555–559.
[176] Mehlhorn, G., Röder, F.-K., Schulze, J. U.: Zur Kippstabilität vorgespannter und nicht vorgespannter,
parallelgurtiger Stahlbetonträger mit einfach symmetrischem Querschnitt. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
1991, No. 2, pp. 25–32; No. 3, pp. 59–64.
[177] Röder, F.-K.: Ermittlung wirklichkeitsnaher Querschnittswerte u. Steifigkeiten für vorgespannte und
nicht vorgespannte Rechteck- und T-Querschnitte aus Stahlbeton. Beton- und Stahlbeton 1990, No. 6,
pp. 154–159; No. 7, pp. 180–185.
[178] Kraus, D., Ehret, K.-H.: Berechnung kippgefährdeter Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträger nach der
Theorie II. Ordnung. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1992, No. 5, pp. 113–118.
[179] König, G., Pauli, W.: Ergebnisse von sechs Kippversuchen an schlanken Fertigteilträgern aus Stahlbeton
und Spannbeton. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1990, No. 10, pp. 253–258.
[180] König, G., Pauli, W.: Nachweis der Kippstabilität von schlanken Fertigteilträgern aus Stahlbeton und
Spannbeton. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1992, No. 5, pp. 109-112; No. 6, pp. 149–151.
[181] Stiglat, K.: Kippnachweis bei niedrigen Vergleichsschlankheiten lv. Beton- und Stahlbeton 1996,
No. 12, pp. 292.
[182] Bacher, W.: berprüfung der Güte eines preisgerechten Näherungsverfahrens zum Nachweis der Kipp-
sicherheit schlanker Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträger. Beton- und Stahlbeton 1995, No. 7, pp. 176–
179, No. 9, pp. 209–213.
[183] Winner, H.: Kippsicherheit über Vergleichsschlankheit in Rahmen im Eurocode 2. Beton- und Stahl-
beton 1998, No. 1, pp. 20–22.
[184] Stiglat, K.: Zur Näherungsbetrachtung der Kipplasten von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonträgern über Ver-
gleichsschlankheiten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1991, No. 10, pp. 237–240; 1996 No. 12, pp. 292.
[185] Rüder, F.-U.: Ein Näherungsverfahren zur Beurteilung der Kippstabilität von Satteldachbindern aus
Stahlbeton oder Spannbeton. Beton- und Stahlbeton 1997, No. 11, pp. 301–307; No. 12, pp. 341–347.
[186] Mattheiß, J.: Abschätzung einer sicheren Druckflanschbreite. Beton- und Stahlbeton 1999, No. 7,
pp. 289–294.
[187] Schaller, G.: Einfluss der Gabelsteifigkeit auf das Kippverhalten- Bemessungsmoment der Gabel.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1997, pp. 73–78.
[188] Haß, R., Wesche, J.: Bemessung feuerbeständiger gegliederter Außenwandelemente aus Stahlbeton-
fertigteilen (“Lochfassaden”). Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1988, No. 8, pp. 24–28.
252 5 References
[189] Mainka, G.-W., Paschen, H.: Untersuchungen über das Tragverhalten von Köcherfundamenten. DAfStb,
No. 411, 1990.
[190] Eligehausen, R., Gerster, R.: Das Bewehren von Stahlbetonbauteilen. Erläuterungen zu verschiedenen
gebräuchlichen Bauteilen. DAfStb, No. 399, 1993.
[191] Ackermann, G., Burckhardt, M.: Tragverhalten von bewehrten Verbundfugen bei Fertigteilen und Ort-
beton in den Grenzzuständen der Tragfähigkeit und Gebrauchstauglichkeit. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
1992, No. 7, pp. 165–170; No. 8, pp. 197–200.
[192] Kordina, K.: Zur Berechnung und Bemessung von Einzel-Fundamentplatten nach EC2 Teil 1. Beton-
und Stahlbetonbau 1994, No. 6, pp. 224–226.
[193] Eibl, J., Zeller, W.: Untersuchungen zur Traglast der Druckdiagonalen in Konsolen. Beton- und Stahl-
betonbau 88 (1993), No. 1, pp. 23–26.
[194] Reineck, K.-H.: Modellierung der D-Bereiche bei Fertigteilen. Beton-Kalender 2005, Teil 2, pp. 241ff.
[195] Stenzel, G; Fingerloos, F.: Konstruktion und Bemessung von Details nach DIN 1045-1. Beton-Kalender
2007, Teil 2.
[196] Hegger, J; Roeser, W.; Lotze, D. Kurze Verankerungslängen mit Rechteckankern – Bewehrung S
Bauausführung. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau (2004), No. 1, pp. 1–9.
[197] Graubner, C.-A., Hausmann, G., Karasek, J.: Bemessung von Betonfertigteilen nach DIN 1045-1.
Beton-Kalender 2005, Teil 2.
[198] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau eV.: fire protection leaflet, 04/2008 (draft).
[199] Nause, P.: Brandverhalten von hochfestem Beton. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2003, pp. 150ff.
[200] Verband der Sachversicherer: Merkblatt für die Anordnung und Ausführung von Brand- und Komplex-
trennwänden. VDS Verlag 2234, Jul 2006.
[201] DBV leaflet “Abstandhalter”, Jul 2002.
[202] Stupre Study Group for Building with Precast Concrete Components, Netherlands. Kraftschlüssige
Verbindungen im Fertigteilbau. Konstruktions-Atlas, 2nd ed., Beton-Verlag, 1987.
[203] Hahn, V., Hornung, K.: Untersuchungen von Mörtelfugen unter vorgefertigten Stahlbetonstützen. Be-
tonsteinzeitung 1968, No. 11, pp. 353–362.
[204] Suter, R.: Mörtelverbindungen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1975, No. 11, pp. 531–536.
[205] Brandt, B., Schäfer, H. G.: Verbindung von Stahlbetonfertigteilstützen. Forschungsreihe der Bauindus-
trie 1974, vol. 18.
[206] Paschen, H., Zillich, V.: Der Stumpfstoß von Fertigteilstützen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1980,
No. 5, pp. 279–285; No. 6, pp. 360–364.
[207] Paschen, H., Stockleben, U., Zillich, V.: Querzugbeanspruchung durch Mörtelfugen infolge Mörtelquer-
dehnung und Teilflächenbelastung. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1981, No. 7, pp. 385–392.
[208] Rahlwes, K.: Lagerung und Lager von Bauwerken. Beton-Kalender 1995, Teil II, pp. 631.
[209] König, G., Tue, N. V., Saleh, H., Kliver, J.: Herstellung und Bemessung stumpf gestoßener Fertigteil-
stützen. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch, 2003.
[210] Saleh, H.: Ein Beitrag zur Untersuchung und Bemessung von stumpf gestoßenen Fertigteilstützen aus
normalfestem Beton. Dissertation, University of Leipzig, 2002.
[211] König, G., Minnert, J.: Tragverhalten von stumpf gestoßenen Fertigteilstützen aus hochfestem Beton.
Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2000, pp. 81–94.
[212] König, G., Minnert, J., Saleh, H.: Stumpf gestoßene Fertigteilstützen aus Normalbeton. Beton S Fertig-
teil-Jahrbuch 2001, pp. 110–121.
[213] Maurer, Breitbach, Jhouahra: Neues Nachweiskonzept für die Bemessung von Lagern und Lagerungen
im Fertigteilbau nach DIN EN 1337. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 02 (2007), pp. 50–51.
[214] Eggert, H.: Lager im Bauwesen. Anmerkungen zur Herausgabe der Normenreihe DIN 4141. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 1988, No. 7, pp. 193–198.
References 253
[215] Vinje, L.: Bemessung von unbewehrten Elastomerlagern in Betonfertigteilbauten. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1985, No. 5, pp. 306–314; No. 6, pp. 392–398.
[216] Müller, F., Sasse, R., Thormählen, U.: Stützenstöße im Stahlbeton-Fertigteilbau mit bewehrten Elasto-
merlagern. DAfStb & Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1982, No. 11/12; 1982, No. 339.
[217] Kessler, E., Schwerm, D.: Unebenheiten und Schiefwinkligkeiten der Auflagerflächen für Elastomer-
Lager bei Stahlbetonfertigteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1983, No. 13, pp. 1–5.
[218] Kordina, K., Nölting, D.: Zur Auflagerung von Stahlbetonteilen mittels unbewehrten Elastomerlagern.
Bauingenieur 1981, pp. 41–44.
[219] Flohrer, M., Stephan, E.: Bemessungsdiagramm für die Querzugkräfte bei Elastomerlagern. Die Bau-
technik 1975, No. 9, pp. 296–301; No. 12, pp. 420–427.
[220] Battermann, W.: Möglichkeiten der Einflussnahme auf die Eigenschaften von Elastomerlagern zur
funktionsgerechten Auflagerung von Betonbauteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1978, No. l,
pp. 37–41.
[221] Vinje, L.: Auflager-Zwischenschichten für Spannbeton-Hohlplatten. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1986, No. 10, pp. 636–641.
[222] Sasse, H.-R.: Gleit- und Verformungslager im Hoch- und Brückenbau. VDI Reports 1980, No. 384.
[223] Kessler, E.: Die Anwendung unbewehrter Elastomerlager. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1987, No. 8,
pp. 419–429.
[224] Vambersky, J. N. J. A., Walraven, J. C.: Die Tragfähigkeit von auf Druck beanspruchten unbewehrten
Mörtelfugen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1988, No. 7, pp. 66–73.
[225] Paschen, H.: Untersuchung von durch Zwang einachsig exzentrisch belasteten Stützenstößen des Beton-
fertigteilbaus. Bauingenieur 1992, pp. 69–76.
[226] Hasse, E.: Zum Tragfähigkeitsnachweis für Wand-Decken-Knoten im Großtafelbau. DAfStb 1982,
No. 328.
[227] Franke, H.: Die Schweißverbindungen in Stahlbetonbauteilen. Konstruktiver Ingenieurbau, VBI 1986.
[228] CEN-TS: Design of Fastenings for Use in Concrete – Final Draft, 2005.
[229] Czychy,: Zukünftige Bemessung der Ankerschienen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 04/2008.
[230] Rehm, G., Eligehausen, R., Mallee, R.: Befestigungstechnik. Beton-Kalender 1997, Teil II, pp. 609ff.
[231] Bertram, D.: Betonstahl, Verbindungselemente, Spannstahl. Beton-Kalender 2002, Teil 1, pp. 153ff.
[232] Cziesielski, E., Utescher, G., Paschen, H.: Bemessungsvorschläge für Bolzenverbindungen. DAfStb
1983, No. 346.
[233] Wiedenroth, M.: Einspanntiefe und zulässige Belastung eines in einen Betonkörper eingespannten
Stabes. Die Bautechnik 1971, No. 12, pp. 426–429.
[234] Utescher, G., Herrmann, H.: Befestigungs- und Verbindungsmittel beim Beton S Fertigteilbau.
Kurzbericht aus der Bauforschung 1978, Nr. II.
[235] Reißmann, K.: ber die Bemessung von Transportankern für Stahlbetonfertigteile. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1982, No. 7, pp. 406–409.
[236] Eibl, J., Schürmann, U.: HV-Schraubenanschlüsse für Stahlbetonkonsolen. Bauingenieur 1982,
pp. 61–68.
[237] Züblin: Versuche mit Stahlkonsolen. Unpublished report, 1985.
[238] Eligehausen, R., Asmus, J., Lotze, D., Potthoff, M.: Ankerschienen. Beton-Kalender 2007, pp. 375ff.
[239] Randl, N.: Tragverhalten einbetonierter Scherbolzen. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 100 (2005), No. 6,
pp. 467–474.
[240] Asmus, J., Eligehausen, R., Schneider, J.: Schubdorne nach neuer DIN 1045-1. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik (2008), No. 2, pp. 108–109.
[241] VDI Directive: Bemessung und Anwendung von Transportankersystemen für Betonfertigteile (draft 05/
2007).
254 5 References
[242] Mattock, A. H., Johal, L., Chow, H. C: Shear transfer in reinforced concrete with moment or tension act-
ing across the shear plane. PCI-Journal 1975, No. 7/8, pp. 76–93.
[243] Mehlhorn, G., Schwing, H.: Zur Berechnung und Konstruktion von Wandscheiben aus Fertigteilen.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1973, No. 5, pp. 360–370.
[244] Paschen, H., Zillich, V. C.: Tragfähigkeit querkraftschlüssiger Fugen zwischen Stahlbeton-Fertigteil-
decken. DAfStb 1983, No. 348.
[245] Paschen, H., Zillich, V. H.: Tragfähigkeit querkraftschlüssiger Fugen zwischen vorgefertigten Stahl-
beton-Fertigteildecken. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1983, No. 6, pp. 168–172; No. 7, pp. 197–201.
[246] Paschen, H.: Berichtigung zu [3.3.5]. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1987, No. 2, pp. 56.
[247] Griebenow, G., Koch, R., Sitka, R., Völkel, G.: Tragende Deckenscheiben mit Gasbeton-Fertigteilen.
Experimentelle Untersuchungen und Berechnungsmodelle. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1989,
No. 6, pp. 56–61; No. 8, pp. 62–66.
[248] Cholewicki, A.: Schubübertragung bei Längsverbindungen von Hohlplattendecken.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1991, No. 4, pp. 58–67.
[249] Kreuser, W., Schulenberg, W.: Fugenversuche an Stahlbetonhohlplatten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
1989, No. 10, pp. 245–248.
[250] Koncz, T.: Anlagen und Formen zur Produktion großformatiger Fertigteile. BIBM 84, presentation,
1984, pp. 603–616.
[251] Fogarasi, F. G.: Herstellen von Spannbetonelementen nach dem Umlaufverfahren.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1986, No. 5, pp. 326–333.
[252] Schwarz, S.: Garagen- und Treppenherstellung im Umlaufverfahren. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1982, No. 10, pp. 623–631.
[253] Reymann, W.: Transport- und Bewegungsabläufe in Fertigteilwerken in komplexer Betrachtung. BIBM
84, presentation, 1984, pp. 622–649.
[254] Koncz, T.: Anlagen für den Großtafelbau in verschiedenen Varianten. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1983, No. 4, pp. 242–249.
[255] Schwarz, S.: Moderne Maschinen und Anlagen zur Herstellung unterschiedlicher Deckenelemente.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1985, No. 1, pp. 4–20; No. 2, pp. 96–106.
[256] Reymann, W.: Neue Konzepte des Produktionsablaufs in Fertigteilwerken. BIBM 87, presenta-
tion,1987, draft, pp. 1–14.
[257] Markus, M.: Manufacturing systems for hollow-core concrete slabs, vol. 3, FIP Congress 1982, pp. 244–
261.
[258] Schwarz, S.: Realisierte Schritte zur computergesteuerten Betonfertigteilproduktion. Finland: Extruder
mit Shear-Compaction-System, CAD/CAM, Betontechnol. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1987,
No. 3, pp. 152–159.
[259] Hoffmann, O.: Fertigungssteuerung und Terminkontrolle in Fertigteilwerken mit Hilfe der EDV.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1984, No. 12, pp. 799–806.
[260] Krämer, R.: Tammer Elementii – ein nahezu automatisiertes Fertigteilwerk.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1992, No. 3, pp. 166–180.
[261] Reymann,W.: Das automatische Betonwerk –Wirklichkeit und Vision. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1992, No. 4, pp. 88–96.
[262] Ehmer, M.: C-Techniken für die Fertigteilproduktion. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1992, No. 4,
pp. 106–113.
[263] Hohmann, H., Ehlert, W.: Die besonderen Möglichkeiten des CAD-Einsatzes in Fertigteilwerken.
Bauinformatik 1990, No. 2, pp. 53–60.
[264] Ehlert, W.: CAD/CAM für Industriebauteile aus der Sicht CAD und PPS. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-
Technik 1993, No. 12, pp. 87–93.
[265] Schwörer, D.: Ansätze zu einer CAD-CAM-Produktion von stabförmigen Betonfertigteilen bei
Schwörer. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 8, pp. 84–91.
References 255
[294] Falkner, H., Teutsch, M.: Stahlfaserbeton – Anwendungen und Richtlinie. Beton-Kalender 2006, Teil 1,
pp. 665ff.
[295] Adam, T., Proske, T.: Hochfester SVB mit hoher Frühfestigkeit zur Herstellung von Betonfertigteilen
mit sofortigem Verbund. Mischungszusammensetzung und Untersuchung der bemessungsrelevanten
Eigenschaften. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 2007, No. 12, pp. 12–20.
[296] Hubertova, M.: Fertigteile aus selbstverdichtetem Leichtbeton für das Stadion des SK Slavia Prag. Beton
S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2007, pp. 22–31.
[297] Hartz, U.: Normen und Regelwerke. Beton-Kalender 2005, Teil 2, pp. 502ff.
[298] Holschemacher, K., Klug, Y., Dehn, F., Wörner, J.-D.: Faserbeton. Beton-Kalender 2006, Teil 1, pp.
585ff.
[299] König, G., Dehn, F., Holschemacher, K.,Weiße, D.: Verbundverhalten von Betonstahl in Hochleistung-
sleichtbeton unter dynamischer Beanspruchung. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2002, pp. 149–158.
[300] Falkner, H., Teutsch, M.: Entwicklung duktiler stahlfaserbewehrter Hochleistungsbetone. Beton S
Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2002, pp. 159–166.
[301] Nause, P.: Brandverhalten von hochfestem Beton. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2003, pp. 150–151.
[302] Schmidt, M., Fehling, E., Bornemann, R. et al.: Ultra-Hochfester Beton: Perspektive für die Betonfertig-
teilindustrie. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2003, pp. 10–23.
[303] Hegger, J.; Bertram, G.: Spannbetonträger aus ultrahochfestem Beton. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch
2008, pp. 85ff.
[304] Teutsch, M., Steven, G., Empelmann, M.: UHPFRC – ein Baustoff für MEGA-Druckglieder. Beton S
Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2007, pp. 74–80.
[305] Graubner, C.-A., Müller-Falcke, G., Kleen et al.: Selbstverdichtender Beton für Fertigteile. Beton S
Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2002, pp. 132–133.
[306] Ludwig, H.-M., Hemrich, W., Weise, F., Ehrlich, N.: Selbstverdichtender Beton-Grundlagen und Praxis.
Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2002, pp. 113–131.
[307] Reinhardt, H.-W.: Selbstverdichtender Beton. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2002, pp. 75.
[308] Grunert, J. P., Strohbach, C.-P., Teutsch, M.: Vorgespannte stahlfaserverstärkte Bauteile aus SVB ohne
Betonstahlbewehrung. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2005, pp. 48.
[309] Strohbach, C. P.: Langzeitversuch mit stahlfaserbewehrten Spannbetonbindern aus selbstverdichtetem
Beton ohne konventionelle Bewehrung. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2008, pp. 102.
[310] Neumann-Venevere, P.: Beschleunigte Erhärtung des Frischbetons von Tafelelementen durch Infrarot-
Strahlungsheizung. Betonstein-Zeitung 1971, No. 1, pp. 22–27; No. 2, pp. 74–82.
[311] Cement Industry Research Institute. Merkblatt für die Herstellung geschlossener Betonoberflächen bei
einer Wärmebehandlung. beton 1967, No. 4, pp. 142.
[312] Wischers, G.: Anmerkungen zum Merkblatt für die Herstellung geschlossener Betonoberflächen bei
einer Wärmebehandlung. beton 1967, pp. 101–103 & pp. 139–142.
[313] Wiehrig, H.-J.: Kurzzeitwarmbehandlung von Beton. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1975, No. 9, pp.
418–423; No. 10, pp. 492–495.
[314] Neubarth, E.: Frühhochfester Beton durch Kurzzeit-Warmbehandlung. Betonstein-Zeitung 1969, No. 9,
pp. 536–542.
[315] Cement Industry Research Institute. Merkblatt für die Anwendung des Betonmischens mit Dampfzufüh-
rung. beton 1974, No. 6, pp. 344-346.
[316] Neck, U.: Auswirkungen der Wärmebehandlung auf Festigkeit und Dauerhaftigkeit von Beton. beton
1988, No. 12, pp. 488–493.
[317] Rieche, G.: Instandsetzung von Stahlbeton bei Schäden infolge Korrosion der Bewehrung. Deutsche
Bauzeitschrift 1982, pp. 1011–1017.
[318] Piguet, A.: Einfluß der Nachbehandlung auf die Betonkapillarität unter Berücksichtigung des Wasserze-
mentwertes und der Festigkeit. International Colloquium for Materials Science & Building Refurbish-
ment, Esslingen, 1983, pp. 149–152.
References 257
[319] Pühringer, P., Wenzlaff, K.: Fertigteilproduktion in Saudi-Arabien mit angeschlossener automatischer
Sandstrahlanlage. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1980, No. 7, pp. 442–449.
[320] van Acker, A.: Neue Oberflächentechniken bei Fertigteilen aus Beton- und Stahlbeton. Beton- und
Fertigteiltechnik 1986, No. 9, pp. 556–562.
[321] DVS – German Welding Society, Directive DVS 0302, Flammstrahlen von Beton. DVS, 1985.
[322] Menzel, U.: Warmbehandlung von Beton. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1991, No. 12, pp. 92–97.
[323] Janhunen, P.: Neue Herstellungstechnologie für Fassadenelemente aus Architekturbeton von hoher
Qualität. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1993, No. 10, pp. 53–66.
[324] Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e.V. in BDB: Hinweise zur Erzielung einer ordnungsge-
mäßen Bewehrung von Betonfertigteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1985, No. 7, pp. 473–478.
[325] Hütten, P., Pasberg, M.: Zweckmäßige Ausführungsformen von Bügelkörben aus geschweißten Beton-
stahlmatten. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1979, No. 10, pp. 633–636.
[326] Schwarz, S.: Praktischer Einsatz vorgefertigter Bewehrungskörbe. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1980, No. 9, pp. 571–574.
[327] National Technical Approval No. Z-1.2-155, BSt 500 WR (B) in Ringen. DIBt.
[328] Kulessa, G.: Herstellung und Verarbeitung von Betonstahl in Ringen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1987, No. l, pp. 14–18.
[329] Krömer, R.: Rationalisierung im Betonwerk bei der Bearbeitung von Betonstahl vom Ring. Betonwerk
S Fertigteil-Technik 1987, No. 1, pp. 23–36.
[330] Riechers, H.-J.: Betonstahl in Ringen. Verfahrensweisen und bisherige Entwicklung. Betonwerk S
Fertigteil-Technik 1987, No. 1, pp. 19–22.
[331] Schwarzkopf, M.: Moderne Bewehrungstechnik. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1991, No. 2,
pp. 58–60.
[332] Ehlert, W., Fuchs, W.: Probleme bei der Direktansteuerung von Biegeautomaten. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1991, No. 2, pp. 61–66.
[333] Koncz, T.: Neuentwicklungen in der Spannbett-Technik. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1981, No. 11,
pp. 700–705.
[334] Scott, N. L.: The long-line pretensioning method. FIP notes 1985, No. 4, pp. 2–10.
[335] Dietl, W.: Fertigteilkonstruktion aus Spannbeton. PORR-Nachrichten 1981, No. 85/86.
[336] Schmalhofer, O.: Interessante Spannbetonbauten aus Fertigteilen. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik
1978, No. 4, pp. 198–204.
[337] Ruhnau, J., Kupfer, H.: Spaltzug-, Stirnzug- und Schubbewehrung im Eintragungsbereich von Spann-
bett-Trägern. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1977, No. 7, pp. 175–203; No. 8, pp. 204–208.
[338] Bruggeling, A. S. G.: bertragen der Vorspannung mittels Verbund. Beton und Stahlbeton 96 (2001) No.
3.
[339] Nitsch, A.: Spannbetonfertigteile mit teilweiser Vorspannung aus hochfestem Beton. Chair & Institute
for Solid Construction, RWTH Aachen University, Dissertation, 2001.
[340] Hegger, J., Nitsch, A.: Neuentwicklungen bei Spannbetonfertigteilen – aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse
und Anwendungsbeispiele. Beton S Fertigteil-Jahrbuch 2000, pp. 95–109.
[341] Hegger, J., Will, N., Kommer, B. et al.: Einsatz von selbstverdichtendem Beton für vorgespannte Bau-
teile. Research report, DAfStb V 416, 2006.
[342] Bechert, H.: Vorspannen mit sofortigem Verbund auf der Grundlage der neuen DIN 4227 Teil 1. Beton-
werk S Fertigteil-Technik 1980, No. 9, pp. 2–5.
[343] Wölfel, E., Krüger, F.: Verbundverankerung von Spannstählen-Zulassungsprüfung und Anwendungsbe-
dingungen. Mitteilungen IfBt 1980, No. 6, pp. 162–164.
[344] FIP: Report on prestressing steel: anchorage and application of pretensioned 7-wire strands. FIP Report,
1978.
258 5 References
[345] Uijl den, J. A.: Verbundverhalten von Spanndraht-Litzen im Zusammenhang mit Rißbildung im Eintra-
gungsbereich. Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1985, No. l, pp. 28–36.
[346] Bruggeling, A. S. G.: Die bertragungslänge von Spannstahl bei Vorspannung mit sofortigem Verbund.
Betonwerk S Fertigteil-Technik 1986, No. 5, pp. 298–302.
[347] Lange, H., Paral, J.: Teilweise vorgespannte Spannbetonbinder –Bemessungstabellen in Anlehnung an
DIN 1045. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1983, No. l, pp. 12–16.
[348] Walraven, J. C.: Lastverteilung und Bruchverhalten von Spannbetonhohldecken. Betonwerk S Fertig-
teil-Technik 1992, No. l, pp. 57–63.
[349] FIP: Precast prestressed hollow-core floors. Thomas Telford, London, 1988.
[350] Walraven, J. C.: Tragwirkung von Hohlplatten und Hohlplattendecken. Presentation, Stuttgart, 1993.
[351] Hosser, D., Richter E., Hollmann, D.: Entwicklung eines vereinfachten Rechenverfahrens zum Nach-
weis des konstruktiven Brandschutzes bei Stahlbeton-Kragstützen. Research report, Braunschweig
TU, Nov 2008.
Index
A E
Acid-washing treatment 230 Earthquake, response spectrum 40
Anchor Elastomeric bearing 181
– façade fixings 116 Extruder 205
– retaining anchors 117
– suspension anchors 124 F
Façades
B – anchorages 116
Bearing – ceramic tiles 233
– category 181, 188 – column-type 105
– elastomeric 181 – fenestrate 105
– length 148 – fixings 124
– local pressure 182 – horizontal ribbon 105
– pressure 147, 155 – panels 126
Bound stress 221 – U-shaped 105
Box girder 52 Factor of safety 43, 159
Building joint 31 Fair-face concrete 226
Building services 133 Flame cleaning 231
Butt joint 175 Floor diaphragm 32, 33, 37, 43, 45, 62, 64, 66, 194,
205
C Floor plank 62, 81
CE marking 9, 11 – prestressed 85
Column joint 176 Floor slab 209
Concrete Foundation 99
– coated 231 – pad foundation 163
– coloured 225 – pocket foundation 99, 163, 165
– fair-face 226 Frame 51, 68, 76
– fibre-reinforced 224
– glass fibre-reinforced 126 H
– self-compacting 219 Heat treatment 241
– steel fibre reinforced 219
– surfaces 231 J
– textile-reinforced 127, 219, 225 Joints 31, 63, 112, 174
– ultra-high performance (UHPC) 126, 219, 222 – amount of reinforcement 206
Connections 130 – longitudinal reinforcement 64
Construction product act 9 – loop reinforcement 209
Construction products directive (CPD) 9 – vertical 55
– attestation of conformity 10 – waterproofing 113
Continuous boot 154 – with a hard bearing 175
Corbel 69, 95, 96, 122, 169 – with a soft bearing 175
D L
Double-headed stud 149 Lattice beam 82, 98, 143
Double-leaf wall 103, 119 – T-beam slab 140
Double-T floor unit 62, 132, 155, 215 – composite plank floor 172
Dowels 197 Local bearing pressure 182
Ductility factor 40
M T
Movement joint 31 Textile-reinforced concrete 127, 219, 225
Multi-layer separating wall 168 Thermal expansion coefficient 44
Thermal insulation 103
N Torsion 154
Natural vibration 42 – moment 163
Notch 150, 193 Torsional vibrations 39
Notched beam ends 169, 240 Torsional resistance 53
Transport fixing 220
O
Out-of-plane shear forces 63, 203 U
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) 126, 219
P Ultra-high strength concrete 126, 219
Perimeter tie 64, 72 University of Riyadh 96, 111, 237
Plastic bar spacer 169
Prefabricated units V
– fit calculation 20 Vapour barrier 103
– tolerances 16
– – costs 17 W
– transport 21 Wall
Prestressed hollow-core slab 62, 78, 135, 170, 186, – element 98
205, 211, 215, 217, 239 – double-leaf 103, 119
– multi-layer separating wall 168
R – stiffening 67, 71
Restraint forces 29 Warpening stiffness 54
Welded joint 190
S Welding methods 190
Sandblasting 230
Sandwich panel 107, 116, 118 Z
– corner detail 118 Züblin 6, 83, 219, 225
– thermal insulation 107 – 6M system 90, 131, 136, 211
Screwed (socket) joint 72 – House 24, 32, 66, 96, 106, 115, 122, 138
Second-order theory 58, 61, 160
Segmented hollow box 52
Self-compacting concrete 219
Shear connector system 198
Shear dowel 195
Shear friction theory 203
Shear joint 140, 204, 205
Shear wall 29, 33, 49, 54, 69, 194, 204
Skeleton construction 29, 37, 68
Sliding bearings 187
Stability 28, 45
– of building 47
Steel fibre reinforced concrete 219
Stiffening 28, 45
– core 29, 58, 67
– wall 67, 71
Stud 193
Susceptibility to vibration 34
Synthetic fibres 225