Cement

Engineers' Handbook
Originated Ьу ОНо Labahn
Fourth English edition

Ьу В. Kohlhaas
and

U. Binder H.-U. Schater

Е.Bomke О. Schmidt
G.Funke G. Schmiedgen
Н. К. Klein-Albenhausen Н. Schneider
О. Кпбfеl Н. Schuberth
F. Mechtold Р. Schwake
D.Opitz Е. SteinbiB
G. Schater H.Xeller

Translated Ьу С. van Amerongen from the sixth German edition

BAUVERLAG GMBH ·WIESBADEN AND BERLIN

 PubIisher's foreword
CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Oeutschen BibIiothek Since the pubIication of the first edition of "Cement Engineer's Handbook"
28years ago, this book has gained an estabIished reputation as "Labahn" in the
labahn, Otto: cement industry. In its conception it has suгvived its original author. In form and
Cement engineers' handbook / originated Ьу Otto contents it has become an entirely new book, however. This change reflects the
Labahn. Transl. Ьу С. van Amerongen from the great technical developments that have taken place in cement manufacture in
6. German ed. - 4. Engl. ed. / Ьу В. Kohlhaas the inteгvening years .
. . , - Wiesbaden ; Berlin : Bauverlag, 1983. The first edition was, with the exception of the chapter оп quarrying, written
Ot. Ausg. u. d. Т.: Labahn, Otto: Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure entirely Ьу Otto Labahn. The fully revised fourth German edition of 1970 was
still within the range of one individual author, Wilhelm Andreas Kaminsky, who
ISBN 3-7625-0975-1 undertook the revision. When it was decided to produce the present sixth edition,
NE: Kohlhaas, Bernhard [ВеагЬ.] it soon emerged from the preliminary discussions that in this age of specializ-
ation the preparation of the new text for а book of this scope would have to Ье
entrusted to а team comprising authors from а wide variety of technologicai dis-
ciplines associated with cement manufacture.
In this effort we have been fortunate in having had the services of Bernhard
Kohlhaas as editor, co-ordinator and author.
Не proved indefatigabIe in seeking suitabIe co-authors for this project and he
himself undertook the revision of а number of the manuscripts supplied. These
duties made greater claims upon his time and attention than had been expected.
We аге indeed grateful to him for his unflagging devotion to the task.
The guiding principle of this new edition is the same as that which Kaminsky
enunciated in the preface to the edition which he had revised:
The subject matter of the book as а whole corresponds approximately to the
range of probIems which concern the engineer engaged in present-day cement
manufacturing practice. The guiding principle remains: to present all that is es-
sential and important in а conveniently assimilabIe form. At the same time, this
approach rules out any very detailed treatment of individual subjects.

Bauverlag GmbH

First edition Ьу Otto Labahn, 1954

Second revised edition Ьу Otto Labahn, 1965
Third revised and enlarged edition Ьу W. А. Kaminsky, 1971
Forth edition Ьу В. Kohlhaas and 16 other authors, 1983

© 1983 Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden and Berlin

Printed Ьу: Wiesbadener Graphische Betriebe GmbH, Wiesbaden
and Guido Zeidler, Wiesbaden
ISBN 3-7625-0975-1
 Biographical notes оп the authors

Ing. Ulrich Binder

Born at Helmstedt in 1946. From 1967 to 1971, studied at the State College for
Constructional Engineering, Huttental-Weidenau, specializing in the process еп­
gineering of the rock and mineral products industry. Project and commissioning
engineer with the firm of Gebr. Hischmann, 1971 to 1977. Commissioning
engineer with О. & К. Orenstein & Koppel AG, Ennigerloh, 1977 to 1981. Since
1981, head of the process engineering, pilot plants and laboratory division of
О. & К., Ennigerloh.
Address: О. & К. Orenstein & Koppel AG, Р.О. Вох25, 4722 Ennigerloh, W. Ger-
тапу.

Erich Bomke
Born at Beckum in 1923. Studied mechanical engineering and economics at
the Technological University of Karlsruhe. In 1953, full partner and technical
head of the Bomke & В leckmann cement works (Iater renamed Readymix Zement-
werke GmbH & Со KG) at Beckum. Supervisory board member of that сотрапу,
1974 to 1977. Member of the "Process engi(1eering" committee of the German
Cement Works' Association. PubIications.
Address: Sonnenstrasse 18,4720 Beckum, W. Germany.

Obering. Gerhard Funke

Born at Bremen in 1924. Studied mechanical engineering at the Engineering
College in that city. From 1950, five years' service as production engineer at two
cement works. Head of the air pollution control division in the Research Institute
of the Cement Industry, Dusseldorf, since 1955. PubIications.
Address: Flandrianstrasse 24, 5653 Leichlingen, W. Germany.

Heinrich К. Кlein-Albenhausen
Born at Gelsenkirchen in 1934. Studied at the Engineering College at Kiel. From
1960 to 1975, staff member and technical head of the pit and quarry engineering
division of а plant engineering firm. Since 1976, partner and technical director
of the engineering firm of IBAU HAMBURG, Hamburg, and its subsidiaries in
Paris and New York.
Address: Leinpfad 33, 2000 Hamburg 60, W. Germany.

Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Dietbert КпЫеl

Born in 1936. Studied science (mineralogy, chemistry, geology), taking doctor's
degree in 1962. Several years as head of department in the construction materials
industry (concerned mainly with cement research and consultancy). From 1969
to 1978, head of the laboratory for constructional chemistry at the University
of Siegen; then, 1978 to 1980, at the Stuttgart University of Technology. Since
1980, head of the laboratory for constructional and materials chemistry at the
Universlty of Siegen (principal fields of work: mineral materials, attack of та-

v
Biographical notes оп the authors
terials, conservation of buildings); professor at the Universities of Karlsruhe and
Marburg; chairman or member of several working committees; sworn expert
for constructional chemistry (materials, corrosion, conservation of buildings).
Pu Ы ications.
Address: Hermann-Pleuer-Strasse 18, 7000 Stuttgart 1, W. Germany
Obering. Bernhard Kohlhaas
Born at Bad Godesberg in 1911. Studied general electrical engineering. From
1932 to 1954, production engineer, subsequently member of technical central
department of Portland Zementwerke Heidelberg AG; senior executive in 1948
and appointment as chief engineer. From 1954 to 1975, head of the design and
sales department for cement works installations with КНО Humboldt Wedag AG,
Cologne; appointment to senior managerial status in 1960.
Address: Gartnerstrasse 1, 7290 Freudenstadt, W. Germany
Dr. Mont. Fritz Mechtold
Born at Monchengladbach in 1928. Studied mechanical engineering at the Tech-
nological University of Aachen. Took doctor's degree in mining technology at
the University for Mining Engineering, Leoben. Since 1955, staff member of
AUMUND-Fordererbau GmbH, Rheinberg; now technical director of that firm;
accredited expert оп lifting and handling appliances. PubIications.
Address: Heinrich-Doergens-Strasse 9,4150 Krefeld 1, W. Germany
Dr. 'П9.Dieter Opitz
Воrn at Chemnitz in 1935. Studied engineering materials technology for а time
at the University for Building Construction, Weimar, then graduated in rock and
mineral products technology at the Technological University of Aachen
(Springorm medal). From 1963 to 1973, in the Research Institute of the Cement
Industry, process engineering division, Dusseldorf. Took doctor's degree in the
faculty for mining, metallurgical technology and mechanical engineering. Tech-
nological University of Clausthal (subject: 'The coating rings in rotary cement
kilns") in 1973. Since 1974, head of department for fuel and power in the
technical division of Rheinische Kalksteinwerke GmbH, Wulfrath.
Address: Rheinische Kalksteinwerke GmbH, Wilhelmstrasse 77, 5603 Wulfrath,
W. Germany
Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Gernot Schater
Born at Lubeck in 1939. Studied mining and economics at the Technological
University of Aachen, where hetook hisdoctor'sdegree in economics. Since 1974,
managing director of Beumer Maschinenfabrik KG, Beckum, and of the sub-
sidiaries in the U.S.A. and France. PubIications.
Adress: Beumer Maschinenfabrik KG, Oelderstrasse 40, О-4720 Beckum, W. Ger-
тапу
У'
Biographical notes оп the authors
Dr. гег. nat. Heinz-Ulrich Schater
Born at Bietigheim, Wurttemberg, in 1949. Studied geology at the Technological
University of Clausthal, where he took his doctor's degree. From 1971 to 1974,
engaged in basic geological research; then two years in field exploration of rock
and mineral deposits. Since 1976, with КН D Humboldt Wedag AG as process
engineer for raw materials preparation and for the geochemical assessment of
raw materials for cement manufacture.
Address: Pastor-Loh-Strasse 3,4018 Langenfeld, W. Germany
Ing. Dietrich Schmidt
Воrn at Radebeul, Saxony, in 1933. From 1954 to 1960, staff member in the
chemico-mineralogical department of the Research Institute of the Cement 'п­
dustry, Dusseldorf. Then head of laboratory at cement works at Wetzlar and
Hardegsen; studied chemical technology side Ьу side with his professional duties.
Since 1979, works manager of the Hardegsen cement works of Nordcement AG,
Hannover.
Address: Ат Sonnenberg 16, 3414 Hardegsen, W. Germany
Obering. Gunter Schmiedgen
Воrn at Leipzig in 1935. Studied electrical engineering. Since 1955 with the firm
of Siemens, where, since 1972, he has Ьееп in charge of the department for
process engineering and automation for the cement industry. PubIications.
Address: 1т Heuschlag 21,8520 Erlangen, W. Germany
Dipl.-Ing. Horst Schneider
Born at Schlaney in 1925. Studied mlnlng engineering at the Technological
University of Aachen, 1949 to 1954. Then ап assistant in that University's Institute
for Preparatory Processing, Coking and Briquetting. From 1959 to 1961, head of
the cement department in the experimental division of Friedr. Krupp Maschinen-
und Stahlbau, Rheinhausen. From 1961 to 1969, scientific staff member in the
department for plant engineering in the Research Institute of the Cement 'п­
dustry, Dusseldorf. Then technical director of the engineering firm of Gebr.
Hischmann, 1969 to 1977. Since 1977, technical director of О. & К. Orenstein
& Корреl AG, Ennigerloh. PubIications.
Address: О. & К. Orenstein & Корре' AG, Postfach 25, 4722 Ennigerloh, W. Ger-
тапу
Dipl.-Ing. Bergassessor Hermann Schuberth
Born at Kulmbach in 1934. Studied mining at the Clausthal Academy of Mining.
Major government examination 1962. Since 1963, with Rheinische Kalkstein-
werke, Wulfrath, initially as assistant to the works management, then in charge
of opencast mining and preparation engineering; senior departmental head for
processing and planning, also acting works manager, in that firm since 1974.
Address: Metzgeshauser Weg 21, 5603 Wulfrath, W. Germany
VII
Biographical notes оп the authors

Obering. Paul Schwake

Born in 1924. Studied mechanical engineering at the Government School of
Contents
Engineering, Konstanz. From 1949 to 1957, designer with а firm at Krefeld. Since
1957, designer and development manager of Haver & Boecker, Oelde, where А. Introduction.
he has Ьееп head of the research and development department with the rank of Ву В. Kohlhaas
chief engineer since 1968. Appointment to senior managerial status in 1976.
Address: Mozartstrasse 12, 4740 Oelde 1, W. Germany
В. Raw materials . 3
Dipl.-Ing. Eberhard Steinbiss
1. Geology, raw material deposits, requirements applicate to the deposit,
Born at Wiesbaden in 1941. Studied general mechanical engineering at the Tech- exploration of the deposit, boreholes, evaluation of borehole re-
nological University of Darmstadt. 'П 1969, scientific staff member in the Ае­ sults, calculation of reserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
search Institute of the Cement Industry, Dusseldorf. With КНО Humboldt Wedag
AG, Cologne, since 1982. PubIications. Ву H.-U. Schafer
Address: Uerdinger Strasse 25, 4000 Dusseldorf 30, W. Germany 1 Raw materials and quarrying methods . 4
2 Exploration 6
Dipl.-Ing. Horst Хеllег References . . . . . . . . 25
Born at Biberach/Riss in 1935. Studied mechanical engineering at the Tech-
nological University of Stuttgart. Since 1960, production engineer in various 11. Quarrying the raw materials . 27
cement works and in the thermal engineering section of the central technical Ву Н. Schuberth
office of Heidelberger Zement. PubIications.
Address: larchenweg 1,6906 leimen, W. Germany 1 Guidelines for quarrying 28
2 Overburden. . . . . 30
3 Breaking out the rock 32
4 loading . . . . . . 46
5 Haulage . . . . . . 50
6 Mobile crushing plants. 55
7 Site restoration 57
References . . . . . . . 62

111. Raw materials storage, bIending beds, sampling stations. 64

Ву О. Schmidt
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2 Bed bIending theory. . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3 Machinery and process engineering methods. 73
4 Sampling stations 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Ву О. Кпбfеl

1. н istorical introduction 103

11. Raw materials and the raw mix 105

VIII 'Х
Contents Contents

1 Raw materials . 105 4 Supply and identification of cements 163

2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis 109 5 Quality control 165
References 119 6 Suggestions for the use of cements 165
References 166
111. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of the cement burning
process . 119 Х. Cement testing 166
1 Drying 121 1 Fineness 167
2 Dehydration of clay minerals . 121 2 Setting times 168
3 Decomposition of carbonates . 122 3 Soundness 168
4 Solid reactions (reactions below sintering) . 123 4 Strength 169
5 Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (sintering) 123 5 Heat of hydration 169
6 Reactions during cooling . 124 References 170
7 Factors affecting the burning process 125 Cement Standards . 170
References 128 References 171

IV. Portland cement clinker. 128

1 Clinker phases. 128 О. Manufacture of cement. 177
2 Judging the quality of clinker. 133
References 137 1. Materials preparation of cement . 179

V. Ву Н. Schneider and U. Binder

Finish grinding 137
1 The materials involved in finish grinding. 137 1 Primary reduction 179
2 Fineness and particle size distribution 141 References 213
3 Mill atmosphere . 142 2 Size classification 214
4 Grinding aids 144 References 238
References 145 3 Grinding 239
References 266
VI. Storage of cement . 145 4 Roller mills 266
1 Storage in the cement works 145 References 276
2 Storage оп the construction site 146 5 Grinding and drying of coal 277
References 146 References 293

VII. Hydration of cement (setting, hardening, strength) 146 11. Raw meal silos 295
1 General. 146
Ву Н. К. Кlein-Albenhausen
2 Hydration of the clinker phases . 149
3 Hydrogen of slag cements and pozzolanic cements . 153 1 General. 295
References 153 2 Batchwise homogenization . 295
3 Continuous bIending. 297
VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength of 4 Combined systems. 304
portland cement . 153 5 Summary . 304
References 158 References 305

IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control of cements. 158 111. Cement burning technology. 307
1 General. 158 1 Kiln systems. 307
2 Classification and designation of cements 160 Ву Е. SteinbiB
3 Constituents of cements . 163 References 319

Х ХI
Contents
Contents

2 Preheaters and precalcining. 320

Ву Е. Steinbir..
3 Loading of clinker and crushed stone 503
References . . . 4 "Big bag" despatch . . . . . . . . 503
326
3 Clinker cooling 5 Shrink wrapping. . . . . . . . . . 506
328 6 Automation of despatch procedures .
Ву Н. Xeller
512
References . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
417
4 Firing technology 421
Ву Е. Steinbir..
References . . . . 440
5 Refractory linings F. Handling and feeding systems - Continuous conveyors. . . . . . 515
442
Ву О. Opitz Ву F. Mechtold
References . . 458
1. General introduction 515
IV. Clinker storage. 459
11. Belt and band conveyors . 516
Ву В. Kohlhaas 1 Belt conveyors . . . 516
2 Steel band conveyors 523
1 General . 459
2 Forms of construction and space requirements . 459
3 Selection criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111. Bucket elevators. . . . 523
463 1 General explanation . 523
4 Design . 464
5 Filling and emptying silos and other storage structures
2 Belt bucket elevators. 525
465
6 Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles
3 Chain bucket elevators . 529
465
References . 4 Swing bucket elevators. 535
471

V. Cement silos. IV. Chain Conveyors. . . . . 539

472 1 Flight conveyors. . . . 539
Ву Н. К. Кlein-Albenhausen 2 Continuous-flow conveyors 541
3 Аргоп conveyors 543
1 General . 472
2 Large-capacity silos 472
V. Vibratory conveyors 550
References . . . . . 476
VI. Screw conveyors . . 556

Е.
VII. Pneumatic Conveyors 559
Packing and loading for despatch 477

1. Packing . . . . Vi 11. Feeders. . . . . . . 570

477
Ву Р. Schwake 'Х. Weighing equipment . 578
1 Introduction. References . . . . . 582
477
2 Types of packaging 478

11. Despatch of cement . 490

Ву Е. Bomke and G. Schafer G. Process engineering and automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
1 Despatch in sacks. . . . 490 Ву G. Schmiedgen
2 Bulk loading . . . . . . 495
1. G e n e r a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
ХII
ХIII
Contents Contents

11. Measurement and process control . 586 К. Workshops and spare parts store . . 709
1 Measurement . . . 587 Ву В. Kohlhaas
2 Closed loop control . . 591

111. ProgrammabIe controllers. 596

L. Water supply, compressed air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
IV. Monitoring and operation. 600
Ву В. Kohlhaas
V. Process computers. . . . 605 1. Water supply for cement works 717
1 Development and use of process computers 605 1 Estimated quantities required . 717
2 Computerized control centre 608 2 Raw water . 719
3 Hardware and software. 612 3 Supply system. cooling water circuit, water storage . 720
4 Microprocessors. . . 613 4 Waste water disposal 722

VI. Process control system . 614 11. Compressed air supply . 722
References . . . . . . 619

М. Personnel requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

Н. Environmental protection and industrial safety . . . . . . . . . . 621 Ву В. Kohlhaas
Ву G. Funke
1. Environmental protection . 622
1 Prevention of air pollution 622 N. Lubricants, storage and consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 Noise control . . . . . . 658 Ву В. Kohlhaas
3 Ground vibratio!1s due to bIasting . 680
References . . 685 1. General . . . . 729

11. Industrial safety 688 11. Types of lubricants. 730

1 Accident prevention regulations. 688
2 Promotion of safety in cement works 690 111. Storage of lubricants . 730
3 Safety ru les . 692 1 Delivery and handling 730
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 2 Storage . 734
3 Issue of lubricants to consumers 741
4 Distribution of lubricants to the machines 742
J. Maintenance and wear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
IV. Lubricants consumption 743
Ву В. Kohlhaas 743
References . . . . . .
1. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
1 General . 695
О. Firefighting equipment . 744
2 Spares and renewabIe parts planning 696
3 Determining the cost of maintenance 697 Ву В. Kohlhaas
References . . . 704

11. ProbIems of wear 705 Р. Laboratory equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

References . . . 705 Ву В. Kohlhaas

XIV XV
 А. Introduction
Contents

1. Introduction . 749 А. Introduction

752 Ву В. Kohlhaas
11. Proposed outline specification for equipment of individual rooms.

111. Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments. 761 The first edition ofthe Cement Engineers' Handbook was pubIished in 1954. Upto
that time по such reference book for the engineer or technician in cement works
practice had been availabIe. Although four subsequent editions appeared, the
IV. General laboratory apparatus 771
demand for the book continued as brisk as ever. The major developments that had
V. Chemicals......... 779 meanwhile taken place in the cement industry in Germany and other countries
justified the decision to produce an entirely new edition that would take due
account of the latest cement manufacturing technology.
. . . . . 785 The text for this new edition has been written Ьу а team of experts in their
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
respective fields of specialization relating to cement manufacture and the
machinery used at all stages of the process. Some of the chapters have been
substantially enlarged and updated from those contained in the earlier editions of
the Handbook. А number of new chapters have moreover been added. The entire
subject matter has been extensively recast and rearranged, as will Ье apparent from
the comprehensive tabIe of contents. Each chapter is accompanied Ьу а list of
literature references enabIing the reader to consult тоге detailed pubIished
information оп matters of particular interest to him. The names of the authors аге
given at the beginning of the chapters.
The following information оп the sections and chapters into which the book is
divided will help the reader to understand its layout and to use it with greater
convenience.

В. Raw materials
1. Geology, raw material deposits
This section is of especial significance in connection with setting up а new cement
works and ensuring а long-term supply of good-quality raw materials.

11. Quarrying the raw materials

The modern techniques of winning the raw materials Ьу quarrying ог mining
operations аге described. The restoration of worked-out quarry sites in the interests
of landscape conservation also receives attention.

Ш. Raw materials storage

The raw materials needed for cement manufacture are seldom found in the ideal
chemical composition in their natural state. Besides, quarrying operations usually
stop at the week-ends, whereas cement production proceeds continuously. То
соре with the high production rates of modern cement plants and keep them
supplied with materials, capacious intermediate storage facilities аге required, so
as to make the plants independent of the quarry operating rhythm.

XVI
А. Introduction
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

В. Raw materials
After presenting а historica/ introduction, the author of this section deals in detail
with the cement raw materials, their suitability and the calculation of the raw mix
proportions. The chemical, mineralogical and physica/ processes associated with
burning the materials in the kiln аге described.
Portland cement clinker and the assessment of its quality аге discussed. Other
sections deal with cement grinding, storage and hydration. The types and strength
classes of cement, as well as cement testing procedures and associated matters, аге 1. Geology, raw material deposits, requirements
also considered. Finally, some information оп standard specifications for cement аррliсаЫе to the deposit, exploration of the
in various countries is given. deposit, boreholes, evaluation of borehole results,
These matters аге dealt with much more fully than in earlier editions of the CalCiJlation of reserves
Handbook, with the object of giving the mechanical and electrical engineers
(including those concerned with process control and instrumentation) in cement
manufacture а better understanding of the probIems involved. Ву H.-U. Schafer

1 Raw materials and quarrying methods . 4

D. Cement manufacture 2 Exploration . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Exploration procedure . . . . 6
This chapter is devoted to the actual process of making cement. The various stages 2.1.1 Trial pits and surface samples . 7
аге described. The wet process and the shaft kiln аге only briefly considered. Оп the 2.1.2 Drilling . 8
other hand, the dry process with raw meal preheating and the precalcination 2.1.2.1 Соге drilling in limestone. 9
principle аге treated in some detail, as аге the preparation of the raw materials, the 2.1.2.2 Соге barrels 9
storage and homogenization of the raw meal, and the cooling of the cement 2.1.2.3 Flushing media . . . . 11
clinker. 2.1.2.4 Соге drilling in clay . . 12
This latest edition of the Handbook moreover contains up-to-date information оп 2.1.2.5 Treatment of the cores . 12
firing technology, kiln systems and refractory lining construction. 2.1.2.6 Testing of drilled cores . 13
Clinker storage now has а separate section allotted to it. /п view of today's сопсегп 2.1.2.7 Rotary percussive drilling with crawler-mounted machines. 14
with environmental pollution prevention, the dust-free storage of large quantities 2.1.3 Stratigraphic investigations . 14
of clinker is very important. 2.1.4 Tectonics . . . . . 15
Present-day methods of packing and despatch loading аге described (Chap- 2.1.4.1 Limestone deposits . . . 15
ter Е). 2.1.4.2 С/ау component. . . . . 16
Whereas the subject of materials handling and conveying (Chapter F) was rather 2.1.4.3 Overburden investigations 16
summarily dealt with in earlier editions, it has now received much more detailed 2.1.5 Geophysical investigations 17
treatment. Feeding and proportioning аге also included. 2.1.6 Hydrogeological investigations 20
Process engineering and automation аге of such importance in modern cement 2.2 Laboratory investigations. . . 20
manufacturing technology that they have а separate chapter devoted to them, in 2.2.1 Chemical investigations . . . 20
which the principal aspects аге considered in some detail (Chapter G). 2.2.2 Mineralogica/ and petrographic investigations 21
The subjects of environmental protection and industrial safety (Chapter Н) аге 2.2.2.1 Limestone.. . . . . . 21
now likewise fully dealt with in the Handbook for the first time. These аге subjects 2.2.2.2 Clay component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
of great importance in connection with modern cement manufacture, which 2.2.3 Physical investigations. . . . . . . . . . . 22
indeed сап Ье carried out only if the statutory and other requirements relating to 2.3 Evaluation of the resu Its of the investigations. 22
them аге duly complied with. 2.3.1 Geochemical evaluation with quarrying operations planning . 23
The book contains some further chapters devoted to various matters that сопсегп 2.3.2 Calculation and classification of reserves. . 23
the cement works engineer: maintenance and wear; workshops and spare parts 2.4 Organizing ап exploration project. . . . . 24
store; water supply, compressed air; personnel requirements; lubricants; firefight- 2.5 Using а computer in ап exploration project. 25
ing equipment; laboratory equipment. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2
3
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
1 Raw materials and quarrying methods
The raw materials for cement manufactuгe which аге the subject of geological
exploration аге mainly limestones and clays. 'П the geological sense both аге
sedimentary rocks which may occur as hard ог dense material (commonly known
as "rock") ог softer soil deposits. They may Ье of апу geological age. Limestones
mostly occuг in the form of rock, sometimes constituting whole mountainous
formations. 'П Europe, more particularly the Devonian granular limestones, the
Jurassic and Triassic limestones oftheAlpine region and the Cretaceous limestone
deposits аге of importance.
Whereas the limestone deposits of the Precretaceous period аге usually composed
of fossil limestones which in many instances were subjected to metamorphic
change (e.g., marbIes, siliceous limestones), the younger and mostly
Postcretaceous limestones occur both as fossil deposits and as limestone-clay
mixtuгes. The latter аге referred to as lime marl (calcareous marl) ог marl,
depending оп the limestone/clay ratio of the mixture (see Duda, Vol. 1, Section 1).
These limestones also include the so-called natuгal cements in which СаО, Si0 2 ,
АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з аге present in such proportions that the lime standard is around
1 OOand the desired moduli сап Ье obtained bythe addition ofonly small quantities
of corrective materials. Such deposits аге, however, ог гаге оссuггепсе.
The youngest recent and sub-recent limestones include coral limestones, which
occupy in some cases ап intermediate position Ьетееп (consolidated) rock and
unconsolidated material. Deposits of shells, which сап also Ье used in the
manufactuгe of cement clinker, belong to the last-mentioned category.
The clay mineral component used for cement manufacture will generally Ье а soft
ог loose-textuгed material: clays, silts, ог sands with high content of clay minerals.
These materials аге classified according to particle size distribution rather than
mineralogical composition (ТаЫе 1). Rock-type clay materials may occur as clay
slate, shale and (to some extent) crystalline slates. Subject to chemical suitability,
such rocks as granites, gneisses, basalts and basaltic tufas ог pozzolanas may also
serve as clay mineral components.
Additive materials for ciinker production may Ье needed for correcting the
chemical composition of the raw mix, e.g., materials providing Fe, Si0 2 ог АI 2 О з ,
more particularly the most inexpensive ones that сап serve the puгpose, e.g.,
roasted pyrites ог low-grade iron оге, laterite, quartz sand ог quartziferous
weathering products of metamorphic rocks, and bauxite.
ТаЫе 1 : Nomenclature of clay. silt. etc. in accordance with particle size
distribution (DIN 18123)
clay < 0.002mm
silt 0.002-0.063 mm
sand
0.063 - 2.0 mm
gravel
2.0-63mm
stones >63mm
4 5
Quarrying methods
ТаЫе 2: limits imposed оп the MgO content of portland cement
materials Ьу Standards in various countrjes (according to Cembureau.
1968)
Country max. % MgO
Ьу weight
Rumania 2.5
Belgium, Denmark 3
Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Portugal,
Great Britain 4
Australia 4.2
Bulgaria 4.5
Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Finland, France,
German Democratic Аер., Fed. Аер. of Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland. Israel, Japan, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, South Africa. Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Taiwan, Tuгkey, USSR, Venezuela,
Jugoslavia, People's Аер. of China 5
Brazil, Czechoslovakia. India, USA 6
The assessment of the suitability of the raw materials for cement manufactuгe is
based chiefly оп their chemical composition. For limestone components the so-
called lime standard is used as а criterion, giving information оп the СаО content as
well as оп the "hydraulic" constituents Si0 2 , АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з . It is in апу case
preferabIe to assessing the materials merely оп the basis of СаО content.
The rocks to Ье used as clay mineral components сап most suitabIy Ье assessed Ьу
calculation of the silica ratio and the alumina ratio.
For deciding оп the suitability of raw materials it is furthermore essential to perform
mix proportioning calculations in order to ascertain the content of alkalies,
sulphates, chlorides and MgO introduced into the raw mix.
The permissibIe limit values for the content of sulphates, alkalies and chlorides
must Ье conformed to.
The content of magnesium that сап Ье permitted is laid down in standards
which vary from опе country to another (ТаЫе 2).ltwill haveto Ье decided in each
particular case whether anything in excess ofthe standard specified content сап Ье
allowed, since there аге по suitabIe raw materials that fulfil the requirement of, in
most cases, not exceeding about 4-5% MgO (Ьу weight) in the cement. Under
certain circumstances, too, infrastructuгal ог economic reasons may constitute а
deciding factor in justifying а departure from the standard limit.
Exploration of limestone and clay deposits for cement clinker manufacture has
three aims:
(1) verifying the quality of the raw materials;
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
(2) estabIishing the range of variation in quality of the raw materials throughout
the working life of the deposit;
(3) verifying the workabIe reserves of raw materials.
For the technological planning of the machinery for а cement manufacturing plant
it is of major importance to ascertain the ranges of variation of individual raw
material constituents in the deposit throughout the operating life of the plant, for
only in this way сап tгоubIе-fгее operation yielding а final product of good quality
Ье ensured. Variations of relatively short duration, ranging from months up to
about half а уеаг, should also Ье known in good time, so that suitabIe precautions
in terms of machinery and process technology сап Ье taken ог otherwise, in the
ligbt of economic considerations, corrective ingredients that will help maintain а
product of unvarying quality сап Ье quarried ог purchased.
Exploration for limestone and clay mineral components for cement manufacture
mainly comprises geochemical investigations, though the bedding conditions of
the deposit also play ап important part with regard to subsequent planning of
the quarrying operations to meet the raw material requirements of the cement
works.
Besides qualitative conditions, the deposit will also have to fulfil quantitative
conditions more particularly in connection with the method of quarrying ог
digging to Ье employed.
Cement works with clinker outputs of between 1000 and 6000t/day need а raw
material input of 2000 to 12000 t/day (assuming clinker production оп 330 days
and quarrying operations оп 260-280days рег уеаг), about 50-90% of this
quantity being limestone and 10- 50% clay mineral material.
2 Exploration
2.1 Exploration procedure
The exploration procedure will always have to Ье suited to the particular
conditions of the deposit under investigation, so that it is here not possibIe to give
more than а general outline description.
Generally speaking, the exploration of cement-grade deposits will comprise three
stages:
Stage 1: Field inspection of а number of deposits, surface tests, а limited number of
exploratory borings (including core borings, if necessary), simple hydrological and
tectonic investigations, large-area mapping.
The object of this first stage of ап exploration, which сап Ье referred to as
reconnaissance prospecting, is to select опе or more deposits for further detailed
prospecting. In this connection the quality of the deposit is especially important,
while probIems of mining or quarrying are given comparatively little attention at
this stage.
Stage2: Оп completion of the first stage, опе or more deposits are selected for
detailed investigation. ОП the basis of а comprehensive drilling program the
6 7
Exploration procedure: Trial pits and surface samples
deposits аге broadly studied with а view to ascertaining their chemical characteris-
tics over extensive areas. In conjunction with the borings, further investigations are
carried out for determining the bedding conditions, ground water and possibilities
of working the deposit, the object being to assess the suitability of а site for
quarrying or open-cast working. More particularly, the second stage aims to find
the most suitabIe area for siting the quarry or to select the most favourabIe of two or
more deposits potentially availabIe for supplying the raw materials.
Stage 3: This is the stage of detailed exploration, using а grid of closely spaced
boreholes for the purpose of determining chemical properties of the raw material
components and their variations over short distances, in order to gear the process
engineering design of the cement works to these conditions.
Furthermore, special investigations for planning the quarrying operations аге
carried out. The structure of the deposit is studied in detail. In addition, the
possibility of working the material Ьу ripping may, for example, Ье examined. While
these exploratory operations аге in progress, assessment of the results already
availabIe is undertaken, so that апу probIems emerging therefrom сап Ье fed back
to the exploration work and duly taken into consideration. Оп completion of the
third stage of exploration, the deposits are fully known as regards their qualitative,
quantitative and mining or quarrying engineering features and сап Ье got ready for
opening-up.
2.1.1 Trial pits and surface samples
Taking samples from а trial pit is usually а form of surface testing, because it is not
possibIe economically to dig shafts of апу great depth into limestone rock.
Оп the other hand, with clay soils it is possibIe to base the exploration оп а
comprehensive grid of test shafts. However, if the clay deposit is of substantial
thickness, it is better to use drilling techniques, as the digging of deep shafts is very
expensive.
Mostly а combination of the two methods is adopted.
With limestone, pits аге dug in places where the solid rock is covered Ьу other
material which has to Ье removed in order to expose the limestone for testing. Such
exploration also affords ап opportunity of testing the overlying material and
assessing its possibIe usefulness.
When the surface of the rock has Ьееп exposed Ьу excavation, or if it occurs as ап
outcrop, material for examination сап Ье sampled in two ways: either as spot
samples from а locally limited агеа of exploration or as continuous samples taken
along а line (or а long exploration trench) extending at right angles to the strike.
With continuous sampling it is important that the samples should Ье properly
representative of the rock strata under investigation. This сап most simply Ье
achieved Ьу excavating а cut from which, for approximately unvarying cross-
section, а constant quantity of sample material per unit length is obtained.
If а cut is too expensive or indeed impracticabIe, it will alternatively Ье necessary to
take from the strata in question а sample quantity which bears ап appropriate
relation to their depth and extent.
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
When а trial excavation is made, sampling and testing should, as far as possibIe,
not Ье confined just to the surface of the limestone, but should extend down to at
least below the top weathered layer of rock. 'П most cases this will require the aid of
а heavy excavator ог rock breaking hammers and а compressor. 'П young chalk
limestones ог corallimestones а ripper ог even lighter equipment тау suffice for
the purpose.
'П апу case it must Ье investigated whether the limestone is liabIe to undergo
changes in its chemical character as а result of atmospheric influences, weathering,
circulating underground water, ог ground water occurring close to the surface. In
the last-mentioned case the chemical properties of the ground water аге also of
considerabIe importance.
If clay occurs in the form of а loose-textured soil-type deposit, exploratory
excavations (trial pits, etc.) сап Ье made with simple means. The stability of the
walls of such excavations should Ье given due attention in view of the danger to
теп working in the excavation, ог to machines stand ing at the edge thereof, arising
from а sudden collapse of а wall. If necessary, timbering will have to Ье installed.
The arrangement of trial pits and trenches in clay is similar in principle to that in
limestone. The same is true of the sampling procedures.
It is advantageous to have hermetically closabIe jars ог canisters availabIe for
storage of the rock ог soil samples with their in situ moisture content
because тоге particularly with clays the moisture conditions аге important i~
deciding what type of preparatory processing machines will have to Ье used.
Where excavating machinery is used for digging the trial pits, the experience thus
gained сап provide useful indications with regard to the p/anning of the future
quarrying operations (Iumpiness, stickness, distintegration, suitability for ехса­
vation Ьу means of power shovels, wheel loaders, etc.).
2.1.2 Drilling
The selection of the most suitabIe drilling ог boring method in terms of technical
suitability and also of есопоту is the fundamental condition for successful
exploration. 'П the main, there аге three drilling techniques to choose from:
soli~-bit drilling ~i.th re~oval of ~he cuttings Ьу circulating water ог other flushing
m~dlum; соге dГIIIIП~ wlth contlnuous соге extraction; percussive rotary drilling
wlth removal of cuttlngs Ьу means of compressed air.
?oli~-bit drilling with rotary bits and removal of cuttings with the flushing medium
IS sUltabIe only in exceptional cases for exploratory drilling in solid rock deposits. If
this method is used, it should Ье known in advance whether it will not cause
changes in the chemical character of the samples, е. g., Ьу the dissolving of solubIe
compounds (alkali chlorides, for example) ог Ьу failing to reveal the presence of
marl strata ог clay enclosed within the rock under investigation.
Similar considerations аге applicabIe to percussive rotary drilling with crawler-
mounted machines of the type used for the drilling of bIastholes. This method is
unsuitabIe for deposits consisting of loose-textured ог soil-type deposits.
Соге drilling is the most reliabIe method of obtaining samples for assessment. 'П
this technique а continuous соге is extracted over the full depth of the hole, so that,
8 9
Exploration procedure: Drilling
if the drilling operations аге carried out Ьу suitabIy experienced personnel, the
geologist сап obtain full information of all details of the limestone deposit at all
levels below the surface.
2.1.2.1 Соге drilling in limestone
For successful exploration with the aid of соге drilling the correct choice of drill
bits, соге barrels and f/ushing media is of major importance.
For соге borings in limestone the diameter should Ье not less than 75 тт. With
smaller соге diameters there is а risk that jammed cores will pulverize thin soft
intermediate strata, that the hole will Ье choked Ьу caving and that material from
some strata тау Ье removed along with the flushing medium.
Ап иррег limit to the соге diameter is imposed Ьу considerations of есопоту.
Diameters of 120 тт and upwards аге seldom used, except under critical
conditions where drilling has to Ье done with water flush in porous rock and, Ьу
employing а large diameter, washing-out of solubIe compounds сап Ье prevented
at least in the interior ofthe соге. ОП the other hand, cores which аге too small will
make the evaluating geologist's task тоге awkward, while the halves into which
the соге specimens аге split for the purpose of possibIe supplementary ог follow-
ир tests аге then rather unsuitabIe for the purpose.
The choice of а suitabIe drill bit will depend оп the rock itself: the bedding,
fissuring and tectonic characteristics of the deposit, and the abrasiveness of the
rock. Carbide-tipped as well as diamond drill bits аге used. With large diameters
and heavily fissured rock the risk that parts of the соге will tilt and jam in the соге
barrel is greaterwith carbide bits; besides, the соге is тоге exposed to the action of
the flushing medium than with diamond bits. 'П such cases the choice of the most
suitabIe bit will depend оп the foreman-driller's experience.
2.1.2.2 Со ге barrels
Three types of соге barrel аге availabIe from which to make а choice:
the single tube, the doubIe tube and the wire line type. 'П addition, there аге special
types of barrel, which тау have to Ье used under exceptionally difficult
conditions.
The three types аге illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. The single tube Ьаггеl is
provided, пеаг its bottom end just above the bit, with а соге catcher ring which
grips the drilled соге during extraction of the drill rod and thus prevents it from
dropping down the hole. The basic condition for successfully using the single tube
Ьаггеl is that the rock is of such а kind (massive and uniformly strong) that а соге
сап indeed Ье drilled from it. If the limestone is composed ofthin plate-like strata ог
if it easily disintegrates during drilling, there will Ье а risk that part of the со ге will
fall back into the hole оп extraction. Furthermore, in such cases the geological and
geochemical assessment and analysis of the sample is rather difficult, since the
sample consists merely of fragments which make it impossibIe to саггу out all the
necessary obseгvations in detail. Another and very serious drawback of the single
tube is that the соге is enveloped in а flow of flushing medium along its entire
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
Exploration procedure: Drilling

length, so that, especially if water flush is employed, fine stone chippings and апу
sandy, silty ог clayey inclusions аге likely to Ье washed out.
With the doubIe tube type of соге barrel the inner tube is connected through ball
bearings to the outer tube and therefore does not revolve with the latter (which
carries the drill bit). In this way the соге remains at rest and thus substantially
undistuгbed. The most important advantage of the doubIe tube, however, is that
the соге is not enveloped in the flushing medium, which is, instead, forced through
the annular space between the inner and the outer tube. The соге comes into
contact with the flushing medium only at the lower end of the barrel, where the
inner tube terminates and а gap for the passage of the medium exists between the
two tubes. Because of this limited агеа of contact, very little of the соге is washed
out, though of course some dissolving of solubIe constituents in this агеа cannot
Ье avoided.
2 з
SрШflUssigkеi I
flushing medium (fluid)
Special doubIe tube соге barrels аге equipped with bits which аге so designed that
the flushing medium does not emerge from the gap between the inner and the
outer tube, but is discharged to the outside before ог within the cutting edge of the
bit. Inside the bit (Fig. 1) the inner tube is in such close contact with it, that
practically по water сап get to the со ге sample.
If borings аге carried out in very soft and shattered material (though firm enough to
епаЫе а stabIe hole to Ье drilled), it is possibIe to use а special doubIe tube соге
barrel in which а third tube, made of plastic, сап Ье inserted into the inner tube. The
соге is then removed together with the plastic tube from the barrel, so that а
substantia/ly undisturbed sample for assessment is obtained.
If the deposit consists of material in which it is not possibIe drill а stabIe hole even
with mud flush, а wire line barrel сап Ье used.
With thewire line barrel thewhole drill rod isofthe same diameter as the соге barrel
itself. The inner tube, however, is not permanently connected to the outer tube Ьу
ball bearings, but is gripped in it Ьу means of а catch mecha~ism. Wh~n t.he /e~gth
of соге corresponding to the length of the barrel has Ьееп drllled, а wlre /lПе wlth а
kind of grapple is lowered into the hole and releases the catch, enabIing the tube
containing the соге sample to Ье drawn up. This procedure offers the advantage
that the drill rod need not Ье extracted in order to extract the sample from the hole,
so that the risk of caving and bIockage of the hole is obviated. Besides, the
operation of extracting the соге tube takes less time than it does with the other
systems. There аге also special wire line соге barrels in which the flushing medium
emerges before the cutting edge of the bit, so that there is hardly апу contact
between the соге and the medium.

i 2.1.2.3 Flushing media

f Kernrohr
AuBenrohr
ouler lube
The choice of the flushing medium for borings in limestone is of major importance
in connection with the subsequent geochemical investigation of the samples.
It has already Ьееп noted that with а fluid medium for flushing the borehole there is
а risk that clay and marl strata, as well as sand and silt inclusions, will Ье washed

~
I соге Ьаггеl
out and that solubIe constituents of the limestone willlikewise Ье lost. 'П principle,
а distinction is to Ье drawn between air and liquid flushing media. 'П all cases air
I flush is preferabIe, because it ensures that по constituents will Ье removed Ьу
washing ог dissolving action. With air flush it is often unnecessary to use а doubIe

U
tube соге barrel, for in the single tube the samle is enveloped only in а stream of air,
though admittedly the rate of drill bit wear is then higher.
With water flush the pressure of the water should Ье kept as low as possibIe. The
higher the pressure, the greater is the risk of disturbing the sample Ьу washing out
~~~~C:;~~~J SpUlflUssigkeit some of the material. For the purpose under consideration water is the only suitabIe
flushing medium (f(uid) liquid flushing medium ог otherwise only such media whose constituents сап
afterwards, in the chemical analysis of the rock samples, unambiguously Ье
Fig.1 : Types ofcore Ьапеl: single tube barrel (1), doubIetube barrel (2),
identified as having originated from the flushing medium.
grapple device (3) with wire line barrel (4) (based оп information from
Atlas Сорсо) In connection with water flush, the porosity of the limestone is of major
importance. In апу case the water used for the purpose should Ье analysed to make
10
11
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
it possibIe subsequently to draw conclusions as to апу effect that it may have had
оп the samples. For example, if salt water is employed, it will in апу case Ье difficult
to distinguish between the alkali content of the limestone and the alkali introduced
with the flushing water.
In highly porous limestone which сап Ье suspected of having а high content of
alkali, chlorine and sulphate the соге drilling technique with air flush is the only
possibllity of obtaining suitabIe samples for geochemical investigation.
2.1.2.4 Соге drilling in clay
Ifthe clay mineral componentfor cement manufacture occurs in the form of а solid
rock (shale, slate, etc.), the same drilling techniques as for limestone сап Ье
applied. However, if it occurs as non-cohesive soil, other methods will have to Ье
chosen. 'П such cases, as а rule, percussive drilling will Ье used and the hole will Ье
cased as drilling proceeds, so as to prevent caving оп extraction of the rod. The
sar:npling device used in borings of this type is usually а spoon sampler which, оп
ЬеlПg extracted, closes its lower end and thus prevents the soil sample from falling
out. The sample obtained in this way is distuгbed, however, so that the information
it gives оп bedding conditions, fissuгing, etc. may Ье questionabIe.
This technique сап also Ье applied to cohesive soils, but in such soils it is
alternatively possibIe to use а rotary drill, equipped with а carblde-tipped blt. If
undistuгbed samples аге required, а соге barrel of the doubIe tube type сап Ье
used. 'п many instances, however, а single tube соге barrel will adequately serve
the puгpose if water flush сап Ье dispensed with. Drilling operations аге liabIe to Ье
particularly difficult, even if little water is used, in clays containing minerals whict1
swell and thus cause а narrowing of the hole. Under such conditions it is certainly
necessary to case the hole directly above the drill blt.
Drilling in loose-textuгed ог friabIe material should, if at all possibIe, Ье performed
without а flushing medium.
'П especially difficult cases the drilling operations may Ье carried out with doubIe
tube соге barrels ог wire line barrels equipped with а plastic inner tube for
enclosing the sample. The plastic tube is withdrawn along with the sampled
material and serves also as its container for despatch to the laboratory.
2.1.2.5 Treatment of the cores
The cores extracted from the boreholes аге stored in boxes. If they аге to Ье
transported ~s freight over long distances, the boxes should Ье made of suitabIy
strong materlal and strengthened with metal. Cores obtained from loose-textured
deposits should additionally Ье protected in plastic bags.
1n the field, the cores should Ье recorded Ьу the geologist directly апег their
removal from the соге barrel. Such records сап most suitabIy Ье supplemented Ьу
colouг photographs of each соге. Fields records should Ье as comprehensive as
pos.sibIe so as to епаЫе the samples also to Ье correlated with апу supplementary
borlngs that may Ье made later ог with the actual conditions encountered оп
12
Exploration procedure: Drilling
opening-up the quarry. The drilling report should contain technical data relating to
the drilling operations and also geological data, so that, when the geochemical
tests results become availabIe, а complete diagram for each borehole is obtained.
Each report should contain information оп the location, altitude of the starting
point and designation of the borehole. For each drilling depth, the diameter of the
hole, the type of соге barrel, the type of blt and change of blt, amount of соге ге­
covered, flushing losses and rate of drilling progress should Ье noted. With the aid
of this information it will, in the event of subsequent additional investigations, Ье
possibIe to discuss whether drilling сап Ье done more easily and cheaply with
different equipment. Fuгthermore, the foreman-driller should keep а record of the
ease ог difficulty with which the rock сап Ье drilled. Although this is а matter of
subjective judgment, it сап facilitate the work of correlating the profiles in rock of а
macroscopically very uniform character.
The correct geological description of the samples comprises the designation of the
type of rock penetrated, the colouг of the rock, its granularity, information оп
inclusions of foreign rock ог mineral inclusions, porosity and hardness, bedding,
fissuгing, and information оп апу faults encountered.
Fuгthermore, each drilling report should record the samples taken from the соге
drilling run, unless the соге is divided and опе half is retained for possibIe futuгe
reference. If information оп approximate stratigraphic classification is availabIe,
this too should Ье included in the report. Under certain circumstances, field tests
may Ье performed оп the cores in order to check the СаСО з content ог the
suspected presence of MgO. The results of these tests аге likewise to Ье added to
the report. А graphic representation of the conditions encountered is in апу case
necessary.
2.1.2.6 Testing of drilled cores
For the puгpose of testing, the cores аге divided into sections оп the basis of
macroscopic criteria. Each section is then subdivided into portions for analysis,
with due regard to the method of quarrying to Ье employed. In the case of а
relatively thin deposit, i.e., of limited depth, which will have to Ье worked Ьу
ripping (ог if ripping has to Ье applied for other reasons), the length of the analysis
portions should not exceed twice the ripping depth.
Оп the other hand, if benching is to Ье employed, the portions for complete
analysis should not Ье more than 5 m long.
If at а" possibIe, the соге should Ье divided in halves, опе half being retained for
futuгe reference, while the other is sent to the laboratory. Cores of very large
diameter may also Ье quartered.
If such division of the соге is not possibIe, the whole соге must Ье despatched to
the laboratory, where it may have to Ье comminuted Ьу crushing. 'П such cases the
соге portions should not exceed 1 m in length, in order to keep down the cost of
analysis (see below).
13
 В. Raw materials /. Geology, deposits
2.1.2.7 Rotary percussive drilling with crawler-mounted machines
То supplement the соге borings and to fill in the network of boreholes in solid rock
deposits, additional drilling сап Ье carried out inexpensively with the aid of а
c~awler-mounted drilling machine, of the type used also for the drilling of large-
dlameter holes for bIasting.
The. drill bit, operating Ьу rotary percussive action, shatters the rock, and the
cuttlngs аге removed from the hole Ьу air issuing from the bit.
The dust carried out of the hole with this flushing air сап Ье trapped in а dust
coll.ector, which is mounted оп the drilling machine. It comprises а cyclone in
whJch the coarser particles аге precipitated, while the finer ones аге retained
in special filters. The suction extractor is connected to а flexibIe tube which
terminates in а plastic sleeve forming ап airtight closure over the mouth of the
?orehole, so that all the dust сап Ье collected. For testing the samples it is
~mportant not only to analyse the dust precipitated in the cyclone, but also to
Include the fine particles trapped in the filter equipment.
With borings of this type it often occurs that the dust is collected without the aid of
а suction extractor, merely Ьу p/acing а sheet of plastic around the top of the hole
and collecting the dust, discharged from the hole, оп this sheet. This method is to
Ье .c~ndemned,.u.nl.ess the object of such borings is merely to obtain approximate
gUldlng dat~ ог If It IS desired, quickly to obtain details of the chemical composition
at опе partlcular point in а deposit оп which reliabIe information is already
availabIe.
Clay intercalations, sand inclusions ог soft moist limestone strata аге forced aside
Ьу the rotary percussive drill bit and remain sticking to the wall of the borehole, so
~hat а p~opeг sample of such material is not obtained. Nor is it possibIe to get
Iпfогmаtюп оп the presence of апу cavities in the rock. The most serious drawback
of rotary percussive dri/ling, however, is that it offers по possibility of sampling the
rock as such and thus forming а reliabIe picture of the occurrence of limestone in
the deposit under investigation.
2.1.3 Stratigraphic investigations
~п prospecting for raw materials for the manufacture of cement only secondary
Importanc~ attaches to stratigraphic investigations, because the suitability of the
raw materlals depends mainly оп chemical features and is not confined to апу
particular geological age.
Acco.r~in~ly, stratigraphic investigations аге usually limited to macroscopic
сlаSSlflсаtюп of the drilled cores and to assigning characteristic datum horizons for
correlating the individual соге borings.
Моге important, оп the other hand, is the chemostratigraphic examination of the
borehole profiles, especially if the deposit appears to Ье of а very unvarying
character оп the evidence of field observations and of the cores.
Quite often it is only in this way that differences in facies аге ascertainabIe which
would otherwise remain undetected. Such differences тау nevertheless Ье of
considerabIe importance in connection with the subsequent planning of the
14
Exploration procedure: Tectonics
quarrying operations, e.g., if the average СаО content of the limestone is only
about 46% and there is а marked shift to lime marl facies.
2.1.4 Tectonics
Of greater importance than stratigraphic investigations in the present context аге
investigations оп the bedding conditions and structure of the deposit. The precise
interpretation of these factors constitutes the basis for the reliabIe geochemical
evaluation of the results of the borings and for planning the quarrying
procedure.
2.1 .4.1 Limestone deposits
The investigation begins with surveying the availabIe exploration points relating to
the deposit. The bedding features and апу faults affecting them сап Ье observed
and measured there. Particular attention should Ье paid to "micro-tectonics", i.e.,
the structural characteristics and their variations within distances of the order of а
few metres ог indeed of decimetres, since such characteristics сап Ье of major
importance in determining the alignment of the quarry face. Furthermore, the
exploration points provide information оп the presence of апу strain zones which
manifest themselves in variations in bed depth ог which have caused foliation of
the limestone.
Fracturing and faults which extend as тоге ог less straight planes through the
limestone аге important in connection with further planning. Young limestone
deposits, in particular, аге often penetrated Ьу such fractures whose faces аге often
crusted with calcite and coated with а thin 'ауег of clay. Such planes should receive
particular attention in quarry p/anning, because ground vibrations due to bIasting
аге liabIe to cause subsequent rock slips along these p/anes, resulting in sudden
collapse of large portions of the quarry face.
If the exploration points availabIe for the deposit аге not sufficient to permit
complete mapping of its structural features, photogeological mapping тау Ье
helpful, provided that aerial photographs in the scale range from 1: 5000 to
1 : 15 000 аге obtainabIe and the vegetation оп the terrain does indeed allow
photogeological interpretation.
Another valuabIe aid in assessing the structural conditions of the deposit is
provided Ьу the results of borings. For these, correlation сап Ье based primarily оп
the stratigraphic description of the individual borings. Such correlation must not
wait till the drilling operations have Ьееп completed, but should proceed at the
same time as those operations, in order to monitor and, if necessary, correct the
locations chosen for the further exploratory boreholes in the light of the structural
assessments.
Interpretation of the macroscopic stratigraphic соге drilling records is linked to
рюfilе sections along the network of boreholes and to maps indicating the depths
at which particular stratigraphic horizons occur. 'П this way а good idea of the
structure of а deposit сап Ье obtained, which сап Ье supplemented with the results
of geochemica/ investigations.
15
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits Exploration procedure: Geophysical investigations

The chemical data of each borehole, like the stratigraphic details, are recorded in For interpreting and evaluating the overburden investigations it is most suitabIe to
profiles and sub-surface contour maps, so that then, Ьу combination of the two use а тар оп which lines of equal overburden depth have Ьееп drawn, unless the
sets of evaluated data, the tectonic and the geochemical structure of the deposit is depth is uniform and very small.
clearly apparent.
The tectonic data are especially important in а case where, as а result of secondary
2.1.5 Geophysical investigations
actions, changes in the chemical properties of the limestone have occurred оп
either side of а fault. Although such variations are of а locally limited character, they Hammer bIow and geo-electric methods represent two simple geophysical
are liabIe to cause entirely different raw meal conditions for а time during quarry techniques which сап Ье used with relatively little effort and expense for
operation and material processing. determining the depth of overburden, the thickness of consolidated and uncon-
solidated strata, the detection of waterbearing strata, and ascertaining the ground
2.1.4.2 Clay component water tabIe. 'П addition, determination of the velocity of sound transmission in the
ground provides indications as to whether the material сап Ье broken out Ьу
If the clay component occurs as а solid rock-type material, the requirements
ripping.
applicabIe to the tectonic investigations are the same as those for limestone.
The hammer bIow method is especially suitabIe in cases where the depth of
'П deposits consisting of softer material а thorough tectonic investigation is more
exploration is limited to 10-15 т. The seismic shock (setting up а vibration in the
particularly necessary if adjacent or underlying strata show а distinct deviation
ground) is produced with а heavy hammer which automatically switches оп the
from the chemical character of the clay mineral component. Furthermore, water-
electronic measuring equipment. А seismic detector (geophone) responds to the
bearing horizons affected Ьу faults тау Ье encountered during excavation. Also,
ground movements and displays them оп ап oscillograph. The time it takes for the
the stability of slopes is often affected Ьу tectonic conditions, which тау give rise
first shock wave to travel from the hammer to the detector is measured (Fig. 2). If
to difficulties in excavating the material, especially in countries with heavy
the distance from the hammer to the detector is large enough, the wave produced
rainfall.
Ьу the hammer will Ье refracted at the stratum boundary оп penetrating into the
underlying material, more particularly the bedrock. The distance between the
2.1.4.3 Overburden investigations
hammer and the detector is progressively increased, and in each position the wave
The layer of material which overlies the deposit should Ье included in the propagation time is measured.
investigation, in order to decide whether such material is to Ье discarded as useless
overburden or сап Ье utilized in the production process, e.g., as part of the clay

'L::==_..
mineral component or as а sand admixture.
The overburden сап Ье investigated with shallow borings, soundings (penetration
testing) or trial trenches.
Sampling is done Ьу the same methods as those for loose rock or soil.
If the overburden is solid rock or similar consolidated material, it is especially
important to assess its potential usefulness, for otherwise its removal as mere waste
is bound to Ье а cost-intensive operation (e.g., Ьу bIasting). 5
If the object is only to investigate the depth of overburden, geophysical methods
сап advantageously Ье applied. 'П а case where the overburden is of а loose or
fairly soft character, seismic measurements, more particularly Ьу means of the 578
hammer bIow technique, are very suitabIe, as they сап Ье performed quickly and
inexpensively. However, this technique does require а relatively level surface ofthe У,
limestone. If the surface is very irregular, e.g., as а result of underground water
percolation, this method of investigation cannot Ье used. The application of the
hammer bIow technique in conjunction with penetration tests is especially to Ье
recommended.
With greater overburden thicknesses it is alternatively possibIe to use а geo-electric
method (based оп contrasts in the electrical resistivity of strata), which сап Ье very
effective more particularly when used in combination with the hammer bIow Fig. 2: Propagation and refraction of seismic waves, and time-distance
technique. diagram

16 17
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits Exploration procedure: Geophysical investigations

The results аге, to begin with, represented graphically, the propagation time being ТаЫе З: Seismic velocities
plotted against the hammer-to-detector distance. The points in the graph аге
connected to опе another Ьу straight lines which show changes in slope according residual (weathered) soil 300- 600 m/s
to the number of strata involved. The reciprocals of the slopes of these lines sand, gravel, dry 450- 900m/s
correspond to the wave velocities in the respective strata. The velocities сап most sand, gravel, wet 600-1500 m/s
quickly Ье calculated from the linear regression of the measured values, omitting clay 750-1500 m/s
the values close to the "breaks" (changes in direction) because those values аге shale 1200 - 2000 m/s
unreliabIe оп account of transition effects: limestone 1600-3000 m/s
sandstone 1600-4000 m/s
у = Вх +А where у = time axis (t)
х = distance axis (s)

Another geophysical method, somewhat тоге elaborate as regards its application

and interpretation, is that of geo-electric exploration, which has а substantially
greater range in depth (to about 150-200т). А distinction is drawn between
1 geo-electric mapping, comprising substantial areas of the subsoil, and soundings
v, =в v = velocity in the stratum. which give in-depth information at specific exploration points.
In both cases the so-called four-point arrangement is usually adopted (Fig.3),
comprising ап outer pair of electrodes Е to which а voltage is applied and ап inner
When the lines have Ьееп calculated, their intersections сап Ье determined and the pair of electrodes S (probes) across which the resulting voltage is measured.
distances from these "breaks" оп the graph to the origin (point О) then Ье worked In the sounding technique, the distance between the electrodes is progressively
out. With this distance and the velocities in the two strata it is possibIe to find the increased, so that changes in the electric potential distribution in the ground occur
depth at which the interface ог boundary surface of the strata is located: and аге measured, thus enabIing the apparent resistance to Ье calculated.
The potential distribution in the ground depends substantially оп the thickness of
the strata with equal electrical resistivity.
О,=-
Хк , ~2-V,
--- If strata differing in their resistivity аге present, the pattern of potential distribution
2 V 2 + v, at the surface of the ground is altered. The interpretation of the results of the

where D = depth of interface

Хк = distance from "break" to point О

Vn = velocity in stratum п.

Since this method of seismic exploration operates with only а limited input of
energy for producing the ground vibrations, it сап Ье used only for depths not
exceeding about 10-15 m and comprising not тоге than three strata. For greater
depths it will Ье necessary to use explosive charges for producing the vibrations.
The advantage of the hammer bIow method is that the equipment with the cabIes
and accessories weighs only about 25 kg and that, operated Ьу опе ог two теп, it is
easily possibIe to measure 10-15 profiles а day. Quite often this method сап
suitabIy Ье used for the mapping of sand ог marl horizons ог the ground water tabIe
in clay deposits.
Ап important requirement is that the velocities in the respective strata (ТаЫе 3) аге
sufficiently far apart, i.e., differing in magnitude, to епаЫе them to Ье reliabIy Fig. З: Current paths and potential distribution in geo-electric
distinguished from опе another. measurements (Е = electrodes. S = probes)

18 19
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
measurements with progressively increasing electrode distances enabIes the
resistivity and thickness of the individual strata to Ье determined.
If geo-electric mapping is required, the electrode spacings аге kept constant and
the whole set-up is moved along to different locations. 'П this way а тар showing
lines of equal resistivity is obtained, e.g., enabIing large sand inclusions, the
surface of а water-bearing stratum ог the undersurface of а raw material deposit to
Ье mapped.
2.1.6 Hydrogeological investigations
For planning the quarrying operations it is necessary to know the ground water
level оп the site to Ье worked. The most convenient method of obtaining this
information is observing the water level in the boreholes. If the water flush
technique is used, it is necessary to wait some time until the water introduced into
the hole during drilling has dispersed. In апу case, the water level observations
should Ье continued over а full уеаг, so as to include seasonal variations.
Hydrogeological observations аге liabIe to Ье particularly elaborate in limestone
deposits with karst characteristics, where а comprehensive network of water level
observation points will Ье needed. If the boreholes fail to provide adequate
information оп ground water level, geo-electric soundings тау Ье employed,
which тау moreover Ье supplemented Ьу geo-electric mapping of the ground
water tabIe.
2.2 Laboratory investigations
2.2.1 Chemical investigations
Besides the borings, the chemical investigations associated with ап exploration
project of the kind described here аге responsibIe for the major part of the expense
involved. This being so, it is desirabIe to use every possibIe means of working
economically Ьу suitabIy classifying the samples.
For the evaluation of ап exploration project for the detection of raw materials for
the cement industry it is, as а rule, necessary to know the content of each of the
following: 5i0 2 ,АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з , (Тi0 2 ), СаО, MgO, 50 з , К 2 О, Na 20, С' and Р205'
Under certain circumstances it will also Ье necessary to determine the content of
organic matter in the limestone and in the clay mineral component, because it
tends to undergo oxidation in the preheater and thus, Ьу causing reduction of
Fе 2 О з , give rise to incrustations which tend to clog the equipment.
The samples аге divided into sections оп the basis of macroscopic criteria. There is,
however, а risk that variations which тау Ье important in connection with quarry
operations planning remain undetected within апу particular portion for analysis.
For this reason the samples will preferabIy Ье subdivided into portions of 1 m
length for processing into the actual samples for analysis. For each of these 1 m
samples the total carbonate content is first determined, in order thus to obtain
information оп the variations of the most important constituents, namely, СаО and
20
Exploration procedure: Laboratory investigations
MgO in the limestone, 5i0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з in the clay mineral component. 'П
testing the limestone the amount of residue insolubIe in НС' shou Id always also Ье
stated, because this residue тау contain minerals which significantly affect the
MgO content.
After the results for the 1 m portions have Ьееп determined, mixtures of the
availabIe samples сап Ье prepared, thus providing composite samples comprising
several metres of borehole depth. Complete analyses аге performed оп these. For
this purpose it тау, to begin with, suffice to perform only а limited number of such
analyses for overall guidance,. If these show the alkali content Ье to Ье
substantially uniform, the alkali analyses тау Ье reduced in number so as to
comprise even larger sample quantities, i.e., representative of material from а
greater length of borehole. In апу case the compounds 5i0 2, АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з , СаО
and MgO should Ье determined only for sample sections of such size that it is
possibIe to alter the quarry operations planning according to the geochemical
requirements. For example, if а bench height of 15 m is intended, it is, with sections
of 5 т, possibIe to shift the level of а bench upwards ог downwards, in order thus to
keep the quarrying geared to, as far as possibIe, equal geochemical conditions.
Х-гау fluorescence analysis has proved very useful for analysing relatively large
quantities of limestone and clay samples in а short time. The alkali and the sulphate
content will have to Ье checked Ьу wet chemical analysis, however, because the
results of Х-гау fluorescence analysis tend to Ье unreliabIe except when such
analysis is performed Ьу very experienced personnel. Wet analysis will in апу case
Ье needed for determining the chloride content.
2.2.2 Mineralogical and petrographic investigations
2.2.2.1 Limestone
Iп connection with the exploration of limestone for cement manufacture,
mineralogical and petrographic investigations have а less important part to play
than chemical investigations.
Quite often the limestone occurs in а natural mixture with clay, and in such cases
the designation тау Ье based оп the chemical analysis, using the nomenclature
given Ьу KLihl (1958) (cf. Vol.ll, Chapter 2 of his book "Zement-Chemie").
М ineralogical investigations аге of interest if the aim is to separate the raw material
into lime-rich and clay-mineral-rich components respectively (е. g., for the
manufacture of white cement clinker, involving the removal of the constituents
containing Fе 2 О з ).
5uch investigations assume greater importance in dealing with siliceous lime-
stones. For such materials it is necessary to ascertain the distribution of the quartz
in the limestone matrix. The type of intergrowth and the grain size of the
constituents сап Ье determined in thin sections under the microscope.
The residue insolubIe in НС' should also Ье examined. This сап most simply Ье
done Ьу dissolving away the calcareous matter with monochloro acetic acid ог
formic acid, followed Ьу Х-гау examination of the residual material.
Furthermore, the distribution of dolomite сап Ье investigated Ьу means of staining
21
В. Raw materials 1. Geoiogy, deposits Exploration procedure: Evalutions of the results of the investigations

methods applied to thin sections. However, for practical purposes of assessing ~aw 2.3.1 Geochemical evaluation with quarrying operations planning
material deposits it is usually simpler to obtain this information Ьу chemlcal
The first step, in conjunction with planning the quarrying operations, consists in
analysis. . determining the average chemical composition. Then follows the calculation of the
In addition, mineralogical information сап Ье very useful in predicting the severlty
raw mix composition. With the results of this calculation the proportion of
of wear that will occur in the crushing and grinding machinery.
limestone from the first quarry bIock required in the mix сап Ье determined. Опсе
\п тапу cases the quickest way to obtain adequate information оп the miner~logi­
this value has Ьееп determined, the precise working life of the bIock сап Ье
cal composition is Ьу Х-гау examination of the fine structure of the materlal.
calculated.
It is possibIe that the composition of the materials, other than limestone, added to
2.2.2.2 Clay component the mix will undergo some change during this period of time, so that а shift in the
mix proportions will occur. This must of course Ье taken into account, so that
Mineralogical and petrographic investigations оп the clay m.ineral co~pone~t ~гe
during the excavation of the first bIock it тау well Ье that variations in the daily
of interest both in the choice of preparatory processing machlnery and In obtalnlng
quantities of limestone produced will Ье necessary.
information оп the burning behaviour of the material in the kiln.
Similar considerations apply to variations in the composition of the limestone itself.
In both cases the mineralogical form ofthe silica, determined Ьу chemical analysis,
If, for example, а very marly limestone is encountered in а fault zone, it will have to
plays а significant part. Large amounts of free quartz will cause heavy mechanical
Ье ascertained how much higher-grade limestone from another part of the quarry
wear Ьу abrasive action and will, in contrast with the clay minerals, Ьесоте
will have to Ье added in order to obtain the required raw mix composition. It тау
reactive only at high temperatures.
indeed occur that, as а result of such changes in the chemical characteristics of the
Swelling clays аге liabIe to cause troubIe in storage and in extraction from storage
limestone, the addition of clay to the raw mix сап Ье entirely dispensed with for
containers ог stockpiles.
fairly long intervals. In that case there must of course Ье sufficient plant availabIe
Information оп the mineralogical mode of occurrence of alkalies, sulphates and
for producing, handling and preparing the extra limestone required. This extra
chlorides сап provide clues to possibIe circulations involving these substances
demand for limestone will reduce the working life of the quarry in comparison with
in the cement plant. the initial estimate.
These investigations сап most simply Ье carried out Ьу Х-гау methods.
If, in such cases, operations planning is based оп average values over long periods,
Alternatively, differential thermal analysis has proved very suitabIe for the
it тау occur that the quarry machinery capacity originally provided will turn out to
purpose.
Ье inadequate for daily output requirements in course of time. Under such
circumstances а crusher, for example, сап compensate for this shortfall in capacity
2.2.3 Physical investigations only Ьу working longer hours each day.
Such calculations show furthermore that а cement plant which is operated with
The physical investigations to which the raw materials аге subjected usually
only two raw material components in the first few years of its working life тау, as а
comprise only the determination of the natural moisture content of the fresh rock
result of changes in the average composition of the limestone as quarrying
and the maximum water absorption.
proceeds further into the deposit, require additional corrective components after
Grindability and weartests аге performed in connection w!th the ch~ice and design
several years. Alternatively, special arrangements тау Ьесоте necessary such as,
of the crushing, grinding and other preparatory ргосеSSlПg mасhlПегу.
for example, the installation of а bypass system to соре with increasing contents of
In some cases it is also necessary to determine the particle size distribution of clay
chloride and alkali.
ог sand.
Also, оп the basis of such ап evaluation of the geological investigations, it is
possibIe to direct the quarrying operations in such а way that certain masses of rock
2.3 Evaluation of the results of the investigations in which some of the constituents exceed the permissibIe limits сап nevertheless
Ье usefully quarried and processed. For example, Ьу varying the floor level of а
The availabIe results of the investigations should Ье so processed that all variations
bench ог Ьу working ап intermediate bench it тау Ье possibIe so to control the
in chemical characteristics, workabIe quantities, materials mixture, and type of
operations that the limiting concentration is never exceeded.
machinery to Ье used in quarrying the deposit сап Ье ascertained from the
interpretation and evaluation of the data that emerge. .
It is of major importance that the analyses should yield average values for materlal 2.3.2 Calculation and classification of reserves
quantities corresponding to between опе and five years' production. Larger The information concerning reserves which is contained in the final report of ап
quantities тау falsify the overall picture, so that useless parts of the deposits тау exploration for raw materials intended for cement manufacture should always
wrongly Ье rated as useful. relate to workabIe (recoverabIe) reserves.

22 23
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
Material excavated for the construction of haulage roads, turning areas, access
ramps and safety zones, where по production of rock for processing сап Ье done,
should Ье deducted. Also, some allowance for waste or loss in quarrying should Ье
made.
The total reserve quantity and the working life thereof is obtained simply Ьу adding
up the quantities in the respective bIocks and the estimated lives of these bIocks.
Such а calculation should comprise the proved reserves.
The classification procedure for the pit and quarry industry is generally similar to
that recommended for ores Ьу the Gesellschaft Deutscher Metallhutten- und
Bergleute (Association of German Metallurgical and Mining Engineers, 1981).
"Proved reserves" (category А) comprise reserves which have Ьееп the subject of
detailed exploration and have Ьееп fully investigated with regard to chemical
features and their range of variation, bedding, tectonics, preparatory processing,
hydrogeological conditions and the legal aspects associated with quarrying the
materials concerned. Category В relates to "probabIe reserves", i. е., the zones
which lie adjacent to а deposit containing category А reserves and which have
already Ьееп explored Ьу borings to such ап extent that inferences as to chemical
features, bedding conditions and structure, hydrogeological conditions and
preparatory processing сап Ье drawn from the experience gained in investigating
the category А reserves.
These last-mentioned reserves should Ье ascertained as the result ofthe third stage
of ап exploration project in connection with which the reserves assignabIe to
category В are also estimated.
"Indicated reserves" (category С 1) аге determinabIe at the end of the second
stage of ап exploration project for cement raw materials. These have Ьееп
investigated оп the basis of а network 01 widely spaced Ьогеtюlеs; the types of
rock and their chemical characteristics аге substantially known, as аге also the
structure and bedding conditions in broad outline.
Final'y, the "inferred reserves" (category С 2) are those which аге tentatively
determined as the result of the first exploration stage, in which the deposit has Ьееп
prospected Ьу means of а fimited number of individually located boreholes, so that
the chemical characteristics and structure of the deposit аге known in ап
approximate and general way.
2.4 Organizing ап exploration project
The various activities involved in prospecting for raw materials for the manufacture
of cement, as described above, comprise тоге than just the work of the geologist ог
geological institution. 'П order to tackle the task successfully, it is necessary to
employ the services of а team of experts from the very outset. It is especially
important that this team should include а mining engineer and а process engineer
familiar with the cement industry, for only in this way will it Ье possibIe to Ье sure of
avoiding serious mistakes which might otherwise Ье committed already in the
planning stage of the exploration project. Моге particularly, the participation of the
process engineer is of major importance in order to ensure that the geochemical
investigations аге properly geared to the cement industry's needs.
24
Using а computer in ап exploration project
2.5 Using а computer in ап exploration project
The evaluation of the geochemical data obtained from the exploration сап Ье
substantially speeded up Ьу means of а suitabIe computation system.
The chemical analyses of the drilled cores сап Ье stored section Ьу section, with
associated data relating to the co-ordinates of the borehole, the depth and the
thickness of the deposit. Ву making use of appropriate programs it is moreover
possibIe to store the results obtained from inclined boreholes and from trial pits
and, with due regard to the dip of the strata, to obtain а strata-related ге­
presentation of the geochemical conditions.
Since the benches in the quarry аге usually horizontal, the computer сап, via the
standard deviation, determine coefficients of variation and limiting concentrations
for selected areas of the deposit. From this information the bench height and bench
sections сап then in turn Ье obtained.
This data collection сап Ье regularly updated and supplemented with further
analyses during the subsequent actual quarrying operations, so that pred ictions of
the chemical composition of the material encountered in the individual stages of
quarrying сап reliabIy Ье made.
It is also possibIe to let the computer produce maps indicating lines of equal
chemical concentration, which provide information for determining the direction
of quarrying.
Calculations of reserves, evaluations of geophysical investigations and analyses of
the bedding conditions сап then Ье carried out.
References
1. Bender, F. (Н rsg.) : Angewandte Geowissenschaften. - Stuttgart: Enke- Verlag
1981.
2. Cembureau (Hrsg.): Cement Standards of the world (portland cement and its
derivatives). - Paris 1968.
3. D1N 18123 Baugrund: Untersuchung von Bodenproben,
КогпgгБВепvегtеiluпg. - Berlin und Кбlп: Beuth-Verlag 1971.
4. Duda, W. Н.: Cement Data Book. Internationale Verfahrenstechniken der
Zementindustrie, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH
1978.
5. Engelhardt, W. v. / Fuchtbauer, Н. / Muller, G.: Sediment-Petrologie, TI.II:
Fuchtbauer / М uller: Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine. Stuttgart:
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1970.
6. Flathe, Н. / Homilius, J.: Geoelektrik. In: Schneider, Н. (Hrsg.): Die
WassererschlieBung, 2. Auflage. - Essen: Vulkan-Verlag 1973.
7. GDMB Gesellschaft Deutscher Metallhutten- und Bergleute (Erzmetall)
(Hrsg.): Lagerstatten der Steine, Erden und Industrieminerale 1981. - GDMB,
Paul-Егпst-StгаВе 1О, 3392 Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
25
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg

8. Kuhl, Н.: Zementchemie. - Berlin: Verlag fur Bauwesen 1958. 11. Quarrying the raw materials
9. Schater, Н. - U.: Prospektion auf Kalksteinlagersti:itten gezeigt ат Beispiel zur
Erkundung von Rohstoffen zur Herstellung von Zementklinker. - In:
Ву Н. Schuberth
Aufbereitungs-Technik 2. u. 3/1979.
10. Schi:ifer, H.-U.: Prospecting Methods in Ceramic Raw Material Exploration. -
'п: Interceram. Vol. 28, No. 4/1979. 1 Guidelines for quапуiпg 28
1.1 Layout of open-cast operations . 28
1.2 Quапу equipment 29

2 Overburden . 30
2.1 Overburden removal 30
2.2 Storage of overburden material 31

3 Breaking out the rock 32

3.1 Drilling and bIasting . 32
3.1.1 Drilling large-diameter holes 32
3.1.1.1 Single-row bIasting 33
3.1.1.2 Surface bIasting . 35
3.1.1.3 Drilling tools 35
3.1.1.4 Drilling machines 36
3.1.2 Blasting. 36
3.1.3 Cost 40
3.1.4 Tunnelling method. 40
3.1.5 Series firing of small-diameter bIastholes. 41
3.1.6 Secondary bIasting. 41
3.1.7 Storage of explosives 42
3.2 Ripping. 43
3.3 Stripping 45

4 Loading. 46
4.1 Development trend. 46
4.2 Loading machines . 46
4.2.1 CabIe-ореrаtеd excavators 46
4.2.2 Hydraulic excavators . 47
4.2.3 Wheel loaders . 48
4.2.4 Crawler loaders 49

5 Haulage 50
5.1 Rail haulage. 50
5.2 Haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means 50
5.2.1 Heavy trucks 50
5.2.2 Belt conveyors 52
5.2.3 Load and сапу 53
5.4 Aerial ropeways . 54

6 Mobile crushing plants . 55

26 27
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Guidelines for quarrying

7 Site restoration . . . . . . . . . . 57 the rock. It will then usually Ье necessary to сапу out the quarrying operations in
7.1 The situation in the cement industry . 57 several benches and at several working points simultaneously, so that the
7.2 Quarries and landscaping. 58 composition of the raw material сап Ье controlled. It will only rarely оссш that the
7.3 Restoration features . . 58 deposit will consist of material having ап ideal composition for cement manufac-
7.3.1 Hillsides....... 58 ture, enabIing the quarrying operations to Ье confined to а single face and а single
7.3.2 Berms and quarry faces 59 working point. With subsurface quarrying in Ешореап latitudes it will usually Ье
7.3.3 Final quarry floor 59 necessary to control the inflow of ground water Ьу pumping ог other means. The
7.3.4 Waste tips . . . . . . 59 cost of this must not Ье underestimated.
7.3.5 Settling ponds. . . . . 60 The various quarry floor ог base levels should Ье connected to опе another and to
7.4 Noise and dust emission 60 the surrounding general ground level Ьу means of ramps, so that machines,
7.5 Cost 61 equipment, operating personnel and repair gangs сап readily move from опе level
References to another. If the ramps аге moreover used as hau lage roads for heavy trucks, they
62
should not Ье moresteeply inclined than 1 in 1 О and should Ье sufficiently wide so
that two vehicles travelling in opposite directions сап conveniently pass each
other. Narrower ramps for single-line traffic with passing bays аге not to Ье
1 Guidelines for quarrying recommended except perhaps for small quarries with only а few vehicles. The best
direction of quarry face advance is along the strike of the bed. 'П this way it will
Raw materials for the cement industry аге usually obtained Ьу large-scale ореп­ most easily Ье possibIe to meet the safety requirement that hazardous effects of
cast (ог open-pit) mining ог quarrying operations. Depending оп the intended rock pressure ог instability must Ье avoided. If particular reasons necessitate а
clinker production quantities, quarry outputs may гип to several million tonnes of different direction of face advance, e.g., diagonally inclined, either ascending ог
material рег уеаг. In order to avoid misdirected capital expenditure ;t is therefore descending, the danger of falling rock from overhanging parts should Ье
imperative to obtain reliabIe information оп the raw material deposit, more counteracted Ьу increasing the batter of the working faces. It should also Ье Ьогпе
particularly in terms of quality and quantity. Such information yielded Ьу in mind that surface water is liabIe to collect оп, and гип off along, such bedding ог
geological exploration is of decisive importance with regard to the conduct of the parting planes, thus forming а possibIe cause of rock slips.
quarrying operations. 'П addition, however, various statutory requirements and The height of the working face is, for example in the Federal RepubIic of Germany,
obIigations have to Ье fulfilled concerning the excavations themselves, accident subject to statutory regulations with regard to permissibIe maximum values
prevention and environmental protection. 'П many cases these so dominate the depending оп the method of quarrying ог the size of machines used. The slope and
picture that purely economic and technical considerations of winning the material width ofthe benches should Ье suited to the nature and stability of the rock and to
become secondary to satisfying the statutory conditions. the method of quarrying.

1.1 Layout of open-cast operations 1.2 Оиаггу equipment

The most widely used method of quarrying is based оп the conventional benching
technique, in which the material in the deposit is quarried in several benches
C'steps"), опе above the other, with predetermined heights of face. If the deposit
is located above the level of the cement works, thus involving "hillside quarrying",
it is advantageous to use the maximum permissibIe face heights, because the
material broken out of the face falls Ьу gravity to the haulage level, е. g., if large-
hole bIasting is employed. The restricting conditions оп face height may Ье the
accessibility of the top part of the face ог the attainabIe bIasthole drilling depth.
Conversely, with "subsurface quarrying", i. е., if the deposit is located below the
level of the cement works, it will generally Ье advantageous to work with relatively
low faces, so as to keep to а minimum the expensive work of raising the quarried
material from the working floor level to the level of the surrounding ground. The
low face is moreover advantageous in cases where quarrying has to Ье done
selectively in order to compensate for variations in the chemical characteristics of
The mechanical equipment of the quarry, more particularly the number and size of
the machines, will depend оп the intended rate of production and оп the haulage
distance. With regard to the economy of the operations it сап, roughly speaking, Ье
said to improve with increasing size of the machines employed, provided that а
sufficiently high rate of production in the quarry will епаЫе а correspondingly high
degree of plant utilization to Ье achieved.ln many cases, however, fulfilmentofthis
requirement is restricted Ьу quality considerations, more particularly when а
certain constant average quality ofthe outputfrom the quarry has to Ье obtained Ьу
the controlled combining of various grades of rock.
Of especial importance is the ргорег interadjustment of the machines employed,
i. е., ensuring that they аге duly suited to function efficiently with опе another,
more particularly in the operations of loading, haulage and crushing.
Thus, the loading machine should Ье so suited to the haulage trucks, and vice
versa, that the number of loading bucket operating cycles for filling а truck is

28 29
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
between three and eight, the larger питЬег being applicabIe to the smaller bucket.
From th.e economic P?int of view it is important not to allow the capital tied ир in
the епglПеs and ГUППlПg gear of the vehicles to remain idle for too long periods.
They must еагп their keep!
Оп the other hand, the receiving capacity of the crusher shou Id Ье large enough to
a.cc~pt the full .conte~ts of а haulage truck discharged in just опе dumping (ог
tlРРlПg) орегаtюп. FlПаllу, the size of the rock pile fragments fed to the crusher
should ~ot Ье so large as to cause jamming in the feed opening.
In plannlng the quarry, the need for providing intermediate storage directly before
ог after the primary crusher should Ье considered. Such buffer capacity makes the
rate of quarrying to some extent independent of the rate of further processing and
сап thus Ье invaluabIe in maintaining continuity of supply in the event of
temporary hold-ups in quarrying activities (see also Chapter В. 111).
2 Overburden
It will only seldom оссш that а raw material deposit is not covered Ьу а layer of
o~erburden ог that the overburden сап Ье directly excavated and processed along
wlth the actual deposit because the chemical composition fits in with that of the
raw mix it~elf. 'п апу case the overburden will have to Ье removed separately from
the m.aterlal of th~ deposit. It will either have to Ье dumped as unprocessabIe
~aterlal (alon~ wlth апу unwanted inclusions and impurities from the deposit
Itself) ог Ье sшtаЫу stockpiled, so that it сап Ье reclaimed in controlled quantities
and mixed in the right proportion with the main material from the deposit.
2.1 Overburden removal
The method of removal will depend оп the following factors relating to the
overburden:
strength and hardness; soil ог solid rock;
th ickness of the 'ауег;
haulage distance;
loadbearing capacity;
susceptibility to weathering.
Prov.ide.d that rock overburden сап Ье suitabIy broken ир Ьу drilling and bIasting ог
Ьу ГIРРlПg, the following conventional types of machine сап Ье used for its
removal:
backacting excavator (back-hoe);
dragline excavator;
bulldozer.
'П general, the ground surface which is as yet intact will, оп account of its
~egetation, have better bearing capacity for loads than ground that has already had
ItS top layer removed. As indicated, the preferred machines for topsoil digging
- nowadays mostly with hydraulic controls - аге the backacter and the dragline.
30
Overburden
The backacter is better аЫе to remove unconsolidated material from апу fissures,
crevices ог dolines (swallow-holes). ОП the other hand, the dragline has а larger
outreach and greater digging depth. Besides, the dragline bucket, suspended loose
from its горе, сап swerve to miss obstacles оп а rough rocky surface, so that the
excavator is not subjected to excessive wear and tear. If the material to Ье handled
is fragmented rock, the pieces will have to Ье fairly small, however.
With both types of excavator it is necessary to use some form of haulage machine
for removing the excavated overburden material. 'П most cases, various types of
truck аге used for such purposes. Multi-axle articulated dump trucks with multi-
wheel drive have Ьееп found most suitabIe because of their good manoeuvrability
оп the generally bad ground оп which they have to travel. Alternatively, the
excavated material сап Ье loaded, via suitabIe feed devices, onto belt conveyors in
cases where these сап Ье economically used in order to соре with large handling
quantities ог to meet other requirements.
The bulldozer сап suitabIy Ье used as а means of overburden stripping if the
handling distances аге not too great, if there is only а limited thickness of
overburden ог if highly cohesive soilleaves по alternative to this method without
necessitating extensive additional measures (construction of roads). Furthermore,
а bulldozer is usually а very useful piece of equipment for work оп building ир the
soil tips.
Besides the above-mentioned "classic" overburden handling machines, other
types of machine аге used for special purposes ог under special conditions, such as
face shovels, scrapers, scraper-dozers, wheel loaders, crawler loaders, possibIy
even bucket ladder excavators ог small bucket wheel excavators.
2.2 Storage of overburden material
The planning of suitabIe piles ог tips for dumping the overburden material, тоге
particularly with regard to quantities to Ье stored and favourabIe location relative
to the source of the material - and, of course, outside ог at the edge of the deposit
to Ье quarried -, should Ье done with considerabIe саге. It often occurs that, due
to inefficient planning, the агеа reserved for overburden dumping turns out to Ье
inadequate and сап subsequently Ье extended only at considerabIe expense ог
indeed not at all. As for the technical layout of ап overburden pile the following
points call for consideration:
The pile should Ье well and firmly based оп the subsoil. If the latter is waterlogged,
it should Ье drained. The overburden material should Ье placed layer Ьу 'ауег, for
only in this way will there Ье adequate compaction of the dumped material Ьу the
haulage and handling vehicles travelling over it during the build-up of the pile. The
layers should not exceed 8 m in thickness. Each individual layer should end at а
distance of 4 m before the опе below, so that а Ьегт is formed. The berms should
Ье inclined slightly backward, and surface water run-off should Ье intercepted in
adequate discharge channels and removed under controlled conditions, in such а
way as to prevent erosion оп the berms and slopes ог at the toe of the overburden
pile.
31
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Slopes should never Ье steeper than 1 :2 and should Ье grassed and planted as
soon as possibIe after being given а covering of topsoil, so that the vegetation сап
help to keep the soil in position and scouring action Ьу rainwater is avoided. The
build-up of ап overburden pile should Ье so controlled in terms of time that it will
not have to go through the winter months, with heavy rain and/or snow, while its
slopes remain devoid of vegetation because grassing them was left too late for the
grass seed to germinate. 'П addition, ап intercepting ditch should Ье dug at the toe
ofthe pile. Апу material washed down сап settle in thisditch, and excess rainwater
collecting in it сап Ье discharged under controlled conditions after sedimentation
of solids.
з Breaking ои! the rock
, drilling). With face heights commonly around 20 m, а sub-drilling depth of about
3.1 Drilling and bIasting
Drilling and bIasting continue to Ье the favoured combination for breaking out the
material, i. е., dislodging it from the quarry face and fragmenting it. Although it has,
in recent years, increasingly Ьееп brought into discredit оп account of the noise
and vibrations that unavoidabIy arise and has, as а result of environmentalist
activity ог statutory regulations, often Ьееп restricted and sometimes indeed
banned, the real economic advantages it offers in most cases аге still utilized
wherever the opportunity exists. 'П addition, efforts аге continually being made,
and with some success, to adapt the drilling and bIasting technique to the specific
conditions of the deposit and the local environment and thus reduce its
undesirabIe effects to а minimum. Even so, it must Ье remembered that the steady
growth of "environment-consciousness", both оп the part of the authorities and of
the general pubIic, often rules out а choice of quarrying methods based оп purely
economic considerations. 'П such cases а different method of breaking out the
material will have to Ье applied, such as ripping ог stripping.
3.1.1 Drilling large-diameter holes
The large-hole bIasting method (sometimes called well-drill bIasting) is now
predominant in quarrying in open-pit workings. It сап bring down large masses of
rock from the face, suitabIy fragmented for loading, with due regard to the layout of
the quarry and the planned progress of operations, while avoiding severe ground
vibrations and involving only а small amount of secondary bIasting for breaking up
over-Iarge fragments.
The economic advantage of large-hole bIasting, and therefore its widespread use,
аге due to the fact that the operations of "drilling" and "Ioading of the rock pile"
сап Ье carried out quite independently of each other.
The definition of large-diameter bIastholes is, in Germany, linked to the relevant
accident prevention regulations and relates to holes тоге than 12 m in depth.
Irrespective of this statutory definition, the engineer оп the job rates апу hole
8,xceeding 50 - 60 mm diameter as coming within this category. The predominant
32
Breaking out the rock: Drilling and bIasting
diameter range in current German use is between 60 тт and 105 тт, occasionally
up to 150 тт. 'П other countries, тоге particularly in the USA, larger diameters аге
preferred, namely, 225 - 300 тт and even тоге. In densely populated areas the
acceptabIe bIasthole diameter is often limited Ьу considerations of ground
vibrations, which аге liabIe to Ье excessively severe if the charge fired рег hole ог
рег stage of detonation is too large.
3.1.1.1 Single-row bIasting
'П most cases the large-diameter bIastholes аге drilled in опе row рагаllеl to the
slope ofthequarry face. The most favourabIeslope is between 700 and 800. In order
to ensure ргорег break-out of the toe of the face, the holes аге usually drilled so as
to extend а certain а short distance below the level of the quarry floor (sub-
1 m has Ьесоте the estabIished practice. It should Ье noted, however, that
particularly the explosive charge in the sub-drilled part ofthe holes is likely to cause
the most powerful ground vibrations. 'П Germany, face heights in excess of 30 m
аге now prohibited оп account of the accident hazard associated with them. The
great majority of faces in quarries аге about 20 m in height ог less. There is а trend
towards reducing the height because this makes for better selectivity in conducting
the quarrying operations.
There is а whole range of possibIe variations in large-hole bIasting practice, from
single-row and multiple-row bIasting with ог without toe holes to so-called
surface bIasting.
The choice of bIasting method, тоге particularly the number of bIasthole rows,
depends оп the properties of the rock as well as оп the vibration effects that сап Ье
tolerated. For example, holes disposed in а number of rows over а certain агеа аге
тоге likely to offer а suitabIe solution in brittle easy-to-shatter rock than in tough
rock fracturing into large bIocks.
The column of explosive in а bIasthole should, if possibIe, extend continuously
from the bottom of the hole up to the stemming. Only in this way сап the cost of
producing such large bIasthole volumes Ье fully utilized Ьу working with
sufficiently large hole spacings and burdens.
It often occurs, however, especially in heavily fissured rock, that the bIasting
energy is insufficient to dislodge the тоге heavily restrained rock mass at the toe.
But if the geometric features of the bIastholes (diameter, burden, spacing) аге
sufficiently reduced to ensure break-out of the toe, it will frequently Ье necessary
to use intermediate stemming in the upper part of the holes in order to avoid
w~steful use of explosive and the risk of large rock fragments being hurled out with
dangerous force, particularly in places where irregular break-out at the quarry face
has locally reduced the burden. 'П such cases the waste of а certain proportion of
expensively drilled bIasthole volume will Ье unavoidabIe.
These drawbacks тау Ье overcome Ьу suitabIy increasing the bIasthole volume at
the toe of the face, so as to obtain а larger quantity of explosive charge where it is
needed most.
This is usually done Ьу systematically drilling so-called toe holes from the quarry
33
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Breaking out the rock: Drilling and bIasting

а: burden
~гgabe 3.1.1.2 Surface bIasting
Ь: spacing
Seitenabstand Оп account of the above-mentioned drawbacks, so-called "surface" bIasting is
gaining wider acceptance. With this technique the rock is loosened in соп­
sequence ofthe fragmenting effect of bIasting in а number of holes distributed over
а certain агеа instead of being disposed in опе row. This method is especially
suitabIe for selective quarrying ог when separate loading of different materials
found in the same quarry is required, since the location of the material remains
substantially unchanged after bIasting. There is essentially а lifting action and
bulking of the rock as а result of fragmentation. А drawback is that this method
requires about twice as much drilling (in terms of hole length) and twice as much
sub-drilling explosive. The holes themselves аге generally of much less depth than those in
Unteгbohгung conventional large-hole bIasting from а face. Ап advantage of surface bIasting is
Fig.1 : Blasting with large-diameter holes that the amount of subsidiary work - such as secondary fragmentation, quarry
face trimming and floor levelling - is generally less.
а': burden
Voгgabe
Ь': spacir19 А ~
Seitenabstand
Р,
1:
"
,1
"
,1
r:'
,
"
l" '

"
,1 А
,1
':
"
r.
"
Р, " ::
" 1"
1,
"
" ,,А,, l'1" '
"
'1
1,
"
"
"
" ,,
"
,, "

'' ,,
" "

" 1" , 1: "

,,
"

"
"

" :: ] : :, :; ,1
"
"

' , ::
,j
,,
"
" "
"
<,
'1 "
~ci ,'1, '1tJ
"
"
1, ,, :,
.,
"
,,
C~

Blasting with large-diameter holes and toe holes

Fig.2. Surface bIasting with large-diameter holes

floor, these being of such diameter and spacing as to achieve the required extra
bIasting effect at the toe. With the right type of drilling machine and the
introduction of free-flowing granular explosive into the toe holes Ьу means of
bIowing equipment, this procedure тау, in suitabIe rock, Ье тоге economical than
having subsequently to сапу out supplementary drilling and bIasting to dislodge
those portions of the toe which have remained standing after the firing of the main
charge.
AII the same, the techniques for obtaining greater bIasthole volume at the toe ofthe
face, though offering the advantages mentioned here, аге not in very widespread
use. The reason ргоЬаЫу lies in the difference in technical development of the
machines for drilling vertical and those for drilling horizontal holes, in the relatively
low cost of the А N С (аттоп iu m nitrate-ca гЬоп) explos ives ch iefly used in vertica I
holes, and the need to remove all rock pile (fragmented rock) from the toe of the
face before toe hole drilling сап соттепсе.
34
3.1.1.3 Drilling tools
Rotary drilling and percussive rotary drilling аге almost the only methods used for
forming the bIastholes in quarries for cement raw materials. The drilling tool is
generally а step bit; for larger diameters а roller bit is sometimes used ог, in
percussive rotary drilling, а cross bit ог а stud bit. The last-mentioned type of bit is
claimed to Ье especially advantageous in hard rock because of the higher specific
feed pressure that сап Ье applied. Besides, it is better аЫе to соре with fissured
rock because it cannot jam so easily in the crevices. With down-hole hammers the
drilling force is developed at the bottom of the hole instead of being transmitted
down through the drill rods, so that the latter аге less severely stressed, while the
drilling machine itself is also relieved of mechanical load. Besides, there is less
likelihood of deviation of the drill hole from the vertical.
35
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Blasting

3.1.1.4 Drilling machines soft, compact, fissuгed ог affected in some other way. The bIasthole location grid,
i. е., the spacing and buгden dimensions, is determined оп the basis of the
Modern rotary drilling machines аге operated Ьу just опе man. They mostly have
calculated quantity of explosive needed for breaking out the intended quantity of
fully hydraulic drive systems, аге reliabIe in operation and attain drilling rates of up
rock Ьу bIasting with holes of given diameter (which in turn depends оп the type of
to 30 m/houг, depending оп the nature ofthe rock and the diaR1eterofthe hole. The
drilling machine availabIe). The appropriate relationship of bIasthole spacing and
power pack, compressor, hydraulic units, drilling mast, rod magazine, operator's
buгden сап Ье expressed as а product of these two dimensions (in m 2 ). The value
platform and dust suppression system аге mounted оп а traction unit usually
of this product in any given case сап Ье calculated Ьу determining the quantity of
equipped with crawler tracks. The prime mover is generally а diesel engine.
explosive (in kg) which сап оп average Ье charged рег bIasthole and dividing this
Although it is more expensive in energy consumption than ап electric motor, it is
quantity Ьу the required specific explosive consumption (in kg/m З of rock).
nevertheless preferred because it provides better mobllity of the drilling machine
The smaller the spacing and the burden, with correspondingly smaller bIasthole
and makes it independent of power feed cabIes. Оп some machines а slewing ring
diameter, the better will Ье the fragmentation obtained, because the explosive will
enabIes the superstructuгe to swivel оп the crawler chassis, thus enabIing
Ье more uniformly distributed along the face. А finer location grid is more
unproductive manoeuvring of the whole machine to Ье reduced. The use of
particularly advantageous in deaiing with thick-bedded rock tending to produce а
increasingly long drill rods likewise aims at increasing the efficiency of the
coarsely fragmented rock рilе.
machine, а trend which has led to the development of the "single-pass" machine
which drills the hole to its full depth with just опе long rod, i. е., without having to
couple successive rods as drilling proceeds. Rubber-tyred traction units сап ТаЫе 1: Single-row bIasting with large-diameter holes
suitabIy Ье used under circumstances where the machines each have to operate at
а number of different points, ог at different working levels ог indeed in different hole bIasthole buгden spacing bIasthole
quarries, so thatsubstantial distances have to Ье travelled. However, the ground оп diameter grid volume
which they travel will"have to Ье of sufficient bearing capacity to саггу their (mm) 2
(m ) (m) (m) (Iitres/
weight. corresponding drilled metre)
There is по doubt that the fully automatic one-man-operated rotary drill requires to m З of rock
more skill оп the part of the operator, and also more servicing, than does the рег drilled
percussive rotary drill powered with compressed air and mounted оп crawler metre
tracks. These machines аге of relatively low weight. With а suitabIe compressor in
tow, а mасhlПе of thls klnd сап move about under its own power even оп difficult 92 20 3.5 to 5 3.5 to 4.5 6.6
terrain. The drill guide mast сап Ье tilted and swivelled in all directions, so that а
105 24 3.5 to 6 3.5 to 5 8.6
wide variety of drilling duties сап Ье performed. These machines аге the preferred
type in small and medium-size quarries and in cases where highly skilled operating 150 without
personnel аге unavailabIe. toe holes 30 4 to 7 4 to 6 17.6
150 with
toe holes
3.1.2 Blasting 76mm fZ5 50 5 to 1 О 5 to 7 17.6 + 4.5
225 50 6 to 1 О 5 to 8 29.8
When the bIastholes have Ьееп drilled, they аге charged with explosive and the
charges аге fired. The object of bIasting is to loosen and fragment the rock so as to
obtain а rock pile suitabIe for loading. The amount of explosive to Ье used in апу
given case will depend оп the specific explosive consumption, i. е., the amount
needed for producing а tonne of rock pile ог for loosening and fragmenting а cubic With increasing bIasthole diameter, spacing and buгden there is an increase both in
metre of solid rock. It is ап empirical value which varies from опе set of quarrying the proportion of very finely fragmented material (due to shattering of the rock in
conditions to another and should Ье known in апу quarry where production is in the immediatevicinity ofthecharge) and in thatof large lumps (dislodged from the
progress. When opening up the quarry, this value сап Ье determined Ьу reduced- parts of the rock farthestfrom the charge). А coarse grid of this kind will as а rule Ье
scale trial bIasts based initially оп known average values from practical experience economically advantageous only in rock which is fractuгed, finely fissured and
under comparabIe conditions. The specific explosive consumption is mostly brittle. Blasting Ьу the tunnelling method, now seldom used, represents ап extreme
between 200 and 400 9 рег m З of solid rock. It does, however, vary within wide case of firing large concentrated charges.
limits, depending to а great extent оп the natuгe of the rock - whether it is hard, As already stated, the aim is to fill the entire bIasthole with explosive, if possibIe.

36 37
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Blasting

The stemming inserted in the top part should as а rule have а depth equal to the (")(1) ..... q-<D L!)(1)N<DN
О
burden. L!) r--:Lri..tNО Фм"":cx:iLri
-.r- or- -.r- or--.r- N N N ..........
А whole range of explosives is availabIe to the quarry engineer. It extends from
powder to gelatinous explosives and includes slurry explosives; there are low N O(")<D(1)N О
О
explosives and high explosives, as well as intermediate types; explosives which are N О r--:Lriм"":О N
то- то- то- т- то-

used in cartridge form and those which are used in bulk. Careful consideration of
the choice of explosive, so that the most su itabIe type for the job is used, makes for
О
greater есопоту. <D L!)<D<Dr--r--
cx:i xaicx:ir--:фLri
In raw materials quarrying for the cement industry there is а trend towards the о

preferred use of the inexpensive ANC (ammonium nitrate-carbon) explosives. а.

L!) Q. Or--q- ..... oo L!)
These are superseding the more expensive gelatinous types (gelatines, gelignites), О
cor--оо(1) ..... N m"":Oair--: О
~cx:ir--:ффLri
whose use is now mainly confined to that of а priming charge for initiating the '(j)
slower ANC, but even here they are making way for the heavier-grade detonating с:
00 <D q- N ..... О
fuse (more particularly the 40g fuse). They are, however, still in соттоп use for
О
О
~ (1) ..... (")L!) l ' Е' о ai cx:i l '
....: О
(1) l' Е' r--: r--: ф Lri..t
secondary bIasting, i. е., the further reduction of oversize fragments of rock Ьу О §
individual drilling and bIasting. 'П quarries where ANC explosives are used, their Х <5
proportion is seldom below 70% of the total explosive consumption. In certain L!) о q- -; ..... "': 1': ~ с"?
cases it тау Ье as high as 99% or more.
(1) ~Ф a>r--<DL!)L!)q-
"о
со
'Е
Another reason why the ANC explosives (known also as ANFO = ammonium ф ф
~ ~~Г"r-L!)СХ) L!)<D<Dr--r--
nitrate-fuel oil) have rapidly Ьееп gaining ground is their high degree of handling ф О '(j) l'
aicx:ir--:фLri
О ф
Е (1) с: Lri ,!: ФLriLri..tМ (1) Е
safety and the possibility of conveying them in special mixingjloading trucks to the со
Ф
~ со
"о Ф
actual site of bIasting - provided that sufficiently large quantities of explosives are '6 > :::J '6
~' '(j) r-- ..... L!)oq- (jj
L!) Ф
consumed to make this economically attractive and that the quarry floor offers а Ф L!)

reasonabIy level riding surface. The actual explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate
000
-s
ELri %LriLri..t..tM 00 о
-s
с: х ф (J)
and diesel oil is produced "оп the spot" in the truck and is pumped through а hose (J)
со
Ф
> со
Ф' L!) U О '(j) L!)OOO(")L!) О :Б
into the bIastholes. Alternatively, it сап Ье introduced into the holes with special "Б О L!)O L!)O

pneumatic loading devices. The wage costs involved in loading the bIasting Е 00 "~ ..t Z
«
Lri..t..tMM % r--:ФФLri..t 00
Е
о
Е
х
Ф
Е
charges Ьу this method are very low. Besides, there are substantial savings due to Q. ф

~ ~ > q- О L!) ..... l ' Ф

ФО(")ФО L!)
eliminating the transport of the explosives from the magazine to the actual site of
bIasting and dispensing with апу handling of explosives at the magazine itself. It
u q- .~ ..t..tMMN
~ ФФLri..t..t l'
z Q. "ё
should not go without mention, however, that the economically advantageous «a>L!) х
Ф
Е OON<DOL!) О
method of "оп the spot" bulk delivery of explosives Ьу truck to the bIastholes is О
-"'"М Ф~~~~~ .~ Lri Lri..t..tM l'
.~
l'
used also with other types of explosive, more particularly the slurries. о
The degree of filling and therefore the charge efficiency of the bIastholes depends L!) с: (")01'(")0 Е OL!)OL!)O L!)
<D EMMNNN Е Lri..t..t м м <D
not only оп the density of the explosive itself, but also оп the bIasthole and со
,~
cartridge diameters employed or оп whether the explosive is used in bu Ik form. This О
C:OOL!)(")or--
(J)
:::J Nooq-OL!) О
should Ье duly borne in mind when calculating the explosive quantity in kg per <D ~NNNN"": О ..tMMMN <D
с:
linear metre of bIasthole. The degree of filling is around 70% for powder explosives .~

in cartridge form; around 90% in the case of slurry or gelatine-type explosives; and О
L!)
~~CX?~"':~ ф
Or--q- ..... oo
MNNN"":
О
L!)
O'Nr-r-т-т-
а>
around 100% when explosives are used in bulk. -"'" а>
(") ..... 0(1)00 -"'"
For reasons of safety, bIasting charges should Ье fired only Ьу electric detonation. ~or-~oo
Detonators (bIasting caps) with varying degrees of sensitivity are availabIe for the
purpose. They are produced as instantaneous detonators or delay detonators, the О 00000 00000
latter being of the ordinary delay (usually half а second) or the millisecond delay О O(1)oor--<D O(1)oor--<D

type. The last-mentioned detonators are manufactured in а range of delay periods

БU!lI!llО ЭЭJБэр
differing Ьу some tens of milliseconds. The detonating current is now usually

38 39

В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg
supplied Ьу а condenser discharge bIasting machine (exploder). This is а reliabIe
type of machine which is increasingly superseding the earlier electrodynamic
exploder with direct discharge of current. For bIastholes exceeding 12 m in depth
the use of detonating fuse is compulsory under German regulations. 'П such cases
the detonators аге fitted to the end of the fuse outside the hole. If the relevant
regulations allow the electric detonator to Ье used for firing а primer cartridge at the
foot of the hole, detonation will Ье initiated in the region where the highest degree
of restraint from the suпоuпdiпg rock exists, so that then the greatest bIasting
effect will Ье obtained. Besides, the detonation report will Ье тоге muffled and
thus cause less nuisance to neighbouring residents.
It should Ье mentioned, however, that the older method of bIasting with safety fuse
and appropriate detonators is still used to some extent. This type of fuse consists of
а train of bIack powder enclosed in а waterprooftubular casing and has to Ье lit.
3.1.3 Cost
It is not possibIe to give generally-valid information оп the cost of bIasting with
large-diameter holes. It will depend оп а variety of determining factors, including:
the type and stability of the rock, the size and utilization of the drilling machine, the
type and method of use of the explosive, requirements as to the fragmentation of
the rock pile in connection with availabIe loading or further processing facilities,
etc. 'П approximate terms it сап Ье stated, however, that the specific cost of drilling
and bIasting рег tonne of 10adabIe rock pile shows а slight hyperbolically
decreasing trend, so long as the diameter remains within reasonabIe limits, as
envisaged in the foregoing description of the bIasting operations.
However, in seeking to take advantage of this trend it will often occur that
economic limits are encountered, тоге particularly when the drilling machine
capacity substantially exceeds the quantities of rock pile actually needed Ьу the
cement works in а given period. 'П such cases it often works out cheaper to let ап
outside firm сапу out the entire dri 11 ing and bIasting operations оп а contract basis.
Obviously, this is тоге likely to Ье ап attractive solution where relatively small
quantities of material аге required than in medium-sized ог large quапiеs, though
local conditions and other considerations will of course play а part.
3.1.4 Tunnelling method
1n the tunnelling method of bIasting (known also as "coyote bIasting") fairly large
charges аге fired in tunnels driven into the face. It is now hardly every used. It
could, however, Ье considered in cases where capital expenditure has to Ье kept
low ог where the surface of the raw material deposit is inaccessibIe to drilling
machines, е. g., in very rough ог mountainous country. The major drawbacks ofthis
method аге the tunnelling work itself, the severe vibrations set up Ьу the bIasts, and
the very coarse fragmentation achieved, necessitating much secondary bIasting.
40
Breaking out the rock: В lasting
3.1.5 Series firing of small-diameter bIastholes
This technique is still used where relatively small quantities have to Ье fr.agmented,
е. g., in dealing with residual rock masses, ог in а supplementary c~paclty to other
bIasting methods for dealing with particular features of the d.eposlt. The holes, of
small diameter, тау Ье drilled horizontally into the face ог vertlcally ог at апу angle.
They тау Ье located side Ьу side ог опе above the other; the~ тау Ье para~lel t.o
опе another ог fan out. If the burden is kept small, the exploslve сопsumрtюп IS
often quite low and fragmentation is good, i. е., relatively few large fragments
requiring secondary bIasting аге formed. This result wil~ u.sually depend оп
achieving а uniform distribution of the explosive charges wlth.ln the rock mas~ to
Ье broken out Ьу drilling а large number of holes carefully sшtеd to th~ Ьеdd.lПg
conditions. А major drawback is that this method is very labour-lntenslve,
especially if separatedrilling platforms have to Ье erected against the quапу face. It
also involves Ьу по means negligibIe accident hazards because the теп have to
work close up against the face and spend fairly long times there.
3.1.6 Secondary bIasting
No bIasting method сап completely avoid the production of а certain proportion ~f
oversize pieces of rock C'boulders"), though it is often possibIe to keep thls
proportion down to а minimum Ьу suitabIe choice of bIasting method. These
oversize pieces have to Ье further reduced, otherwise they would ~ave ап
obstructive effect оп the further operations of loading, haulage and сгushlПg. The
maximum size of boulders that сап Ье tolerated will of course depend also оп the
size and capacity of the handling and crushing plant used in the quarry.
Boulders аге usually broken up Ьу bIasting C'secondary bIasting") because th~s
nearly always gives а suitabIy fragmented product, whatever the typ.e of rock. Thls
is mostly done Ьу drilling small-diameter holes t? а depth equal to а Iltt.le тоге t~an
the diameter ofthe boulder. They аге charged wlth 60-90 9 of exploslve рег m of
rock, stemmed and detonated (electrically, if possibIe).
Another method of secondary bIasting is called "mudcapping" ог "plaster
shooting". 'П this case а substantially larger quantity of а gelatine-type high
explosive, characterized Ьу high detonation velocity, is used (250 - 500 g/m ). It
3
is simply applied to the surface of the boulder, well ste~med and det?nated. rhe
drawbacks of this technique аге that it is very noisy (envlronmental nUlsance) and
often not economical either, so that it is tending to go out of use.
Secondary fragmentation Ьу mechanical methods in lieu of bIasting i~ gaining
ground. They аге based either оп the pounding action of а heavy dropwelght ог оп
demolition of the boulder with pneumatic ог hydraulic breaking hammers.
Obviously, the success of such methods will depend to а great extent оп the
hardness and toughness of the rock, the underlying material оп which the bould~r
rests, and the size and power of the mechanical equipment employed. Thls
being so, it is necessary to саггу out tests to find out if mechanical sec~ndary
fragmentation is economical before а decision is made. Another drawback IS tha.t,
with such methods, it often occurs that some of the secondary fragments аге stlll
геаllу too large.
41
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
3.1.7 Storage of explosives
The primary consideration with regard to the storage of explosives is that of safety.
Непсе it is сап Ье presumed that in по country anywhere in the world the
accumulation of storage of stocks of explosives сап Ье permitted without апу
restriction Ьу official regulations of some kind. 'П the Federal RepubIic of Germany
the statutory requirements аге laid down in the second Decree for the implemen-
tation of the Explosives Act (of 23. 11. 1977), including the Appendix containing
the principal technical regulations, and furthermore in the relevant Guidelines in
which these requirements аге further elaborated.
АII these regulations are directly applicabIe, i. е., they do not Ьесоте effective only
after the granting of а liсепсе to store explosives. Since the whole question of
storage involves some legal complexities, it is advisabIe to seek guidance for the
relevant inspection authorities at the very outset, when the setting-up of ап
explosive magazine is contemplated. This precaution сап save а lot of frustration,
time and топеу.
Although these statutory requirements аге applicabIe only to Germany, it сап Ье
helpful to seek guidance from them оп the safe storage of explosive in countries
where these matters аге not subject to such close regulations.
Of major importance is the classification into "storage categories" to which
potentially hazardous explosive materials аге assigned. For the present purpose
only category 1.1 is of interest, comprising the industrial explosives and bIack
powders.
The safe distances from the explosives magazine to residental areas and pubIic
highways, depending оп the quantity of explosive stored, аге stated in Supplement
1 to the Appendix. These distances сап permissibIy Ье varied within certain limits,
depending оп the importance of the areas ог installations to Ье protected and оп
the constructional features of the magazine.
The general requirements applicabIe to explosives storage аге laid down in the
second part of the Appendix. The most important of these, besides the safe
distances, is а general prohibition оп the storage of these materials in the ореп air
ог in vehicles. It is also stated that по explosives аге allowed to Ье stored directly at
access ways to places of work. Emphasis is laid оп fire protection arrangements,
and precautions against the action of electricity and against theft or unauthorized
removal of explosives аге outlined, е. g., а Ьап оп windows, the requirement that
suitabIy strong doors, walls and roofs Ье provided, and that the magazine Ье
reliabIy locked up and the keys kept in safe custody. The safety precautions should
- in view of the factthatthe manufacture of "home-made" explosives Ьу criminals
and terrorists is now commonplace - concentrate тоге particularly оп detonating
equipment such as detonators, detonating fuse and electric exploders.
Other regulations are concerned more particularly with the construction, fitting-up
and operation of the magazines.
In the fourth part of the Appendix the requirements applicabIe to the storage of
explosive materials outside а magazine аге outlined. These comprise what are
defined as small quantities needed for day-to-day use in the quarry and held readily
availabIe at various conveniently located points. Also included is the mobile
storage of such quantities in containers, cabinets ог site vehicles.
42
Breaking out the rock: Ripping
3.2 Ripping
Another method of breaking out the rock, as ап alternative to drilling and bIasting,
is represented Ьу ripping. А distinction is to Ье drawn between the ripping of rock
from horizontal surfaces and ripping from vertical faces.
Obviously, the ease ог difficulty with which апу particu lar type of rock сап Ье
dislodged and fragmented Ьу ripping will depend to а great extent оп its hardness
and compactness, as well as other geological and tectonic properties. Factors that
make for easier ripping аге heavy fissuring of the rock, thin but well developed
bedding, coarsely crystalline structure, inhomogeneity, zones affected Ьу weather-
ing ог tectonic action. Conversely, homogeneous, solid, fine-grained rock without
weak spots is difficult to break up Ьу ripping.
"Horizontal" surface ripping, which is the соттопег method, is carried out with
the aid of опе or тоге ripping teeth mounted at the rear end of а heavy crawler
tractor. The teeth penetrate into the rock and drag grooves ог furrows in it as the
tractor travels. The material loosened in this way is then shifted Ьу bulldozing.
The most reliabIe way to decide whether а particular type of rock is indeed suitabIy
"rippabIe" is Ьу practical trials.
А simpler, though not nearly so informative, method is based оп the principle of
seismic refraction. The transit times of shock waves in the subsoil are measured,
these waves being produced Ьу hammer bIows applied to steel plates located at
varying distances and being detected Ьу а seismic pick-up device (geophone).
The velocity of propagation of these waves in the rock is а measure of its in-situ
strength and thus provides ап indication of the ргоЬаЫе rippability. The
relationship between wave velocity and ripping characteristics has Ьееп deter-
mined empirically from numerous observations. Though of course the power and
weight of the machines concerned аге major factors, it сап broadly Ье stated that
with the crawler rippers in present-day current use the types of rock which are of
interest to cement manufacture, such as limestone or shale, are likely to Ье suitabIy
rippabIe if the seismic wave velocity does not exceed about 2000 - 2500 т/
second.
As Fig.3 shows, only the latest super-heavy crawler rippers сап tackle rock in
which this limit is somewhat exceeded. However, the seismic wave velocity сап
offer по тоге than approximate guidance. Determining the rippability and the
ripping effort of rock is still more of ап art than а science. It requires much
experience to hit upon the optimum combination of ripping speed, depth and
spacing of the furrows.
The design, number and method of attachment of the ripping teeth are of major
importance in connection with this. The teeth соте in various shapes, straight or
curved, each type being тоге particularly suited for certain types of rock. The
design of the tooth tip also plays а part. Thus, short tips аге better suited for rock
which is difficult to penetrate, whereas long ones аге тоге effective in abrasive
rock. Medium-Iength tips set to the correct cutting angle сап develop high
breaking-out forces and сап соре adequately even with rock of ап abrasive
character.lfthe ripping attachment is mounted so that it сап swivel about а point of
rotation, the cutting angle of the teeth will vary with their depth of penetration. This
43
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Stripping

method of mounting is generally restricted to certain types of rock. For many other The ripping method of breaking-out in quarries must Ье judged in comparison with
types the parallel-motion system of mounting is тоге suitabIe, because here the the alternative of drilling and bIasting. Ripping тау Ье preferabIe in one ог тоге of
?ptimu~ cutting angle: once it has been cQrrectly set, remains unchanged the following cases:
Irrespectlve of the worklng depth. There is, finally, а combination of these two the effect of ground vibrations due to bIasting presents an environmental
systems in that the working angle is adjustabIe, usually Ьу means of а hydraulic ргоЫет and thus seriously restricts the operations in the quarry (though it
гат, the reason being that the optimum angle for penetrating into the rock at the should Ье borne in mind that ripping тау introduce its own probIems, тоге
~tart of work тау differ from the optimum angle for the actual ripping operation particularly due to noise and dust emission);
Itself. As а rule, а single tooth should initially Ье tried. Only in relatively easily the quarrying of the material over large areas Ьу ripping achieves an
rippabIe rock will it Ье possibIe to operate with several teeth.
advantageous degree of homogenization in deposits of inhomogeneous
composition;
residual areas of the workabIe deposit, which have been left standing because
seismic velocity km/sec their proximity to vulnerabIe installations ruled out bIasting (е. g., near roads,
seismische GeschWlndigkeit km/sec 2 з
railways, buildings), have to Ье quarried as well.
4
crawl ег tractor Ripping requires large working areas and extensive opening-up of the quarry. А
rating drawback is that, depending оп seasonal factors, the raw material quarried Ьу this
Raupen storke
method will absorb up to 2% тоге moisture in the quarry, and this extra moisture
7OO~sp· ~ will of course have to Ье removed in the cement works, involving correspondingly
41OPsp· higher energy input.
ЗОО~sр· The performance and therefore the cost of ripping depend very much оп the length
с raw lеr tractor of the ripping passes and bulldozing distances. As а rule, shorter passes аге тоге
rating
Raupen stiirke advantageous. With passes up to about 50-60 m in length, which аге to Ье
regarded as the maximum, outputs (production rates) of up to 550t/hour сап
01 700~sp· ~
з·~
1/1- '1O~p.
reasonabIy Ье expected when the usual heavy crawler rippers of up to 60t overall
weight and up to 500 h.p. engine ratings аге employed.
01'"
E~ ЗОО~sр· Ripping makes severe demands оп the robustness of the machines. The frame and
:::~
undercarriage have to Ье very stabIe, for the ripping action develops not only high
rippabIe reissbar peak values of the traction force, but also swerving moments that tend to push the
crawler tracks off course. High operating, maintenance and repair costs have
I 1 borderl ine case Grenzfoll
hitherto generally made ripping unattractive as an alternative to quarrying Ьу
~ поt rippabIe nicht reissbar drilling and bIasting, except in cases where there аге compelling reasons not to
Fig. З: Ripping capacity 01 crawler rippers employ the latter method, тоге particu larly in cases where environmental
protective restrictions have to Ье complied with. Hence the development of ripping
will continue to Ье watched with interest. The operating results obtained with the
super-heavy crawler rippers of about 86 t overall weight and 700 h.p. engine
The most economical quarrying technique in given circumstances will have to Ье rating, which have latterly appeared оп the market, will have to Ье awaited before а
determined Ьу trials. For instance, the spacing of the ripping furrows will affect the тоге definite assessment сап Ье made. It тау then well Ье that, with sufficiently
~esulting fragm~ntation ofthe material. The maximum attainabIe penetration depth high levels of plant utilization, ripping will offer an economically тоге acceptabIe
IS not necessarrly always the optimum. Оп sloping ground the ripping direction alternative to drilling and bIasting.
most often employed is downhill; this is likely to achieve the highest output of
10adabIe rock despite idle uphill travel of the ripper. Failure to remove all the
З.З Stripping
dislodged material will cause "cushioning" of the tractor оп its next ripping pass
and will increase the friction factor between the crawler tracks and the solid rock Stripping with bucket wheel ог bucket chain excavators of the usual type is а
underneath. Sometimes it тау Ье advantageous to do occasional bIasting with method of raw material winning which is used in soft deposits with high natural
light charges in cases where intermediate strata of rock resistant to ripping аге moisture content, such as chalk ог marine clay. Excavating and loading аге
encountered. performed in а single operation.

44 45
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

4 Loading
4.1 Deve/opment trend higher operational readiness than the excavator. latter is, however, тоге
suitabIe under conditions where it has to travel fairly frequently from опе working
The trend in loading machines in the last ten years has Ьееп steadily away from position to another. Diesel excavators аге manufactured chiefly in the smaller size
cabIe-орегаtеd face shovels and towards the increasing use of wheel loaders and range. From about 2.5 m З bucket capacity upwards, electrically powered excava-
hydraulic excavators. The diagram in Fig.4 illustrates this development, which is tors аге usually employed in the Central European countries.
representative of about 65% of German cement production. Depending оп its size, the electric excavator is equipped with опе ог тоге motors.
'П the latter case, there is often а separate motor for crowding, slewing, lifting and
travelling. ОП large machines, loss-free control and favourabIe starting conditions
50 аге provided Ьу Ward - Leonard ог thyristor systems. Otherwise rheostatic control is
the usual method.
40 The declining use of cabIe-орегаtеd excavators as loading machines in quarrying
is attributabIe to several drawbacks:
the rigidly fixed bucket requires а well fragmented rock pile suitabIe for
30 cabIe-орегаtеd
.... loading;
/ Seilbagger
excavatoгs
~:c the excavator itself has роог mobility, i. е., it cannot Ье moved quickly and
ЕCI
~c
N 20 .0- wheel loadeгs conveniently to fresh working positions (and is therefore unsuitabIe for
С« ----А Radlader selective loading);
10 ..o--~-~::'. -' \hydгaulic it is rather unsuitabIe for dislodging rock from а quarry face ог clearing away
- 0---- excavatoгs
~~~ апу masses rock that have remained standing at the toe of the face.
Hydro - Bagger

1966 1971 1976 4.2.2 Hydraulic excavators

Fig.4: Trends in /oading machines
4.2 loading machines
The machines used for loading in open-pit quarrying in solid rock, including
limestone, marl and shale, аге cabIe-орегаtеd excavators, hydraulic excavators,
wheelloaders and (in special cases) crawler loaders. The choice of machine to Ье
used in апу given instance must Ье made with great саге, because опсе а particu lar
system has Ьееп adopted, а subsequent change to а different system involves
heavy expenditure which тау overtax the resources of relatively small under-
takings. Large ones usually operate with several systems of loading machinery,
enabIing these to Ье interchanged to suit varying conditions of service.
4.2.1 CabIe-орегаtеd excavators
Mechanization of loading in quarries started with the introduction of the саЫе­
operated excavator, тоге particular/y the face shovel, which is still оп the market
and availabIe from тапу manufacturers and in тапу sizes. With its bucket fixed
immovabIy to the агт, the diesel ог electrically powered face shovel is purely а
loading machine. Its relatively high capital cost сап Ье justified Ьу long service life,
often twenty years ог тоге. Larger machines generally last longer than smaller
ones.
46
Although hydraulic excavators have long Ьееп used in quarrying, they initially
made iittle headway because of their smali size (0.3-0.7 m З bucket capacities)
and the rigid attachment of the bucket to its агт. It was only with the introduction
of the movabIe loading bucket in lieu of the fixed bucket (actuated Ьу hydraulic
rams for tilting movements) that the advantages of these machines began to Ье
widely recognized. The bucket of the hydraulic excavator has three degrees of
freedom:
(1) raising the bucket;
(2) crowding (forward motion of the bucket);
(3) swivelling of the bucket in relation to the агт.
Hydraulic excavators mostly have а service weight 'п the range between 50 and
90 t, with bucket capacities of 3 to 4 m З . Larger machines аге seldom used 'п
cement raw materials quarrying. In the open-pit mining of other minerals, however,
there is а trend towards the use of machines weighing тоге than 100 t, with
buckets of 6 to 8 mЗ. The buckets тау Ье of the tipping ог the bottom-opening
type, the latter being better suited for carefulloading of the haulage vehicles, but
has the disadvantage of heavier wear and the need for additional hydraulic
equipment to operate the opening mechanism.
The three degrees of freedom епаЫе the hydraulic excavator bucket to perform а
swivelling movement up ог down, so as to adjust the position of its teeth to obtain
the best possibIe penetration for digging, without causing collapse of а heaped-up
rock pile. Also, larger pieces of rock сап Ье selectively scooped up from the pile. For
47
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
digging from а rock face the angle of the teeth сап Ье su ited to the direction of the
strata. The excavator сап in fact Ье used for the direct breaking-out of material from
а quarry face, though of course the loading cycle time will then Ье increased and
the performance of the machine in terms of loading rate (tonnes/hour) согге­
spondingly reduced. However, as ап adjunct to bIasting, the hydraulic excavator
сап suitabIy Ье used for clearing and trimming the quarry floor and for removing
апу toe rock masses that have Ьееп left standing.
Besides this good bucket manoeuvrability and the resulting optimum utilization of
the biting ог break-out force, other advantages of the hydraulic excavator аге its
lower weight and greater mobility as compared with the cabIe-орегаtеd excavator.
This mobility relates тоге particularly to its travelling capacity and also to the
speed with which it performs its various operating motions. In addition, various
types of bucket as well as other attachments сап interchangeabIy Ье fitted to the
excavator, so that it is indeed а universal machine. For example, а hydraulic
hammer for secondary fragmentation of boulders сап Ье attached, ог а spade
which сап Ье operated with remote control of the excavator, so that it сап Ье used
for the trimming of quarry faces with по risk of personal injury.
Оп the other hand, hydraulic excavators аге usually at а disadvantage in having а
shorter service life and а lower degree of operational availability than the саЫе­
operated excavator. Although the drive and hydraulic units аге generally so
designed as to Ье readily exchangeabIe and renewabIe, repairs nevertheless require
тоге skill and саге.
Hydraulic excavators аге availabIe as diesel ог as electrically powered machines.
The high cost of diesel fuel is а strong argument in favour of electric drive, which
has the additional advantage of а higher service life expectation. ОП the other
ha~d, it receives its power supply through а саЫе which поУ oniy limits its range ot
асtюп but тау also impede the movements of the haulage vehicles.
The lJSe of hydrostatic drive in combination with power-summation control
achieves favourabIe operating efficiency. With this method of control the power
and the working speed сап Ье adapted to the working conditions, while the oil
pressure in the dual circuit hydraulic system plays а major part in applying the
appropriate force in performing the required motion (bucket, slewing gear, bucket
агт, Ьоот, travel machinery). The rate of oil supply is the deciding factor for the
speed with which the motion is performed.
4.2.3 Wheel loaders
The wheelloader, ог wheel-mounted loading shovel, has Ьееп further improved in
recent years. Iп respect of mobility it is far superior to the excavator and is тоге
particularly suitabIe for selective quarrying where the loader has to serve several
loading points, sometimes rather widely separated, all within short intervals of
time. Besides carrying out rock loading duties in the quarry, the wheel loader is
suitabIe for clearing and trimming work as well as for other handling and loading
duties in the cement works itself.
Most of these machines used in the cement industry have bucket capacities of
between 3 and 8 m . About 80% of all these machines employed in rock quarrying,
З
48
Loading machines: Crawler loaders
and 100% of those with тоге than 2 m З bucket capacity, have articulated frames
and аге equipped with centre pivot steering. Such machines аге тоге manoeuvra-
Ые and attain higher loading rates than rigid-framed wheelloaders of equal bucket
capacity. Because of the travel movements that the loader has to perform between
scooping up the material and depositing it in the haulage vehicle, its working cycle
time is longer than that of the excavator (which does not change its position during
the loading operations), though this drawback сап Ье compensated Ьу the use of
larger bucket capacities. The travel movements cause heavy wear оп tyres. Efforts
to improve tyre service life include the use of tyre chains for protection against cuts
Ьу sharp pieces of rock. Another development with the same purpose is the so-
called beadless tyre, which has а carcass formed as ап oval-section air chamber, to
the circumference of which а renewabIe fitting belt is attached. U-shaped shoes
аге bolted direct to anchor eyes vulcanized into the belt. Better traction grip,
protection of the tyres from damage Ьу cuts and the elimination of overheating аге
advantages claimed for this tyre system.
For successful use of wheelloaders the rock pile should Ье well fragmented, as the
ripping and break-out forces that such machines сап develop аге only about опе­
sixth to one-third of those of сотрагаЫе excavators. The wheel loader is thus
unsuitabIe for the loosening of rock, а circumstance which limits its use as а
loading machine in conjunction with quarrying Ьу surface bIasting, for example.
Оп the other hand, besides being used purely for loading fragmented rock into
trucks the wheelloader сап also Ье used for transporting this material over limited
distan~es - up to about 100 -150 m ("Ioad and саггу" operation).
The service life of а wheel loader is shorter than that of ап excavator. The
mechanical and hydraulic systems of the articu lated wheelloader with centre pivot
steering аге sophisticated and subject to severe operating loads and stresses,
requiring а correspondingly large amount of servicing and maintenance. Against
this the initial cost of the machine is relatively low, and when used for "Ioad and
саггу" duties it enabIes savings in haulage vehicles and personnel to Ье effected.
When digging into rock pile consisting of jagged interlocking fragments, the wheel
loader will have to develop its maximum digging force, which тау exceed the
overturning load of the machine, so that its геаг wheels tend to lift off the ground.
Extra counterweight to prevent instability сап Ье obtained Ьу filling the tyres with
water.
4.2.4 Crawler loaders
'П quarrying, the use of these machines is generally confined уо sites where the
ground is very rough ог very soft, е. g., in open-pit clay digging. The bucket is
mounted оп а crawler undercarriage which сап function underthese unfavourabIe
conditions. Оп the other hand, the travel movements аге slower than those of а
wheelloader and the cycle time (and therefore the loading rate) correspondingly
less favourabIe. Equipped with а ripping attachment, the crawler loader сап
additionally perform light breaking-out duties.
49
 Haulage
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

5 Haulage 50
Haulage comprises the transport of the fragmented rock pile material from the
loading point to the crushing plant. Two main systems аге to Ье distinguished: 40 80
(1) haulage Ьу rail-mounted vehicles;
(2) haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means.
30 60
ф payload in t
Depending оп the choice of haulage system and the particle size of the material to
Ье handled, the rock pile loaded Ьу the loading machine is either fed to а primary
't) Q; 1& Nutzlast i~t _-------<r-
.в~20 ~~40 ::.~. _. ;0- ..0-.-0-.-0...."0...-0
crusher in the quarry, the product of which is fuгther transported to the cement >- ....
works, ог the rock pile is carried in heavy dump trucks ог railway wagons to а О;:; :J~ cement production БХ 1Q б t
a.z С«
Zementproduktion х 10 t
crushing plant located away from the quarry. Intermediate solutions аге possibIe. 10 2
Thus, the rock тау Ье loaded into trucks and taken to а primary crusher in the
quarry, the crushed material then being delivered Ьу а belt conveyor system to the
cement works. Other variants аге likewise availabIe, and the choice of haulage 1966 1971 1976
method will depend primarily оп considerations of есопоту. 'П addition, local
factors play а part, such as the haulage distances, the gradients оп the haulage Fig. 5: Evolution in haulage vehicles
routes, the number of working points in the quarry, the bearing capacity of the
ground, and the need for selective quarrying.

5.1 Rail haulage
With а
few exceptions, haulage of quarried materials Ьу rail-mounted vehicles has
Ьееп superseded in recent years. "Railless" haulage, mainly Ьу dump truck ог belt
conveyor, is now predominant.
Traction is provided Ьу diesellocomotives ог, оп larger projects, electric 'осото­
tives. The latter have the advantage of requiring fewer repairs, but аге liabIe to
cause probIems and extra expense оп account of the system of overhead contact
wires needed for powering them. Standardized track gauges аге 600 тт, 900 тт
and 1435 тт. The payload рег wagon is limited Ьу the gauge, е. g., 4 m З for
600тт.
Itshould Ье noted that certain minimum radii ofcuгvature haveto becomplied with
in laying the tracks and that the maximum gradient а loaded train of wagons сап
negotiate (over short distances) is 1 :17.
5.2 Haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means
5.2.1 Heavy trucks
Trucks as the principal means of haulage were first used in open-pit mining in
America in 1937. Those vehicles were of 15 to 20 t payload and engine power
rating up to 11 О kW (150 h.p.). Developments since those days have led to trucks
with load capacities of up to 318 t and powered Ьу locomotive diesel engines that
сап develop 2427 kW (3300 h.p.).
The vehicles сап Ье subdivided into non-articulated and articulated vehicles with
two ог тоге axles and various systems of dumping, i. е., discharging the load. The
following description is confined to forward-contro\ two-axle rear-dump trucks,
the type most extensively used in cement raw materials quarrying.
'П about 90% of аН open-pit rock quarries in the Federal RepubIic of Germa~y with
annual outputs of over 50 000 t, in 1976 the main haulage e9ui~ment conslste~ of
heavy and medium-duty trucks. Fig.5 illustrates the еvоlutюп ,п haulage vehlcle
utilization Ьу cement works representing about 65% of аll West~German ceme.nt
production. It appears from this diagram that the number of. vehlcle~ has steadlly
diminished in the last ten years, while the payload рег vehlcle has IПсгеаsеd.
High-speed and low-speed diesel engine~ аге. used for powering the mod~rn
heavy trucks. The largest vehicle at present In eXlstence, wlth 318 t load capaclty,
is equipped with а 3300 h.p. slow-running diesel. The truck.s mo~t com~only ~sed
in quarrying operations аге, however, of 35t ог 50t capaclty, wlth englne гаtlПgs
mostly between 400 and 700 h.p. . . .
Powershift transmission is now standard equipment оп medlum-slzed vehlcles
(upto about 1OOt), while mechanical gearboxes аге used only in .the smaller.ty~es
of vehicle. For heavy dump trucks (above about 100 t) mecha~lcal tгапsml~SЮП
systems аге now obsolete. These vehicles have diesel-electric drlve ог have dlrect-
drive axle motors (mechanically connected to the wheels) ог wheel-hub motors.
The third possibility is hydrostatic power transmission. .
The braking system is subject to heavy loads and has to Ье deslgn.ed and
constructed to appropriate standards of efficiency a~d safety. It comprlses the
service brake and emergency brake, ап auxiliary or parklng brake, and а retarder. 'П
principle, the brakes аге designed as multiple-circuit sys.tems.
The tractive force diagram is ап important basis for as~essl.ng the performance ~f а
dump truck. It is necessary to find the optimum соmы
аtюпn between the tractlve
force in the low speeds and in the highest speed ("top gear"). .
As the ratio of payload to unladen weight is steadily incre~sin~ and the welght of
the vehicle therefore varies greatly, while the roads оп whlch It travels ar~ usually
unpaved, the suspension has to stand up to severe conditions of seГVlce. The

51
50
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
requirement that springing should Ье equally good for the unladen and the fully
laden vehicle is fulfilled Ьу а suspension system with а parabolic spring
characteristic, i. е., the curve representing the spring tension as а function of the
spring travel is not а straight line but а parabola, so that the tension increases тоге
than proportionally with increasing compression of the springs. The vehicle
manufacturers strive to achieve this suspension behaviour Ьу means of various
springing and damping systems:
hydropneumatic suspension (oil/gas);
rubber springing systems (rubber cushions and telescopic struts ог rubber-
element telescopic struts);
steel springs;
hydraulic suspension systems.
The dump bodies, ог hoppers, of the vehicles have to withstand very rough service
conditions and аге made of highly wear-resistant steel plate with stiffening
features. At the front end there is а projecting shield to protect the driver's саЬ. The
body сап Ье heated with engine exhaust gas to prevent sticky materials from
caking inside it under wet weather conditions. The tipping movement of the body,
for dumping the load, is performed Ьу hydraulic action.
Among the various cost items in the operation of haulage vehicles, tyre wear is
especially important. The rate of wear depends оп several factors, including the
tread pattern and the possibIe use of protective chains оп severely abrasive rock
terrain.
The functional availabllity rating of а heavy truck with ргорег maintenance, repairs
and spares planning сап Ье put at around 80%. The condition ofthe haulage roads
not oniy affects {уге wear, but aiso hiil-climbing ability, vehicle speed and fuel
consumption. As the roads аге, as а rule, not surfaced with permanent paving
materials, а grader is а useful machine for maintaining them in adequate
condition.
With regard to the interadjustment of the loading machine and the trucks it сап Ье
said that the ratio of loading bucket capacity to truck payload capacity should Ье
between 1 : 3 and 1 : 8 if loading is done Ьу ап excavator and between 1 : 3 and 1 : 6
if it its done Ьу wheel loader. The outreach and loading height of the loading
machines should Ье sufficient to ensure complete filling of the truck.
5.2.2 Belt conveyors
Encouraged Ьу the good experience gained in lignite mining, belt conveyor
systems have evolved into ап important means of transport in open-pit quапуiпg
and mining operations in loose-textured material ог soft ground. 'П rock quarrying,
оп the other hand, this method of material handling is only sporadically used and
then for the most part only in the production of raw materials for the European lime
and cement industry.
Th.e coars~ly fragmented material produced Ьу rock bIasting has to undergo
sUltabIe prlmary crushing in а mobile ог portabIe plant and hasto Ье fed carefully
onto the belt conveyor Ьу means of а special device so as to prevent damage to the
52
Haulage
belt. These arrangements аге the main reasons why the introduction of such
conveyors into quarrying is making rather slow progress. The sequence:
drilling and bIasting,
- loading,
- haulage (е. g., in dump trucks),
is replaced Ьу:
drilling and bIasting,
loading,
(primary) crushing,
conveying (belt conveyor).
Overland belt conveyor systems аге usually designed for carrying the quarried
materials over medium distances. These installations аге characterized Ьу flexibllity
of design, enabIing them to adaptthemselves to uneven terrain conditions, е. g., Ьу
the use of catenary-type idler sets with rollers mounted оп steel wire ropes. The
specific cost of transport with the belt conveyor decreases with increasing length
of the system and increasing material handling rate, the latter in turn being
dependent оп belt width, speed, and cross-sectional (troughed) shape. The speed
тау Ье anything up to 3 m/second, and instead of а standard trough angle of 200,
тоге deeply troughed cross-sections with angles of 250 ог 300 тау Ье used. With
increasing centre-to-centre distances the steel wire саЫе belt becomes the type
predominantly employed. Depending оп the length of the belt, its slope (angle of
ascent) and handling rate, опе ог тоге drive motors, ins~alled at опе ог both ends
of the belt, аге used to power it.
'П comparison with vehicular haulage, the overland belt conveyor makes much
тоге modest demands upon route alignment and the structures for bridging апу
traffic routes that have to Ье crossed - not least because the uniformly distributed
loading of the conveyor does not require anyappreciabIe bearing capacity of the
subsoil. Gradients of up to 180 сап moreover easily Ье overcome.
А drawback of the belt is its limited adaptability to alignments curved оп plan and
the susceptibility of the belt to suffer damage from coarse hard lumps of material.
Furthermore, somewhat limited positional adaptability in the quапу in order to
соре with varying locations of the mobile crusher (which in turn will depend оп
variations in the working and loading points in the quarry) is another disadvantage
of the belt conveyor.
Keeping the belt conveyor in good operational order requires some monitoring
devices, е. g., metal detectors and devices for the detection of tears and holes in the
belt. Sideguide idlersshould Ье provided in orderto assist in the training ofthe belt
to run true and in line with the carrying idlers.
5.2.3 Load and сапу
For relatively small distances between the rock pile loading point and the mobile
crusher (not тоге than about 200 т) it тау Ье advantageous to make use of the
good mobility of the wheel loader and its favourabIe ratio of bucket capacity to
53
В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg
service weight. The currently availabIe machines with up to 20 m З bucket capacity
аге adequate for the purpose.
In the load and сапу method the wheel loader scoops up its bucket-Ioad of
fragmented rock at the quarry face and directly transports it to the crusher, which is
equipped with а special receiving hopper to accept the material discharged from
the bucket. With some types of crusher the loader travels up onto а kind of ramp
and deposits the load into the crusher opening. The crushed product is conveyed
to the cement works Ьу overland belt conveyor.
Time studies in а limestone quarry where two wheel loaders, each of 10.6 m З
bucket capacity, were used оп load and сапу duties over а distance of 100 m
showed the average loading cycle time, inclusive of safety margins, to Ье about
120 seconds. Theoretical handling rates of up to 500 t/hour were attained, not
allowing for time spent оп repairs and оп waiting for removal of the crusher to fresh
working locations. It was found that the performance is substantially dependent оп
the travel speed of the wheelloader, the condition of the terrain and the gradients
to Ье overcome. The rolling resistances encountered Ьу the loader directly and
considerabIy affect the performance (rate of material handling) Ьу their reduction
of the travel speed. In practice, speeds аге between 6 and 12 km/hour for the laden
journey and between 8 and 14 km/gour for the unladen return journey to the
loading point. For а travel distance of 30 m these differences in speed between the
two limits of the range оп each journey may cause handling rates attained Ьу а
particular machine to vary Ьу 29%. For а distance of 150 m the rates may, for the
same reason, vary Ьу 63%. Оп soft subsoil and/or оп terrain with steep gradients
the maximum travel distance between loading point and crusher should therefore
Ье limited to not more than 60 - 80 m.
5.3 Aerial ropeways
The advantages offered Ьу ап aerial ropeway (aerial tramway) are due to its ability
to overcome difficult terrain conditions. This method of transporting materials is
largely independent of the nature and utilization of the ground over which the
system is routed. It provides а short connection between the terminal stations and
сап overcome considerabIe gradients. Operation of the ropeway сап Ье fully
automated, while power consumption is relatively low.
Double-саbIе and single-cable systems аге available. In the latter, опе and the
same саЫе (wire горе) serves to support as well as to tow the buckets. Ropeways
сап Ье used for virtually апу distance from, say, 1 km to 100 km. The speed of the
buckets is about 4 m/second.
There аге some major drawbacks, however, which limit the use of ropeways to
exceptional cases. The handling capacity is limited to about 500t/hour. The
capacity of ап existing installation сап Ье increased, if at all, only at considerabIe
capital expense. Also, а ropeway system is susceptible to faults and breakdowns
(especially in larger installations), while operating performance is liable to Ье
hampered Ьу high winds.
54
Mobile crushing plants
6 Moblle crushing plants
The combination of mobile crusher and belt conveyor system has in recent years
managed only in the quarries of the Ешореап lime and cement industry to secure
anything like а substantial proportion of the material handling duties. However,
there have lately Ьееп moves to test and introduce this system also in other ореп­
pit rock quапуiпg and mining operations. The overall trend is towards higher
throughput rates. In contrast with the static crushing plant installed at the edge of
the quarry (which is still the more usual arrangement), necessitating haulage ofthe
material from the quarry face to the crusher over а distance which increases as
quarrying advances, а mobile plant сап Ье moved close to the loading point ог to
varying central positions in the quarry which аге most favourably located at апу
given stage of the operations. Depending оп the depth of the quarry and the length
of the haulage roads, the mobile crusher in combination with а belt conveyor
system may prove а substantially more economical alteгnative to the static
crusher.
The mobile crusher is fed either directly ог indirectly. With direct feed the loading
machine takes up the material from the rock pile at the face and deposits it straight
into the feed opening of the crusher. The best performance (highest feed rate) is
obtained if the feed opening is low so that the loading machine сап most
conveniently discharge the contents of its bucket ог hopper into it. This means that
the height of the crusher and undercarriage should Ье suitabIy low.
In the indirect method the loading machine first deposits its load into а feed device
which in turn discharges it into the crusher feed opening. The device should deliver
the material uniformly to the crusher and may Ье ап apron conveyor, а ПJЬЬег belt
conveyor or а chain conveyor. The direct feed method is used only in about 4% of
all mobile crushers, the indirect method being standard practice in 96% (of which
about 80% of such installations have аргоп conveyors, 14 % belt conveyors and 2%
chain conveyors).
1n order to increase the throughput, the material may Ье screened between the feed
device and the crusher, so that only the larger pieces of rock аге fed to the latter,
while the undersize pieces аге delivered directly onto the belt conveyor.
The actual crusher may Ье апу of the usual types of primary crushing machines. The
machines manufactured in the Federal RepubIic of Germany for the international
cement industry comprise the following types'
60%
single-rotor and doubIe-гоtог hammer crushers
30%
- impact crushers
10%.
- jaw crushers and gyratory crushers
These figures comprise mobile as well as static crusher plants.
А swivelling conveyor may Ье used to receive the crushed product and provide ап
adaptabIe connecting link between the mobile crusher and the overland belt
conveyor system. This intermediate conveyor is usually а belt conveyor (in 74% of
the cases), ог else ап apron conveyor (24%) ог а chain conveyor (2%).
The travel mechanism of the mobile crusher is of major importance. There аге
various types:
55
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Site restoration

walking mechanism; Crawler tracks тау Ье fitted parallel or transversely to the direction of passage of
crawler tracks; the material through the crushing plant. This method of travel.is a~va.ntag.eous in
rubber-tyred wheeled chassis; cases where the bearing pressure оп the ground has to геmаlП wlthl~ falrly I~w
semi-mobile crusher. limits and where frequent changes of location сап suitabIy Ье achleved wlth
The choice of the appropriate type will Ье based оп numerous criteria, such as moderate travel speeds. А disadvantage is the high service weight in. comp~ri~on
service weight, bearing pressure exerted оп the ground, headroom (overall with the walking crusher, generally poorer climbing capacity оп gradlents, '~~It~d
height), drive power rating, travel speed, manoeuvrability in different directions, scope for installing the crusher оп sloping ground, and inadequate moblllty ,п
performance оп gradients, permissibIe slope оп which the plant сап Ье installed, different directions.
maintenance and repair possibilities during plant operation, behaviour with regard Rubber-tyred mobile crushers have advantages in terms of servic~ ~eight, tr~vel
to frequent changes of location. Fig. 6 shows the proportions of the various types speed, and possibility of carrying out servicing while t~e c~usher IS In орегаtюп.
of travel mechanism for mobile crushers as they have Ьееп introduced and Also, the climbing capacity, mobility in various dlгесtюпs, and scope for
developed over the years. installation оп sloping ground are adequate, but the high bearing pressure exerted
The advantages and disadvantages of these types are bound up with the Ьу the wheels is а drawback. . '
conditions of use. А semi-mobile crusher has по permanently attached travel mechanlsm or chassls
of its own. When in service, the plant is supported оп а steel frame or оп skids. For
moving it to а different working location, а special lifti.ng truck or. а travelling
60 chassis is used, the advantage being that these travel devlces are avallabIe for use
pneumatic tyres also with other semi-mobile crushers. This arrangement helps to keep down the
1/1
~ 50 Pneufahrwerk capital cost of the crushing plant. Lifting trucks of up to 600 t capacity are now
о
~J!
availabIe for the purpose. Travel speeds are in the region of 2 kmjhour.
'NOlking mechanism
cф~t 40 Schreitwerk
Её 7 Site restoration
ф ...
и~ ЗО
EN In addition to the probIems of environmental protection to Ье overcome, the pit
:.г and quarry industry has the special probIem of site restoration, .reinstatem~nt or
l):r; 20
recultivation. These terms indicate the need for the raw materials quаГГУlПg or
E~ crawler tracks mining activities to соте to terms with the demands of nature and landscape
::Jc
С<{ 10 Raupenfahr werk
conservation. Restoration in this sense means restoring the landscape to some-
thing like its original or at least ап environmentally acceptabIe appear~nc~ after the
quarrying operations have ceased оп the site concern~d. R~сultlvаtюп r:n ore
1956 1960 62 б4 66 68 70 72 74 76 particularly refers to creating а biologically and ecologlcally Intact and vlabIe
Fig.6: Evolution in mobile crushers (Manufacturers in Fed. Аер. of natural habitat for animal and plant life.
Germany)
7.1 The situation in the cement industry
The building materials industry, including the cement industry, uses raw materials
The walking mechanism is powered Ьу а hydraulic system. Vertical rams lih the which, generally speaking, are extracted rather close to the surface of the.g.round.
machine and its walking pad or shoe, while horizontal rams move the shoe forward These materials are found in relatively limited quantities in particular localltles and
and thrust the whole machine in the desired direction. This is the general principle, сап Ье economically transported only over fairly short distances. The choice of
but actual details of the mechanism vary from опе manufacturer to another. location for the processing plant (cement works) is therefore directly bound up
The advantages of the walking method of travel are the low bearing pressure per with the location of the quarrying area.
unit area of ground оп which the machine travels, the mobility in different The raw material needs of the German cement industry involve the quarrying of
directions, the ability to climb gradients, and the possibility of installing the about 1 km 2 of fresh land per year. Since the Federal RepubIic of Germany is а
crushing plant оп sloping ground. Оп the other hand, this travel method is not very country with limited raw material resources, but is опе the world's largest raw
suitabIe in cases where the crusher has to Ье moved fairly frequently from опе material consumers, the indigenous supplies obviously must Ье utilized in the most
location to another. The travel speed is low, but so is the drive power required. efficient possibIe way.

56 57
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
1.2 Quarries and landscaping
With increasing size of individual quarries, the probIems associated with site
restoration have correspondingly increased.
For the present-day large and deep quarries methodically conducted restoration
measure~ аге ne~e~sary and а statutory requirement. Since it is, generally speaking,
~o.t posslbIe to fIIlln the excavations because there is not enough backfill material,
It IS necessary to remodel the landscape in ап acceptabIe таппег. Additional
changes in the арреагапсе of the restored site will Ье caused Ьу the presence of
overburden tips and settling ponds.
Experience has shown that early p/anning for the subsequent utilization of the
qu~rry site an,d ancillary features (waste tips, etc.) is essential to speedy and
satlsfactory rel.nstat.ement of а functional landscape configuration. What usually
cannot Ье avolded IS that the restored site will comprise exposed rock faces. The
important thi~g, however, is the overall resulting арреагапсе of the landscape.
WI.th metho?lcal restoration, а varied landscape with а good range of plant and
anlmal specles сап Ье obtained. Not only is it thus possibIe to restore а pleasing
арреагапсе to the countryside, but in some exceptional cases the restored site тау
even look better than it originally did before quarrying started. For reasons of cost,
the quarry operators will strive to restore the site as soon as possibIe after the
quarr~ing. operations .in а particular агеа have ended, so that topsoil spreading and
гесultlvаtюп сап Ье Interlinked as closely as possibIe.
Ап alternative useful quarry site restoration method is to utilize the excavations for
refuse disposa/, so that they аге filled in before final landscaping.
1.3 Restoration features
Planni~g the site ~estoration measures involves hillsides, benches, final quarry
floor, tlPS and sеttllПg ponds. 'П addition, the effect of trees and shrubs planted in
co~nection with these measures upon the propagation of noise, waste gases and
nOlse should Ье taken into consideration.
7.3.1 Hillsides
In the present context these comprise the areas situated between the rim of the
quarry and the unaffected surrounding land. The plants, shrubs, etc. planted оп
these strips of land should protect them from soil erosion and should moreover
scatter their seeds onto the benches, floors and quarry faces. Непсе the hillside
vegetation forms the basis and starting point for the natural flora and the associated
/a~dscaping within the quarry Апу waste tips (overburden piles, etc.) that тау
eXlst оп ог пеаг the hillside strips сап suitabIy Ье included in the planting program.
Whll.e quarr~l~g operations аге sti/l in progress, such grassed and planted tips
proVlde аddltюпаl protection against dust and noise nuisance. The areas in
question should Ье planted with undemanding deep-rooted species, such as
sallow (Iow-growing willows). These not only form and hold the topsoil but in
conj~ nction with the su~cessive vegetation stages of grass, plants and bushes they
provlde the natural habltat for subsequent other species.
58
Site restoration
7.3.2 Berms and quarry faces
After extraction of the workabIe mineral, berms ог benches remain оп the final
slopes, and the correct choice of width for these horizontal/edges is important in
connection with the subsequent growth of vegetation оп them. As а rule, they
should Ье 3 to 6 m wide, depending оп the height above the quarry floor and unless
statutory regulations require other dimensions. Against the need for suitabIy wide
berms must Ье set the requirement that the least possibIe quantity of workabIe
mineral should Ье left behind in the quarry. А compromise will therefore have to Ье
effected.
Маг' and 'оат тау Ье used for filling and banking against quarry faces, because
topsoil is generally not availabIe in sufficient quantities. Soil-forming a~d de~p­
rooting plants should preferabIy Ье used, which сап protect the subsoll аgаlПst
erosion Ьу water flowing down the quarry faces.
Steep rock walls аге unsuitabIe for planting with vegetation, except wher~ sin.ks
(dolines) filled with 'оату material already exist. А certain amount of plant Ilfe wlll,
however, gain а foothold in loam-filled crevices and at the j~nctions between
strata and will in course of time spread to give а natural coverlng of greenery to
parts ofthe rock. 'П апу casethe wallsshould Ье stabIe and properly ~rimmed.l~ has
Ьееп found that the stability сап Ье considerabIy improved Ьу lеаVlПg а relatlvely
thin 'ауег of the workabIe deposit in situ.
7.3.3 Final quarry floor
The final floor of the quarry should generally Ье levelled. However, if sufficient
quantities of overburden аге availabIe, artificial hillocks тау Ье formed, which help
to introduce some pleasing variety into the overall visual impression created Ьу the
restored site. Апу depressions caused Ьу overburden stripping operations should
Ье filled in. If the final floor is dry and topsoil is in short supp/y, it тау Ье necessary
to provide artificial irrigation. Otherwise а certain amount of replanting will have to
Ье carried out to make good the losses of vegetation that occur in periods of dry
weather.
Оп the other hand, ifthe final floor is below ground water level, flooding тау occur
when the quarry pumps аге stopped. А lake will then Ье formed, which сап Ье а
pleasing feature of the landscape in combination with the ~Iants, bus~es and trees
growing оп the berms and hillside strips, besides сгеаtlПg ап envlronment for
aquatic birds. Also, the water in the quarry сап serve as а reservoir.
7.3.4 Waste tips
The recultivation of the tips (overburden and waste material piles) is normally
carried out before restoration work starts оп the quarry itself. Economic, technical
and landscaping criteria аге applicabIe to the operations of locating, building up
and shaping the tips.
1n order to keep transport costs down, waste tips аге generally located as close to
the quarry as possibIe so as to have minimum overburden haulage distances. When
59
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Site restoration

the quarry has reached its final extent, it тау Ье advantageous to dispose the tips
Planted areas of this kind do not themselves produce dust, ап~ much of the du~t
around the quarry site, where they сап serve а useful purpose in visually screening
carried into them Ьу wind is trapped. Моге particularly, the slО~lПg down of the a.lr
the workings and acting as а barrier curbing the emission of noise, dust and
exhaust gases. currents Ьу the foliage cause them to discharge m~ch of thelr dus~ burden. Thls
result is тоге effectively achieved if the dust-Iaden а/г сап penetrate IПtо the ~elt?f
Grassing and planting the tips should begin, in the ргорег season, as soon as
trees, so that dust precipitation takes place in ог just behi~d. it..Eddy fогmаtюп IП
possibIe after they have Ьееп completed. Besides grass, other species of plant
front of dense forest also results in а certain smount of ргеСIРltаtюп, but а lot of the
should Ье sown, е. g., clover, lupins, etc. Aher this vegetation has had time to
dust remains airborne and is carried along in the wind that sweeps over the top of
develop, afforestation should соттепсе with fast-growing species such as alders.
The ultimate aim should Ье to achieve mixed plant;ng. such forest instead of penetrating into it. . .
Roughly speaking, forest with 40% penetrability achieves the bes~ dust preclpl.-
tating effect. 'П winter, when the trees and bushe~ hav~ shed thelr leaves, thelr
7.3.5 Settling ponds effectiveness is reduced to about 60% of that аttаlПеd ,п summer.
With regard to the effect of planted areas (тоге particularly: belts of forest) оп the
Like the waste tips, the settling ponds must also Ье incorporated into the restored
distribution and objectionabIe action of waste gases there аге four aspects to Ье
landscape. The choice of location for these features сап Ье ап important factor in
distinguished:
this connection. Natural depressions in the ground, hollows ог old quarry workings
сап suitabIy Ье used for the purpose. reduction of wind velocity;
The outer face of ап impounding dam should Ье planted with trees. Оеер roots increase of turbulence;
help to stabilize the soil. The silted-up settling pond areas should likewise Ье true filtering action Ьу the foliage;
planted with trees ог otherwise Ье used as pasture ог агаЫе land. Other possibIe physiologically beneficial effect of wind screening Ьу the trees and
uses аге as sports fields ог recreational facilities, as such areas аге usually very bushes. . k
flat. If а belt of forest is to Ье at all effective in the attenuation of роllutюп Ьу smo е,
When substantial pond areas have thus filled up, p/anting оп them should fumes and waste gases, two conditions have to Ье satisfied:
соттепсе as soon as they аге sufficiently firm and trafficabIe. the belt of forest should rise well above the initial level at which the smoke
plume spreads out;
the distance from the trees to the source of smoke emission must not Ье too
7.4 Noise and dust emission great.
(See also Chapter Н: En~ironmental protection)
7.5 Cost
The planting of shrubs and trees for the purpose of noise and dust emission control
should Ье p/anned and carried out before the quarry is opened up. The execution of Because of the тапу and varied possibilities for the subsequent utilization of
such measures тау, however, run into difficulties, тоге particularly in open-pit worked-out quarries and their ancillary installations, and. al~o beca~se of the other
projects extending Over very large areas of land. Planting should in апу case variabIe factors involved (wages, etc.), по generally-valld Iпfогmаtюп оп the cost
immediately Ье started along the boundaries where the final extension of the of site restoration сап Ье given. For the most commonly encountered case where
quarry workings has Ьееп reached. This will Ье conducive to speedy restoration of restoration consists of landscaping the site Ьу the planting of trees ап~ shrubs,
the site and its re-integration into the surrounding landscape. however, the following figures (for German conditions in 1979) сап provlde some
Although the sound-attenuating effect of а belt of trees and bushes ;s often approximate guidance:
overrated, dense forest with well developed undergrowth сап reduce the sound soil stripping at least 1.00 ОМ/т2
~evel b~ betw~e.n 0.5 and 2.0 dB (А) рег 1 О m of sound transmission path through supplying fill material at least 2.00 ОМ/т 2
It. ОЬvюuslу, It IS advantageous to make the strip of forest bordering the quarry as spreading 0.30 m topsoil 3.60 ОМ/т2
wide as possibIe. spreading 0.35 m organic soil 3.15 ОМ/т
2

As а barrier to atmospheric pollution, especially Ьу dust, strategically planted trees planting of seedlings, incl. subsequent саге 2.25 ОМ/т2
and bushes сап Ье of real vafue. From this point of view it is тоге effective to have ОМ/т
2
planting of saplings and shrubs 3.00
а belt of high trees in stepped formation ог rows of trees in а staggered spray seeding of rubbIe slopes
arrangement, in either case allowing the wind to bIow through them. This form of (depending оп angle of slope) 2.00 to 3.80 ОМ/т2
protection is тоге effective than dense forest presenting а relatively impenetrabIe quarry floor afforestation, individual trees 2.00 ОМ/т2
obstacle to the flow of air.
The cost рег hectare тау thus Ье of the order of 100000 ОМ.
60
61
 References
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

22. PreuBer, W.: Versuchssprengungen mit losem ANC-Sprengstoff (Атто­

References пех 1) im Werk Flandersbach der Rheinischen Kalksteinwerke GmbH,
Wulfrath. - In: Die Industrie der Steine und Erden 2/1966.
1. Alth~ff, Н.: Die Weiterentwicklung der Schreitwerke fLir schwere ortsbe-
23. R6ttgen, R.: Flachensprengungen a\s Mittel zum selektiven Abbau. - 'п:
wegllche Brechanlagen. - 'п: ZKG 21/1968/512- 515.
Nobel Hefte 33/1967/149.
2. Beek,~.: Rekultivierung eines Steinbruchs. - In: ZKG 31/1978/247 -249. 24. Rottgen, R.: Das Flachensprengverfahren beim Einsatz eines ANC-Misch-
3. Caterp~llar Tractor, Со.: Handbook of Ripping. - August 1975.
ladefahrzeuges. - 1п: Nobel Hefte 42/1976/123.
4. Caterplllar Tractor Со.: Performance handbook, 8th edition. - Oktober 1977 25. Schater, H.-U.: Maschinensystem zur Rohstoffgewinnung in Festgestein-
5. Dynamit Nobel: Die Sprengarbeit in Tagebauen und Steinbruchen 2 Auf~
tagebauen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/541-544.
lage, 9/1975. ' .
26. Schiele, Е. / Forsthoff, W.: Stand der Tagebau- und Steinbruchtechnik. - In:
6. EII~, K.-H./~ruschka, О.: Leistungen, Betriebskosten und Standzeiten von
ZKG 24/1971/158.
RelBraupen In Kalksteinbruchen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/516. 27. Sillem, Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung: TiefreiBer, Fahrbrecher, Mischbetten. - 'п:
7. Flachsenberg, Р.: Laden und Transport in Steinbruchen. - In: Aufbereitungs-
ZKG 21/1968/56.
Technik. 6/1965/149 -160. 28. Stumpf, К.: Abraumwirtschaft und Haldenlagerung bei der Kalksteinge-
8. Flachsenberg, Р.: Qualitatssteuerung und Qualitatsuberwachung im
winnung. - In: ZKG 21/1968/23 - 31.
Kalkwerk. - In: ZKG 19/1966/155-163. 29. Stumpf, К.: Die Rohstoffgewinnung als Ausgangsstelle der
9. Flachsenberg, Р.: ~as РгоЫет der Qualitats- und Mengensteuerung beim
Zementproduktion. - 'п: ZKG 24/1971/443-450.
A.bbau von Ka.lksteln. Vortrag auf der 9. Arbeitstagung des Fachausschusses 30. Thelen, А.: GгоВ-НуdгаulikЬаggег im Tagebau. - 'п: Baumaschinen u.
fur ВегgtесhПlk der GDMB ат 8.5.71 in Hameln. - GDMB Gesellschaft
Deutscher Metallhutten- und Berg/eute (Erzmetall), Paul-Егпst-StгаВе 1 О, Bautechnik 6/1977.
31. Thum, W.: Sprengtechnik im Steinbruchbetrieb und Baubetrieb.
3392 Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
1 О. Fr~y, Р.: Eine neue Steinbrecheranlage. - Separatabdruck aus der Neuen 32. Weinmann, W.: Die zweite Verordnung zum Sprengstoffgesetz: Neue bun-
Zurcher Zeltung Nr.29 vom 19.1.70. deseinheitliche Vorschriften uber die Aufbewahrung explosionsgefahrlicher
11. Grimmer, K.-J.: M6~lichkeit~n und Entwicklungsrichtungen zur F6rderung
Stoffe. - In: Nobel Hefte 44/1978/81.
groBer Massenschuttgutstrome. - 'п: Berg- und Huttenmannische 33. Weirich, К.: Einsatz einer verfahrbaren Brecheranlage im Steinbruch eines
Monatshefte 6/234 - 244. Zementwerkes. - In: Berg- und Huttenmannische Monatshefte 10/1969.
12. Grosse, О.: Wanderbrecher im Steinbruch eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: ZKG 34. WeiB, Н.: Fahrbare Grol1brechanlagen-Untersuchung der durch den Einsatz
23/1970/141 -146. fahrbarer Vorbrechanlagen in den Gewinnungsbetrieben verursachten
13. Hinz, W.: Umweltschutz und Energiewirtschaft. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/215- Kostenanderungen. - 1п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/109.
229. 35. Wilmanns, F.: GroBbrechanlagen mit Hydro-Schreiter in Steinbruchen. - In:
14. K6nig, R.: Entspricht unsere Sprengtechnik dem internationalen Stand? - In:
Aufbereitungs-Technik 9/1968/235 - 240.
Bergbau 5/1975/107. 36. Zepter, К.-Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung und Aufbereitung. 'п: ZKG
15. Korak, J./Martens, P.-N./Z6I1ner, G.: Bandtransport auch im Festgestein-
30/1977/499-507.
Tagebau. - In: F6rdern und heben 14/1974. 37. Zepter, К.-Н.: Schutzder naturlichen Umwelt - M6glichkeiten und Grenzen.
16. Korak, J. / Martens, P.-N. /Z61lner, G.: Radlader als Ladegerat im Festgestein- Vortrag, internationaler (techn.) KalkkongreB, Hershey, РА, USA, 21.-
Tagebau. - 'п: F6rdern und heben 1976/215-220.
22.9.78.
17. Korak, J. (Martens, Р.- Н. / Z6Ilner, G.: Schwerlastkraftwagen. Ein
T~ansportmlttel fur Massenschuttguter aus tagebautechnischer Sicht. - 'п:
Fordern und heben 1976/587 - 594.
18. Korak, J./Mart~ns, P.-.N./Z?llner, G.: Ladegerate fur den Festgestein-
Tagebau - eln Betrlebsmlttelvergleich. - 'п: F6rdern und heben
28/1978/819 - 824.
19. Matte~, Н.: Die Grenzen der Gewinnung vom Rohmaterial durch ReiBen und
Abschleben. - In: ZKG 25/1972/214.
20. Mentges, G.: Kalksteinabbau und Landschaftspflege. In: ZKG
27 /1974/518-586.
21. Pieper, 1.: Umweltschutz und Industrie. - In: ZKG 26/1973/409-412.
63
62
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations
Introduction

ш. Raw materials storage, bIending beds, 1 Introduction

sampling stations
The intermediate storage of raw materials between the quarry and the raw mill has
Ву D. Schmidt traditionally formed the stockpile from which а steady supply of materials for
processing in the cement works has Ьееп maintained. 'П addition, it has in recent
years Ьесоте increasingly important for the puгpose of рге-bIепdiпg ог рге­
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . homogenizing of the crushed stone. In а few cases, final homogenization is even
65
2 Bed-bIепdiпg theory. . . . . . . . . achieved in this way. The principle of "bed-bIепdiпg"Ьу longitudinal stockpiling
66
2.1 Mode of operation of the bIending bed and transverse reclaiming of bulk materials has already long Ьееп practised in the
66
2.2 Assessment of а bIending bed . . . . . . . . coal and аге mining industries, such stockpiles being known as bIending beds. It is
69
2.3 Estimating the homogenizing effect in advance . being increasingly used in the cement industry for the homogenization of raw
71
3 Machinery and process engineering methods. stone orthe bIending ofdifferent raw materials, butalso forthe homogenization of
73
3.1 Stacking methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . clinker, bIastfuгnace slag and coal.
73
3.1.1 Chevron method. There аге а number of reasons for providing intermediate storage of raw materials
73
3.1.2 Windrow method in the form of а stockpile:
73
3.1.3 Horizontal layers. 75 processing in the works is thus made largely independent of the operations
3.1.4 Strata method. . . 75 in the quarry;
3.1.5 Cone-shell method. 75 multi-shift working in the quarry is rendered unnecessary Ьу the use of high-
3.1.6 Chevcon method . . . . . . . . 76 capacity loading, haulage and primary crushing machinery;
3.2 Stacking and reclaiming machines . . . . 77 noise and dust emission аге reduced in that they аге limited to shorter periods
3.2.1 Chevron stacking and end-on reclaiming. 77 of time;
3.2.1.1 Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . 77 the stockpile safeguards the uninterrupted supply of material to feed the
3.2.1.2 Reclaiming with front-acting machines . . .
3.2.2 80 present-day large kilns;
Blending bed system with windrow stacking . 83
3.2.2.1 Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . the stockpile сап deal тоге efficiently, in terms of material handling, with
3.2.2.2 83 sticky materials than storage in silos сап;
Reclaiming Ьу side-acting scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.3 the stockpiling and reclaiming operations сап Ье satisfactorily automated;
Blending bed systems with horizontal and inclined stacking . 87
3.2.3.1 гound-the-clock operation of the fiпish-bIепdiпg and preparation plants fed
Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.3.2 Reclaiming machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . from the stockpile enabIes full advantage to Ье taken of cheaper electricity at
3.2.4 88 nights and week-ends.
Blending bed based оп the cone-shell method . 88
3.3 Arrangement of bIending beds 89 The following consideration5 аге additionally applicabIe to а bIending bed for raw
3.3.1 Longitudinal stockpiles.
90 material homogenization:
3.3.1.1 Parallel stockpile5 ..
90
3.3.1.2 In-line stockpi/es . . . better utilization of inhomogeneous raw material deposits;
3.3.2 90
Circular stockpile . рге-bIепdiпg of different raw material components is possibIe;
91
3.3.3 Homogenizing tanks ог troughs. . . . . better uniformity of the raw meal and therefore of the clinker is achieved, 50
92
3.4 Measuгes to combat end-cone probIems . that the quality of the cement is тоге nearly constant.
4 93
Sampling stations . . . . . . .
4.1 93 As а rule, new cement works аге equipped with bIending beds of various types,
Sample quantity. . . . . . . . 94
4.2 with ог without sampling stations. Similar arrangements аге provided under most
Proces5 engineering featuгes . . 94
4.2.1 modernization schemes for existing works. The following types of bIending bed аге
Sampling installation 1 (MIAG). 94
4.4.2 to Ье distinguished, all of which сап Ье designed as longitudinal (straight) ог
Sampling installation 2 (FLS). 97
4.3 circular beds:
Checking the sampling system 97 - Storage stockpiles
References. . . . . . . . . . . . No special requirements as to pre-homogenizing efficiency аге applied, and по
99 sampling station is needed. Stacking and reclaiming the material аге done Ьу
methods not involving the use of expensive and sophisticated machines.
64
65
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Bed-blending theory

DoubIe stockpiles, for raw materials containing а high and а low percentage of Reclaiming the material from the pile is done transversely to the direction of
lime, respectively, аге basically similar to the single-component stockpile. The stacking Ьу what is in principle а slicing action, тоге particularly if а side-acting
"high" and the "Iow" material аге simultaneously reclaimed from the bIending scraper is used. With this type of reclaimer the material is removed in а certain
stockpiles and аге used for approximately proportioning the raw mix. Further thickness all the way from the ridge to the toe of the stockpile. With а front-acting
corrective materials аге added ahead of the raw mills. reclaimer the entire cross-section of the pile is simultaneously acted upon Ьу the
raking-down device, so that the material removed in this way cannot really Ье
Blending beds with specified target values regarded as а "slice". AII the same, for the present purpose, such layers of reclaimed
Single-component bIending bed: This type of bIending bed is intended тоге material will likewise Ье conceived as thin slices.
particu larly for the stockpiling of limestone confirming to specified characteris- ОП these assumptions, the reclaiming operations сап Ье described as follows:
tic values (Iime standard, СаСО з , СаО). The stacking operations for building
Because of the superposition of the input variations in the composition of the
up the stockpile аге monitored Ьу а sampling station. In order to ensure а good
material stacked оп the stockpile, the material reclaimed in slices at right angles to
homogenizing ог bIending effect, the stacking and reclaiming equipment is
the stacking layers will Ье subject to certain output variations, which аге of two
тоге elaborate than that used in the ordinary storage stockpile.
kinds:
Proportioning stockpile: In this variant the required mix proportioning is (а) variations within an individual slice of material (short-term deviations);
obtained Ьу the simultaneous ог successive stacking of different raw material (Ь) variations in the average values of the slices (Ionger-term deviations).
components in the same pile. The input of materials has to Ье monitored Ьу а
sampling station. Неге, too, elaborate stacking and reclaiming equipment is
essential to achieving the bIending effect. In practice, however, this type of
x(t)
bIending bed has not соте into widespread use.
In general, it сап Ье said that pre-homogenization of the raw materials сап very
seldom enabIe subsequent homogenization of the raw meal to Ье dispensed with.
Depending оп the layoutofthe blending bed and its equipment, somevariations in
the composition of the reclaimed raw materials аге bound to occur, and these аге quantity (t)
passed оп to the subsequent stages of processing. Such variations have to Ье Menge (t)
evened out mainly Ьу homogenization of the raw meal. In planning the in-
stallations it is therefore necessary to consider the blending bed and the raw meal
homogenization system as а single whole. If the blending bed is designed to ~a
reclaiming in slices
achieve а high blending ог homogenizing effect, the subsequent homogenizing
stacking in equal
·Ат
layers transversely to the layers
treatment applied to the raw meal need Ье correspondingly less elaborate. Aufbau in gleichen Abbau in Scheiben
Conversely, ifthe blending bed is designed to а lower standard of homogenization, Schichten quer zu den Schichten
the raw теаl homogenization system will have to compensate for this. -:Кт.
material quantity \, material quantity
'2
рег layer = Ь. т ;/' '/:
рег slice = Ь. Q
Materialmenge рго fj~ /. Materialmenge
Schicht = Ь. т рго Scheibe = Ь. Q
2 Bed-bIепdiпg theory
2.1 Mode of operation of the bIending bed x(t)
Homogenization of materials in а blending bed сап Ье explained as follows:
The stacking (ог stockpiling) system disposes the incoming raw material in the
longitudinal direction of the pile Ьу continual to-and-fro movements, so that а
number of relatively thin layers of material аге deposited. In this way the raw quantity (t)
material flow is divided into quantities of М tonnes, each corresponding to one Menge (t)
layer. The longer-term variations in chemical composition, which depend оп а
particular system of working ог а particular working cycle in the quarry, аге thus Fig.1 : Variations in the raw material composition homogenized in the
"cut up" and superimposed one upon another in an irregular sequence. Ыепdiпg bed

66 67
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending

Because of the slice-by-slice reclaiming technique the variations within the slice
Н(Х)
are evened out to а greater or less extent, depending оп the type of reclaiming
machine. The variations in the averages of the respective slices are predetermined
Ьу the quantities ~c and the number of layers N. For correct bIending bed design
the quantities of material per layer and the number of layers should Ье so chosen
that the remaining variations from опе slice to another are reduced to а minimum.
The bIending effect сап Ье improved - and indeed theoretically Ье made infinitely
good - Ьу increasing the number of layers in building up the stockpile and Ьу
using а reclaiming system that will efficiently homogenize the material.
These considerations indicate that the cycle of operations in the quarry deserves
closer attention. True, the standard deviation of the input variations cannot Ье
altered Ьу changing the cycle, but it is possibIe to improve the variations from опе
slice to another, the more so as the quantity of material per stacked layer exceeds

II Iзrd
1st ice S,liCe
1. Scheibe 3. Scheibe
kth slice mth slice
k-te Scheibe m-te Scheibe
the loading capacity of опе or more loading machines. The procedure in the quarry,
е. g., the loading and haulage from several qualitatively different rock piles, may
conceivabIy Ье correlated with the stockpiling of the material in the bIending bed,
2nd slice length of bed so that quantities of material with similar characteristics of quality or composition
2. Scheibe Mischbettlange
are stacked оп top of опе another in the same parts of the bed. This undesirabIe
Fig. 2: Frequency distribution within the individual reclaimed slices of situation, which diminishes the bIending effect achieved, сап Ье remedied Ьу
ап ideal bIending bed suitabIy varying the operations in the quarry, so as to achieve ап irregu lar sequence
of delivery of the material to the bed.
Figs.2 and 3 show two theoretical bIending bed reclaiming models. The material
x(t) slices and the statistical frequency distributions of the input and output variations
are shown.
Н(х) Fig.2 relates to reclaiming from ап ideal bIending bed. The continuous line
represents the input variations, the dotted line the output variations. "Ideal"
stacking of the material signifies that the chemical composition at every cross-
section of the bIending bed is equal to the overall average composition:
х; =5<.

The remaining output variations exist only within the slices of material. There are
по variations between опе slice and another.
In ап actual, as opposed to ап ideal, bIending bed there additionally occur
variations from slice to slice, as Fig. 3 shows. Even though the variations within the
slices remain unchanged, their average (or mean) values are now по longer equal
to the overall average of the chemical composition:
5<; =f=. 5<.

I
1st slice 3rd sl ice kth sl ice mth sl ice 2.2 Assessment of а bIending bed
1. Scheibe 3. Scheibe k-te Scheibe m-te Scheibe For assessing the homogenizing performance of а bIending bed, the following
2nd slice length of bed parameters will Ье considered.
2. Scheibe Mischbettlange
Four of these are introduced as estimated values of the statistical variance:
Fig. З: Аеаl frequency distribution within the individual reclaimed slices Sa 2 overall variance of the input variations
from а bIending bed
SJ32 overall variance of the output variations
68
69
Sx 2 variance of the averages of the slices.
Other parameters to Ье considered are:
N the number of layers
~c [t] the quantity of material per layer
~Q[t] the quantity of material per reclaimed slice.
The variations within the slices (SQ) are short-term ones. 'П the reclaiming
operation they are evened out to а greater or less extent, depending оп the type of
reclaiming equipment. This сап Ье most readily visualized when considering the
action of а side-acting scraper, а reclaimer which removes the material from the pile
in successive slices. The contents of each slice comprise marked variations, which
are passed оп to the processing equipment further down the linefrom the bIending
bed. With front-acting reclaimers the slices are thinner, the reclaiming action
comprises the entire cross-section of the pile, and the variations in each slice are
substantially smaller. 'П general, variations in the raw material are not equalized to
апу appreciabIe extent in the raw grinding plant. Непсе they will have to Ье
removed in the raw meal homogenizing system.
If reclaiming is done Ьу side-acting machines, the output variations, i. е., the
variations in the material coming out of the bIending bed, will Ье greater than if
front-acting machines are used. Therefore, with the former method it will Ье
necessary to provide suitabIy effective raw meal homogenizing facilities, whereas
these сап Ье simpler if the latter method is used. If each slice of reclaimed material is
regarded as а unit, the variations within it (sQ) сап Ье neglected, so that then only
the variations between the individual slices (5,,) remain to Ье considered. The latter
are ionger-term in character. Since the averages of these raw material slices differ
from the overall average, these variations cannot Ье removed Ьу raw meal
homogenization, but only Ьу means of а suitabIe components proportioning
system upstream of the raw mill.
The effectiveness of а bIending bed is expressed Ьу the concept of "homogenizing
effec(' (е), namely, the ratio of the standard deviations of the raw material
characteristics оп entering and leaving the bIending bed respectively; thus'
Sll
е=-
sp
However, this criterion Ьу itself is not sufficiently informative. In addition, the
absolute values of the output variations should Ье availabIe. In the planning of new
installations these values determine the performance requirements applicabIe to
the proportioning devices before the mills and/or to the homogenizing equipment
for the raw meal. With а well designed bed-bIепdiпg system it is possibIe to
achieve good homogenizing effects, Ьу which is more particularly to Ье under-
stood: low final variations in the chemical composition of the material, despite
possibIe high input variations of the material stockpiled in the bed.
The homogenizing (or bIending) effect of а bIending bed depends оп the method
of stacking and оп the characteristics of the reclaiming machinery. Опсе these two
70
to build up the bed has Ьееп decided, the homogenizing effect of the stockp~le as а
whole will have Ьееп predetermined. The final variations are bound up wlth the
output variations in the material reclaimed from the bed. 'П o.t~er words: whe~ the
design and operation of а bed have Ьееп fixed, the homogenlzlng effect I~ a~hleves
will Ье constant. Higher input variations will result in higher output vаrlаtюпs.
2.3 Estimating the homogenizing effect in advance
The bIending bed design methods reported in the literature are mainly concerned
with the variations between the slices of reclaimed material. The following method
is generally employed. It presupposes that the raw material values of the individual
slices conform to а normal distribution and are statistically independent.
For estimating the output variations the following relation is availabIe:
Theoretically, high homogenizing effects сап Ье attained Ьу making the number of
layers large enough, i. е., using very thin layers. . . . .
ОП the other hand, the presupposed statistical independence dlmlnlshes wl~h
decreasing layer thickness, for the quality characteristics of ~djacent raw materl~1
layers stacked in the bIending bed tend to Ье correlated wlt~ опе another. T.hls
phenomenon сап most easily Ье visualized at the reversal РОlПts of the stacklng
operation. Atthe end of each forward pass and the beginning of each return pas~ of
the stacker, material possessing the same properties is stack~d i~ two succes~l.ve
layers. Thus the condition that the material must Ье stacked In dlscrete quantltles
~'t"[t] is fulfilled only after every second layer, i. е., only every second layer
contributes to the homogenization achieved in the bIending bed.
The relationship between the standard deviation and the number of layers is shown
in Fig.4 for single-component and multi-component bIending beds. It emerg~s
that а worthwhile reduction in the output standard deviation is attained only If
there are at least about 50 layers. With increasing number of layers the rate of
improvement diminishes, so that from about 500 layers onwards there is hardly апу
further improvement in the homogenizing or bIending effect, while the sheer
technical effort and expense of building up the bed in so large а number of layers
would not Ье commensurate with the advantage gained.
The following conclusions are to Ье drawn from all this:
Predictive estimates in accordance with the method indicated above are to Ье
regarded only as approximate. With increasing number of layers the results
found for the homogenizing or bIending effect increasingly tend to over-
estimate the effect. (This has Ьееп verified Ьу check calculations based оп
accurate measured data.)
71
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds. sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

5(·'.) standard deviation з Machinery and process engineering methods

from mean
\5 Standardabweichung
vom Mittelwert
3.1 Stacking methods
3.1.1 Chevron method
The raw material is deposited Ьу а stacking device moving continually to and fro
over the longitudinal centre-line of the stockpile. In this way individual layers
5 comp.onents,
- mean input variation containing equal quantities of material аге disposed опе upon another in the shape
5 Koml!9nenten of а series of ridged roofs. This means that. subject to ignoring the short-term
mittl. Eingangsschwankung
variations, all cross-sections have the same composition. The material discharged
from the stacker slides and rolls down the sides ofthe pile, thus causing а degree of
particle segregation depending оп the properties of the material concerned. The
coarser particles will tend to accumulate at the base of the pile. The arrow (Fig. 5)
indicates that building up the pile requires only опе central throw-off point of the
10 20 number of layers stacking device in the longitudinal direction and сап Ье achieved with relatively
Schichtzahl z simple equipment.

Fig. 4: Blending effect as а function of the number of stacked layers of

material

- When using the formula Sx = sa/VN it is advisabIe to introduce only half the
actual number of layers.
- There is по point in using fewer than 50 ог тоге than 500 layers.
Attempts to make тоге accurate predictions of the homogenizing effect of а
bIending bed usually fail for the following reasons:
the input variations in the material coming from the quarry аге not known and Fig.5: Chevron stacking method
аге then mostly over-estimated;
the thickness of the layers stacked in the bIending bed is not constant, this
being due to variations in performance of the handling and stacking
systems;
3.1 .2 Windrow method
the bed-bIепdiпg stockpile comprises two end cones where the conditions аге
different from those in the rest of the pile and which, depending in part оп the The drawback of particle segregation сап Ье avoided Ьу using the windrow
particle size of the material to Ье homogenized, have а marked detrimental method of stacking, in which the layers ("windrows") аге disposed longitudinally
infiuence оп the homogenizing effect. over and beside опе another. Although some segregation тау occur during the
stacking of the individual rows, it is limited to each individual row. Besides. this
Despite all its imperfections, the method of predicting the homogenizing effect as
effect сап Ье minimized Ьу appropriate choice of the height and spacing of the
outlined above is now widely used.
rows of stockpiled material. The larger the number of rows, the тоге favourabIe
According to Hasler. experience to date shows that with present-day bed-
will Ье the particle size distribution in the pile.
bIending technology the following values of the homogenizing effect сап Ье
obtained: 'П actual practice, however, the windrow method in its pure form, as illustrated in
е = 3 to 6 if the overall variations аге considered (Iong-term and short-term Fig. 6, is hardly everemployed. Much тоге often а combination ofthis method and
output variations) ; the chevron method is adopted.
е = 6 to 15 if the short-term variations аге left out of account (i. е., ignoring the А drawback ofthe windrow stacking technique is that it requires several throw-off
variations within each slice). positions, necessitating expensive slewing Ьоот stackers.

72 73
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage. bIending beds. sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

3.1.3 Horizontal layers

Step-by-step advancing of а bridge stacking system in conjunction with continual
slewing of the stacker belt conveyor оп its boom will produce а stockpile whose
individuallayers aredisposed horizontally опе оп top of another. With this method,
bulk materials differing in their angle of repose and consisting of particles in
relatively wide size ranges сап Ье stacked in layers varying in thickness, without
appreciabIe segregation.
It is also а suitabIe method for circular stockpiles, the stacking being done Ьу
means of а belt whose throw-off point moves in а meandering path.

Fig. 6: Windrow stacking method 3.1.4 Strata method

'П terms of cгoss-sectionaldistribution of the material in the stockpile, this method
его 55- seetion 01 bed is equivalent to the preceding опе, but with the drawback of а certain amount of
Mi schbetl querschni1t
segregation due to accumulation of the coarser particles at the bottom of the pile.
height The layers in this system аге inclined at ап angle of about 320 to 380.
Нбhеnlаgе
- - - - - - - - -----8 This type of stockpile is especially suitabIe for reclaiming Ьу side-acting
-----------7 machines.
---------6
--------5
-------4
-----3
--- 2
-,
I
I
strip No. 2 3 5 6 7
Strelfen Nr

Fig. 7: Actual stacking in а bIending bed

Fig. 9: Strata stacking method

3.1.5 Cone-shell method

As contrasted with the methods so far described, in which the stacking device
travels continually to and fro, in the cone-shell method the stacker - а belt
conveyor that сап Ье moved along the length ofthe pile ог а fixed-boom stacker -
forms а series of conical piles heaped опе against another. As soon as such а pile
has Ьееп built up to the appropriate height, the stacker moves оп. In this method а
distinction is to Ье drawn between continuous stacking and alteгnate stacking
(Figs. 1 О and 11).
The homogenizing ог bIending effect achieved with this method is less good than
Fig. 8: Stacking in horizontal layers
that achieved with the methods described above. while there is а fuгther
74
75
 Machinery and process engineering methods
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations

disad~a~tage in thatthe coarser particles tend to accumulate at the base ofthe pile.
Reclal~lng сап Ье done only Ьу side-acting scrapers or Ьу underfloor +k I
\
ехtrасtюп.
n I
I
$=+- ( ( r (Г r r r r rr ~ I
11 6 L
~ ~
а.

schematic diagram
Schemati sche Daгstel\ung

Fig.12: Chevcon stacking principle

Fig.10: Continuous stacking method (numbers denote sequence)
there is very little segregation into coarser and finer particles. The stacker belt сап
continue to deposit the incomimg material even in the immediate vicinity of the
reclaimer, so that utilization of the fu 11 capacity of the bIending bed сап Ье attained
at all times. Since stacking is done continuously, а circular bed built up оп this
principle сап justifiabIy Ье called ап infinite bIending bed.

3.2 Stacking and reclaiming machines

Fig.11: Alternate stacking method (numbers defюtе sequence)
3.1 .6 Chevcon method
The firm of РН В offers this method as а hybrid of the chevron and the cone-shell
method. Itis suitabIy only for circular stockpiles.
The s~a.cking proced~re is similar to that used in the chevron method, but instead of
rеmаlПlПg over the rldge of the pile, the throw-off point of the stacker is varied а
rad!al dista~c~ ~ L i~ the course of each to and fro cycle. The slope of the face from
whlch reclalmlng wllI subsequently Ье done сап Ье varied Ьу appropriate alteration
of ~L. For constant stockpiling rates the angle а of the slope will then remain
unchanged (see Fig.12).
This ~ethod. very effectively overcomes the "end-cone probIems" that are
assoclated wlth bed-bIепdiпgstockpiles and will Ье further discussed later in this
chapter. In ad~iti?n, thanks to the overlapping of old and new material in the pile,
long-term vаrlаtюпs. or the effects of possibIe sudden changes in incoming
b~tches of raw materlal сап Ье cancelled. The number of layers comprised in each
~llceta~e~ bythe reclaimer is about30%greater (п + k) than the number (п) sliced
IП reclalmlng from ~he chevron pile with its flanks sloped at the natural angle of
repose of the materlal. As а result, а better homogenizing effect is obtained. Also,
76
Over the years, а large number of systems and machines have Ьееп developed, and
from these have evolved certain types of bIending bed, which will Ье described
here.
The combination of chevron (or, where applicabIe, chevcon) stacking with front-
acting reclaimers is to Ье regarded as the most favourabIe procedure, as it involves
the least expenditiure оп machinery. The process engineering disadvantages
associated with the chevron method of stacking are cancelled Ьу the use of front-
acting reclaimers. Such reclaiming machines are used also for stockpiles built up in
horizontal layers.
The alternative system consists in windrow stacking with reclaiming Ьу means of
side-acting scrapers. The MIAG "step-back" method is more particularly suitabIe
for this purpose.
Good homogenizing or bIending effects are also attained with the strata method
and side-acting scraper reclaimers.
The homogenizing effect of bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles built up Ьу the cone-shell
method and operating with side-acting scrapers or underfloor extraction is poor,
and for this reason it is а system little used for bIending beds.
3.2.1 Chevron stacking and end-on reclaiming
3.2.1.1 Stacking machines
Blending beds тау Ье of the outdoor type or Ье accommodated in suitabIe
buildings. 'П the latter case the material сап Ье stacked Ьу belt conveyors mounted
under the ridge of the roof or Ьу mobile f\oor-mounted stackers travelling the
77
 Machinery and process engineering methods
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations

length of the building. The arrangement and installation of belt conveyors will
depend оп the type of roof construction. These handling devices have the
advantage of being relatively inexpensive and not taking up so much space as а
floor-mounted mobile machine, so that the cross-sectional dimensions of the
building сап Ье correspondingly smaller. А disadvantage associated with belt
stacking is the large height of fall of the material onto the pile. With dry material this
сап throw up much dust.
Stackers with fixed or movabIe booms (which сап Ье raised and lowered) are used
for covered as well as for outdoor bIending beds. For reasons of cost it is not а good
idea to install permanently mounted belt conveyer systems over outdoor stock-
piles. А drawback associated with fixed-boom stackers is that dust nuisance тау
arise, and the attachment of telescopic discharge spouts or similar devices to Fig.15: Воот stacker with тоуаЫе (Iuffing) Ьоот (Iongitudinal
stockpile)

Fig.16: Stacking in а circular bIending bed with simple chevron method

Fig. 1 З: Longitudinal stockpile with overhead stacker belt and tripper

Fig.11: Circular bIending bed with "infinite" stacking оп the chevcon

Fig.14: Воот stacker with fixed Ьоот (Iongitudinal stockpile) principle
79
78
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

combat this nuisance is not without probIems. It is preferabIe, under such

circumstances, to employ а movabIe-Ьооm stacker enabIing the height of free fall
of the material to Ье kept down to а minimum.

3.2.1.2 Reclaiming with front-acting machines ~i!

AII front-acting reclaimers, i. е., machines for "end-on" removal of material from
stockpiles, аге equipped with some form of handling device which is only аЫе to Fig.19: Bridge-type scraping reclaimer with harrow attachment
сапу away the material from the toe of the pile. The material is dislodged from the
pile Ьу the action of а raking-down device which sweeps across the cross-
Bridge type scraping reclaimer:
sectional face. Each cycle of the device removes а thin "slice" comprising all the
layers in the pile, and in the process of sliding and tumbIing down the sloping face The bridge оп which the raking-down device is mount~d accommodates а ~cгapeг
the material of the various layers is mixed together. То obtain а good homogenizing chain conveyor whose bIades shift the dislodged materlal along to а соllесt1Пg belt
effect it is of course essential for the raking-down device to involve the entire face conveyor that extends along one edge of the stockpile.
of the pile. Advantages:
Good homogenizing action because thin slices аге removed from the entire
cross-sectional агеа of the pile.
The rate of rec\aiming and handling of the material is constant and quite simple
to regulate. . . .
The machine takes up only а modest amount of сross-sесtюпаlspace Inslde а
Q Q building.
harrow rope-operated scraper chain The direction of reclaiming сап conveniently Ье reversed.
Egge scraper Kratzerkette
Seilriiumer Disadvantages:
Fig.18: Raking-down devices There is an upper limit to the handling rate.
Along the edge ofthe pile beside the collecting conveyor а scrape feeding shelf
has to Ье provided, which must not Ье covered with material during stacking
and which thus restricts the utilizabIe stockpiling width
These devices аге of various kinds (Fig. 18) :
Напоws аге triangular structures fitted with renewabIe teeth and so inclined as
to suit the angle of repose of the stockpiled material. The latter is dislodged Ьу
the to-and-fro movement of the harrow across the face of the pile.
The rope-operated scraper comprises two ropes which pass around pulleys at
the top а frame near the арех of the pile and аге attached to а slide ог carriage
which moves to and fro оп the supporting bridge. As а result of this shuttling
motion of the slide, the ropes perform movements somewhat like those of а саг
windscreen wiper and thus dislodge the material from the entire face of the
pile. Fordealingwith difficultmaterial, thetwo ropes тау Ье interconnected Ьу
pivotabIy attached cross-members fitted with teeth, thus substantially increas-
Fig. 20: Bucket-wheel reclaimer, bridge-mounted type
ing the loosening effect and reducing wear оп the ropes.
Scraper chains аге тоге particularly appropriate for dealing with very difficult
material requiring considerabIe effort to dislodge it from the face of the pile. In Bridge mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
the course of its to-and-fro movement the scraper chain sweeps across the This type of machine comprises опе ог тоге bucket-wheels and а raking-down
entire face and actively scrapes the materia! down to the toe. device which together аге moved to and fro оп the bridge across the face of the
Associated with these raking-down systems there аге, in the main, four different stockpile. The material dislodged from the pile is scooped up at the toe of the face
types of front-acting reclaimer; these аге illustrated in Figs. 19 to 22. Ьу the bucket-wheel

80 81
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations
Advantages:
Good homogenizing action. The variations due to the fact that the material is
not constantly taken from the entire face of the pile during the to-and-fro cycle
of the bucket-wheel are of short duration and сап without difficulty Ье
averaged out in the subsequent processing stages.
The handling rate is virtually unlimited. For high rates, two or more bucket-
wheels сап Ье mounted оп the same bridge.
Sideways transport of the material to the longitudinal collecting belt conveyor
is done Ьу а belt installed in the bridge. This arrangement saves energy in
comparison with the scraping reclaimer and moreover enabIes а low toe wall to
Ье constructed as а lateral boundary to the stockpile. Thus there is по risk of
overfilling the pile, while the amount of space occupied is kept down to а
minimum.
Disadvantages'
The rate of material handling during the transverse movement of the bucket-
wheel is not constant. This is compensated Ьу using three different transverse
travel speeds for the bucket-wheel wh ich are applied at successive stages of its
to-and-fro cycle. The drawback is that such three-speed operation requires
more elaborate control arrangements.
The cross-sectional space requirements are greater than those of the bridge-
type scraping reclaimer.
ОП reversal of the reclaiming direction the buckets have to Ье turned over.
Fig.21: Bucket-wheel reclaimer with slewing boom
Bucket-wheel reclaimer with slewing boom.
The bucket wheel is mounted at the end of the boom which swings to and fro
across the stockpile, so that the reclaiming face is slightly curved. In other respects
the action is similar to that of the bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
Advantages:
These are as already mentioned for the bridge-mounted machine.
The track rails arewithin the width ofthe pile (and buried Ьу it), so thata further
saving in space is obtained.
82
Machinery and process engineering methods
Disadvantages
These are also as mentioned for the bridge-mounted m.achine. .
Turning the machine round requires much space, whlch сап Ье а sеrюus
drawback inside а building.
Drum reclaimer:
The material dislodged from the face of the stockpile .is picke~ up Ьу scoops
mounted оп а revolving cylindrical drum or tube and. IS ~eposlted o.nto а b~lt
conveyor installed inside the drum. This type of mа~hlПе .IS characterl.ze~ Ьу Its
good homogenizing or bIending effect, since the епtlrе wldth. of the .plle IS at all
times being acted upon. However, the elaborate and expe.nslve deslgn featu.res
make the drum reclaimer uneconomical except for very hlgh rates of hапdllПg
(above 2000 t/hour).
Fig. 22: Drum reclaimer
3.2.2 Blending bed system with windrow stacking
3.2.2.1 Stacking machines
Stacking Ьу the windrow system сап, like chevron stacking, also Ье done in
buildings with ridge-mounted belt coveyors a.nd appropriate trans.verse belt
conveyors, but all the disadvantages already mепtюпеd - е. g., great helght ~f f~lI,
etc. - are applicabIe in this case too. It is better to use ?oom stackers for ЬUlldIПg
up the stockpiles. There are three types of such mасhlПеs:
(а) stacker with fixed boom and telescopic belt conveyor; .
(Ь) stacker with movabIe boom (Iuffing motion) ~nd tel~s.coPlc belt con~eyor,
(с) stacker with movabIe boom comprising lufflng (ralslng and lowerlng) and
slewing motion.
Туре (а) has the disadvantage that the material falls from а great hei.gh.t. just ~s it
does from а belt conveyor mounted under the ridge of the roof of а .Ь~lldlПg.~Ith а
boom stacker of type (Ь) the height of fall сап Ье kept~own to а r:n'nlmum. FlПаllу,
type (с) is а universal machine, which is more partlcularly sUltabIe where two
83
parallel stockpiles have to Ье formed side Ьу side, in which case the stacker travels
longitudinally between the piles, these being built up as required, Ьу slewing the
Ьоот in either direction.
Fig.2З: Boom stacker with fixed boom and telescopic belt
Fig. 24: Boom stacker with movabIe (Iuffing) boom and telescopic belt
Fig. 25: Boom stacker with movabIe (Iuffing and slewing) boom
84
The windrow system of stacking сап Ье applied to апу type of bIending bed, i. е.,
straight or circular. In the latter case it must Ье borne in mind that the outer rows
contain more material than the inner. Another advantageous method of stockpiling
consists in depositing the material in large homogenizing troughs or tanks such as
those constructed Ьу the engineering firms of FLS and MIAG.
The windrow method applied to а circular bIending bed is illustrated in Figs.26
and 27.
Fig. 26: Boom stacker with luffing boom and telescopic belt conveyor
for а circular stockpile
Fig.27: Slewing bridge with movabIe belt conveyor. supported оп
central tower and external rail
3.2.2.2 Reclaiming Ьу side-acting scrapers
Апу of the front-acting machines described in 3.2.1.2 сап Ье used for reclaiming
from bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles built up Ьу the windrow method. Such machin.es
would certainly effect somefurther, though slight, improvement in the homogenlz-
ing effect. However, the use of scraper chain reclaimers, operating either as front-
acting or side-acting machines, has Ьесоте estabIished practice for such bIending
beds. More particularly the so-called step-back method of MIAG has Ьееп
developed for the purpose. The material is reclaimed from опе side of the pile Ьу а
machine which travels short distances to and fro in conjunction with raising and
85
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage,

I! : I I
: I I I I
I I I I longitudinal section
1st гeclaiminq stepl I I Langsschnit!
1. Abbauschritr :. I ь I :
I I I I

2nd reclaiming 'st~p - - - - -; I

2. Abbauschritt' I I
:" , I
f- - - - - --~
Fig.31 : Reclaiming Ьу portal scraper
Fig. 28: MIAG step-back reclaiming principle

Fig. 32: Reclaiming Ьу front end scraper

Fig. 29: Reclaiming Ьу side scraper lowering ofthe scraper агт. During reclaiming from the topto the toe of the pile the
reclaimer travels slowly back, so that the face of the pile is scraped away in the
shape of а he/ically cuгved surface. The effect achieved in this way is similar to that
of reclaiming with а front-acting machine. The reclaiming action does not
comprise the entire face simultaneously.
Reclaiming with side scrapers has the disadvantage that the rate of flow of the
reclaimed material is not constant, while the homogenizing effect is less good than
that obtained with front-acting machines.

3.2.3 Blending bed systems with horizontal and inclined stacking

Fig. 30: Reclaiming Ьу semi-portal scraper
3.2.3.1 Stacking machines
А bed-bIепdiпg stockpile сап Ье built up in horizontal layers Ьу means of а
slewing-boom stacker ог ап overhead belt conveyor (mounted under the ridge of
the roof) with slewing throw-off belts. А luffing-boom stacker ог а ridge-mounted
belt conveyor with simple transversely movabIe throw-off belts сап alternatively Ье
used for building up stockpiles consisting of inclined layers. These stacking
machines have already Ьееп described. Stacking in horizontallayers is widely used

86 87
 8. Raw materials 111. Storage,
Fig. 33: ТгаvеШпg scraper and strata stacking method
also f?r ~e~osi.ting materials into trough ог tank type homogenizing systems
~tасklПg ,п Inclln~d layers Ьу the strata method, and reclaiming Ьу а slow-movin~
slde scraper, аге IlIustrated In Fig.33.
3.2.3.2 Reclaiming machines
Scraper chains aг~ unsuita~'e for reclaiming from а stockpile buiJt up in horizontal
/ayers. Front-a~tl~g mасhlПеs, as described in 3.2.1.2, must Ье used for the
purpose.. RесlаlmlПg from piles with inclined layers тау Ье done not only with
froпt-асtlПg but also with side-acting scrapers.
Reclaiming fro~ homogenizing troughs сап Ье done with scrapers ог with bucket-
ladder (ог chaln-bucket) machines.
The homogenizing e.ffect o?tained wi~h а troug~ type bIending bed is generally
better than that оЬtаlПеd wlth а bIendlng stockplle built up Ьу the strata method.
80th systems аге to Ье rated as very efficient, however
Fig. 34: Homogenizing trough with bucket-Iadder reclaimer
3.2.4 81ending bed based оп the cone-shell method
This ~~thod, illu.strated i~ F!g. 35, calls for по special comment. The stacking and
~есlаlmlПg m.ас.hlПеs аге slmllar to those already described. 'П terms of homogeniz-
Ing effect th,s IS not а good system, however.
88
Machinery and process engineering methods
Fig. 35: Stacking and reclaiming of а bIending bed based оп the сопе
shell-method: overhead stacker belt, longitudinally tгаvеШпg scraper
reclaimer
3.3 Arrangement of bIending beds
As a/ready stated, а distinction is to Ье drawn between longitudinal (straight)
stockpiles and circular stockpiles, while the trough ог tank type, in which the
material is stored substantially below ground.level, is а third main variant. With the
longitudinal arrangement the bIending bed will generally comprise two stockpiles,
worked discontinuously in that опе is being built up Ьу the stacking equipment
while material is being reclaimed from the other. Оп the other hand, with а circular
pile the то operations - stacking and reclaiming - сап proceed simultaneously
оп the same pile, опе end of which is being built up while the other is being
reclaimed, so that these operations сап proceed continuously. The chevcon
method is тоге particularly suitabIe for circular bIending beds, in which case
virtually the entire capacity of the pile is effectively availabIe and the stacking and
reclaiming operations proceed in ап "infinite" cycle.
'П the case of homogenizing troughs the two operations - stacking and reclaim-
ing - аге usually carried out simultaneously in that reclaiming takes place in опе
part of the trough while stacking proceeds in another part of the same trough.
'П deciding which layout to choose for а bed-bIепdiпg system the following
considerations аге аррl icabIe:
how much space is availabIe for accommodating the bed?
what scope for possibIe future extension is there?
do subsoil conditions (bearing capacity) have to Ье taken into account in
planning the bed?
It is not possible to make апу generally-valid statements as to the size (capacity) of
the stockpiles, as the bIending bed for each cement works has to Ье laid out to suit
the particular requirements of the case. Roughly speaking, however, it сап Ье said
that а stockpile should contain about опе week's supply of raw materia/ for the
cement works.
89
 annir~a<.. irln methods

Longitudinal (straight) bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles тау Ье arranged either parallel or Stacker BrUckenkratzer
in line.

3.3.1.1 Parallel stockpiles

Advantages:
Moderate length/width ratio оп plan.
- Fits in easily with the layout scheme for а cement works.
- Capacity сап easily Ье increased.
О isadvantages:
Fig. 37: In-line stockpiles
Reclaimer has to Ье changed over from опе pile to another.
Either а slewing stacker or а stacker with two booms is needed. Disadvantages:
Large number of belt conveyors and transfer points. Long buildings if the stockpiles are under roofed cover.
Long roof spans for stockpiles accommodated in а building. End-cone probIems.
Extra space required for change-over of machines. High length/width ratio, besides requiring long buildings, makes such
End-cone probIems. bIending beds difficult to accommodate in а cement works layout.

bridge-mounted
scraping reclaimer 3.3.2 Circular stockpile
BrUckenkratzer

-::::::::F=-==I-==-:= '~--==-~~-=~~
I '
- - - - ' - - ' - - ------r-
,='~~--='"""-1-/'

L stacker
tripper Stacker traverser
Schleifenwagen SchiebebUhne
Fig.36: Parallel stockpiles

3.3.1.2 In-line stockpiles

Advantages:
No change-over of machines.
No slewing stacker required.
Only two belt conveyors.
Short roof spans for buildings.
Fig. 38: Circular stockpile
Capacity сап Ье increased.
91
90
 В. Raw materials 111. 5torage, bIending beds, sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

Advantages:
Very short belt conveyors.
5imple roof construction for buildings, with central column as supporting
тетЬег.
It is relatively simple to keep the reclaiming output rate constant.
No end-cone probIems.
Агеа оп plan about 40% less than for straight stockpiles.
No change-over of reclaiming machines.
Disadvantages:
А circular stockpile is sometimes difficult to fit into the cement works layout.
5ticky ог very moist material тау choke the chutes in the central column.
The poke-holes for unbIocking the chutes аге relatively inaccessibIe.
Ground-water тау cause difficulties in the material extraction tunnels.
Capacity сап Ье increased only Ьу setting up а second pile.
3.3.3 Homogenizing tanks ог troughs
Under certain circumstances it тау Ье advantageous to buiid а sub-surface
stockpile, тоге particularly in а suitabIy lined excavation formed, for example, Ьу
bIasting in rock, the object being to save оп the cost of above-ground building
construction. However, in some cases trough-type bIending beds at ground level,
i.e., not recessed into the ground, аге recommended тоге particularly Ьу the
engineering firm of Fl5.
Advantages:
Very good space utilization.
- No end-cone probIems.
Roof сап Ье of simple and light construction
Very good homogenizing ог bIending effect.
Disadvantages:
Trough is expensive to construct.
Expensive machinery.
Material falling from а great height throws up much dust.
3.4 Measures to combat end-cone probIems
The end cones - i. е., the semi-conical ends - of longitudinal bed-bIепdiпg
stockpiles аге liabIe to cause some probIems. For опе thing, it is difficult to ke~p the
rate of reclaiming constant at the ends of the pile because here the сгоs~-sесtlO~ of
the face from which the material is being reclaimed will vary from sllce to sllce.
Besides, not all the stockpiled layers аге then simultaneously removed in each slice.
Especially when the reclaimer starts оп the stockpile, the homogenizing effect is at
first liabIe to Ье very unsatisfactory, because there will have Ьееп considerabIe
segregation at the time of stacking. VOIlmin mentions various methods of
counteracting these drawbacks:
If the capacity of а stockpile is to Ье increased, it is better to ~ake the ~ile
longer than wider, because the relative volume of the end cones IS smaJler ,п а
narrower pile.
For а length/width ratio of 4 the end cones comprise about 15% of the volume
of the pile. This proportion increases to about 20% for а ratio of 3.
The end сапе at the "far end" of the pile сап Ье left standing ог Ье only partly
reclaimed. This does теап some loss of effective stockpiling capacity,
however.
The reversal points of the stacker сап Ье staggered in relation to the height
attained Ьу the pile during the course of building it up. 'П this way the
segregation at the front end сап Ье reduced. . . .
These end-cone probIems аге obviated if а circular stockplle IS used, especlally
if the chevcon stacking method is adopted.

4 Sampling stations
For monitoring the operation of single-component ог multi-compon~n.tbIendi~g
beds which have to attain specified homogenizing ог bIending effects It IS essentlal
to have suitabIe automatic sampling stations.
50 far, not much information оп such installations has appeared in the literature, so
that guidance оп these matters must Ье sought from the manufacturers of cement
plant equipment. There is as yet по standardization of sampling stations, ~nd they
аге always tailored to suit the requirements of each individual case, whlch тоге
particularly depend оп the properties of the materials to Ье sampled. This being so,
the brief outline presented here сап lay по claim to completeness of treatment of
Fig. 39: Homogenizing trough the subject.
92
93
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

4.1 Sample quantity

According to availabIe information, а representative sample of raw material in the .......
form of crushed stone will Ье something between 0.2% and 2% of the total
handling flow. If the chemical composition of the material entering the bIending I Е ~
1/1
01 01

*1
bed is subject to large variations, ог if it comprises а wide range of particle sizes, оЕ а. с
:=- Е
с
О
::::J 01
sample quantities in excess of 1 % should Ье taken. Stacking rates for modern :=.>- 1/1-
010 Cn',i: .с _й
0.2

~~I
_ 011/1 с 1.1 :::::! С -О
bIending beds аге between 400 and 1000 t/hощ so that the sample quantities to :E~
'С

с_ ::::J 01
15 01 01 ~:;
Ье taken and prepared for testing will range from 0.8 to 20 t/hour. -Ес "6"6 01 о .а-
1.1-
~ .!!?:g "6 Е Е
Е>- ='0 :::::! 01 001
с-
,:,е.> с::: О 1.1
.g~
с»а.
It is advisabIe to perform the sampling as а weight-dependent rather than as а time- :; :::Е ф _01
а.с
01-
.аЕ
01- .ас ~и;
dependent operation. In the former case the sampler is controlled direct Ьу а belt с
..с. Е:Е ~C»
::::J.-
О О
0 0
_::::! О::::!
с::::! еО
х::::Е а..о шо U50 а..c.n
weigher. The cumulative sample is homogenized in а special mixer after а certain 1.1 ::::J o
Cii'ii

•
c.n~
NI-
quantity (tonnage) of material has Ьееп collected. With both methods suitabIe belt
conveyors and automatic counting equipment аге required. The samplers сап Ье
-~
-::::!
С»..с.
..с.,:,е.
1.11.1
С»::::!
IDro
~] ШJ []] rn
Е 1.1
adjusted to take апу desired quantity. 01 _
..с.-

сс»
1n order to obtain qual itatively correct samples it is necessary to take these from the с-
с»а.
full cross-section of the flow of material being carried оп the raw material belt .аЕ
conveyor. еО
а..c.n

4.2 Process engineering features

Two raw material sampling systems in actual use at cement works will now Ье
described. In both cases the material in question is limestone.
In general, it is advisabIe to provide drying facilities, ог а crusher that сап Ье heated,
for dealing with material with а moisture content of 3% ог тоге. The sampling
station is as а rule accommodated in а tower-like structure upstream of the
bIending bed and comprises the various items of sample preparatory processing
machinery installed опе above another. Ву making use of gravity inside the
sampling station the material handling equipment сап Ье kept to а minimum and
the capital cost and operating expenses of the sampli ng system Ье correspondingly
reduced. In cases where the sampling of the material сап Ье done only at ground
level, it is advisabIe additionally to install а bucket elevator
~I
I
L.. _

4.2.1 Sampling installation 1 (MIAG) I

II......-..,...III:!!L_

Capacity of raw material handling

I:'I....---I-~
system:
Sampling quantity:
500t/hour
1.2% = 0.6 t/hour tl ~
I ~~

I
Sampling rate: at 2-minute intervals = 200 kg/cycle U:U:
Sample splitter (1 :50) . 4kg/cycle I
Sample mixer: 120 kg charge I

Quantity from mixer for despatch

to laboratory (1 :600 division) . 200 g/hour. II
The samples аге taken with а three-compartment chute which intercepts the raw I
material flow every 2 minutes. The centre compartment diverts the material onto а
slow-running belt conveyor which feeds it to а doubIe-shаft hammer crusher
I~
~
which reduces from 30 тт to below 2 тт product size. This crusher is heated, so

94 95
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

Fig.41 : Sample divider and mixer
that the initial 3.5% moistuгe content is lowered to under 1%. А screw conveyor
delivers the sample to а rotary-tube splitter whose discharge opening сап Ье varied
from the outside Ьу means of а sliding gate, so that the sample splitting ratio сап Ье
adjusted to апу desired value. The final reduced sample quantity is collected in а
mixer.
А beltweigher incorporated in the belt conveyer bringing the raw material from the
quarry records the quantity handled. Under adjustabIe electronic control, the
contents of the mixer аге intensively mixed after every 500 t of material passing the
weigher. ОП completion of the mixing operation а quantity of about 200 9 is
removed from the mixer Ьу а pneumatically powered extraction device and is fed to
ап automatically functioning pneumatic despatch station which sends the samples
to the laboratory. 'П the laboratory each sample is fuгther dried and prepared for
analysis Ьу pulverization in а vibratory mill.
The remainder of the sample material in the mixer is not required for testing and is
returned to the main material flow. When the mixer has Ьееп emptied, the sampling
cycle starts over again. The actual mixing operation is of relatively short duгation.
No samples аге taken duгing this period, so that there is по risk of the sampling and
testing proceduгe being falsified.
The sampling station has а dust collection system. The dust precipitated in the
latter is returned to the sample splitter, so that по dust losses occur.

4.2.2 Sampling installation 2 (FLS)

Capacity of raw material handling
system: 500 t/houг
Sample quantity: 0.18% = 1 ОХ 90 kg = 900 kg/hour
1st splitter (1 :1 О) : 90 kg/hour
2nd splitter (1 :20) : 4.5 kg/houг
3rd splitter (1 :20) : 0.225 kg/houг.
The samples аге taken with а swivelling chute which discharges the material onto а
vibratory feeder. The latter feeds it to а jaw crusher in which it is reduced from а
feed size of up to 50 mm to а product size of about 1О mm. The sampled quantity of
material is discharged into the first sample splitter. The reduced quantity is passed
through ап electrically heated drying device, fuгther crushed to below 1 mm
particle size and then fuгther reduced in the second splitter. The sample from this
device is crushed for the third time, now to а product size not exceeding 0.2 mm. In
the third splitting stage, which then follows, the final sample quantity of about
225 9 is obtained.

4.3 Checking the sampling system

Cumulative samples from automatic sampling stations may Ье affected Ьу
Fig.42: TurntabIe in pneumatic systematic errors. The only way to detect such errors is Ьу taking random samples
despatch station at the same time as the cumu lative samples. The random samples аге split, prepared

96 97
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

-~~.~
and analysed Ьу hand. The errors that оссш in these operations аге greater with
increasing maximum paгticle size of the material from which the smaller subsample

t +-. (J
has to Ье obtained Ьу "splitting" the original sampled quantity. Investigations have
shown that the епог thatthis тау involve in raw material of 0-30 тт particle size
' I /' _swivelling chute (sampler) range is ± 6.8 lime standard units. Оп the other hand, the епог associated with
/ '-j-"""" Drehschurгe (Probeentneh тег)
belt сопуеуог ~ splitting а sample of comminuted and homogenized material is negligibIe.
Transportband ~ _vibratory feeder
Q v_*=_ Vibrationszuteiler

Q-iQW "ush...
Backenbrecher
References
Ouda, W. Н.: Cement- Oata- Book, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin.
Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
• г---:- vibratory feeder 2. Hasler, R. /V61Imin, К.: Stand der Mischbett-Technik in der Zementindustrie. -

V'Q"ООЯ"'i'''.
'---/ 1п' ZKG 28/1975/497.
belt сопуеуог 3. Helming, В. Oie Zementherstellung, Teil2. - Fa. Polysius, Neubeckum.
Transportband
_sample spl/tter 1 4. Катт, К.: Oosierung und VегglеiсhmiШiguпg von Rohmaterial durch
Teiler 1 Abbaukratzer. - In ZKG 25/1972/89.
5. Schmidt, О.: Оег Vergleichma(l,igungseffekt der gesamten Rohmaterialauf-
bereitungskette des Werkes Hardegsen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/532.
• b_vibratory feeder 6. Weddig, H.-J.: Abbau-Kratzer und Bagger in Schuttguthalden. - In.
~. Vibrationszuteiler
Aufbereitungs-Technik 10/1969/Н 10.
• -belt dryer
Вandtгockner
7. Weddig, H.-J.: Methoden des Auf- und Abbaues von Schuttguthalden. - 'п.
Aufbereitungs- Technik 12/1971/328
8. Zimmer, К. Е. / Frommholz, W .. Kreislager als Homogenisierungsanlagen. - Iп:
Aufbereitungs-Technik.16/1975/80.
~~cr~1t~~e6~to~

t
t 9. Information literature from the following firms.
material
Becherwerk fur а. Buhler-Miag GmbH, Postfach 3369, 0-3300 Braunschweig
Ruckgut Ь. Buckau-Wolf (Maschinenfabrik), Postfach 69, 0-4048 Grevenbroich
с. Weserhutte Otto Wolff GmbH, Postfach 940,0-4970 Bad Oeynhausen i. W.
d. Holderbank Management u Beratung AG (НМВ), - Technische Stelle-,
«Г'I_ sample splitter 2 СН -5113 Holderbank (AG)
l?\i Teiler 2
• Ф е. РНВ Pohlig-Heckel-Bleichert, Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken AG,
е ,J;;:ё5!I-viЬгаtогу feeder Heckelstr. 1, 0-6672 Rohrbach (Saar)
~ ~ .. Vibrationszuteiler F L. Smidth & Со. AS, 77 Vigerslev Alle, ОК-2500 Copenhagen-Valby

• sample
..ri4-
2?d Teiler 3
• splitter 3
I t .. Acknowledgements for illustrations
!81I
It
\ ..
t ..
gross sample
Sammelprobe
•
Hasler/V61Imin, Technische Stelle Holderbank Management und Beratung AG
(НМВ): Figs.· 1,2,3,13,18,19,20,21,22,33,34,38,39
Н Weddig, Buhler- М iag (В М В), Braunschweig' Figs.· 5, 6, 8, 9, 1 о, 11, 14, 15,
23,24,25,26,27,35,36,40,41,42
Kamm/Zimmer/Frommholz, Pohlig-Heckel-Bleichert (РНВ), Rohrbach' Figs.· 4,
12,16,17,29,30,31,36,37
Schmidt, NOROCEMENT, Hannover: Figs.: 7, 28
Fa. Polysius, Neubeckum: Fig. 32
Fig. 43: Automatic sampling station for limestone (FlS) F. L. Smidth (FLS), Kopenhagen: Fig 43
98 99
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

Ву D KnOfel

1. Historical introduction . 103

11. Raw materials and the raw mix . 105
1 Raw materials. . . . . . . . . 105
1.1 General considerations; origins . 105
1.2 Use in cement production . . . 108
2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis 109
2.1 Principles of proportioning the raw materials. 109
2.2 Calculation of the raw mix proportions 113
2.3 Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis . 117
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
111. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of the cement burning
process . 119
1 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2 Dehydration of clay minerals . 121
3 Decomposition of carbonates. 122
4 Solid reactions (reactions below sintering). 123
5 Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (sintering) 123
6 Reactions during cooling. . . . . . 124
7 Factors affecting the burning process 125
References. . . . . . . . . . 128
IV. Portland cement clinker 128
1 Clinker phases . . . . 128
1.1 Alite (tricalcium silicate) 128
1.2 Belite (dicalcium silicate) 129
1.3 Aluminate phase . . 129
1 .4 Ferrite phase . . . . . . 132
1.5 Other clinker phases. . . 132
2 Judging the quality of clinker. 133
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
V. Finish grinding . . . . . . . 137
1 The materials involved in finish-grinding. 137
1.1 Portland cement clinker 137
1.2 Blastfuгnace slag 137
1.3 Pozzolanas 139
1.4 Fly-ash..... 139
1.5 Sulphates . . . . 139
2 Fineness and particle size distribution . 141
3 Mill atmosphere. 142
4 Grinding aids. . 144
References. . . . . . . 145

101
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
1. Historical introduction

VI. Storage of cement. . . . . . . 145

1 Storage in the cement works. .
1. Historical introduction
145
2 Storage оп the construction site 146
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The word "сетепС is of ancient Roman origin. The Romans made а kind of
146 structura/ concrete composed of broken stone ог similar material with burned lime
VII. Hydration of cement (setting, hardening, strength) 146 as the binding medium. This form of construction was called "opuscaementitium".
1 General.. . 146 Later оп, the term "cementum" was used to denote those admixtures which, оп
References . being added to the lime, imparted "hydraulic" properties to it, i. е., gave it the
149
power to set and harden under moist conditions ог indeed under water. Such
2 Hydration of the clinker phases . 149 admixtuгes were тоге particularly brick dust and volcanic tuff.
2.1 Aluminate .
149 The Romans made excellent use of this material. Perhaps their most famous
2.2 Alite .
151 building in which it was employed оп а large scale is the Pantheon, а circular
3 Hydration of slag cements and ~ozz~la'ni~ ~e~~n~s : 153 temple built in Rome in the reign of the Етрегог Hadrian (about 120 А.D.). It is
References. . . . . . . . 153 43 m in diameter and has а domed roof with а circular aperture at the centre. This
VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength dome, as well as the walls several metres in thickness, аге constructed of
of portland cement . . . . . . . . . 153 "concrete" (the walls аге faced with brick). For achieving the hydraulic properties
References. . . 158 ofthis concrete the builders used pozzolana, а volcanic tufffrom the region ofwhat
is now known as Pozzuoli пеаг mount Vesuvius.
IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control of
cements . . . . Up to the latter half of the 18th century the factors that gave certain types of
158 cementing material their hydraulic properties were shrouded in mystery. The
1 General
158 British engineer John Smeaton (1724-1792) recognized the importance of the
2 C/assification and designati~n' ot ~e~e'nt~ 160 clay component as essential to hydraulic setting and hardening behaviour when, in
3 Constituents of cements . . . . . . 163 1756, he sought а water-resisting binding medium for the masonry of the new
4 Supply and identification of cements 163 Eddystone lighthouse пеаг Plymouth. Моге particularly, it was discovered that
5 Quality control . . . 164 those cements which did not dissolve completely in nitric acid were found to
5.1 Internal quality control . 164 possess good hydraulic properties (the insolubIe residue being due to clay and
5.2 External quallty control. . . . .. 164 quartz) .
6 Suggestions for the use of cements 165 'П 1796 another Briton, James Parker, made а hydraulic cement, which he called
References. . . . . .
166 "Roman сетепС, from the calcined nodules of argillaceous limestone known as
Х. Cement testing septaria. The first attempts to produce cement Ьу the burning of ап artificial mixture
166
1 Fineness . 167 of limestone and clay were made in France, especially Ьу Vicat, in the early years of
1.1 Sieve residue . the 19th centuгy. Although these attempts were successful, the results were not
167
1.2 Specific surface .
167 followed up in that country, and it was the achievement of Joseph Aspdin, а British
2 Setting times
168 bricklayer, to produce ап excellent hydraulic lime, in 1824, Ьу burning а mixtuгe
3 Soundness . . . 168 containing certain proportions of lime and clay at а high temperature. Не called his
4 Strength . . product "Portland сетепС, а пате which has suгvived as а generic designation
169
5 Heat of hydration 169 and which was originally chosen Ьу Aspdin because the "artificial stone" made
References. . . . with his cement (and aggregates) was thought to resembIe Portland stone, ап
170
Cement Standards oolitic limestone found in southern Britain. However, it was not yet а true portland
170 cement as we now know it. This step was achieved Ьу his son William, who
References
171 succeeded, in 1843, Ьу applying even higher temperatures, to produce а material
which contained а substantial proportion of sintered matter in addition to the
"underburned" mass of the earlier product. "Sintering" means: burning at а
temperature which causes partia/ fusion of the material. William Aspdin's cement
was distinctly superior to its predecessors in attaining higher strengths and was
used, inter alia, in building the new Houses of Parliament in London (1840-
1852).
102
103
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

The second half of the 19th centurysaw the rapid еХI)аГISIС)П отtп'е сетеп1
in а number of countries, including Germany. first
which continued in production for а greatmanyyears, was set upatZLillchow, пеаг
Stettin, Ьу Н. Bleibtreu in 1855, followed Ьу а works at Oberkassel, пеаг Вопп, in
1858. Ву 1889 there were 60, and around 1900 there were 83 cement works in
Germany. The earlier ones used simple intermittently fired shaft kilns. Annular kilns
сате later. The first rotary kiln in Germany was commissioned in 1898.
In 1862, Е. Langen discovered the latently hydraulic properties of granulated
(rapidly-coo/ed glassy) bIastfuгnace slag, his investigations having shown that
mixtuгes of quicklime and such slag attained high strengths оп hardening. The
possibility of using portland cement to activate the bIastfuгnace slag was applied
Ьу G. Pri.issing in 1882. This principle was, in due couгse, applied in what in Britain
is known as portland bIastfuгnace cement. In the United States it is known as
portland bIastfuгnace slag cement, while in Germany there аге two main varieties,
namely, "Eisenport/and" cement and "Hochofen" cement. The principle of
sulphate activation was discovered Ьу Н. Ki.ihl in 1908 and was later to Ье applied
to the manufactuгe of supersulphated cement. These were main/y German
d~velopments. Thefirst high-a/umina cements were produced in France duгing the
Flrst World War. Based оп patents obtained Ьу J. Bied, а Frenchman, these
products consist mainly of the solidified /iquid phase (melt) of crystallized
monocalcium aluminate.
- ~г~~~ de~tzzolono,
ft;--t<:--'k-----'\r~-+-~40 Trass, Puzzolan,
gronuloted bI05tfuгnoce 510g
Hi.illensand Ziegelmehl
Hochofen cement
Hochofenzemen\
а mass product). The two portland bIastfuгnace cements,
and "Hochofen", were standardized in 1909 and 1917
The present definition of cement as given in German Standard DIN 1164 is as
follows: "Cement is а finely ground hydraulic binding medium for mortar and
concrete, consisting substantially of compounds of calcium oxide w!th s!licon
dioxide, aluminium oxide and ferric oxide, which have Ьееп formed Ьу SlпtеГlПg ог
fusion. When mixed with water, cement hardens both in air and under water and
retains its strength under water; it has to possess constancy of volume (sound-
ness) and attain а compressive strength of at least ~5 N/m~2 at 28 da~s"·
Portland cement is made from portland cement cllnker wlth ап admlxtuгe of
sulphate. Portland bIastfuгnace cements (slag cements) additionally contain
bIastfuгnace slag, while trass cement additionally contains trass. Besides these
cements, other types, such as high-alumina cement and supersulphated cement,
аге manufactuгed in some countries, but these two cements аге по longer
produced in the Federal RepubIic of Germany and аге not standardized he.re. ОП
the other hand, oil shale cement and trass bIastfuгnace cement аге types whlch аге
officially permitted in this country.
The position occupied Ьу cements and allied binding media in the so-~al~ed
Rankin diagram of the ternary system Si02-СаО/МgО-АI20з/Fе20з IS IП-
dicated in Fig.1. . .. .
In this chapter the chemical, mineralogical and physical aspects, 1. е., the sClentlflC
principles. of cement manufactuгe will Ье outlined and the corresponding aspects
of the application of cement will Ье briefly dealt with. .
The subject will Ье treated as far as possibIe in the sequence of th~ рroduсtюп
process: raw materials, preparation of the raw mix, buгning and сооllПg, portland
cement clinker, grinding, storage, types of cement. Various tests applicabIe to
cement will Ье described. 'П addition, since it is essential for the cement
manufactuгing engineer to know something also of the practical application of his
product (е. g., in connection with testing and in dealings with custo~ers), the
phenomena associated with the hardening (hydration) of cement wlll also Ье
considered.

11. Raw materials and the raw mix

1 Raw materials
hydraulic limes
Hydraulische Kalke 1.1 General considerations; origins
СОО The ideal raw material for cement manufacture is а rock which already in its natural
• MgO 70 60 50 40 за 20 10 state contains the correct proportions of the constituents to produce а cement
clinker of the desired composition. Besides, it should Ье availabIe in abundance,
Fig.1: Diagram of ternary system Si02-СаО/МgО-АI20з/Fе20з easy to quarry and of homogeneous character. In reality this ideal combination is
(Rankin diagram)
extremeiy гаге. Instead, it is nearly always necessary to base the manufacture of
104
105
 11. Raw materials and raw mix
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

cement оп raw materials which аге not in themselves very suitabIe, but which have character is usually quite clearly discernibIe, but the strata тау Ье discontinuous,
to Ье appropriately combined and bIended. For practical purposes the raw displaying sudden breaks which must Ье taken into account in quarrying the
materials аге limestone and clay (occurring in deposits in which they аге usually material.
mixed with certain amounts of other components). Limestones consist predominantly of calcium carbonate (СаСО з ), generally in its
Limestones and clays аге, in the geological sense, sedimentary deposits. These most stabIe modification known as calcite. In addition, they often contain
тау Ье formed inorganically from the weathering residues ог the precipitated
magnesium, aluminium and iron combined as carbonates and silicates; silica
solution products of older rocks (е. g., granite ог basalt, but also sandstone, (Si0 2 ), usually in the form of quartz, is also often present. Most limestones utilized
~imestone and тагЫе) ог тау оссш as new formations. The latter тау Ье inorganic
Ьу the cement industry аге either chemically precipitated ог organic limestones.
In character (е. g., clays formed from weathering products) ог organic (е. g., chalk Chemically precipitated limestones аге formed тоге particularly in warm seas
formed from the shells of marine organisms). Most sedimentary deposits аге of where water supersaturated with lime and of low СО 2 content тау оссш (е. g., at
marine origin, i. е., formed in seas (most limestones, for example). Clays аге present оп the Bahama banks). This inorganic process of precipitation proceeds as
deposited in lakes, along rivers and as offshore formations in seas. Some sediments follows
subsequently undergo processes of change and consolidation (diagenesis) Са(НСОЗ )2 ----+ СаСО з + Н 2О + СО 2
(Fig.2).
dissolved in precipitation water given оН
The typical form in which sediments аге laid down is in layers, known as strata ог
sea water of lime as gas.
beds in geological terminology. Since they аге nearly always deposited in water,
the layers аге originally horizontal. The actual stratification, i. е., the presence of А fairly соттоп variety of limestones in this category аге the oolitic limestones,
individually distinguishabIe layers, is caused Ьу variations in the sedimentation ог which аге composed of so-called ooliths, i. е., тоге ог less spherical rock particles
other conditions governing the formation of the sediment. As а result of these grown Ьу accretion around а nucleus and of the order of 1 тт in diameter. These
ge~logical processes over millions of years, deposits of considerabIe depth
calcareous ooliths аге formed in shallow water (Iess than about 2 m depth) subject
(thl~kness), s?metimes amounting to hundreds ofmetres, тау Ье built up. Though
to considerabIe motion. When а certain amount of lime has Ьееп deposited around
ОГlglПаllу horlzontal and extending uniformly over large areas, these strata тау
the nucleus (which тау Ье а grain of sand ог а shell fragment), the oolith sinks
subsequently Ье affected Ьу so-called tectonic processes - upheavals and to the ЬоНот Ьу gravity. Portland limestone belongs to this type.
disturbances of various kinds - which cause them to Ьесоте tilted, folded, fau Ited The organic, ог biogenic, limestones represent а substantial proportion of lime-
ог disrupted in other ways. When such deposits аге quarried. their stratified
stones. Мапу marine organisms - plants and animals - form hard shells ог
skeletons of calcium carbonate. When they die, their calcareous remains accu-
mulate as а sedimentary deposit. Such organisms аге, for example, тапу species of
ргосе55 formation of rock algae, corals, shellfish and protozoa (тоге particularly the Foraminifera). If these
Vorgang Gesteinsbi Idung
аге distinctly identifiabIe in the limestone as fossil remains, they form the basis of
weathering гос k + water + at m05phere classification, е. g., shelly limestones, согаl limestones, algal limestones, for-
Verwillerung Jrimares Gestein + Wasser + Atmosphiire aminiferallimestones, etc. Chalk is а limestone consisting mainly of the remains of
------- у - - - - unicellular planktonic algae, тоге particularly so-called coccoliths, which аге
relict new for~ation5 501 utions microscopic calcareous plates secreted Ьу those organisms.
5tructure5 Neubildungen, Losungen
Relikte //', МагЫе is а limestone consisting very largely of calcite (СаСО з ) in а relatively
(5urviving origi - / / " coarsely crystalline form. It is what is known as а metamorphosed limestone
ru~~:r~~~r '~ Ge stei~s. " produced under conditions of high temperature and pressure, тоге particularly in
bruchsti.ic ke) / / ', the process of mountain formation (orogenesis). ОП account of its hardness,
I-tr-a-n-5-p-oг-t------i j Chief~y in water (river5 , ) se~'s i marbIe is seldom used as а raw material for cement.
There аге various transitional types and varieties of limestone.

'.
Transport 9berwiegend in Wasser { FlUssen. Me;ren J I

Clays аге c\astic sediments, i. е., they consist main Iy of the remains of pre-existing
dep'osition
AbIagerung
clas.tic sediments
/

klastlsche Sed.
chemical and biogenic
chemische und biogene Sed.
sedime~ns
1.
rocks which have Ьееп broken down Ьу weathering and/or erosion. The clay
minerals аге present in the form of very small particles ( < 0.002 тт) which have
burial diagenetic changes (consolidation ) Ьееп deposited mainly in water - fresh, brackish ог marine. Geologically the clays,
Absenkung diagenetische Veriinderungen (Verfestigung) along with shales, marls, etc., аге classed as argillaceous rocks. The term "clay" is
тоге especially reserved for material which has по pronounced bedding planes
"-- ----L_ _

and which forms а plastic mass when wet. The principal constituents аге the clay
Fig.2: Diagram of sediment formation
107
106

оссш ос-
casionally fibrous, crystals. Most clays consist of different clay minerals which are
present together, е. g., illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, halloysite, etc. Their
chemical composition is far from simple, as the following two examples will
show:
montmorillonite АЫ(ОН)2 Si 40,o] ·4Н 2 О
kaolinite AI 4[(OH)B Si 40,o].
Besides clay minerals, clays may contain various proportions of other finely divided
~ubst~nces: quartz (Si0 2 "sand"), calcite (СаСО з ), gypsum (CaS0 4 ' 2Н 2 О),
Ilmonlte (FeOOH), pyrite (FeS 2), feldspars (aluminosilicates), carbonaceous
particles, etc.
Clay soils with а substantial proportion of sand and silt, and often with а certain
amount of limonite (iron oxides and hydroxides giving the material а yellowish or
brownish colour), are called loam. The term marl is applied to calcareous
mudstones, which are natural mixtures of clay and lime. Loess is formed as an
accumulation of wind-born dust with particles in the size range of 0.01 to 0.1 mm,
originally derived from desert areas and of а brownish-yellow colour. The
constituents are mainly siliceous (clay, quartz, feldspar) and about 10% of lime. If
the lime has been dissolved out, the material is called loess loam.
1.2 Use in cement production
As а rule, the main components availabIe for the manufacture of cement are
limestones (the source of СаО) and clays (the source of Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з ).
These have to Ье mixed with each other in proportions depending оп their own and
оп the required final chemical composition. However, overall chemical com-
position is not the deciding factor, because the reactions in the cement burning
process take place between the individual phases present in the kiln feed mix, so
that the fineness and homogeneity of the raw material and raw meal are also
important. If the kiln feed has а large reactive surface area and the mineral phases
are homogeneously distributed, the diffusion rates and therefore solid reaction
velocities will Ье higher than in coarser and less well homogenized material. The
reaction behaviour of those raw materials whose natural composition is already
fairly close to the desired chemical composition (Iime marl, for instance) will
generally Ье more favourabIe, because the components are naturally present in а
very finely crystalline and well bIended form. Оп the other hand, mixtures of
"extreme" raw materials (е. g., рше limestone and рше clay) react less
favourabIy.
As already stated, the CaO-Ьеаriпg component is usually а limestone. Limestones
which already contain some natural admixture of clay are to Ье preferred, as already
noted above. The following approximate classification is applicabIe'
pure limestone >95% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
marly limestone 85-95% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
lime marl 70-85% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
108
Prr)ncHtinnlina and analysis
marly clay 5-15%
clay < 5%
The raw materials for cement manufacture have а СаСО з content between about
74 and 79% Ьу weight.
Some limestones contain а certain amount of dolomite СаМg(СОЗ )2 and thus
introduce magnesium oxide (MgO) into the raw material. Magnesia .expansion
must Ье reckoned with if the MgO content exceeds about 5% Ьу welght.
The oxides Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе2Оз are generally provided Ьу an argillace~us
component, i. е., а clay or allied material (clay, marly clay, clay marl). R~w materlals
containing sand are sometimes also used, е. g., sandy marl or sandy Ilmestone .. ln
some instances these components may contain harmful сопсепtrаtюпs of a\kalles
(К О, Na 20), sulphates (е. g., gypsum CaS04' 2Н 2 О; the sulphates are usually
2
reckoned as sоз) and, more rarely, chlorides. These substances ~ay c~~se
difficulties in the burning process, more particularly in consequence of Intenslfled
cyclic processes and coating formation in the kiln system. The clays also have а
major etfect оп the pelletizing or nodulizing properties of the raw meal and оп the
water demand of the raw slurry in the wet process of cement manufacture.
If it is not possibIe to obtain the desired chemical composition of the raw mix just
with the two above-mentioned raw material components, it will Ье necessary to
add relatively small quantities of corrective ingredients to th~ mix .. Th~se
should contain the required oxides - deficient in the main raw materlals - In falrly
high concentrations. At the same time, however, they must not contain appreci.abIe
amounts of harmful oxides (е. g., MgO or К 2 О). Their purpose, therefore, IS to
adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix and improve i~s sinter.ing capa~i.ty.
More particularly, the following are used: quartz sand for Increaslng the slllca
content; roasted pyrites or iron ore for increasing the ferric oxide content
(these substances should contain at least 25% Fе20з)' . ..
Other сопесtivе ingredients are sometimes used, depending оп local avallablllty
and need.
Blastfurnace s\ag is only exceptionally used as а raw material compon~~t for
cement manufacture (it is, however, extensively used as а subsequent addltlve to
cement in the production of portland bIastfurnace cement). .
If so\id fuels are used in the burning process, the ash arising from these wlll
become incorporated in the cement and have to Ье taken into account.
2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis
2.1 Principles of proportioning the raw materials
For the production of cement it is necessary to have, or make, raw material mixtures
whose chemical composition is within certain limits. The continuous production of
high-quality cement is possibIe only if the raw mix possesses optimum com-
109
 Raw mix: Proportioning and analysis
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11. Raw materials and raw mix

Thus LSt = 100 represents the optimum СаО content. Two formulas f?r the lime
ТаЫе 1 : Limiting values of chemical composition of cement raw mate-
standard will Ье given here. The first, designated LSt 1, was due to Kuhl:
rial (after ignition)

oxide limiting value content 100 СаО

LSt I = ----------~­
[М.-%] [М.-%] 2.8 Si0 2 + 1.1 АI 2 О з + 0.7 Fе 2 О з

СаО 60-69 65
Si0 2 18-24 21 А somewhat modified version was later substituted as LSt 11, while LSt 111, due to
Spohn, Woermann and Knbfel, furthermore takes account ofthe possible presence
АI 2 О з 4- 8 6
Fе 2 О з 1- 8 of MgO, which сап replace up to 2% (Ьу weight) of СаО:
3
MgO <5.0 2
К 2 О, Na 2 0 <2,0 1 100 (СаО + 0.75 MgO)
LSt 111 = ----~-----------::­
SОз <3,0 1 2.80 Si0 1.18 АI 2 О з + 0.65 Fе 2 О з
2 +

position and furthermore if variations in this composition remain within the
nar.rowest possibIe range. The limiting values stated in ТаЫе 1 аге to Ье regarded as
valled for the manufacture of cement generally, i. е., they relate to all таппег of
cement works. Within апу particular works the variations have to Ье much
smaller.
For practical purposes the raw material composition (and also the composition of
the cement clinker) is usually characterized Ьу certain ratios, often called "moduli".
They аге in fact proportioning formulas into which the percentages of the various
oxides, as determined Ьу chemical analysis, should Ье substituted.
For calculating the optimum lime content of the mix, the so-called hydraulic
modulus, as expressed Ьу the following formula, тау Ье used:
НМ = СаО
Si0 2 + АI 2 О з + Fе 2 О з .
Nowadays, however, this has largely Ьееп superseded Ьу the lime standard
(LSt), for which some variant formulas have been evolved.
А high content of lime (СаО) enables lime-rich clinker phases, which have the
most favourable properties (especially with regard to strength development), to Ье
formed тоге abundantly in the burning process, but subject to the condition that
all the СаО must Ье combined with the three other major oxide components (Si0 2 ,
АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ). The object of the proportioning formulas is to provide а means of
calculating the maximum proportion of lime that сап Ье made to combine with
these acidic oxides.
If there is ап excess of uncombined lime, i. е., existing as free lime (CaOtr ) in the
cement, it тау cause damage in mortar ог concrete as а result of expansion
phenomena (see also Section IV.1). The lime standard provides а criterion for
determining the optimum lime content. It expresses the actual content of СаО
present in the raw material (or in the clinker) as а percentage of the maximum СаО
content which сап Ье combined Ьу the acidic oxides (Si0 2 , АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ) in the
most lime-rich clinker phases under technical conditions of burning and cooling.
11 О
Va\ues of the MgO content only ир to 2 % are to Ье taken into account in the LSt 1.11
formula; if this content is higher, the second term in parentheses should геmа1П
constant at 1.50.
As а further refinement, the term -0.7 SОз тау Ье introduced into the numerat~r,
to take account of the possible formation of CaS04' This is done, for example: In
the generally similar "Iime saturation factor" used in British cement mапufасtUГlПg
practice.
Example of the application of the lime standard:
The chemical analysis of а raw теа' gives the following results (in % Ьу mass ог
weight) .
65.7 СаО, 21.1 Si0 2 , 6.6 АI 2 О з , 3.1 Fе2Оз, 2.0 MgO, residue 1.5;
100 (65.7 + 75 х 2.0) _ 975
LSt 111 = - .,
2.80х21.1 + 1.18х6.6 + 0.65хЗ.1
For technical clinkers the value of LSt 111 is between 90 and 102 (values above 97
аге to rated as very high-qua\ity).
The silica modulus (SM) (ог silica ratio) is the ratio of silica (Si0 2 ) to the sum of
the alumina (АI 2 О з ) and fепiс oxide (Fе 2 О з)·
This modulus characterizes the ratio of solid to liquid in the clinkering of t~e
material, because at clinkering temperature the Si0 2 is pre.dominantly pres~nt ~n
the solid phases (alite and belite), whereas the other two oXldes оссш In the IlqUld
phase (melt). 'П industrial cements the silica modulus is generally between 1.8 and
3.0.
111
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11. Raw materials and raw mix
Calculation of the raw mix proportions

The iron modulus (1М), also known as the alumina ratio (АА), is the ratio of
alumina to fепiс oxide: Ь = ~ = kg of raw meal рег kg of clinker
а

% СаСО х56 . .
с = з_ _ = %СаО IП the сllПkег.
ах 1 00

The following values аге obtained with these formulas:

Since these two oxides both occur almost entirely in the liquid phase at clinkering
temperature, this modulus characterizes the composition of that phase. If the fепiс
oxide content is higher, so that the iron modulus is lower, the viscosity of the melt % СаСО з in the 74 75 76 77 78 79
decreases. For а va/ue of 1М < 0.638 the clinker phase called tricalciumaluminate raw теаl
(СзА) fails to form: СзА-fгее cements аге characterized Ьу increased sulphate
resistance. 'П industrial cements this modulus is generally between 1.3 and 4.0 and а = kg of clinker
рег kg of raw meal 0.656 0.652 0.649 0.645 0.641 0.638
most often between 1.8 and 2.8. In special cements it тау have much lower values
(down to about 0.4). Ь = kg raw meal
рег kg of clinker 1.524 1.533 1.541 1.550 1.558 1.567
'П the burning process, volatile constituents аге driven out of the raw materials.
с =% СаО
Моге particularly, сагЬоп dioxide (С0 2 ) isdrivp.n out ofthe limestone and water of
hydration is driven out of the clay. As а resu/t, the materials undergo а decrease in in the clinker 63.2 64.4 65.6 66.9 68.1 69.3
weight in the production of cement clinker.
The required quantity of dry raw material (i. е., without its inherent natural
Intermediate values сап Ье directly read from the accompanying diagrams
moisture) for the production of portland cement clinker сап Ье computed as
follows: (Fig.3). . . . 11
Taking account of losses of material in the manufacturlng process, It IS gener~ у
The сагЬоп dioxide is driven out of the limestone: assumed in practice that 1.55-1.60 kg of raw material is needed for produclng
Са С Оз = Са О + С 02 1 kg of clinker.
(40 + 12 + 48) = (40 + 16) + (12 + 32)
100 parts СаСО з = 56 parts СаО + 44 parts С0 2 . 2.2 Calculation of the raw mix proportions

Furthermore, about 7% of water of hydration is expelled from the clay in the raw (а) For the approximate calculation of the mix proportions.for t~? ~?w material
meal (organic constituents, etc. аге not considered). components it is convenient to set down the relevant values IП ап Х pat~ern, at
Thus, when а raw теаl containing, say, 76% СаСО з and consisting only of СаСО the centre of which is written the desired СаСО з content of the raw mlx. The
and clay is ignited, the loss оп ignition will Ье approximately as follows:
з СаСО content of the limestone is written in the upper left-hand согпег, and the

from СаСО з = 0.76 х44 = 33.44% С0 2 СаСОз content of the clay is written in the lower left-hand corner. The differences
from clay = 0.24 х 7 = 1.68% Н 2 О з
betwe~n the two last-mentioned values and the desired СаСО content of the raw
mix at the centre of the "Х" аге now written in the diagonally opposite c~rners. ~he
values thus finally obtained represent the proportions of the raw materlals whlch
35.12% totalloss оп ingnition,
will form the desired mix.
Example:
i. е., raw теаl with 76% СаСО з gives about 64.9% of clinker, for ап ignition loss of
about 35.1 % (ог: 1 kg of raw теа' yields about 0.65 kg of clinker) Suppose that the following raw materials аге availabIe:
For different values ofthe СаСОз of the raw теаl the quantities of materials сап Ье
calculated with the following formulas: % SЮ 2 АI 2 О з FеО з СаО MgO loss оп
ignition
0.44 х % СаСО з 0.07 х (100 - %сасо з ») = kg of clinker рег kg of
а=1- ( 100 + 100 limestone 3.8 0.9 0.6 52.9 0.3 41.5
raw meal clay 53.4 20.2 7.5 4.3 2.1 12.5

112
113
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11.
raw

О.66г-----;--,--г-----,-,----.----т---т-_т--_
'-
Q.o",
.... 52.9 х 100
The limestone contains - - - - = 94.5% СаСО з .
~~ 0. 65 г---j'--------t----f:::.....-...+--=+-+--+--+------iL-_I 56
ii~
0101
.:0:;..><
0, 64 t----j---+--+--+----!--+--+_...::::::::t::::..-....Ib-- 4.3 х 100
The clay contains = 7.7% СаСО з .
О.БЗ+------'----+------J--+--...!.-------J-_--L_J----...L----I 56
74 75 ~ 77 78 79 "IoСаСО з
а) kg of clinker / , kg of raw mea!
kg КLinker / 1 kg Rohmehl (It has Ьееп assumed that all the СаО is present as СаСО з .) .
For 77 % СаСО з in the raw теаl the above-mentioned "Х" pattern for соmрutаtюп
gives:

94.5 69.3 (parts of СаСО з deficient in the clay)

',57 ,----,-----,--,--г-----,-----,----,--г-----.-_ ':>. /'
77
',56 t---+---+--+----+--+--+---I----ь~:t----____i /' ':>.
7.7 17.5 (parts of СаСО з in excess in the limestone).
'.55 t----+--+--+---+--+--::;;~::.......+--+--I--
~_ ',54+---t---+--+~4---!--+--+_-+------i-_I The raw mix should therefore Ье proportioned as follows:
E~
~ Й 1.53 t----t-=--""9---+---+---+-+--+---I------iL----i
20 limestone 68.3 3.96
~ 1,52 t----t---+--+--+----j--+--+---I---____i-_I
01 clay 17.5 1
.:0:;"><

',51 -!-----.L--+--L---+----1.-_-I-------l_-+---_L----i
The following analysis values аге calculated:
79 О/О СаСО
Ь)
74 75
kg of raw meal/ , kg clinker
76 77 78
з
kg Rohmehl /1 kg Klinker
СаО MgO loss оп
ignition

limestone (3.96 parts) 15.1 3.6 2.4 209.5 1.2 164.3

70
clay (1 part) 53.4 20.2 7.5 4.2 2.1 12.5
69 ./ ----------------------
V 176.8
68.5 23.8 9.9 213.8 3.3
68 V (496.1)
1/
67 ./ raw mix (%) 13.8 4.8 2.0 43.1 0.7 35.6
о ./
а V (100)
u 66
V raw mix,
65 ./ ignited (%) 7.5 3.1 66.9 1.1
./ 21.4
./
64
У It is fuгther necessary to check that the composition of the raw mix calculated in
63 V this way is within the permissibIe limits (ТаЫе 1) and to ascertain its lime standard
74 75 76 77 78 79"10 Са СОЗ (тоге particularly LSt 111, which in this case is 95.7) and moduli (in this case:
с) "10 СаО in clinker / "10 СаСО з in raw meal
% СаО im Кlinker 1"10 Са СО silica modulus = 2.0, iron modulus = 2.4). If necessary, а different lime content
З im Rohmehl
will have to Ье chosen ог corrective materials added.
Fig. З: Yield obtained for different percentages of СаСОз in the raw (Ь) Calculation of а two-component raw mix with the aid of Kuhl's lime
теаl (from Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974)
standard formula [41]:
114
115
 С. Cement chemistry - cement qua/ity 11. Raw materials and raw mix
Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis

Suppose that the availabIe components are limestone (k) and clay (t) with the
Оп the assumption that the clinker made from this raw mix contains 5% (Ьу
following composition (in % Ьу weight):
weight) of constituents unaccounted for (Ioss оп ignition, MgO, alkali oxides,
limestone k etc.), the following clinker analysis is calculated:
clay t
Si0 2 Sk = 5.0 ~ = 57.6
АI 2 О з
Si0 2 = 19.2% Ьу weight LSt = 98
Ak = 1.9 Ас = 25.4 АI 2 О з = 8.2% Ьу weight SM = 1.6
Fе 2 О з Fk = 1.4 Ft = 9.7 Fе 2 О з = 3.6% Ьу weight 1М =2.3
СаО Ck = 91.2 Ct = 4.9. СаО = 63.9% Ьу weight.

Since the SM in this example is very low (cf. information given in Section 11.2.1), it
would Ье advantageous to add ап appropriate quantity of quartz sand as а third
What quantity х of clay t must Ье mixed with 1 part of limestone k to obtain the raw raw material component (corrective material).
mix for portland cement with the lime standard LSt? For the calculation of а three-component raw mix see, for example, KJJhl, 1963,
'П general, the raw mix composed of 1 part of limestone k and х parts of clay t will р.99Н. Formulas for the calculation of а mix comprising four components are
have the following composition: given Ьу Seidel/Huckauf/Stark, 1978, р. 61 Н.
The calculation of raw mix proportions is useful in connection with the planning of
Si0 2 = Sk + х . St АI 2 О з = A k + х . Ас new cement works or the opening-up of new raw material deposits in that it
Fе 2 О з = Fk + х· Ft СаО = Ck + х . Ct . provides approximate guidance оп the quantities of materials required and оп the
According to the formula for the lime standard LSt I (see Section 11.2.1): suitability of the availabIe raw material components. Оп the other hand, su~h
calculations are of dubious value for routine production purposes, because In
LSt 1 = 100· (Ck + х . Ct ) practice the respective components are continually subject to more or less
substantial variations. This would necessitate regular analytical monitoring of the
2.8 (Sk + х 'St) + 1.1 (Ak + Х -Ас) + 0.7 (Fk + х· Ft )' raw materials and, оп the basis of the results, continual recalculation of the mix
proportions.
Оп solving this equation for х, we obtain:

LSt ,. (2.8' Sk + 1.1 . A k + 0.7' Fk) -100· Ck

х=
2.3 Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis
LSt 1· (2.8' St + 1.1 . Ас + 0.7' Ft ) -1 00· ct
For the purpose of production control the raw mix or the raw meal and the clinker
Оп substitution of the oxide formulas this becomes: are regularly analysed. Besides "we(' chemical analysis, X-ray analysis is
extensively used for the purpose in modern cement works.
х = LSt· 1 (2.8' Si0 2 + 1.1 . АI 2 О з + 0.7' Fе 2 0 з -100 СаО (for limestone) The "non-destructive" X-ray-based analytical techniques have now Ьееп in
widespread and successful use in the cement industry for about 15 years and are
LSt·1 (2.8·Si0 2 + 1.1 'АI 2 О з + 0.7' Fе 2 О з -100СаО (for clay)
employed either for quantitative elemental analysis (X-ray fluorescence analysis,
X-ray spectrometry) or for quantitative phase determination (X-ray diffraction
For LSt 1 = 98 and the above-mentioned oxide concentrations we сап calculate: х
= 0.400. analysis, X-ray diffractometry). Of course, purely qualitative checks сап also Ье
made Ьу these methods. Whereas X-ray fluorescence analysis (elemental deter-
mination) is extensively used both for raw meal and for cement monitoring, X-ray
Therefore in this case the raw mix must consist of 1 part of limestoneand 0.400 part
diffractometry (phase analysis) has hitherto Ьееп used only for the determination
of clay. The precise composition of the mix is as follows:
of free lime content of cement.
'П the cement industry more particularly the so-called wavelength-dispersive
Si0 2 АI 2 О з Fе 2 О з СаО
1 part limestone principle of X-ray fluorescence analysis is generally used (in preference to the
5.0 1.9 1.4 91.2
0.400 part clay energy-dispersive principle) because it achieves higher intensities and better
23.0 10.1 3.9 2.0 resolution, so that errors are smaller. The methods of sample preparation are also
important deciding factors with regard to the reliability of the X-ray analysis
28.0 12.0 5.3 93.2 results.
116
117
 the сетеп! burning process
С. Сетеп! chemistry - сетеп! quality 11 Raw materials and raw mix 111. Chemical, physical

The physica\ basis for Х-гау analysis is the equation commonly known as Bragg's
law:
n . л, = 2d . sin Э
where: л, = wаvэlепgth of the radiation
Э = angle of incidence and diffraction ang\e
d = spacing of crystal lattice planes
n = integer.
'П Х-гау fluorescence analysis the values of d and Э аге known Ьу virtue of the
instrumentation set-up, while л', the characteristic wavelength of the emitted
radiation, is determined. Оп the other hand, with Х-гау diffractometry the values of
л, and Э аге known, while d, the characteristic lattice spacing of а crystalline
material, is determined.
In the case of fluorescence analysis the samp\e is irradiated with high-energy
X-rays in the spectrometer. The radiation dislodges electrons from the "inner
shells" of the atoms, and the vacant positions аге immediately occupied Ьу
electrons from the "outer shells" These last-mentioned electrons thus pass into а
lower-energy state, and the accompanying release of energy is emitted as X-rays
(of various wavelengths) which аге typical of each type of atom, i. е., each
chemica\ element. The intensity of this emitted characteristic X-radiation is
measured and is proportional to the quantities of the respective elements present in
the sample under investigation.
It emerges from Bragg's law that the characteristic X-rays аге to Ье measured
а! certain values of the angle between the sample and the detector. There аге
two systems of measurement: either the detection channel (comprising analyser
crystal and detector) is moved through а certain .angular range .and measures the
characteristic radiation of the elements successlvely (sequentlal system) ог the
apparatus is equipped with а number of detection channels in а fixed аггау, namely,
опе channel рег element to Ье detected (multichannel simultaneous system). The
sequential system offers greater flexibility, enabIing ~ vari~ty of elem~nts to Ье
detected. ОП the other hand, the simultaneous system IS qUlcker, comprlses fewer
moving parts and has proved advantageous тоге particularly in cas~s where the
same elements have to Ье analysed over and over again i~ the гоutlПе sa~ples.
Непсе this last-mentioned system is preferred for ргоduсtюп control u~e In .the
сетеп! industry. With such equipment а complete analysis сап Ье оЬtаlПеd In а
few minutes (the actual analysis and measuring time is very short, е. g.,
20 seconds). .
Х-гау fluorescence spectrometers сап Ье used independently. for оссаsюпаl
analyses ог for simple analysis programs ог Ье incorp~rated as ап Integral раг! of а
process control system associated with computer eqUlpme.nt. The outpu.t data ~ay
take the form of pulse rates, concentrations (Уа o
Ьу welght), modull and II~e
standard, ог Ье utilized in some other form for process control а! the r~w .materlal
end of the сетеп! manufacturing process (e.g., for raw mix ргорогtЮПlпg feed
control).
References
3,4,5,17,22,23,29,30,46,60,64,65,66,70,77,87

Х -гау tube
/Rontgenrohre

Ш. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of

the cement burning process
For the production of сетеп! clinker the raw material has to Ье ~eated to а
temperature of about 14500 С, so that clinkering ~ccurs. T~e ЬurПlПg ~rocess
requires ап oxidizing atmosphere in the kiln, рrodUСlПg а gгеУlsh-gгееп сllПkег If
this condition is по! satisfied, the resulting clinker will Ье of а brown colour, .and
/
the сетеп! obtained from it will Ье of inferior strength and will set тоге rapldly.
detector Important chemico-physical processes occur already during the.heat~ng-upof the
Detektor focusing circle"'-
Fokussierungskrei 5 kiln feed material and especially а! the burning temperature (сl~пkеГlПg te~pera­
ture) , such as: dehydration of the clay minerals, dесагЬопаtюп (expul~l?n of
ту path in spectrometry гау path in diffract ometry сагЬоп dioxide) of the carbonates (this process is usually referr.e~ to ~s calclnl~g ?г
StrahLengang bei Strah lengang bei calcination), solid reactions and reactions involving the раrtlСlраtюп.оf .а. IЩUld
Spektralana Iyse Beugungsanalyse
phase (melt), and crystallization processes. AII these ~r?cesses аге slgnlflc~ntly
Fig. За: Х-гау analysis methods affected по! only Ьу chemical factors (chemical соmРОSltюп of the raw materlals),

119
118
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111. Cement burning process Dehydration of clay minerals

but also Ьу mineralogical (mineral composition) and physical factors (particle size, 2100 81.
homogeneity, etc.). The due completion of these endothermic reactions plays а ос ./.
decisive part with regard to the quality of the cement produced. ТаЫе 2 reviews the
\
transformations in the processing of the raw meal; these will Ье discussed below. \
1800 72
Fig. 4 and 5 give information оп the formation of new phases that occurs in the kiln \
system. \
\
\
\
1500 60 Q,o
ТаЫе 2: Chemical transformations in the thermal treatment of portland cement \ CJ'I
raw meal (principal reactions in clinker burning) а
.J::._
U~
temperature ос process chemical transformation 1200 1.8 с: с

~ .- '"
-с

-"'~

....=' ~
::;,
m
с:
< 200 escape of free water (drying 0-
.... " '': .~
Q,o
а.'"
Е а.
~
900 , 36
с: '"
100 .. 400 escape of adsorbed water
~! ,, I ~~
О'"
u(!)
400. . 750 decomposition of clay, AI 4(OH)8 Si40 ,O
е. g., with formation of -+2 (АI 2 О з . 2Si0 2 ) + 4 Н 2 О 600
, I 21.

,,,
I
/
/
metakaolinite I
I
I 12
600 .. 900 decomposition of 300 I
/quartz
metakaolinite and other ",
",

I Quarz
compounds, with formation -,,'
of а reactive oxide о L, _ _ ---L_ _ +-_-----'_ _~---~_____< О

, 10 2ОmЗОЗб
mixture
length 01 kiln
600 ... 1000 decomposition of lime- СаСО з-+ СаО + СО 2 ? ) :..--_О_fе_П_liI_·П__е
I
9 -------,
stone, with information 3 СаО + 2 Si0 2 + АI 2 О з ,----1 ~L.-------------.J
of CS and СА ~2(СаО . Si0 2 ) + СаО АI 2 О з
grate pгeheater rotary kiln
Rostvoгwiirmer Dгеhоfеп
800 .. 1300 uptake of lime CS + C-+C 2 S *
Ьу CS and СА,
Fig.4: Formation of new phases in the lepoi kiln (from Weber, 1960)
2C+S-+C 2 S
formation of C4AF СА + 2C-+С з А
СА + 3С + F-+C 4AF

1250 .1450 further uptake

of lime Ьу C2 S 2 Dehydration of clay minerals
Between about 1000 and 4000 С the clay minerals give off their adsorptively bound
1 Drying water, including the so-called interlayer water. At highertemperature~,depend~ng
оп the types of clay mineral concerned, generally between about 400 and 75~ С,
The water that is present as "free" (uncombined) moisture in the raw meal, or has the chemically combined water (hydroxide groups) is also expelled (dеhуdrаtюп),
Ьееп added to it (е. g., for pelletizing), is driven out at temperatures ranging up to exemplified Ьу the dehydration of kaolinite'
about 2000 С.
AI4[(OH)8Si40'O]-+2 (АI 2 О з . 2 Si0 2 ) + 4 Н 2 О
• For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123 kaolinite metakaolin

120 121
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111 Cement burning process Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (clinkering)

quartz
Quarz - -- -- initially of, for example, СаО'АI 2 О з (=СА), 12СаО'7А1 2 О з (=С'2А7)'
СаО' Si0 2 (= CS) and 2СаО . Si0 2 (= C2S) *) in solid reaction. The content of
СаСОз - - free lime (СаО) is therefore low at temperatures below 8000 С (Iess than 2% Ьу
weight), rising to around 20% at higher temperatures.
C:!AS - --f - - -- -- The thermal dissociation of МgСОз , which is of much less importance in cement
С 12 А 7 ",,"-
- manufacture, is similar to that of СаСО з , but takes place at lower temperatures.
СА 1--- -

aluminate 4 Solid reactions (reactions below clinkering)

Aluminat
aluminoferrite From temperatures of about 5500 - 6000 С onwards there occur solid reactions, as
!--
Al -ferrit already mentioned, in which the decomposition products of СаСО з react with
belite 1--- those of the clays, at first resulting in the formation of compounds with lower
Belit
content of lime (е. g., monocalcium aluminate СА. dicalcium silicate C2S). The
alite
Alit formation of tricalcium aluminate (3СаО' АI 2 О з = СзА) and calcium aluminofer-
CaOfree rite [2СаО(АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ) = C2AF], which occur also in portland cement clinker,
CaOfr,,;
begins at around 8000 С. Examples of such reactions аге:
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 ·С
tempeгature t СаО + 2 СаО -+ 3 СаО . АI 2 О з
. АI 2 О з
Temperatur t + 3 СаО + Fе 2 О з -+ 4 СаО . АI 2 О з . Fе 2 О з
СаО . АI 2 О з
СаО' Si0 2 + CaO-+2СаО' Si0 2 .
Fig. 5: Existence ranges of the phases i n the charge (phase determi-
nation in cooled samples; - confirmed information, - - - - reported
The solid reactions proceed very slowly, but сап Ье speeded ир Ьу: reduction of
only Ьу some authors (from Seidel/Huckauf/Stark, 1978)
the particle size of the materials involved (i. е., larger surface агеа), raising of the
burning temperature, presence of crystal lattice distortions.

Metakaolin undergoes decomposition already to some extent within the above-

mentioned temperature range and further up to about 9000 С, resulting in the
formation of reactive oxides, e.g., as follows. АI 2 О з 2Si0 2 -+А1 2 О з + 2Si0 2
The dehydration of clays is affected Ьу various factors, such as the type of clay
mineral, the natuгe and quantity of admixtures, the particle size, the degree of
crystallization of the clays, the gaseous atmosphere, etc.
з Decomposition 01 carbonates
The calcium carbonate (СаСО з ) which constitutes about 74 to 79% of the cement
raw meal is decomposed (dissociated, decarbonated, calcined) at temperatures
from, theoretically, 8960 С upwards, in accordance with the equation:
СаСО з -+ СаО + СО 2 .
At that temperature the dissociation pressure is > 1 Ьаг and thus equals the
external pressure. The requisite reaction enthalpy L'1H is 1660 kJ/kg. The value of
8960 С relates to pure calcite; with increasing content of admixtuгes (е. g., in
cement raw meal) the thermal dissociation shifts to lower temperatuгes. Iп actual
practice it begins between 5500 and 6000 С. This effect is due to chemical reactions
of the СаО with the admixtures Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з , resulting in the formation
5 Reactions ёп the presence 01 liquid phase (clinkering)
The first formation of liquid (melt), marking the start of what is known as
"sintering" ог "clinkering", occuгs at а temperature of between about 12600 and
13100 С. With further rise in temperature the proportion of liquid phase increases to
around 20 - 30% (Ьу weight) at 14500 С, the actual proportion being dependent
оп the chemical composition of the material. (Thus, the proportion of liquid formed
is less according as the silica modulus is higher: see Fig. 6.) At these temperatures
the main component of portland cement clinker is formed, namely, tricalcium
silicate (СзS), known also as alite.
At the start of clinkering the material still contains substantial amounts of
uncombined СаО as well as dicalcium silicate (C 2S). 'П the presence of the liquid
phase these compounds pass into solution; the diffusion of the reactants is greatly
facilitated in the liquid (as opposed to the solid state), tricalcium silicate (СзS) is
formed in accordance with the following reaction and crystallizes:
СаО + 2 СаО . Si0 2-+ 3 СаО . Si0 2 (= СзS) .
') Iп cement chemistry the following abbreviated notation is employed to indicate the
compounds
С = СаО, S = Si0 2. А = АI 2 О з , F = Fе2Оз, М = MgO, Cs = CaS0 4 , Н = Н 2 О, N = Na 20,
К = К2 О

122
123
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111. Cement burning process Factors affecting the burning process

alumina modulus ~- 22 the loss of tricalcium silicate - which is important to the strength development of
тм Fе 0 -
2 з I
the cement - Ьу dissolving in the liquid. With rapid cooling, which is desirabIe, the
lime standard =96 liquid solidifies quickly and there is по appreciabIe loss of tricalcium silicate. The
K5t equilibrium is "frozen", as it were. Thus, the composition of cooled technically
~
о
;!:
а; З5 ,--~-----r---,-----.---..,..,.<~- produced portland cement clinker is substantially similar to that attained at
clinkering temperature.
~ ~~ ЗА t--~,_____-+---+---,.L-__t_-~ In contrast with liquid phases with а high Si0 2 content, the lime-rich alumino-
о .g,.i~ ferritic liquid in portland cement clinker undergoes complete crystallization even
~ .~ ~ ~ 25 t----+--~"k---_A_--__t_-~ when cooled rapidly.
.I:. >. ~O The rate of cooling also affects the state of crystallization, the reactivity of the
~.Q"t>~ 20 t----+--+----I-~......,.+_-___1 clinker phases and the texture of the clinker itself. For instance, rapid cooling will
'5~ ~­ produce fine closely-intergrown tricalcium aluminate (СзА) and calcium alumino-
g.s:l1: 15 ~----+,_____-+-----I---__I__-___I fепitе [C 2 (A,F)] crystals, which react slowly with water.
1,5 2,5 З.О З,5 4р
Other effects of rapid cool ing аге:
silica modulus Si0 2
SШсаtmОdul АI 2 О з + Fе20з better grindability of the clinker due to stress cracks;
higher alite content because less alite is lost Ьу dissolving;
Fig. 6: Relation between the silica modulus and the content of clinker slower setting of the cement because of intergrown finely crystalline aluminate and
liquid phase. calculated according to l. А. Dahl. at а clinkering tempera- fепitе phases;
ture of 14500 С (from Locher. 1979)
better soundness (Iess expansion) if the MgO content is above 2.5%, because
тоге MgO is present in solid solution in the clinker, while free MgO occurs in finely
crystalline form.
With this the ma;n object of the clinkering process. i. е., the formation of the Оп the other hand, extremely rapid cooling over the entire temperature range from
valuabIe compound СзS. has Ьееп achieved, and it is this that requires and justifies clinkering to ambient temperature (quenching) is liabIe to result in lower cement
the effort and cost of heating the raw materials to the high clinkering temperature. strength. It has Ьееп observed, however, that limited quenching may produce ап
'П аddltюп. the liquid phase promotes other reactions, е. g.. involving relatively increase in strength. The rate of cooling in the upper temperature range appears to
coarse quartz ог limestone particles.
Ье the important factor. 'П this range, relatively slow cooling under oxidizing
Trica~ciu~ sili~at~ (СзS) and dicalcium silicate (C 2 S) аге present as solid phases in conditions from ciinkering temperature to around 14000 С (for high-alkali clinker)
the SlпtеГlПg IIQUld. At temperatures above 14000 С the liquid phase contains а" ог around 13000 С (for low-alkali clinker) - in the kiln - is reported to have а
the АI.2 О з and Fе~~з of the subsequent clinker and has approx;mately the beneficial effect оп the strength of the cement, which тау Ье attributabIe to crystal
fоllОWlПg compOSltl?n: 56% СаО. 7% Si0 2 • 23% АI 2 О and 14% Fе О з
(percentages Ьу we/ght). А state of equilibrium is estabIished at clinkering
2 з lattice dislocations caused Ьу incipient decomposition of alite. (The validity of
temperature. these observations and interpretations has Ьееп disputed Ьу some authors,
however.)
Th~ vi~cosity. of .the 'iq~id phase is lower with decreasing iron modulus (alumina The rate of cooling of the clinker after leaving the kiln is generally considered not to
гаtю), 1. е., wlth IпсгеаSlПg Fе 2 о з content. Subsidiary mix components also affect Ье of appreciabIe influence оп the strength of the cement, i. е., it does not matter
the viscosity, whic~ is. for example, increased Ьу alkalis, but decreased Ьу SОЗ and which type of cooler - planetary ог grate cooler, for example - is used.
MgO. These геасtюпs сап Ье accelerated тоге particularly Ьу:
increasing the proportion of liquid phase; 7 Factors affecting the burning process
lowering the viscosity of the liquid phase; The above-mentioned reactions аге affected Ьу numerous chemical, mineralogical
reducing the proportion of coarse particles (especially quartz) in the raw meal. and physical factors, some of which сап Ье controlled.
The chemical composition of the feed material supplied to the kiln has а marked
influence оп the burning time required. This сап Ье defined as the length of time
6 Reactions during cooling needed, at а certain burning temperature, to Ьшп а raw теаl of given fineness to
such ап extent that not тоге than 2% of free СаО (Ьу weight) is present. The
If the. clinker formed in the burning process were cooled very slowly. some of the burning time becomes longer with increasing lime standard, silica modulus and
геасtюпs already accomplished would Ье reversed. resulting тоге particularly in iron modulus (the influence of the last-mentioned modulus is only slight,
124
125
 Factors affecting the burning process
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111 Cement buгning process

./. ~---т-'-.,....----г--..,..-----т----'1000. С
alumina modulus = 2.04
1М 60 11О0·С
1,00
>. 50,+----J----I-7"""ъ4-:J;;;o----11200· С
~ 0,98 ..:~
~ t:-1400·C
~ r-...
I
1: 40.\L:...-h,....,q----ь,..-~-_г_---j
:.а
5
u
0,96
t=1З50·С~
v,""" '"
~ >- 0,94
:="8
"-
~
"оCCII
~ Q92
.Q
--о
3
8.~ 0,90 о 20 40 60 80 100 120 ~m
е=а average particle diamet~r ар
0.::.: 0,88 mittlerer Korndurchmesser d p
2 3 4 5 6
silica modulus Fig 8' Effect of limestone particle size оп free СаО content at vari-
Silicatmodul SM
ou~ burning temperatures (from Lehman/Locher/Thormann. 19~~):
Fig. 7: Relation between the silica modulus and the combining of lime in dp = average particle size of а fraction; lime standard K.St 1= 96; sll.. C~
synthetic raw meals made from pure oxides (from Sycev, 1962) modulus = 3.0; alumina modulus = 2.2; I1t/l1t = 5 to К/mю.; t = 30mln .•
clay component: illite

however). The relationship between the silica modulus and the combining of lime
is exemplified in Fig. 7. The values represented in this diagram were obtained оп
synthetic raw meals in the laboratory and аге only tentatively applicabIe to
conditions in industrial cement manufacture. Alkali oxides (when present in ап
amount of above about 0.5% Ьу weight) tend to inhibit the combining of lime,
whereas MgO (below about 2.0% Ьу weight) and SОз (below about 1.0% Ьу
weight) accelerate it in the buгning process.
The mineralogical composition, for example, affects the pelletizability of the
raw meal and also affects the water content needed in raw slurry, while the burning
behaviouг and the specific heat requirement аге modified, inter alia, Ьу the mineral
components of the raw meal. The mineral character of clays and coarsely crysta 11 ine
quartz, in particular, is а major influencing factor, but crystal lattice dislocations,
crystal size and intergrowth, admixtuгes and impurities, natural bIending of the
phases in the raw material, and other factors, also play а part.
The rates at which reactions take place аге generally dependent оп the particle
size ofthe reactants, i. е., оп the reactive surface areas. Непсе the raw meal shou Id
Ье of such fineness that in the burning process even its coarsest particles will react
as completely as possibIe. As а rule, this condition is satisfied Ьу cement raw meal
with а residue of not more than 5- 20% (Ьу weight) retained оп the 90 micron
sieve, the actual maximum acceptabIe percentage being dependent оп the
composition of the meal and the type of kiln system.
Fig.8 shows the effect of the limestone particle size оп the content of free СаО at
various temperatures, bearing in mind that these аге values obtained in the
laboratory and give only а tentative indication of conditions in actual industrial
practice.
126
The homogeneity ofthe raw meal is а major requir~mentfo~ ~btaining а ~Ii~ker of
uniform composition and for ensuring steady ЬurПlПg сопdltюп~ .. For thls It must
more particularly Ье ensured that the m~~1 is of unvary~ngсоm~оs~tюпthroughout,
even within small volumetric quantltles « 1 mm ). If thls .IS not the case,
"pockets" consisting of different phases will. оссш i.n the с.llПkег. T~ese. may
consist, for example, of concentrations of free.llme. (whl~~ are IlabI~ to glv~ rls~ to
expansion phenomena оп hydration) ог of dlcalclum sl\lcate (be.llte) w~lch ~п а
homogeneous material would have combined to produce the deslrabIe trlcalclUm
silicate (alite). .
So-called mineralizers as additives (e.g .. fluorlte CaF 2 ) may favourabIy affect the
burning process. . .
То sum up, the burning behaviour of а raw meal IS dependent оп the fоllОWlПg
factors: ..
chemical composition (Iime standard, silica modulus, iron modulus, subsldlary
constituents, liquid phase, mineralizers) ;
mineral composition; . .
particle size distribution, especially the maximum partlcle Slze;
homogeneity of the raw meal; .
burning conditions (rate of heating, more partlcularlx at ~emperatu.res ~bove
11000 С, maximum burning temperature, and геtепtюп tlme at thls hlghest
temperature) .
The result of the burning process is portland cement clinker, consisting of the
clinker phases.
127
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IV. Portland cement clinker Clinker phases

References which it was burned and the manner in which it was subsequently cooled. They
modify the properties of the alite: for example, the incorporation of foreign ions
4,7,8,9, 12,20,23,24,28,31,33,36,41,46,49,51,53,54,59,69,82,83,87,89,
92 usually increases its strength. Below 12500 С, tricalcium silicate may decompose
into СаО and C2S if subjected to very slow cooling, especially if it contains Fe 2+ as
а result of burning under reducing conditions. Quantitatively and also with regard
to the properties of the cement (more particularly its strength development)
tricalcium silicate is the most important constituent of cement. For this compound
to form in the burning process, it is essential that sintering should occur.
IV Portland cement clinker
Portland cement clinker consists substantially of the four crystalline clinker phases
alite, belite, calcium aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite in close interpenetrating 1.2 Belite (dicalcium silicate)
association. 'П addition, the clinker contains voids ("pores") and usually some free
(uncombined) lime; more rarely, periclase is present. Chemically pure dicalcium silicate (C 2S) *) is not found in cement clinker either; it
likewise contains incorporated foreign oxides. It occurs mainly in solid form at the
clinkering temperature and is present only in small proportions in clinker with а
1 Clinker phases high lime standard. Its strength development is slow, but in the long run it attains
strengths at least as good as those of alite. The ~ modification of belite, which is the
Some important data relating to the clinker phases аге given in ТаЫе 3. Fig.9
form in which this compound is predominantly present in clinker, may at room
shows the strength development of these phases. As already stated, free СаО and
free MgO (periclase) may also occur in the clinker. temperature change into the у modification, which is the more stabIe form, but
virtually lacking in hydraulic properties (beta-gamma inversion). This change is
accompanied Ьу а volume increase of about 10%, which is considered to Ье the
cause of the so-called "falling" of clinker, а rapid disintegration. This inversion сап
~
~2 Ье obviated, however, i. е., the belite сап Ье stabilized, Ьу the incorporation of
о, 80 тrт-.-------,,.----, foreign ions and also Ьу rapid cooling. With present-day technology of cement
с
~ manufacture the risk of clinker falling has Ьееп eliminated.
1ii The finely crystalline aluminate and ferrite phases аге often ranked as "interstitial
.~ j 40 Ц4--blL-!-------1 matter" ог "matrix". Both these phases аге formed from the clinker melt оп
III.~ cooling.
~Оо.х
~ 20 -II-++-+--!-------1
~~ 1.3 Aluminate phase
UQ 0728 90 180 360 days
hardening time
10ge The aluminate phase (in its pure form: СзА) likewise contains foreign ions. Неге
Erhortungszeit the incorporation of alkalis (Na 20, К 2 О), each in amounts exceeding 5~ .Ьу
weight, is possibIe. The aluminate phase possesses а high degree of reactlvlty,
Fig.9: Compressive strengths of clinker phases (water-cement ratio which is further increased Ьу the incorporation of alkalis. The presence of the
= 0.5); 1 = СЗS; 2 = C 2S; 3 = СзА; 4 = C 4 AF (from Bogue, 1955)
phases NСвА з and КСвА з has Ьееп reported. 'П order to retard the ~eaction of the
aluminate phase at the start of hydration, every cement must сопtаlП some added
sulphate (е. g., in the form of gypsum) as а setting retardant.
1.1 Alite (tricalcium silicate) Together with alite and belite, the aluminate phase may somewhat increase the
early strength of the hardening cement (this effect being due to the considerabIe
Chemically pure tricalcium silicate (СзS) *) does not occur in portland cement heat of hydration that this compound evolves). Its own hydraulic properties are
clinker; it always incorporates foreign oxides, е. g., approximately 2% MgO, also slight. however.
АI 2 О з . Fе 2 О з , Тi0 2 and others. The amounts in which these oxides аге present
The compound С'2А7 may also occur.
depend more particularly оп the composition of the clinker, the temperature at

*) For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123 ') For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123

128 129
w ТаЫе З: Clinker phases r>
о ()
ф
designation alite belite aluminate phase fепitеphase 3
of the phase tricalcium silicate dicalcium silicate tricalcium aluminate calcium aluminoferrite ф

in the clinker ....

:::3

ofthe pure phase

composition of the
pure phase 3 СаО' Si0 2 2 СаО' Si0 2 3 СаО 'АI 2 О з 2 СаО(АI 2 О з

abbreviated notation СзS C2 S СзА C2 (A,F)

ог C 2 A pF,_p

foreign ions Mg, AI, Fe alkaiis, AI, Fe, alkalis, Fe, Mg Si, Mg
commonly incprporated fluoride
in clinker phases
number of
modifications 6 5 3
modifications monoclinic (М 11) ~-belite, monoclinic cubic orthorhombic
оссuпiпg in trigonal (R) (а and а'belite) orthorhombic
technical clinkers tetragonal
colour of the white white white dark brown
рше phase due to MgO
incorporation:
dark grey-green

proportions in
portland
cement clinker
(% Ьу mass)
maximum 80 30 15 15
average 60 15 11 8
minimum 40 О 7 4
technical properties rapid hydration, slow hydration, rapid hydration, slow and moderate
in cement high initial and good final strength, high heat of hydration, hardly
good final low heat of hydration which апу strength de-
strength, moderate hydration promotes early velopment, moderate
heat of hydration, strength, shrinks heat of hydration,
main strength appreciabIy оп ion, gives погтаl
constituent in hydration, reacts cement its colour
погта' portland with sulphates
cement and thus undergoes
volume
(expansion)

~
 rh,t>П'\iс:t,·\/ - cement cement clinker of clinker

1 .4 Ferrite phase Ву way of example, ТаЫе 4 gives the chemical compositions of the phases of а
portland cement clinker.
The ferrite phase does not possess а constant chemical composition; it is in fact
а тетЬег of а solid solution series extending theoretically from С 2 А to C 2F (С 2 А
is sti\l not existing) :
ТаЫе 4: Experimentally determined chemical composition of the
С2А ... C6 A 2F ... C4 AF ... C6 AF 2 ··· C2F. clinker phases of а portland cement clinker (% Ьу weight)
Depending оп the availability of iron and aluminium, the members of the solid ferrite
alite belite aluminate
solution series will Ье situated пеагег the iron-rich ог пеагег the aluminium-rich phase
phase
end thereof. Quite often the composition of this phase in cement clinker
corresponds тоге ог less to C4 AF. The general formula of the series is C2(A,F) ог 59.50 51.40
СаО 69.70 63.20
C2A pF,.p. Foreign ions аге incorporated in the ferrite phase as well. It is the phase 4.21 2.28
Si0 2 24.90 31.50
that contributes тоге particularly to giving cement its colour: рше C2(A,F) is 27.52 19.60
АI 2 О з 1.12 1.84
brown, C2(A,F) containing MgO is of а dark grey/green colour. It is very slow- 5.76 22.52
Fе 2 О з 0.64 0.96
reacting and of little importance to the properties of the cement. 0.85 3.18
MgO 0.89 0.48
К2 О 0.19 0.75 0.66
1 .5 Other clinker phases 0.19 0.25
Na 20 0.06
Most cement clinkers contain free СаО (uncombined lime) in amounts up to Тi0 2 0.16 0.24 0.48 1.60
2% Ьу weight. Its presence is due either to unsuitabIe preparation of the raw теаl Р2О5 0.28
(inhomogeneous ог too coarse), to inadequate burning (so that it was not
combined Ьу other oxides), to too slow а rate of cooling (so that partial
decomposition of СзS ог СзА could оссш) ог to too high а lime content (LSt 111
> 100). Free lime is undesirabIe in appreciabIe concentrations (above about 2.5%
Ьу weight), as it is liabIe to cause expansion phenomena in mortar and concrete
(Iime expansion), [СаО + H 2 0---+Са(ОН)2]'
MgO-гiсh clinkers тау contain free MgO (periciase). Since about 2.0 to 2.5% 2 Judging the quality of clinker
MgO Ьу weight is combined in the form of а solid solution in the other phases of
the clinker, а cement conforming to the standard specifications тау permissibIy Various methods of judging the quality of cement clinker аге availabIe. As а rule,
contain up to about 2.5-3.0% of peroclase (according to German Standard several аге applied.
DIN 1164, up to а total of 5.0% MgO Ьу weight is a\lowed). The proportion of Complete chemical analysis (Ьу wet-chemical analysis ог Х-гау fluorescence
MgO that is combined in other phases will depend оп the chemical composition of analysis) gives information оп the overall composition. From the results it is
the clinker and its conditions of production. Periclase is undesirabIe because, if possibIe to calculate the lime standard and the moduli (silica modulus, iron
present in substantial amounts, it тау cause expansion similar to that caused Ьу modulus) which together provide тоге conveniently assimilabIe information оп
lime (magnesia expansion), but тоге surreptitious because in some cases the the quality of the clinker (see also Section 11.2.1). The potential phase com-
damage it causes тау remain undetected for years. position, as envisaged Ьу Bogue, сап also Ье calculated from the analytical
Finely crystalline and uniformly distributed periclase causes less expansion than results. This calculation presupposes that the clinker melt (Iiquid phase in
does ап equal quantity of periclase that is present in coarsely crystalline form ог in clinkering) crystallizes in equilibrium with the solid phases and that the clinker
'оса' accumulations ("pockets"). The same is true of free lime and its expansion phases аге of chemically рше and stoichiometric composition, i. е., рше СзS, C2S,
effects. СзА and C4 AF. 'П reality the first assumption (equilibrium оп crystallization) is not
The expansion due to free СаО is а result of its hydration, similar in principle to fulfilled, as was pointed out in Section 111.6 dealing with the reactions оп cooling;
slaking, but slower: it reacts with water to form Са(ОН)2' which has about twice Пог is the requirement of chemical purity, for the clinker phases contain
the volume of the СаО from which it was formed. Magnesia expansion is similarly incorporated foreign ions. AII the same, this phase calculation yields reasonabIy
due to the reaction of MgO with water. The expansion effects аге commonly useful approximate values for guidance. As а rule, the actual alite content is higher,
referred to as "unsoundness" of the cement. the belite content lower than calculated, whereas the actual content of the
'П гаге cases cement clinker тау moreover contain small amounts of, for example, aluminate and ferrite phases differs only Ьу а few рег cent from the calculated
alkali sulphates and glassy phase. ("potential") content (see ТаЫе 5).

132 133
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality iV. Portland cement clinker Judging the quality of clinker

ТаЫе 5: Comparison of potential and microscopically determined Са Icu lation:

(actual) phase compositions of various portland cement clinkers (% Ьу СзS =4.071 х 63.50 - 7.602 х 20.90 - 6.719 х 6.05 - 1.430 х 3.20 = 54.4%
weight) (say 54%)
C2 S = 2.868 х 20.90 - 0.754 х 54.4 = 18.9% (say 19%)
phase normal portland MgO-гiсh K2 O-rich СзА = 2.650 х 6.05 - 1.692 х 3.20 = 10.6% (say 11 %)
cement clinker portland portland C4 AF = 3.043 х 3,20 = 9.7% (say 10%)
cement clinker cement clinker
Sum of the clinker phases = 93.6% (say 94%)
pot. micr. pot. micr. pot. micr. (percentages Ьу weight).

alite 49 70 42 58 39 51 Another important criterion is the free lime content (uncombined СаО), which
belite 21 7 26 21 29 19 is determined Ьу wet-chemical analysis ог Х-гау diffractometry. 'П conjunction
aluminate phase 13 11 15 12 17 22 with the lime standard it gives information оп the production conditions, тоге
fепitе phase 11 10 11 9 13 8 particularly the degree of burning. The free lime content is not allowed to exceed а
certain iimiting value which is in the range of 2 to 3% (Ьу weight), depending оп

Bogue's formulas for calculating the potential composition:

For normal portland cement clinker:
СзS = 4.071 СаО - 7.602 Si0 2 - 6.719 АI 2 О з - 1.430 Fе 2 О з
C2 S = 8.602 Si0 2 + 5.068 АI 2 О з + 1.079 Fе 2 О з - 3.07 СаО
ог C 2 S = 2.868 Si0 2 - 0.754 СзS
СзА = 2.650 АI 2 О з - 1.692 Fе 2 О з
C4 AF = 3.043 Fе 2 О з .
For clinker with iron modulus 0.64 (rich in iron oxide. по СзА)
СзS = 4.071 СаО - 7.602 Si0 2 - 4.475 АI 2 О з - 2.863 Fе 2 О з
C2 S = 2.867 Si0 2 - 0.754 СзS
C2 F = 1.702 Fе 2 О з - 2.665 АI 2 О з
C4 AF = 4.766 Fе 2 О з .
For the oxide symbols in these formulas the respective analytical results (in % Ьу
weight) should Ье substituted. If the content of free lime is known, this should Ье
subtracted from the overall СаО content before the calculation is done.
If negative values аге found for C2 S, it means that free lime must Ье present.
Since the alkalis, MgO and other subsidiary constituents аге not taken into account
in the calculation, the potential phase content is always found to Ье below
100%.
Example of the calculation ofthe potential phase composition. Consider а normal
portland cement clinker with the following chemical analysis (% Ьу weight) :
loss оп ignition 0.42 MgO 2.00
insolubIe in HCI 0.15 К2О 0.95
Si0 2 20.90 Na 2 0 0.21 Fig.10: Portland cement clinker: micrograph obtained with reflected
АI 2 О з 6.05 SОЗ 0.54 light: alite: dark grey. mostly with straight boundaries; belite: light
Fе 2 О з 3.20 CaOfree 1.05 grey. curved boundaries; ferrite: white matrix; aluminate: dark in-
СаО 64.55 residue 1.03 clusions in white matrix

134 135
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IV. Portland
~.
JIDL .
Fig. 1.1 : Por~land cement clinker: under-burned (porous); micrograph
obtamed wlth reflected light: free lime: bIack pocket; belite: light-
c~loure~ textured areas; alite: dark textured areas; pores (here filled
wlth resm): grey areas with grinding scratches
the production conditions, for otherwise the risk of lime expansion in the mortar or
concrete made ~ith the cement cannot Ье ruled ощ. The factors causing the
prese~ce ~f free II.me are explained in Section IV.1. The test for /ime expansion is
descrlbed ,п Sесtюп Х.3.
The ~ulk density?f а parti~ular part;cle size fraction of clinker (е. g., 5- 7 тт),
оЬtаlПеd Ьу screenl.ng, provlde~ ~ check оп the degree of burning. Depending оп
the raw ~ea/ (chemlcal соmРОSltюп) and characteristics of the kiln plant (porosity
of the сllПkег, etc.), the va/ues for the bulk density of adequately burned clinker
range between 1.2 and 1.6 kg/dm З • The permissibIe minimum value in апу given
case has to Ье determined empirically.
Microsc~pic examination of the clinker yields information оп the nature
сопfогmаtюп and distribution of the clinker phases. The quantitative proportion~
of these p~ases depe~d ?п the chemical composition of the clinker, whereas their
сопfогmаtюп and dlstrlbution аге determined Ьу the production conditions
136
(fineness, partic/e size distribution, maximum particle size and homogeneity of the
raw meal, heating-up rate, duration of sintering, cooling rate, etc.). Experts сап
detect certain defects in the production conditions Ьу microscopic examination of
the cfinker and decide оп ways and means of overcoming them. As а rule, polished
and etched specimens аге employed, which аге examined Ьу reflected light at
magnifications of between 50 and 1000. Properties such as shape, reflectivity,
hardness, etching behaviour (е. g., in water ог in а solution of nitric acid in
a/cohol), etc. аге used as means of identifying the phases and also yield other
information оп them. Figs. 1 О and 11 аге micrographs of portland cement clinker in
reflected light.
The constituent clinker phases сап Ье determined qualitative/y, and also to а great
extent quantitatively, Ьу means of X-ray diffractometry (diffraction analysis).
The quantitative determination of free lime for production control purposes Ьу this
method has acquired practical importance. То use this method for quantitatively
determining а" the clinker phases presents difficulties, because various important
diffraction lines coincide (е. g., those of alite and belite), because the incorporation
of foreign ions causes variations and because the degree of disorder in the structure
of the various clinker phases differs in consequence of varying production
conditions.
References
3,8,19,23,25,28,30,31,33,34,36,39,41,42,45,46,53,57,67,69,83,84,87,
92, 93
v. Finish grinding
1 The materials involved in finish grinding
1.1 Portland cement clinker
With the exception of high-alumina, а" standard cements contain portland cement
clinker. This material has Ьееп dealt with in Section V.
1.2 Blastfurnace slag
Blastfurnace slag, тоге particularly in granulated form, is а so-called latently
hydraulic material, i. е., it needs ап activator to епаЫе it to harden "hydraulically".
'П practice, calcium hydroxide (in cement clinker ог as hydrated lime) and
sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite) аге used as activators. Slowly cooled crystalline
bIastfurnace slag in lump form is unsuitabIe, however; to possess latent hy-
draulicity, the slag has to Ье in а glassy form produced Ьу rapid cooling. This is
achieved Ьу quenching the molten slag in water, which yields а granulated
137
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality У. Finish grinding

product. The granulated bIastfurnace slag should have the fowest possibIe residual
1.3 Pozzolanas
water content (favourabIe values аге below 10%). The particle size is usually
below 3тт. Pozzolanas аге materials, mainly of natural orlgln, which react at погтаl
The hy~r.aulic pr~perties of bIastfurnace slag аге determined Ьу its chemical temperature with calcium hydroxide and thus produce strength-developing
compo~'tlOn and ~ts glass content. The latter should Ье above 90%. Methods of chemical compounds (hydraulic hardening). Most pozzolanas аге volcanic
ргоdUСlПg. slag wlth 95 -100% glass content аге now availabIe. materials, especially those known as tuffs. The пате "pozzolana" is derived from
The chemlca~ compos.ition of.the granulated bIastfurnace slags used in cement Pozzuoli пеаг mount Vesuvious оп the Gulf of Naples. 'П Germany, similar
manuf~ctu.re IS apProXlma~ely IП the. range indicated in ТаЫе 6. There аге formulas materials known as Rhenish trass (а volcanic tuff from the Neuwied Basin пеаг
for estJmatln~ the hydraullc propertles оп the basis of the chemical analysis of the KobIenz) and Bavarian trass (а rock transformed Ьу meteorite impact, found in the
slag: АссогdlПg to DIN 1164 а granulated slag is to Ье classed as suitabIe for агеа called Nёнdliпgег Ries, about 80 km south of Nuremberg) аге used as
~~klПg slag c~ments (тоге particularly the two German varieties known as additives to cement. Trass has to conform to German 5tandard DJN 51 043.
EI~e~portland cement and "Hochofen" cement) if the following condition is Burned oil shale residue, used тоге particularly at Dotternhausen пеаг Donau-
satlsfled: eschingen, is another pozzolanic material that calls for mention. Iп other countries
such materials comprise, besides volcanic rocks, various siliceous sedimentary
deposits, including тоге particularly kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth consisting of
the remains of unicellular creatures with siliceous skeletons). Essential quality
requirements of а pozzolana аге that it contains large amounts of 5i0 2 and АI 2 О з in
а suitabIy reactive form, so that it сап react with Са(ОН)2' The suitability of such
However, such formu.las сап do по.тоге than give approximate guidance. 50 far, it
materials as ingredients of cement сап Ье determined Ьу means of comparison
has ~ot proved p~sslbIe to .estabIlsh а generally-va/id formula that will reliabIy
~redlct th~ hydraullc propertres оп the basis of the chemical analysis data, пог does tests (as with bIastfurnace slag) ог Ьу chemical methods (testing the capacity to
сотЫпе with lime).
It арр.еаг Ilkely that such.a formula. will Ье found. In general terms, however, it сап
Ье sald that the hydraullc propertles аге better according as the content of СаО
MgO and АI~Оз is higher (this applies for MgO only up to about 12%, while AI о' 1.4 Fly-ash
above 13% Improves only the early strength). 2 з Fly-ash ог pulverized fuel ash (PFA) is obtained, for example, in dust collection
equipment of furnaces fired with pulverized coal, especially those of electricity
generating plants. It is composed of glass-like particles of predominant/y spherical
ТаЫе.6: Chemical compositions of the granulated bIastfurnace slags shape and consisting mainly of 5i0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з . It is а pozzolanic material
used '" cement manufacture (% Ьу weight) which is activated Ьу calcium hydroxide and is then сараЫе of hydraulic
oxide hardening. This applies тоге particularly to the glass content of the ash, which
content oxide content should therefore Ье as high as possibIe. Оп the other hand, it should contain the
5i0 2 least possibIe amount of burnt сагЬоп residue, as this is detrimental to the cement
28-38 СаО 35-48
АI 2 О з
properties (Iower strength and durability of concrete made with the cement).
9-18 MgO 2-10
FeO The reactivity offly-ash is higher according as its specific surface is larger. For most
0- 2
МпО
5 1- 3 types offly-ash this is between about 1000 and upwards of 4000 cm 2jg (Blaine),
0- 2 Na 20 0- 2 though it should Ье noted that these values тау Ье falsified ог shifted to higher
values Ьу the presence of сагЬоп particles. The ash particle sizes аге generally
between 0.5 and 200 microns. Coarse-graded fly-ash сап Ье improved Ьу
А тоге reliabIe meth~d o~ ~etermining the hydraulic properties of а granulated grinding, preferabIy Ьу intergrinding with portland cement clinker and gypsum to
bIastfurnace sl.ag CO~SIStS In Intergrinding it with clinker and gypsum to produce а produce the desired cement. Up to about 30% of fly-ash - depending оп the
slag cement ~Ith а hlgh slag content (in the laboratory) and testing this cement for quality and properties of the ash - тау thus Ье incorporated as ап additive in
strength ar,d, If nec.essary, for other properties as well. For comparison а "сетеп(' cement.
тау Ье made whlch contains, instead of slag, ап equal quantity' of ап inert
substance (е. g., quartz sand) of the same fineness ог, alternatively, а portland 1.5 Sulphates
~ement made from the same clinker, but without slag, тау Ье ground to the same А quantity of sulphate (in the form of gypsum ог а mixture of gypsum and
f,neness as the slag cement and tested.
anhydrite-II) is always added to the portland cement clinker in the finish grinding
138
139
 С. Cement chemistry - cement qua/ity V. Finish grinding
Fineness and particle size distribution

process, the object.of this ad?ition being to control (retard) the setting time of the
p~odu?t. The ret.ardlng eff~ct IS brought about Ьу а reaction of the sulphate with the
trlc~lclUm аluтlПаtе, whlch would otherwise set too quickly (clinker containing
а h.gher content of СзА will re.quire тоге sulphate; see also Section VII.2).
However, too m~ch sulphate IП the cement is liabIe to cause expansion
phenomena (Sесtюп VII.2), and for this reason upper limiting values аге specified
f~r the.cement content (reckoned as SОз). The values laid down in DIN 1164 аге
glven IП ТаЫе 7. Natural. impurities in raw gypsum (е. g., clay, calcite) do not
a.dversely affect the quallty of the ,cement. Depending оп the СзА content, the
fln~ness of the cement and the afkall content, there exists for еуегу cement а certain
OP~lmU~ sulphate content which. т~y тогеоуег distinctly improve the strength.
Th,s opt,,:num ~ont~nt of su Iphate IS h,gher according as the СзА and alkali content
o~ the clln~er IS hl~~er and the cement is тоге finely ground. Because of the
dlffere~ces IП SO/Ublllty between hemihydrate (highly), gypsum (moderately) and
аПhУdГlt~-11 (~oorly solubIe), ~he nature ofthe sulphate-bearing compound added
t~ the ~llПkег IS. also ?f some /mportance. The optimum sulphate content will Ье
hlgher If anhydrlte~lIls used. 'п order to avoid possibIe irregularities of setting, it is
prefera~'e to use mlxtures of gyp~Um a~d anhydrite- f I (in proportions ranging from
ab~ut 1 .1 to 1 :8). ~oг cement Wlth.a hlgh content of СзА and alkalis and ground to
а h.lgh degree of flneness the OptlmUm sulphate content is around 5% SO Ь
welg.ht. For coarsely ground cement containing little ог по С А and with а 10;
alkall content the SОЗ requirement is in the region of 2.5-3% Ьу weight.
2 Fineness and particle size distribution
Under otherwise similar conditions а substance will react тоге rapidly in
proportion as its specific surface (in cm 2 /g) is larger. For this reason the raw
materials for cement manufacture have to Ье ground before burning, and the
clinker (with admixtures, especially gypsum) has to Ье ground to suitabIe fineness
in order to produce а cement that will react readily with water in the hydration
process. Thus, опе and the same clinker will achieve better (тоге rapid) strength
development according as it is тоге finely ground, i. е., acquires а larger specific
surface. For еуегу additional1 00 ст 2 /g of specific surface the gain in strength of
the cement is in the region of 0.5 to 2.0 N/mm 2 , the average increase in 28-day
compressive strength being approximately 1 N/mm 2 • The same applies to а" the
usual standard testing ages for cement. Only after а much longer period (several
years), when еуеп the coarser particles have fully reacted, is there likely to Ье little
difference in the strength finally attained Ьу coarser and finer cements. Reference
values for cement fineness аге given in ТаЫе 8.
ТаЫе 8: Reference values for fineness of cements
cement percentage (Ьу weight) specific surface
retained оп 0.09 тт (Blaine) in cm 2 /g
standard sieve (DIN 4188)

portland cement 35 < 10 2400-4000

Hochofen cement 35 < 6 3000-4000
ТаЫе 7: Highest permissibIe SОз content in cements (DII\! 1164) portland cement 45 < 6 2800-4500
Hochofen cement 45 < 3 3300-4500
type of cement highest permissibIe SОЗ content portland cement 55 < 1 4000-6000
in % Ьу weight for specific surfасе З ) Trass cement < 4 3000-5500
of the cements

portland cement,
Eisen portland cement,
trass cement
Hochofen cement
with 36 to 70% Ьу weight
of bIas'tfurnace slag
Hochofen cement with
тоге than 70% Ьу weight
of bIastfurnace slag
140
from 2000 to оуег Iп clinker grinding, the gypsum, being тоге readily grindabIe, tends to Ье
4000 cm 2 jg 4000 cm 2 jg concentrated in the finer particle size fractions of the product. So does апу fly-ash
that тау Ье added, whereas bIastfurnace slag becomes concentrated in the coarser
fractions.
Strength development, especially the early strength, is distinctly improved if the
3.5 cement is тоге closely graded, i. е., if the middle range of particle sizes between 3
4.0
and 30 microns is increased to аЬоуе 50%, say, at the expense of the coarser and
the fi пег particles - provided that the specific surface of the cement is not reduced.
The improvement is due to the faster rate of hydration achieved. For producing
4.0 such closely graded cement it is essential that the grinding plant has а highly
selective classifier (air separator). The use of grinding aids is reported also to Ье
helpful in achieving this result. However, the effect of grading (particle size
distribution) оп the strength development of industrial cements is not always
4.5 clearly manifest. Fig. 12 shows the strength development of various granulometric
classes of cement.
141
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality V. Finish grinding Mill atmosphere

~
mm 2
70 .--.----.-----.-----==.....
hemi-
hydrate
Halb -
.,.
gypsum
Gips ./.
с:
QI hydrat
~ 50 f---tF----.I!'о::::....,,,е......--+------,,,,.-"=----: 30 70
~~
'~ ~ 30 /-t-t+--++------,~-+-----I
40 60
"х ~. ;;--...
~..! 50 50
~~ 10 IН-Jho~----I------I ~
60 40
30 о "'"""'-L------I.._ _--'--- --' ""-
1 7 28 90 days 70 30
........
hydration time
Н ydrationszeit
Tage
80 20
х,
,
Fig.12: Strength development during the hydration of cements of
various granulometric classes (from Sweden); 1 = O/3f,Lm, 2 = 3/9f,Lm,
90 10 "'
3 = 9/25/lm, 4 = 25/50/lm) 100 О
95 100 105 110 115 120· С

Clinker which has Ьееп stored under damp conditions for some considerabIe time
already contains hydration products. When such clinker is ground, these products
tend to Ьесоте concentrated in the finest fractions (and cause high specific
surface values) while furthermore, е. g., Ьу forming coatings оп the grinding
media, they obstruct the grinding of the unhydrated clinker constituents which
thus tend to form higher concentrations in the coarser fractions. For these reasons
the specific surface values yielded Ьу such clinker should Ье rated with some
caution: in general, higher values should Ье aimed for than in the grinding of fresh
unhydrated clinker.
The fineness of grinding of cements тау Ье determined Ьу sieving ог а separation
method (the fineness being expressed as а certain percentage Ьу weight above а
certain size, е. g., as residue retained оп а standard sieve), but is тоге usually based
оп the specific surface determined Ьу the Blaine method (air permeability of а bed
of cement, the result being expressed in cm 2 /g; the finerthe cement, the higherthe
specific surface) (see also Section Х.1).
з м ш atmosphere
Heat is generated in the grinding of cement clinker, resulting in а rise in
temperature, which тау in some instances exceed 1200 С. The water content ofthe
gypsum (CaS0 4 ' 2 Н 2 О) is driven out, slowly at first (from about 400 -450 С
onwards), but above 800 С at а rapid rate, as а result of which the gypsum is paгtly
ог indeed comp/etely dehydrated (the latter above 11 00 С), so that it is transformed
into hemihydrate (CaS0 4 ' 1/ 2 Н 2 О) ог anhydrite 111 (CaS0 4 , solubIe anhydrite),
see Fig. 13. These partly ог wholly dehydrated sulphates dissolve much тоге easily
in water than gypsum does and аге thus тоге reactive. In СзА-гiсh cements this
142
temperature 01 materia\
Mal'd.guttemperatur
Fig.13: Content of gypsum and hemihydrate (including solubIe ап­
hydrite) as а function of mill charge temperature during grinding
reactivity is advantageous for its retarding effect оп the setting behaviour (СзА
reacts with sulphate to form ettringite: see also Section VII.2). Оп the other hand,
when "hot" -ground cement is mixed with water, а solution supersaturated with
calcium sulphate may quickly develop, from which gypsum is then precipitated in
the form of needle-shaped cгystals which interlock and cause а stiffening of the
mass called "false set". This is, however, а temporary phenomenon, which сап Ье
reversed Ьу further mixing. Rapidly forming needle-shaped crystals of syngenite
and ettringite тау also have а share in this early stiffening, and the alkali sulphates
contained in the clinker react just as quickly.
In portland cement of normal composition the SОз content corresponding to
hemihydrate, anhydrite 111 and clinker alkali sulphate together should Ье below
2.2 - 2.5% Ьу weight (depending оп the СзА content; а lower limit is applicabIe to
portland bIastfurnace cement, cements with low СзА content and certain others).
If this limiting value for the combined SОз content is exceeded, there is а risk of
false set. Apart from remining below this limit, other ways to overcome this
ргоЫет аге: increasing the mixing time of the cement ог, at the clinker grinding
stage, substituting anhydrite-II for а proportion (up to about 50% Ьу weight) of
the gypsum.
The moisture given off Ьу the gypsum dehydration to the atmosphere in the mill, as
also the water which тау Ье injected into the mill for cooling its charge during
grinding, will react тоге particularly with the finest particles of the cement formed.
As а result, the reactivity of the tricalcium aluminate (СзА) is in part substantially
reduced, and if fairly large amounts of moisture аге thus released into the mill, the
143
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality V. Finish grinding VI. Storage of cement

strength development of .the cement will Ье appreciabIy affected (strength VI. Storage of cement
losses.of more than 10% are IlabIe to occur). СзА-гiсh and alkali-rich cements are
especlally prone to this effect. 1 Storage in the cement works
The finished cement that is discharged from the clinker grinding mill is stored in
silos in which it should, ideally, undergo по subsequent changes. However, certain
4 Grinding aids inf\uences may act upon the cement in storage and have а detrimental effect оп its
Grin.ding aids have Ьееп used in Germany for the last twenty years or so, more quality.
partlcularly for the grinding of cements in the higher ranges of fineness (specific Cement shouid Ье stored at the lowest possibIe temperature.
surface above about 3500 cm 2 /g). Their usefulness is greater according as the
At temperatures of 500 - 600 С there is little dehydration of gypsum for storage
ceme~t to Ье ground is finer. For equal cement fineness, grinding aids сап
periods of up to about 28 days, but at 800 - 900 С the dehydration is very
some~lmes substantially increase mill throughput (ТаЫе 9). However. they must
considerabIe, and under such conditions the gypsum may lose all its crystal water.
Ье sшtаЫу tested with regard to their harmlessness in concrete made with the
Indeed, incipient dehydration is found to occur in cement stored at only 400 С for
cement; m?~e particularly, they must not promote сопоsiоп of reinforcing steel,
periods in excess of 28 days. The water thus released - together with moisture of
and а certlflcate to that effect must Ье supplied Ьу the manufacturers of the
atmospheric and possibIe other origin - reacts with the cement in the cooler zones
grinding aids. Whereas the advantageous action of these substances in connection
of the silo. The СзА in the cement is more particularly prone to react with water.
with the grinding of portland cement is beyond dispute, they are of relatively little
Acicular (needle-shaped) ettringite and syngenite are formed, also tabular
value in the grinding of slag cements.
aluminate hydrate. These newly formed crystals are liabIe to cause solidification
of the (formation of lumps, "bridging" in the silo). Since the compounds which
are more particularly involved in these solidification reactions with water are СзА
ТаЫе 9: Av~ra~e in~rease in performance of finish grinding mills as а and alkaii sulphates, cements which have а high content of these compounds
result of grlndвng alds (from Schneider. 1969) are notabIy prone to Ье affected in this way.
Water absorption Ьу cement, especially if the latter has а high СзА content,
cement specific surface increase in amount of furthermore causes retardation of setting (because of diminished reactivity of the
cm 2 /g throughput % additive % СзА) and, depending оп how much water is absorbed, also causes loss of strength
(in consequence of pre-hydration of the СзS in the cement). Besides, false set
PZ 35 2400-3000 bis10 0,01-0,03 _ temporary early stiffening of the cement when mixed with water - may also Ье
PZ 45 3000-4000 10-30 0,02-0.06 due to causes associated with silo storage (see Section V.3).
PZ 55 4000-5500 25-50 0.04-0,1 'П general, cement is less likely to Ье affected Ьу storage according as it is more
finely ground. This may appear somewhat surprising, but the reason is that in finer
cement the average radius of the pores or voids between the cement particles is
smaller, so that water vapour diffuses less easily through the bed of cement.
As сап Ье iпfепеd from the foregoing, as little moisture as possibIe should Ье
Particularly effective gr~nding aids are glycols (е. g., ethylene glycol, propylene
allowed to get into the cement storage silo, and the temperature of the stored
glycol) .and ethanol аmlПеs (е. g., triethanol amine). As а rule, they are added in
cement should, if possibIe, Ье below 600 С. То minimize the access of water to the
quantltles of less than 0.005% Ьу weight. Larger additions (above 0.2% Ьу weight)
cement, it may Ье advisabIe to reduce the gypsum content or to substitute
of triethanol amine are liabIe to lower the early strength, but the 28-day strength is
anhydrite 11 for some of the gypsum in clinker grinding, the amounts of water (if
not adverselx affected. ~rinding aids have Ьееп used for а good many years, as
апу) that are sprayed into the mill should Ье duly monitored, and the feed of moist
already mе~tюпеd, and It has Ьееп estabIished that they do not impair the long-
clinker and/or bIastfurnace slag to the mill should Ье avoided.
term Ьеhаvюur of concrete either.
Cement which, when fresh, has normal setting properties may become quick-
setting as а result of storage. This is more particularly liabIe to occur in the
following types of cement:
(1) Cements produced from clinker whose molar ratio (К 2 О + Na 2 0): SОз > 1. 'П
References this case the change from normal to quick setting behaviour may Ье caused Ьу
4,8,18,23,37,28,37,43,44,46,47,50,53.55,58,61,62,72,73,74,78,83,87. alkali carbonate (formed possibIy via alkali aluminate).
145
144
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
(2) Cements with low С з 5 and high СзА and C2 (A,F) content. After storage in air
at low humidity values (relative humidity below about 50%) а diminished
reactivity of the С з 5, characterized Ьу less formation of Са (О Н) 2 at the start of
hydration, тау occur in conjunction with unimpaired intensive reactivity of the
СзА.
These causes тау Ье superimposed, and other causes тау Ье involved as well. The
following counter-measures are availabIe: changing to raw materials of different
composition (in particu lar, а low a/kali content) and using water-repellent
admixtures in the clinker grinding mill, so that the cement is rendered "hydropho-
Ыс" and thus insensitive to moisture.
2 Storage оп the construction site
Cement which is stored unprotected for апу considerabIe length of time will
absorb moisture, causing lumps to form and resulting in а loss of hardening
capacity. 50 long as the lumps are friabIe - easily crumbIed between the fingers -
the decline in strength is not serious, however.
Cement in sacks is more at hazard than bulk cement in а Ып or silo. Непсе properly
dry storage conditions for sacks of cement are important: under cover in а shed or,
if in the ореп, placed оп battens clear of the ground and covered with plastic sheet.
Cement thus stored in sacks, or in а Ып, оп the construction site undergoes а loss of
strength averaging somewhat over 10% in three months. The decrease in early
strength, especially in the case of more finely ground cements, тау Ье greater than
this. For this reason the period of storage should always Ье kept as short as
possibIe, and for very fine cements it should preferabIy not exceed опе month от at
most two months.
References
1,2,4,8,13,21,26,28,32,63,68,79,83,87.
VII. Hydration of cement
(setting, hardening, strength)
1 General
Hydration is а process in which water is combined with the reacting substance.
The hydration of cement is accompanied Ьу solidification, i. е., ап initially liquid or
plastic system (cement paste) progressively turns into а stone-like solid (referred
to as hardened cement paste). The process of solidification comprises two stages:
setting and hardening. Оп setting, the cement paste stiffens into а solid, but as yet
of negligibIe strength. 11'1 the then following stage of hardening the paste gradually
develops considerabIe strength. There is по sharp division between setting and
hardening, the transition is gradual.
146
VII. Hydration of cement
/1'1 the hydration and solidification of cement а number of different processes
actually take place simultaneously and/or successively. These include more
particu larly:
chemical reactions: especially hydration and hydrolysis reactions;
dissolving and crystallization processes: gel-like and crystallized newly formed
substances containing water (hydrate phases) are formed from supersaturated
solutions and in topochemical processes;
interfacial processes: surface attractive forces (adhesion) produce bonding of
the constituents of the cement paste.
The hydration reactions are exothermic, i. е., heat is evolved. The heat evolution of
cement hardening under adiabatic test conditions attains а maximum after 1 to
3 days and then proceeds at а diminishing rate. The heat given off, in terms of
quantity and in relation to time, depends оп the type of cement (more particularly
its constituent phases), its fineness and the presence of additives, if апу
(bIastfurnace slag, pozzolana).
The overall result of the hydration reactions is а hardened product possessing high
strength. The strength of the hardened cement paste is primarily due to its internal
structure, which in turn is determined Ьу the shape and size of the hydration
products (hydrate phases) and their spatial arrangement and packing density
(porosity). The water that has to Ье added to the cement in order to achieve
hydration is combined chemically as hydration water ог as hydroxide. The
theoretically requ ired amount of water is not тоге than about 30% of the weight of
the cement (water-cement ratio w/c ~ 0.3). Besides this chemically combined
water, however, а certain amount of water is physically bound оп the very large
surface areas ofthe hydrate phases (adsorbed water, corresponding approximately
to w/c ~ 0.1). Also, some water is present as capillary water in the voids of the
hardened cement paste. The higher the capillary water content (Ieaving capillary
"pores" after evaporation), the lower will Ье the strength, the resistance to
chemical attack and the frost resistance of the hardened paste or тоге particularly
the concrete ог mortar in which it forms the bonding medium. A/so, these pores
increase the permeability to water. Fig. 14 shows how the strength decreases with
increasing water-cement ratio.
The final strength of the hardened cement paste under normal conditions of
hardening (normal temperature, not under pressure) is at best about 200 N/mm 2 ,
as laboratory research has estabIished. The principal influencing factor is the
capillary porosity (which in turn is bound up with the water-cement ratio and with
the degree and progress of hydration), while the composition of the cement and
the conditions of hardening аге subsidiary factors in connection with strength
development. 11'1 actual practice, as distinct from the laboratory, the final strength
attained is generally less than the above mentioned value.
Under practical conditions the strength of mortar (aggregate particle size < 4 тт)
and concrete (aggregate particle size usually < 16 тт, < 32 тт ог < 63 тт) is
affected тоге particularly Ьу the following factors:
type and quality of the cement;
water-cement ratio (proportions Ьу weight),
147
С. Cement chemistry -

~m2 The hardening of cement сап Ье accelerated ог retarded Ьу the incorporation of

70 " admixtures ofvarious kinds in the mix. Hardened cement paste, and therefore the
mortar ог concrete in which it forms the bonding medium, is а stabIe substance,
\
......r--.. resistant to погmаl environmental conditions. Certain external influence mау,
\
however, have а harmful effect, causing concrete corrosion.
" \:
60 ~ '1.
~ Re1erences
......... \ \
'.\~. 1\
4,6,8,13,23,28,34,35,38,40,46,53,83,90.

50 '", .... \
\ \

" 1\.
\
1\ \
\
~
2 Hydration of the clinker phases
\ \ For а fuller explanation of the hydration process it will Ье necessary to take а look at
i'.. \ \ \ the four principal clinker phases: alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite. 'П general, the
"- r-.... 1\ \. hydration reactions сап Ье represented as follows in а simplified general way:
\ \ \
г\ \ 1\ clinker phases + water ~ hydrate phases + energy
1\. \ 1\. 1\. (high in energy; (Iow in energy; (heat of
30
1\. \ \ ~ contain по water) contain water) hydration)

" , '" r-... r".. i ' '-.

\ '\..
The progress of the reaction сап Ье measured with reference to newly formed
'" r'-.. .......... cement 55 compounds, heat of hydration evolved, chemically combined water, strength
20
" " '" r--.. ..........
1-
Z55
cement 45
ZL5
development.
Especially important аге the hydration reactions of aluminate and of alite. Belite
......... г'- reacts in the same mаппег as alite, while ferrite is of по great significance.
.....1'-.. cement 35
ZЗ5
.........r-
cement 25
Z25 2.1 Aluminate
10
0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80 0,90 1,00 In the absence of gypsum in the cement, tricalcium aluminate reacts very
w/c _ quickly:
W/Z
3 СаО' АI 2 О з + 6 H20~3 СаО' АI 2 О з ' 6 Н 2 О. (1)
Fig.14: Relation between 28-day compressive strength 01 concrete
It likewise reacts quickly when calcium hydroxide is present, а substance which is
(Pw2S)' water-cement ratio and cement strength class (from Graf)
split off in the hydration of the calcium silicates (alite and belite, see below) :
3 СаО . АI 2 О з + Са(ОН)2 + 12 Н 2 О ~4 СаО' А1 2 О з ·1 3 Н 2 О. (2)
aggregates (type, strength, particle shape, surface, quantity, grading);
admixtures and additives, if апу*); Both these reactions would cause excessively rapid setting of the cement paste.
compaction and curing; Sulphate, in the form of gypsum ог anhydrite-II, is therefore added as а retarder,
temperature and age. interground with the clinker in the finish grinding mill. The hydration reaction in the
presence of sulphate proceeds as follows:
*) In concrete technology, "admixtuгe" and "additive" аге often treated as synonymous terms,
but sometimes (as also in this translation) а distinction is drawn between substances such 3 СаО . АI 2 О з + 3 (CaS0 4 ' 2 Н 2 О) + 26 Н 2 О ~ 3 СаО . АI 2 О з . 3 CaS0 4 ' 32 Н 2 О
as plasticizers, retarders, etc. added in уегу small amounts ("admixtures") and substances СзА +3(CS'2H) +26Н ~СзА'3СS'32Н
such as trass, fly-ash, etc. which form а quantitatively тоге substantial component of the (3)
aluminate + gypsum + water ~ettringite/trisulphate
cement ("additives")
(1 volume) (8 volumes)
148 149
 С. Cement chemistry - cement
the phases

The coarsely crystalline tabular calcium aluminate hydrates formed in the reactions
(1) and (2) very quickly form а structure somewhat like а house of cards and
possessing а certain amount of strength (corresponding to the "initial set" of the
cement paste). Оп the other hand, reaction (3) - i. е., in the presence of sul-
phate - first produces finely crystalline ettringtite. This substance is deposited as а
thin film оп the surface of the cement particles in the first few hours of hydration.
This film does not prevent the particles from sliding in relation to опе another, i. е.,
the paste remains plastic. Only later, when the ettringite forms long needle-shaped
crystals which bridge the water-filled spaces between the cement particles
and enmesh the particles themselves, does the setting process begin (Fig.15).
The trisulphate (ettringite) subsequently undergoes transformation into топо­
sulphate.
2.2 Alite
Alite (tricalcium silicate) reacts with water to form calcium silicate hydrates (С5Н
phases) containing less lime, while calcium hydroxide is splitoff. Belite (dicalcium
silicate) shows similar behaviour. The hydration reaction is, for example:
6 (3 СаО· 5i0 2) + 18 Н 2 О-5 СаО· 6 5i0 2 · 5 Н 2 О + 13 Са(ОН)2.
6С з 5 + 18Н -С 5 5 6 Н 5 + 13СН (4)
alite + water _ С5Н phase + calcium hydroxide
The calcium silicate hydrates which are formed (Fig. 16) vary in the shape of their
crystals (film-like, roll-like, fibre-like, etc.) and in theircomposition, depending оп
the conditions of formation (water-cement ratio, temperature, etc.). They are,
however, always very fine-grained and are the principal strength-giving consti-
tuents of the hardened cement paste. 5ince the specific surface of the hardened
paste is extremely high, namely, ofthe orderof 3000000cm 2 jg (ascompared ~ith
only about 3000 cm 2 jg for cement), its strength is attributabIe to the со-ореrаtюп
of powerful adhesion forces (electrostatic forces of attraction acting between the
exceeding/y small hydrate phases) developed Ьу the hydration products and the

Fig. 15: Hardened cement paste with acicular ettringite crystals (scan-
ning electron micrograph)

The sulphate content of the cement should Ье only so high that it is consumed in
reaction (3) and not later than in the first 24 hours after mixing with water. Excess
sulphate тау, likewise in accordance with reaction (3), cause expansion
phenomena in hardened mortar or concrete. Maximum permissibIe values of the Fig.16: Calcium silicate hydrates (CSH phases) in hardened cement
50з content are specified in order to prevent this (ТаЫе 7).
paste (scanning electron micrograph)
150
151
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VII. Hydration of cement VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

ТаЫе 10: Heat of hydration of clinker phases (in J/g) mechanical stabilization of the mass Ьу interlacing of the newly formed
compounds.
phase heat of hydration The calcium hydroxide which is formed in accordance with equation (4) produces
а strongly basic enviгonment (рН > 12) in the freshly hardened cement paste (and
for reaction for reaction therefore in mortar and concrete). This high рН value inhibits the corrosion of
of individual phase in clinker embedded steel and is indeed what makes reinforced concrete such а durabIe
material in which the reinforcing bars аге normally so well and lastingly pгotected
СзS 500 Ьу the concrete. However, as а result of carbonation and other influences, this
580
~-C2S 250 pгotective action тау diminish in course of time.
350
СзА 1350 1260 Some indication of the respectively contributions of the clinker phases to the
C2 (A,F) 420 160 strength development of cement is given in Fig. 9. However, these results obtained
MgO 850 for individual phases cannot Ье directly applied to the conditions actually
СаО 1160 occurring in cement paste, as is apparent also from the heat of hydration values
given in ТаЫе 10. Fig. 17 schematically shows the sequence of formation of the
hydrate phases and the structure development in the setting and hardening of
portland cement.

§
роге space
Porenraum
-- ..... " CSH short-fibr
" CSH kll'zfaseri
з Hydration of slag cements and pozzolanic cements
~ \
о
а. \ The hardening of cements consisting of portland cement clinker with bIastfurnace
~ \ slag ог а pozzolanic material as the second major ingredient comprises two
а. \
CI>_ \ -Са(ОН)2 reaction subsystems. The portland cement reacts in the таппег already described,
~:!
0<:
while the interground ingredient is activated to undergo hydraulic hardening Ьу
:~ g the calcium hydroxide which is formed as а pгoduct of hydration of the calcium
ё~ -с,,(А. F)Н lз
0<:
silicates alite and belite. The resulting reaction products of the hardening process
:::1" -monosulphate аге similar to those of portland cement, except that hardened slag cement contains
ст:::Е Мonosulfat
less calcium hydroxide. These slag and pozzolanic cements moreover harden at а
о 5 зо 1 2 6 slower rate than portland cement and their rate of heat evolution is lower.
'-----------v-- ~
minutes hours
Minuten Stunden
References
4,6,8,13,23,28,34,38,46,52, 53,56,61, 62,83,84,85,86,87,88,90, 91.
1---- 1. ----+о ....

VШ. Relations between chemical reactions, phase

Fig. 17: Schematic diagram of the formation of the hydrate phases
and the structure development in the hydration of cement (fгom
locher/Richartz/Sprung, 1976)
content and strength of portland cement
It сап reasonabIy Ье presumed that the chemical reaction pattern, the actual phase
content and the strength of portland cement аге at least loosely interassociated. For
опе thing, the new phases formed in the burning process (clinker phases) аге
dependent оп the chemical character of the raw material. Furthermore, the
strength-determining hydration products (hydration phases) аге formed Ьу
reaction with water from the clinker phases.

152 153
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

Exactly definabIe relationships between the above-mentioned three properties or

110
sets of properties - chemical reaction pattern, phase content, strength - сап,
however, at best Ье expected only if the following minimum conditions are fulfilled 28days ~:
Tage r
in the manufacture of the cement:
(1) adequate fineness and homogeneity of the raw meal;
100 7days.
T~ ---? _s:-:::-- - ---0- c!inker phases, actual (.,.
Кlinkerphasen akt (М - 0/.)
Ьу mass)
о o~
(2) as а result: complete reaction of the meal to form clinker phases in the burning 90 alumina modulus alite belite
process; r" тм A\it Belit Сзд CiA,F1
~ 18
(3) а clinker grinding process which produces equal reactive cement surface 80 2days 0,5 б8 14 О

areas (specific surface values) for constant amounts of interground added Tag e 1,0 б5 14 б 15
1,5 БЗ 15 10 12
sulphate. 17 9
70 2,0 58 Iб
The trends shown in Figs. 18, 19 and 20 are generally observed in industrial as well 2? 5б Iб 20 8
..
as in laboratory-made cements. The strength increase with increasing silica Knofe\ 1977
modulus is manifest, being more particularly due to the higher proportion of silicate 2,0 25 alumina modulus
in conjunction with lower proportions of aluminate and ferrite. The somewhat
0,5 1,0 1,5 , тм

more marked increase in early strengths is attributabIe to the increase in alite

(Fig.18). Increasing the iron modulus (alumina ratio) only affects the early Fig.19: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation ofthe
strength development as а result of the very considerabIe increase in aluminate iron modulus (Iaboratory cements; referred to cement with lime
accompanied Ьу а marked increase in heat of hydration which masks the decreas~ standard K5t 1= 95; silica modulus 2.0; alumina modulus 2.0; 2.8% 50з;
fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine)

150 х/ 2 days
/ Tage
140 /
/
/
130 / ' 7days 100
/ ,,' Tage
/ ,/ о 28days
120 90
7 ,,' о'"'' Tage /
/ , /
110 80
.
/ ,Q,'
,,' clinker phases, actual (·'.Ьу mass) , d / clinker phases, actua\ ("10 Ьу mass)
/ Кlinkerphasen akt (М -"/о) -о 7 ays /х Кlinkerphasen akt (М _., )

100 ISilica modulus alite belite 70 Tage lime standard alite beli1e
Сз А C-j.А F / Alit Belit Сзд C2(A,F1
SM АIit Вiolit KSt
2days
~5 50 19 21 10 / Tage 85 З9 37 15 9
90 1,7 54 17 20 9
60 2б 15 9
90 50
2р 58 Iб 17 9 17 9
95 58 Iб
2,3 бl 15 Iб 8
80 50 100 б9 4 17 10
I ~
б3
б5
14
14
Iб
15
7
б
40 L~ ~
105
...,...-
71 О
~
17 9/З Са(
..fr
----,К~П~О::..::fе:..:.\ ..::19:...:.7~б
70 Кпёfеl197б
1,5 1,7 2,0 2,3 2,5 2,8 silica modulus 85 90 95 100 ~~i standard
SM
Fig. 18: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation of the Fig. 20: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation of the
silica modulus (Iaboratory cements: referred to cement with lime lime standard (Iaboratory cements; referred to cement with lime
standard K5tl = 95: silica modulus 2.0: alumina modulus 2.0: 2.8% 50з: standard K5tl = 95: sШса modulus 2.0; alumina modulus 2.0; 2.8 50з;
fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine) fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine)
155
154
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

in alite (Fig. 19). With ап increase in the lime standard the compressive strength is
N
notabIy increased, especially the early strength, the cause being the very large mm 2
increase in alite content (Fig. 20).
50
From Figs. 18 to 20 it а Iso emerges that the 28-day compressive strengths i ncrease clinker phases, actual (О/о Ьу mass)
Ьу about 10% as а result of raising the lime standard (Ьу about 5 units) and the IOinker hasen akt. (М. - "/о) .
40 alite belite perlclase
silica modulus (Ьу about 0.3). Such ап effect оп strength cannot Ье obtained Ьу %MgO Alit 8еlit СзА C2(A,F ~riklas
varying the iron modulus. 'П general, it should Ье noted that the figures given аге
О 59 15 17 9 О
very approximate indications and аге likely to vary greatly from опе cement works зо 1 62 11 15 12 О
to another. 2 61. 9 IЗ 11. О
The relative compressive strengths (referred to the respective 2-day strengths З 67 6 11 16 <1
20
= 100) showthedifferentamountsof hardening. With low silica modulusand iron 1. 68 3 10 17 2
modulus, as also with low lime standard, the subsequent hydration reactions still 5 69 1 9 18 З
10 6j8 not determined nicht bestimmt
contribute а great deal to the strength attained. These diagrams, too, аге merely
approximate indications of trends. 8 %MgO
2 6
These fundamentally clear-cut trends are liabIe to Ье considerabIy modified Ьу the
incorporation of subsidiary elements. The effect of MgO is shown in Fig. 22, and Fig. 22: Effect of increasing MgO content оп compressive strength
thatof K2 S0 4 in Fig. 23, as examples. Theseeffects, which аге governed Ьу the raw development and clinker phase content (Iaboratory cements)
material characteristics, and also differences in the production conditions (raw
material fineness and homogeneity, burning and cooling conditions, clinker
grinding, cement storage) constitute а set of factors which make it impossibIe to
make exact and reliabIe predictions of the strength development of cement Ьу
means of relatively simple calculations (formulas) based оп the chemical reaction
pattern or the phase content of the clinker concerned.

lime sbndard silica modulus alumlna modulus

KSt SM тм

85
0,5
40
90
28 days
1,0 Tage
о

95
1,5 ЗО -----<>----- --- -- о' - ---

ЮО
2$J
2,5
------ - --о 7 days

20
dinke-;-;hаSеs, actual (% Ьу ~S) Tage
20 Klinkerphasen akt. (М. - 0101 1 day
Tag
О/ К О alite belite С А CJAF
О 2 Alit 8еlit 3 "Z',

0,0 51 21 18 10
10 0,1. 51 22 17 10
0,8 51 20 19 10
1,5 1.9 22 18 11
2 7 28 days 2 7 28days 2 7 28 days ~ 51 19 18 12 КпЫе\ 1971
Tage Tage Tage О
1,0 2р З,О "IoK 2O
Fig.21 : Relative compressive strengths as а function of lime standard,
silica modulus and iron modulus, referred to the respective 2-day Fig.23: Effect of K 2 S0 4 оп compressive strength development and
strengths (Iaboratory cements) clinker phase content (Iaboratory cements)
157
156
 'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

However, if the content of subsidiary elements and the production conditions сап ~т2
Ье kept approximately constant, as сап usually Ье achieved in а particular cement .s:. 60
works at least over а certain length of time, much more straightforward ге­ 1
~ 50
lationships wi\l exist. In such cases the 28-day standard compressive strength of
cem~nt сап Ье predicted with sufficient ассшасу Ьу means of а simple formula, ~UI 40
(Ij';
/
'"
2
L.--'"~""" ------
v
provlded that the three above-mentioned "minimum conditions" аге complied 30 З
>~ /
with. One such formula is KnOfel's "strength index": '~g 20
F 28 = (3 х alite) + (2 х belite) + aluminate - fепitе.
~~ 10
V
8efore this formula сап Ье properly used, it is necessary to estabIish an appropriate Е" О
80 37 28 90 180 days
correlation curve, obtained Ьу plotting the strength index (F 28) against the Tage
tюгdепiпg time
compressive strength. For this purpose the phase contents should Ье determined ErhCirtungsdauer
quantitatively (Ьу microscopic ог Х-гау examination) in at least ten cements (ог
clinkers) differing from one another as much as possibIe; the сопеsропdiпg 28- Fig.24: Strength development of various cements (from Woods/
day standard compressive strengths of these cements should also Ье determined. Stагkе/Stеiпощ 1976): 1 = portland cement with 70% alite and 10%
Then, with the aid of this сопеlаtiоп curve, the strength сап Ье predicted Ьу belite, 2 = portland bIastfurnace cement with 60% slag, 3 = portland
calculating the strength index from the quantitatively determined phase content. cement with 30% alite and 50% belite
The validity of the сопеlаtiоп curves should Ье verified from time to time.
ТаЫе 11 : Classification and designation of cements (from Cembureau,
References 1968)

4,7,8,23,24,28,31,33,36,39,41,46,69,71,80,83,84. symbol special properties / designation

ОС
Ordinary Portland Cement / normaler Portlandzement

RHC Rapid-Hardening (ог High Early Strength or High Initial

Strength) Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit hoher
IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality Fruhfestigkeit / schnellerhartend
control of cements HSC High Strength Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
hoher Festigkeit/ hochfest
1 General
LHC Low Heat (ог Slow Hardening, Low Heat of Hydratation)
AII cements аге hydraulic binding agents, i. е., when mixed with water they will Portland Cement, Medium Low Heat Portland
harden both in air and under water. The product of the hardening process - the Cement/ Port\andzement mit niedriger Hydratationswarme
"hardened cement paste" - is а water-resistant stone-like material. Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
As а general rule, cements of equal composition are more reactive in proportion as SRC
hohem Sulfatwiderstand
they аге more finely ground and thus have а larger surface агеа at which the
r~action~ сап take place. Finer grinding tends to Ье associated with shorter setting АЕС Air-Entraining Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
tlmes, hlgher early strengths and higher early rates of heat evolution (heat of Luftporenbildner
hydration). It is in these respects that, for example, portland cement of class 35
differs from that of class 45. 8L 81astfurnace Cement/ Huttenzement
The opposite trend (slower reaction, longer setting times, lower early strengths,
POZ Pozzolanic Cement/ Puzzolanzement
lower heat of hydration) is associated with coarser grinding, higher belite content
of the cement, and the addition of bIastfurnace slag (slag cements) ог pozzolana
Note: The various types of cement сап Ье further subdivided into classes (e.g.:
(pozzolanic cements, е. g., trass cement).
ОС 1, ОС 11, 811, 8111). The above subdivision for portland cement (according to
The effect of the above-mentioned influencing factors оп the final strengths is
small, however (see also Fig.24). properties) сап a\so Ье applied to 81 and POZ.
159
158
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control

Classification of cements сап Ье based оп various sets of criteria. Thus, the cements Z25, Z35 and Z45, and for this reason the cement manufactuгers aim at
principal distinctive characteristics тау Ье: achieving average strengths midway between the two specified limits for each
strength classes (minimum ог average strengths; usually 28-day compressive class.
Cements Z35 and Z45 аге furthermore subdivided according to their early
strengths) ;
types of cement (portland cement, slag cement, pozzolanic cement); hardening behaviouг denoted Ьу ап appended letter:
important special properties (Iow heat of hydration, resistance to aggressive cements with slow early hardening L
media, rapid strength development, etc.). cements with high early strength (rapid-hardening) F.
The main criterion of "strength class" is the basis of classification adopted in The cements аге produced Ьу the intergrinding of portland cement clinker with а
Standard DIN 1164 for cements in the Federal RepubIic of Germany (West proportion of calcium sulphate (gypsum) to control the setting behaviour. In
Germany). The German Democratic RepubIic (East Germany) bases its addition, the two German types of slag cement contain а su bstantial propo~ti<:,n of
TGL281 01 /02 оп "types of сетепС, while the American (USA) Standard bIastfurnace slag interground with the clinker, while trass cement slmllarly
ASTM С150-76а and the classification of CEMBUREAU, Paris, аге based оп contains а substantial proportion of interground trass:
"important special properties" as the criterion. In each of these systems, the other portland cement (made from portland cement clinker) PZ
criteria аге employed for fuгther subdividing the cements. The DIN 1164 classifi- Eisenportland cement (containing at least 65% of portland cement
cation will тоге particularly Ье considered here. clinker and not тоге than 35% of bIastfuгnace slag) EPZ
Hochofen cement (containing 15 to 64% of portland cement clinker
2 Classification and designation of cements and 85 to 36% of bIastfuгnace slag) HOZ
Trass cement (containing 60 to 80% of portland cement clinker and 40
The strength classes listed in ТаЫе 12 аге specified in DIN 1164. Моге particularly, to 20% of trass) TrZ
the classification is based оп the required minimum 28-day compressive strengths (percentages Ьу weight).
(determined Ьу testing in accordance with DIN1164, Part7, see SectionX). Furthermore, distinctions аге based оп special properties:
Besides, maximum permissibIe compressive strengths аге laid down for the
cements with low heat of hydration I\JW
(maximum heat of hydration after 7 days: 270 J/g)
cements with high sulphate resistance (то types: HS
ТаЫе 12: Strength classes (DIN 1164) PZ with ~ 3% СзА, potential according to Bogue, and ~ 5% АI 2 О з
HOZ with ~ 70% bIastfuгnace slag)
strength class compressive strength in N/mm 2 at cements with low effective alkali content (not standardized) NA
2 days 7 days 28 days (maximum total alkali content in Na 2 0 equivalent:
min. min. min. тах.
~ 0.60% in PZ
~ 0.90% in HOZ with > 50% slag ~ 1.10)
25' 10 25 45 (percentages Ьу weight).
2
The complete standard designation of а cement comprises its indication of
35 L 18 35 55 strength class, cement type and special properties (if апу). Examples:
F2 10 (1) А portland cement (PZ) with а 28-day minimum compressive strength of
35 N/mm 2 (35) and 2-day minimum compressive strength of 1 О N/mm
2

45 L2 10 45 65 (F) :
F2 20 45 65 designation according to DIN1164: PZ35 F. .
(2) А Hochofen cement (HOZ) with а 28-day minimum compresslve strength of
35 N/mm 2 (35), а 7 -day minimum compressive strength of 18 N/mm (L), and
2
55 30 55
high sulphate resistance (HS):
Only for cements with low heat of hydration and/or high sulphate resistance designation according to DIN 1164: HOZ35 L-HS.
Portland cement, Eisen portland cement, Hochofen cement and trass cement Other standard cements complying with 01 N 1164 аге special cements such as
with slow early hardening behaviouг аге additionally given the symbol L, while white cement, water-repellent (hydrophobic) cement and highway engineering
the symbol F is added to cements with high early strength cement.

160 161
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control

Oil shale cement and trass bIastfuгnace slag cement аге permitted under special
certificate of approval in the Federal RepubIic of Germany, but аге not
standardized.
~­
ct1 с: ..... MCO-=tN-=t
.с:
(J)
ф
Е 'f ~ I I V I
3 Constituents 01 cements
-=tСОФМ N
'0 8 L!) .....
The principal constituents of the above-mentioned cements аге portland cement

(J)
-
с:
Ф
Е
OCOO-=tМ-=t

'f~IIVI
clinker, bIastfuгnace slag and trass (see 5ections IV and V).
The content of magnesium oxide (MgO), referred to the ignited portland cement
clinker, is not allowed to exceed 5% Ьу weight, while the sulphate content (as
...
.с: ~ ~
(J)
I'OL!)N
~N
N 50з) must comply with the values given in ТаЫе 7. Other admixtuгes in amounts
D) up to 1% Ьу weight аге permitted, provided that they do not promote corrosion of
'ф
reinforcing steel. Chlorides (CI-) аге not allowed to Ье added to cement; the
s сЕ
с:
Ф
..... 0 L!)M I'-=t inherent CI- content from the raw materials must not exceed 0.10% Ьу weight.
> VI Determination of the chemical composition of cements should Ье done in
.с

'#.
.с:
(.)
о Ф
Ф
Е 'f'7II
-=t ..... ф
..... N accordance with DIN 1164, Part3. ТаЫе 13 gives some approximate guiding
I (.) ~N
с: values for the chemical composition.
rii
ф
:::::1 ФСОN-=tф-=t 4 Supply and identi1ication 01 cements
са
::- 'f~IIVI "Cement is allowed to Ье put only in transport containers which аге clean and free
ф 00)-=t ..... N
L!) .....
(,)
с:
from residues of earlier deliveries. It must not become contaminated in transit"
~ (О IN 11 64, Part 1).
....
ф
Delivery notes for bulk cement ог labels оп sacks should give the following
~ .~ information: type of cement, strength class, designation of special properties (if
.с:
апу), name of supplying works, gross weight of sack ог net weight of bulk cement,
...
(/)

с:
S
quality control indication. Delivery notes for cement supplied in bulk should
ф
Ф fuгthermore state: date and time of delivery, vehicle registration number, name of
Е Ф (.)
ф -ct1 с:
ct1
customer, order number and consignee.
(,)
.... .с:.с:
.с:-
a..~ 'П addition, distinctive colouг identification for strength class should Ье displayed
о
с:
·~Ж~ ~ оп the cement sacks (ТаЫе 14). 'П the case of bulk cement delivery а distinctively
о
colouгed weatherproof sheet (size DII\J А5, colour and lettering conforming to
'~
OJ
'и; с:
о I 'ё ТаЫе 14: Distinctive colours for the strength classes (DIN 1164)
а.
'о ф
Е Е ._
а.
'о
...
о Ф
ct1 ct1 strength class distinctive colour colouг of lettering
(,) Е ... .с:
Ф
(.)
са
(,) 'о
25 violet bIack
O)-=tСОСОL!)-=t
'Е
с:

ф
.с:
ct1
-;:;
<5
'f ~ I
..... CO-=t .....
I V I
N
35 L light brown bIack
U а. ф ..... F red
45 L green black
Ф
'о
F red
'х 55 red bIack
О

162 163
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
ТаЫе 14) for affixing to the storage Ып should accompany the delivery note. The
information printed оп this colouгed sheet should comprise: type of cement,
strength class, designation of special properties (if апу), name of supplying
works, quality control mark and delivery date stamp.
5 Quality control
Due conformity to the cement quality requirements of DIN 1164 (composition and
properties) should Ье verified and monitored Ьу quality control ("internal" control
Ьу the cement manufactuгer and "external" control Ьу ап authorized independent
supervisory organization, DIN 1164, Part2).
5.1 Internal quality control
"$0 long as а cement is being manufactuгed and in so far as а limiting value is
specified in DIN 1164, Part 1, the cement manufactuгer must test the composition
and the properties of each type of cement and strength class in the cement works.
The followi ng аге to Ье tested at least опсе а day:
setting
soundness.
At least twice а week:
loss оп ignition
content of сагЬоп dioxide С0 2
insolubIe residue
content of sulphate $0з
fineness of grinding
compressive strength at each specified age (see DIN 1164, Part 1).
At least опсе а month:
principal constituents of the cement
heat of hydration
the composition required to ensure high sulphate resistance.
The resufts of the internal quality control should Ье recorded in writing and, if
possibIe, statistically analysed. The recordsshould Ье kept for at leastfive years and
Ье made availabIe to the supervisory organization (external quality control) оп
reques(' (DIN 1164, Part 2).
5.2 External quality control
External quality control is as а rule performed Ьу ап officially recognized quality
control organization; at present this is the German Cement Works Association
(Verein Deutscher Zementwerke), Dusseldorf.
The supervisory (external quality control) organization shou Id monitor the cement
works' own internal quality control, primarily Ьу inspection of the relevant records
and documents. In addition, the supervisory organization should, in order to verify
164
'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control
compliance with the conditions laid down in DIN 1164, Part 1, сапу out the
following tests for each cement type and strength class in сuпепt production:
At least опсе in every two months:
loss оп ignition, content of сагЬоп dioxide С0 2 , insolubIe residue, content of
chloride, fineness of grinding, setting, soundness, compressive strength at
each specified standard age, principal constituents of the cements.
At least опсе every six months:
heat of hydration, the composition required to ensure high sulphate
resistance.
А test report should Ье made. If the cement is found to fulfil the requi~eme~t~ of
DIN 1164, the packaging and delivery note is allowed to сапу the /ПSСГlрtюп
"Quality controlled in conformity with DIN 1164" and the sign ог mark of the
quality control organization (е. g., "VDZ") (Fig.25).
Fig.25: Quality mark (Ieft) and mark of the quality control institution
(Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, Dusseldorf, right) (DIN 1164)
According to the "Technical guarantee conditions for standard cements" the user
of the cement does not have to саггу out апу checking ог monitoring of the
standard values. However, as а precaution against апу guarantee claims, it is
essential that а sample of each cement consignment Ье kept for possibIe future
reference. This sample should Ье properly representative of the consig~~ent
(average sample), have а weight of at least 5 kg, Ье stored dry ап~ under alrtlght
conditions, and Ье unmistakabIy labelled (time and date of dellvery, name of
supplying works, type and strength class of the cement, No. of delivery note).
6 Suggestions for the use of cements with reference to
their general and special properties (from: Zement-
MerkbIatt, issued Ьу Bundesverband der Deutschen
Zementindustrie)
Portland cements, Eisen portland cements, Hochofen cements and trass cements
аге so classified in DIN 1164 that their properties аге, in the main, characterized Ьу
their standard designations.
Z 25 : Cement with very slow strength development and heat evolution, des-
ignated Ьу NW (Iow heat). If this cement has а high resistance to sulphate
165
 Х. Cement testing
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

It would Ье outside the present scope to deal with the determination of the
attack, it is additionally given the designation HS. 'П genera/, this class of
cement is used in mass concrete. composition of cements, more particu\arly the chemical analysis. Д:s for the other
properties, the procedures will Ье briefly outlined. For further detalls the relevant
Z 35 L: Cements with the same 28-day strength as Z 35 F, but slower early
harden ing and therefore correspondingly longer formwork stripping times, parts of the Standard will have to Ье consulted.
good subsequent strength development. Because of low heat evolution
this cement is especially suitabIe for massive structural members.
Z 35 F: Cements with normal early hardening and medium heat evolution.
Z45 L: Cements with the same 28-day strength as Z45 F, but with lower 2-day 1 Fineness (DIN 1164, Part4)
strengths. As specified in Part 1 of DIN 1164, а cement conforming to this S~andard must not
Z45 F: Cements with high early strength (rapid-hardening), so that early form- leave а residue of more than 3% Ьу weight оп the 0.2 mm test sleve (DIN 4188).
work stripping is possibIe. Because of rapid strength development and rate The specific surface determined Ьу the air permeability method should Ье not less
2
of heat evolution, suitabIe for precast concrete and for winter than 2200cm 2 /g (in special cases not less than 2000cm /g).
construction.
Z 55: Cements with very high 2-day and 28-day strengths, for cases where high
early concrete strength is needed and for very high-strength concrete 1.1 Sieve residue
construction. These cements аге especially suitabIe for concrete to Ье The content of coarse particles is determined as the residue retained оп the ~est
placed at low temperatures, so that resistance to freezing is attained as sieve with 0.2mm aperture size (DIN4188, Sheet1) Ьу manual ог mechanlcal
quickly as possibIe. sieving. The sample for the sieve test .should consist of 100 ± 0.100 9 of d~y
The special additional properties of low heat evolution (NW) and high sulphate cement. Sieving is stopped when the resldue does not decrease Ьу. more than О: 1 }6
resistance (HS) have already Ьееп mentioned above (see 'Х.2 and IV.2), as have оп continuation of sieving for а fuгther 2 minutes. The amount геtаlПеd оп the sleve
also certain special cements, more particularly: white cement (PZ45 F with low is stated in % Ьу weight, referred to the initial sample.
iron oxide content) and water-repellent (hydrophobic) cement (insensitive to
moisture; reacts with water only after intensive mixing; availabIe in strength
classes Z35 F and Z45 F). 1.2 Specific surface
Different cements should not Ье mixed with опе another, certainly not оп the "The specific surface of cement in cm 2 /g is calculated from the a~г per~eabili.ty of а
construction slte, as the facilities for uniform bIending аге not availabIe there. bed of cement, its porosity, the density of the cement and. the VIS~OSlty o.f alr. The
Otherwise, for example, variations in colour аге liabIe to оссш, "special" properties measure of the permeability is the time it takes for а certaln quantlty of alr to flow
of the cements may Ье impaired, etc. If mixing of different cements is unavoidabIe, through the bed under specified conditions" (DIN 1164, Part4).. .
however, then only the properties and values of the cement with the lower cement For performing the test а predetermined quantity of ceme~t IS put Into the
class should Ье adopted for the resulting mixture. Quick setting will occur when а standardized apparatus and is gently compacted to а predetermlned ~olume. Then
mixture of high-alumina cement with а standard cement conforming to DIN 1164 air is drawn through the bed of cement Ьу suction produced Ьу а falllng column of
(PZ, EPZ, HOZ, TrZ) is used for making mortar ог concrete. liquid. The time it takes for the level of the liq~id. in t~e U-tube of the ap~aratus to
fall а certain marked distance is measured. Thls tlme IS а measure of the flПепеss of
the cement: the finer it is, the longer will it take for the air to flow through the bed,
References
and vice versa. The specific surface is calculated from:
4,8,11,13,14,16,21,23,28,83.
К· уез. vt
OSP = - - - - - - ]~-;==
р (1 -е) . V 1011
Х. Cement testi ng OSP
2
specific surface in cm /g
where:
е porosity in parts Ьу volume
The standard test requirements for cements used in the Federa\ RepubIic of
Germany аге specified in DIN 1164, Parts 3 to 8. The tests relate to the t time of air flow in seconds
р specific gravity of the cement
determination of the following: composition (Part3), fineness (Part4), setting
times (Part5), soundness (Part6), strength (Part7) and heat of hydration 11 dynamic viscosity of the air in Ра' s
К apparatus constant.
(Part8).
167
166

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
2 Setting times (DIN 1164, Part 5)
Obviously, in order to allow sufficient time for applying the mortar or placing the
concrete, cement must not set too quickly. According to ОI N 1164, Part 1,
standard cements must not begin to set earlier than 1 hour after mixing, and setting
must Ье completed not more than 12 hours after mixing.
The setting times (initial and final set) are determined with Vicat's needle
apparatus оп а neat cement paste: The cement is passed through а 1 тт test sieve
and а quantity of 500 9 is mixed with 25-30% (Ьу weight) of water - depending
оп the type of cement concerned - in а standard two-speed mixer for а total of
3 minutes. А certain "standard" consistency of the cement paste must Ье attained
Ьу variation of the amount of mixing water to suit the cement under investigation.
This consistency is ascertained Ьу putting the cement paste in а mould consisting
of ап ebonite ring оп а sheet of glass and Ьу determining the penetration depth of а
"plunger" applied to the top surface of the cement paste specimen. When the latter
has attained the standard consistency (ascertainabIe Ьу trial and error with varying
amounts of mixing water, if necessary), the initial and the final setting time сап Ье
determined with the "needle" of the Vicat apparatus. The initial set is considered to
occur when the needle penetrates to а distance of 3 to 5 ст from the bottom of the
mould, i. е., remains stuck in the paste at this distance above the glass sheet. For
determining the final set, the mould with the sample is removed from the glass and
replaced in the reversed position. The final set is considered to occur when the
needle penetrates not more than 1 тт into the sample. 'П both tests, i. е., for initial
and for final setting time, the penetration of the needle should Ье measured at 10-
minute intervals.
з Soundness (DIN1164, Part6)
Ву "soundness" is understood the ability of the cement to maintain а constant
volume. Thus, а cement is to Ье rated as sound if, after it has hardened, it remains
free from expansion effects which тау crack, loosen and destroy the hardened
paste.
Unsoundness, i. е., lack of volume stability, is caused Ьу а high content of free
MgO, causing magnesia expansion (for this reason DIN 1164 specifies that the
MgO content must not exceed 5.0% Ьу weight), Ьу excess sulphate, causing
sulphate expansion (DIN 1164 specifies ап upper limit for the SОз content: see
ТаЫе 7), and Ьу substantial amounts of free СаО (uncombined lime, causing lime
expansion; this is monitored Ьу the boiling test). For reactions see SectionVII.2.
The test for soundness specified in DIN 1164, Part 6, is the boiling test and is
performed at the same time as the setting test, using surplus cement paste (or
otherwise paste of the same consistency prepared for the purpose). Half this
sample is formed into а lump, placed оп the centre of а sheet of glass, and gently
vibrated, so that it spreads into а "pat" about 1 О ст in diameter and 1 ст thick,
which is allowed to set and harden at ~ 90% relative humidity for 24 hours. The
sample is then boiled for 2 hours.lfcracking orwarping occurs, the cement must Ье
rated as having failed the test. But if the sample remains sharp-edged, free from
168
Х. Cement testing
cracks and not greatly distorted (> 2 тт), it has satisfi~d the test, i. е., is "sou~d".
The more stringent autoclave test in accordance wlt.h ASTM С 151 -76а IS а
criterion for magnesia expansion as well as the ехрапsюп due to too much free
lime.
4 Strength (ОI N 1164, Part 7)
Depending оп its strength class, а cement should attain the compressi~e streng.ths
listed in ТаЫе 12. These values are averages obtained from tests оп SIX test prlsm
halves. The test procedure is known as the ISO-RILEM-CEM method.
It is performed оп mortar prisms with dimensions of 4 ст х 4 ст :.16 ст. ~he
mortar consists of а mixture of cement, standard sand (~omprlslng partlcle
fractions of О.О8-0.5тт, О.5-1.0тт and 1.0-2:0тт, ,п e.qual parts) and
water in the proportionsof 1 :3:0.5 (quantities for maklng three prlsms are450.g of
t 1350 9 of sand 225 9 of water). It is mixed in а two-speed standardlzed
~i~e~~ ~ut into steel m~ulds and compacted оп а vi.brating .t~bIe. The moulds
containing the mortar prisms are stored at ~ 90% relatlve humldlty for 1 day: then
the prisms are carefully demoulded and kept in water at 20' ± 1 о С up to the tlme of
~~~i~?~xural strength should Ье determined Ьу fracturi~~ a~ least three prism
specimens in the middle Ьу means of ап apparatus speclfled In the Sta~dard.
The compressive strength is determined immediately afterwa.rds оп t~e SIX hal~es
of the prisms fractured in the flexural .test. T~e соmргеssюп tеst!П.g mасhlПе
conforming to DIN 1164 has to satisfy strlct reqUlrements. То c~mply wlth Part 1 of
this Standard, only the compressive strength need Ье determlned.
5 Heat of hydration (DIN1164, Part8)
Cements with the special property "Iow heat of hydration" (designatio~ NW) ~гe
not allowed to evolve more than 270 J of heat per gramme of cement In the flrst
7 days after mixing with water. They are used тo~e particularly for mass .con~re~e
structures which, if made with ordinary cement, mlght undergo ап ex~esslve Гlse In
temperature causing stresses and crac~ing ..~ow-heat cements are chlefly ~ortl~nd
cements with а high content of dicalclum slllcate (and lower content of trlcalclum
ТаЫе 15: Heat of hydration of cements (reference values)
cement heat of hydration (J/g)
at 7 days оп complete hydration
380-525
portland cement
360-440
Eisen/ Hochofen cement
340-420
trass cement
low-heat cement <270
169
 References
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

silicate and/or tricalcium aluminate) and slag cements with а high content of Standard Issuing authority
Туре of cement
bIastfuгnace slag. Values for the heat of hydration of cements аге given in
ТаЫе 15.
France
In accordance with D 1N 1164, Part 8, the heat of hydration is determined with а NF Р 15-300 Association Fгащ:аisе
all cements
heat-of-solution calorimeter. As stated there, " ... this method is intended for the NF Р 15-301 de Normalisation,
determination ofthe specific heat in J/g that is released when а cement undergoes 1978 edition Touг Euгope,
hydration under isothermal conditions. The heat of solution of the unhydrated Cedex 7,
cement sample as well as that of the sample hydrated at 200 С (water-cement ratio F-92080 Paris la Detense
w/c = 0.4) in а specified acid mixtuгe is measuгed. The difference between thetwo
heats of solution is the heat of hydration." Great Britain
The test apparatus comprises а heat-of-solution calorimeter with accessories BS 12: 1978 British Standards
ОС, RHC
(Dewarflask, stirrer, funnel, etc.), an officially calibrated Beckmann thermometer I nstitution
and an appropriate acid mixtuгe (nitric acid + hydrofluoric acid). The cement paste BS 12: Part 2: British Standards
LHC
samples (their mix proportions, mixing proceduгe and temperatuгe аге specified) 1974 House,
аге stored in а water bath at 200 ± 0.50 С. The heats of solution of the unhydrated BS 4027. Part 2' 2 Park Street,
SRC
and of the hydrated cement аге determined from the rise in temperatuгe occurring 1972 London W.1
when the samples dissolve (the test should Ье performed in constant-temperatuгe
surroundings) and from the determinations of the СаО content (ог the losses оп United States of America
ОС, SRC, LHC, RHC ASTM С 150-78а American Society for
ignition, if applicabIe). Formulas for calculating the heat of solution from the test
Testing and Materials,
data аге given in the Standard. It is an elaborate proceduгe. АЕС
BL, POZ ASTM С 595-76 1916 Race Street,
Philadelphia, Ра. 19103
References
3,4,8,10,11,13,14,15,28,46,75,83.

Cement Standards of various countries References

(For symbols and designations see ТаЫе 11)
1, Alsted N ielsen, Н. С.' Falsches Erstarren von Portlandzement und IOumpen-
Туре of cement Standard Issuing authority bildung im Silo. - In: ZKG 26/1973/380.-384. .' .
2, Alsted Nielsen, Н. С.: How to avoid lumplng of cement tn sllos. - In. Rock
Federal RepubIic of Germany Prod.77/1974/72-80. ..
3 Arbeitskreis "Analytische Chemie" (Hrsg.). Analysengang fuг Ze':lente..
ОС, HSC, SRC/LHC DIN 1164 DIN Deutsches Insti- . Dusseldorf' Betonverlag GmbH 1970 (Schriftenreihe der Zеmеntlndustпе,
BI, POZ Nov 1978 tut fur Normung,
В uгgg rafenstrasse 4 - 7, Heft 37). 1 Е' h ft
4, Autorenkol\ektiv: Technologie der Bindebaust~ffe, Band : Igensc а e~,
О-1 000 Berlin 30 Rohstoffe, Erhartung, 1976, Band 2. Aufbereltungsprozer.. und Aufberel-
German Democratic RepubIic tungsanlagen (in Vorbereitung); Band 3: B~ennprozer.. und ,.Brennanlagen,
1978; Band 4 Gesamtprozer.., 1979. - Berltn· VEB Verlag fuг Bau",,:,esen.
ОС, HSC, SRC/LHC TGL 28101/01 Amt fur Standardi-
5. Bentz, А.: Lehrbuch der Angewandten Geologie, Bd. 11, Кар. 5.2 .. Stelne und
BI, POZ TG L 28101/02 sierung,
Abt. Dokumentation, Erden von А. Graupner. - Stuttgart: Enke Verlag 1968., '
6. Bicz6k, 1.. Betonkorrosion-Betonschutz, 2. Auflage. - Wlesbaden und Berlln
Mohrenstrasse 37а,
DDR-1026 Berlin Bauverlag GmbH 1968.
171
170

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
7. Billhardt, Н. W.: ОЬег den EinfluBder Alkalien und des Sulfats aufdas Erharten
von Zement. - I п: ZKG 24/1971/91
8. Bogue, R. Н.: The Chemistry of Portland Cement. - New York: Уап Nostrand
Reinhold Сотрапу 1955.
9. Butt, У. М. /Timashev, У. У.: The mechanism of clinker formation process and
ways of modification of clinker structure. - VI. Intern. Congr. Chem. Сет.,
Moskau (1974), Sect. 1-4, Principal Рарег.
10. Cembureau (Hrsg.): The Testing of Cement. - Paris 1967.
11. Cembureau (Hrsg.) : Cement Standards of the world (portland cement and its
derivatives). - Paris 1968.
12. Chatterji, S. / Jeffery, J. W.: The effect of various heat treatments of the clinker
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No.46, 3-10.
13. Czernin, W.: Zementchemie fur Bauingenieure, 3. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1977
14. DIN 1164: Portland-, Eisenportland-, Hochofen- und TraBzement, Т. 1 -Т. 8,
November 1978. - Berlin und К61п Beuth-Verlag GmbH.
15. 01 N 4188: SiebbOden, Oktober 1977. Т. 1 - DrahtsiebbOden fur Analysensie-
Ье, МаВе. Т. 2 - DrahtsiebbOden fur Analysensiebe, Anforderungen und
PrUfung. - Berlin und КБIп. Beuth Verlag GmbH.
16. DIN 51043: ТгаВ; Anforderungen, PrUfung, Januar 1972 (Entwurf' August
1977). - Berlin und К61п: Beuth Verlag GmbH.
17. Engelhardt, W. v. / Fuchtbauer, Н. / Muller, G.. Sediment- Petrologie, TI. 11:
Fuchtbauer / Muller: Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine, 3. Auflage. Stuttgart:
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1977.
18. Frigione, G. / Di leva, R.: Size distribution of granular components in portland
and bIastfurnace cement. - 'п' il cemento 72/1975/13 - 24.
19. Gille, F (Hrsg.). Mikroskopie des Zementklinkers. (Bilderatlas) - Dussel-
dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1965.
20. Goes, С.: Oberdas Verhalten der Alkalien beim Zementbrennen. - Dusseldorf:
Betonverlag GmbH 1969. (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 24)
21. Graf, О.: Die Eigenschaften des Betons, 2. Aufl. - Berlin, Heidelberg, New
York: Springer Verlag 1960.
22. Henkel, F.: Anwendung der R6ntgenfluoreszenzanalyse im Schichtlabora-
torium. - I п. ZKG 18/1965/253 - 258.
23. Henning, О. / KnOfel, О .. Baustoffchemie, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1980.
24. Hinz, W.: Silikate. Grundlagen der Silikatwissenschaft und Silikattechnik
Bd. 1 und 2. - Berlin УЕВ Verlag Юг Bauwesen 1970 und 1971.
25. Hoffmanner, F.: Portlandzement-Кlinker, Kleine Gefugekunde. Holderbank
l\I1anagement und Beratung AG, 1973. - Holderbank Management und
Beratung AG (НМВ), Technische Stelle, СН-5113 Holderbank (AG).
26. Kalousek, G. l.: АЬпогтаl set of portland cement, causes and correctives. -
US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, General Report No. 45,
Denver, Со/о. 1969.
172
References
27. Keienburg, R.-R.: Kornverteilung und Normfestigkeit von Portlandzement. -
Dusseldorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1977 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie,
Heft 42).
28. Keil, F.: Zement. Herste"ung und Eigenschaften. - Berlin: Springer-Verlag
1971.
29. KnOfel, О.: Erfahrungen mit dem Mehrkanal- R6ntgenspektrometer in der
Zementindustrie. - In: Siemens-Zeitschrift 42/1968/30-35.
30. KnOfel, О.: Quantitative r6ntgenographische Freikalkbestimmung zur Produk-
tionskontrolle im Zementwerk. - In: ZKG 23/1970/378-379.
31. KnOfel, О.: Beeinflussung der Eigenschaften von Portlandzementklinker und
Portlandzement durch Alkalien. - In: Silikattechnik 22/1971/262-266.
32. Кпбfе\, О.: Rasches Erstarren gelagerter Zemente. - Schriften der Hochschule
fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar 18/1975/99-108 (Vortrag auf der У.
ibausil, Weimar 1973).
33. KnOfel, О.: Dег EinfluB von TiG auf die Eigenschaften des Portlandzement-
klinkers und des Portlandzementes. - In: ZKG 30/1977/191 -196.
34. KnOfel, О.: Corrosion of Building Materials. - New York: Уап Nostrand
Reinhold Сотрапу 1978. Obersetzung von KnOfel, О .. Stichwort: Baustoff-
korrosion. Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1975.
35. KnOfel, О.: Betonkorrosion - eine Obersicht. - 'п: Bautenschutz und
Bausanierung 1/1978/50- 52, 68- 72.
36. KnOfel, О.: Beeinflussung einiger Eigenschaften des Portlandzementklinkers
und des Portlandzementes durch ZnO und ZnS. - In: ZKG 31/1978/157-
161.
37 Кпбfе\, О.' Der optimale Sulfatgehalt in Portlandzementen. - Schriften der
Hochschule fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar 1978 (Vortrag auf der VI.
ibausil, Weimar 1976).
38. KnOfel, О.: Bautenschutz mineralischer Baustoffe. - Wiesbaden und Berlin.
Bauverlag GmbH 1979.
39. KnOfel, О.: Beziehungen zwischen Chemismus, Phasengehalt und Festigkeit
bei Portlandzementen. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/448-454.
40. KnOfel, О.: EinfluB von Frost und Taumittel auf Zementstein und Zuschlag. -
In: Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik 45/1979/221-227,315-320.
41. KnOfel, О.: Beitrag zum EinfluB von MgO auf die Кlinkerphasen und auf
Eigenschaften von Portlandzement. - 'п: tiz Tonindustriezeitung 103/
1979/740- 746.
42. KnOfel, D. / Spohn, Е.: Der quantitative Phasengehalt in Portlandzementklin-
kern. - In' ZKG 22/1969/471-476.
43. Kodama, Т. / Nieda, Т . The deterioration of quality and the aeration phenome-
' поп of sacked cement left in the air for а long time. - 'п. Rev. 29th Gen. Meet.
Сет. Ass. Jap., Tokyo 1975/62.
44. Kokubu, M./Yamanda, J.: Fly-ash cements. - VI. Internat. Congr. chem.
Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 3, Principal-Paper.
45. Kristmann, М.: Portlandzement-Klinker, mineralogische und mineralchemi-
sche Untersuchungen. Holderbank Management und Beratung AG, 1977. -
НМВ, Techn. Stelle, СН-5113 Holderbank (AG).
173
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
46. Ki.ihl, Н.: Der Baustoff Zement. - Berlin: VEB Verlag fi.ir Bauwesen 1963.
47. Kuhs, R.: EinfluB des Gipses auf Klinker mit verschiedenem Aluminatgehalt. _
DLisse/dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1958 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie,
Heft 22).
48. Labahn, 0./ Kaminsky, W. А: Ratgeber fi.ir Zement-Ingenieure, 5. Aufl. _
Berlin und Wiesbaden: Bauver/ag GmbH 1974.
49. Lehmann, Н. / Locher, F. W. / Thormann, Р.: Der EinfluB der Kalksteinkorn-
grbBe auf die Klinkermineralbildung im Temperaturbereich 850 -14500 С. _
In: tiz Tonindustrie Zeitung 88/1964/489-498, 537-547.
50. Lieber, W. / Richartz, W. EinfluB von Triathanolamin, Zucker und Borsaure auf
das Erstarren und Erharten von Zementen. - In. ZKG 25/1972/403-
409.
51. Locher, F. W. EinfluB der Кlinkerherstellung auf die Eigenschaften des
Zements. - In. ZKG 28/1975/265-272.
52. Locher, F. W.: Die Festigkeit des Zements. - 'п: ZKG 29/1976/247 - 249,
283-286.
53. Locher, F. W./Dreizler, 1.: Zement. - In. Ullmanns Encyklopadie der
technischen Chemie, 19. Band. - MLinchen: Verlag Urban und Schwarzen-
berg 1969.
54. Locher, F. W. / Spru ng, S. / Opitz, D.: Reaktionen im Bereich der Ofengase. _
In: ZKG 25/1972/1 -12.
55. Locher, F. W. / Sprung, S. / Korf, Р .. Der EinfluB der KorngrbBenverteilung auf
die Festigkeit von Portlandzement. - In: ZKG 26/1973/349-355.
56. Locher, F. W. / Richartz, W. / Sprung, S.: Erstarren von Zement, Teil 1:
Reaktion und GefLigeentwicklung. - In. ZKG 29/1976/435-442.
57. Locher, F. W./ Smolczyk, H.-G./Woermann, Е./ Kramer, Н./ Grade, К.: Ве­
stimmung der Phasenzusammensetzung von Zementen. - DLisseldorf
Betonverlag GmbH 1962 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 29).
58. Ludwig, U.: Uber die EinfluBnahme verschiedener Sulfate auf das Erstarren
und Erharten von Zementen. - In. ZKG 21/1968/81-90, 109-119, 175-
180.
59. Ludwig, U./Darr, G.-M .. Uber die Brennbarkeit von Zementrohmeh/. - In:
ZKG 28/1975/421 -423.
60. Ludwig, R. / Richartz, W.: AufschluBmittel fLir die Rbntgenfluoreszenzanalyse
von Stoffen der Zementindustrie. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/550-557.
61. LLihr, Н Р. / Efes, У : Influence of granulometry of fly-ash with low ignition
losses оп the strength development of motar prisms. - VI Internat. Congr.
Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 3, Suppl. Paper 153.
62. Massazza, F.: Chemistry of pozzolanic additions and mixed Cements. - VI.
Internat. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 6, Principal Paper. 'п.
il cemento 73/1976/3- 38.
63. Matouschek, F.: Beitrag zur Erkarung der Knollenbildung im Zement. - In:
ZKG 25/1972/395 - 396.
64. MerkbIatt Liber die Praparationsverfahren fLir die Rbntgenfluoreszenzanalyse
von Stoffen der Zementindustrie (Fassung Mai 1978). - In. ZKG
31 /1 978/558 - 564.
174
References
65. Plesch, R.. Energie- oder wellenlangendispersive Rbntgenanalyse in der
Zementindustrie. - In: ZKG 30/1977/279- 281.
66. Quervain, F. de. Technische Gesteinskunde, 2. Auflage. - Basel und
Stuttgart: Birkhauser Verlag 1967.
67. Regourd, М. / Gunier, А.: The crystal chemistry of the constituents of portland
cement clinker. - VI. Int. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. I - 2,
Principal- Paper.
68. Richartz, W.: EinfluB der Lagerung auf die Eigenschaften des Zementes. - 'п:
ZKG 26/1973/67 - 74.
69. Salge, Н. /Thormann, Р.: Llber den EinfluB von Ре auf die Konstitution von
Zementklinker. - In: ZKG 26/1973/532-539.
70. Schmidt, D.: Erfahrungen mit der rbntgenographischen Freikalkbestimmung.
- In: ZKG 31/1978/502-506.
71. Schmidt- Непсо, С.: EinfluB der Zusammensetzung des Klinkers auf Erstarren
und Anfangsfestigkeit von Zement. - 1n ZKG 26/1973/63 - 66.
72. Schneider, Н.: Feinmahlen von Zementklinker mit Mahlhilfsmitteln - 'п: ZKG
22/1969/193-201.
73. Schwiete, Н. Е. / Otto, Р : EinfluB der Granulationstemperatur und der chemi-
schen Zusammensetzung von Hochofenschlacke auf die Festigkeit von
HLittenzementen. - Forschungsbericht NRW I\Ir. 2055 (1969).
74. Seebach, Н. М. v.· Die Wirkung von Dampfen organischer FlUssigkeiten bei
der Zerkleinerung von Zementklinker in TrommelmLihlen. - Di.isseldorf:
Betonverlag GmbH 1969 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 35)
75. Seidel, К.: Handbuch fLir das Zementlabor. - Wiesbaden und Berlin:
Bauverlag GmbH 1964.
76. Seidel/Huckauf/Stark. Technologie der Bindebaustoffe; Bd. 3 Der Brenn-
prozeB und die Brennanlagen. - Berlin VEB Verlag fLir Bauwesen 1978.
77. Spohn, Е. / Woermann, Е. / Knbfel, D. Eine verfeinerte Kalkstandardformel. -
In ZKG 22/1969/55-60.
78. Sprung, S.: EinfluB der MLihlenatmosphare auf das Erstarren und die Festigkeit
von Zement. - In: ZKG 27/1974/259-267
79. Steinour, Н. Н.: The setting of portland cement. А review of theory,
performance and control - РСА res. Dep. Bull. 98, Chicago, 111, 1958.
80. Sutej, В. / Vrgoc, К .. Zur Abhangigkeit der Zementfestigkeit von der chemi-
schen Zusammensetzung des Klinkers. - In' ZKG 26/1973/497 - 500.
81. Sycev, М.: Technologiceskie svojstva syr' -evych cementnych sicht. -
Leningrad/Moskau. Strojizdat 1962.
82. Sylla, Н.-М.: EinfluB der Klinkerki.Jhlung auf Erstarren und Festigkeit von
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83. Taylor, Н. F. W.: The Chemistry of Cements, Vol. 1und 11. - London: Academic
Press 1964.
84. Teramoto, Н. / Koie, S. Phasenzusammensetzung und Hydratation eines
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28/1975/370 - 376.
175
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality D. Мапufасturе of cement

85. Vavrin, F.: Effect of chemical additions оп hydratation process and hardening D. Manufacture of cement
of cement. - VI. Internat. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 11-6,
Principal Рарег.
86. Verbeck, G. J. / Helmuth, А. Н.: Structures and physical properties of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
pastes. - V. Internat. Sympos. Chem. Сет., Tokio 1968, Bd. 3, S. 1 -32.
87. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke е. V. (Hrsg.): Verfahrenstechnik der Zement- Ву Н. Schneider and U. Binder
herstellung (Generalbericht zum VDZ-КопgгеВ 1977); darin insbesondere
Fachbereich 7 (Generalberichter F. W. Locher), Vегfаhгепstесhпik uпd 1 Primary reduction . . 179
Zеmепtеigепsсhаftеп (S. 625- 707). - WiеsЬаdеп uпd Вегliп: Bauverlag 1.1 Dеfiп itiопs
and characteristics 180
GmbH 1979. 1 .2 Types of crusher . 184
88. Walz, К.: Негstеlluпg vоп Веtоп nach DIN 1045. Веtопtесhпоlоgisсhе 1.2.1 Jaw crushers . . 184
АгЬеitsuпtегlаgеп, 2. Auflage. - Dusseldorf: Веtопvегlаg GmbH 1972. 1.2.2 Gyratory crushers 185
89. Weber, Р.: WагmеuЬегgапg im Dгеhоfеп uпtег Вегuсksiсhtiguпg der Kreis- 1.2.3 Roll crushers . . 187
lаufvогgапgе uпd РhаsепЫlduпg. - Iп ZKG Sопdегhеft 9/1960. 1.2.4 Impact crushers . 187
90. Wesche, К.: Baustoffe fur tгаgепdе Bauteile, Bd. 2: Niсhtmеtаllisсhапогgапi­ 1.2.5 Наттег crushers 189
sche Stoffe: Веtоп, Mauerwerk, 2. Auflage. - WiеsЬаdеп uпd Вег/iп: 1.3 Crushing рlапts . 196
Bauverlag GmbH 1980. 1.3.1 Stationary crushing plants 197
91. Wischers, G.: ЕiпfluВ еiпег Теmрегаturапdегuпg auf die Festigkeit vоп 1.3.2 Mobile crushing plants . 208
Zеmепtstеiп uпd ZеmепtmЬгtеl mit Zuschlagstoffen verschiedener Warme- References. . . . . . . . . . . . 213
dеhпuпg. - Dusse/dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1961 (Schrihenreihe der
Zеmепtiпdustгiе, Heft 28).
92. Wоегmапп, Е.' Dесоmроsitiоп of alite iп tесhпiсаl рогtlапd сеmепt сliпkег. _ 2 Size classification . . 214
Ргос. IV. Iпtегп. Sympos. Chem. Сет., Wаshiпgtоп 1960, Bd. 1, S. 119. 2.1 Sсгеепiпg . 215
93 Wоегmапп, E./Eysel, W./Hahn, Th.: Chemische uпd strukturelle Uпtег­ 2.2 Сlаssifiсаtiоп associated with dry grinding processes 216
suсhuпgеп zur МisсhkгistаllЫlduпg vоп Tricalciumsilicat. - Iп: ZKG 16/ 2.2.1 Static air separator . . . . 217
1963/370-375; 20/1967/385-391; 21/1968/241-251; 22/1969/235- 2.2.2 Bladed rotor separator . . 219
241 uпd 414-422. 2.2.3 Circulating air separators . 220
94. Wооds/Stагkе/Stеiпоur: Iп: Неппiпg, О. u.a.: Тесhпоlоgiе der ВiпdеЬаu­ 2.2.4 Channel wheel separator . 225
stoffe; Bd. 1 . Еigепsсhаftеп - Rohstoffe - Егhагtuпg. - Вегliп: VEB Verlag 2.3 Classification in wet gгiпdiпg . 226
fur Bauwesen 1976. 2.3.1 Нуdгосусlопеs....... 227
2.3.2 Curved screens . . . . . . . 229
2.4 Criteria for the assessment of сlаssifiсаtiоп processes 232
Rеfегепсеs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

3 Gгiпdiпg . 239
3.1 General Iпtгоduсtiоп. . . 239
3.2 Forms of comminuting асtiоп . 241
3.3 Types of grinding mill . . . . 241
3.3.1 TumbIing mills . . . . . . . 241
3.3.2 TumbIing mills with grinding media (tube mills) 242
3.3.3 Various forms of construction for tube mills 242
3.4 Motion of grinding media in tube mills 243
3.4.1 Моtiоп of the material being ground 246
3.4.2 Effect of volume iпсгеаsе оп gгiпdiпg 246
3.5 Calculating the mill drive power. . . 248
176
177
 D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Primary reduction

3.6 TumbIing mills without grinding media (autogenous mills)

3.7 Monitoring of wear
250 1. Materials preparation technology
252
3.7.1 Mechanical checks . . . . . . . . . 252 The purpose of the preparatory processing of the raw materials is to convert these
3.7.2 Mill lining . 253 chemically and minera/ogically different materials. usually supplied to the plant
3.7.3 Intermediate and discharge diaphragms 253 in coarse lumps. into raw meal or slurry of homogeneous composition. This has to
3.7.4 Feed and discharge equipment 254 Ье accomplished with suitabIy chosen machinery and methods, ап? at low.est
3.7.5 Other checks . 254 possibIe cost, in order thus to fulfil the basic conditions for ап economlcal ЬurПlПg
3.8 Process engineering checks. . . . . 256
3.8.1 Determining the loading percentage . process. . .
256 Primary crushing, pre-bIепdiпg, drying, grinding, combined griпdlПg and drYlng,
3.8.2 Grinding media classification . . . .
257 and homogenizing are the principal processing stages in the preparation of the raw
3.8.3 Determining the number of fractured grinding media 258 materials for cement manufacture. Screening and classifying are separating
3.8.4 Checking the lining . . . . . .
258 methods which are used in the cement industry in order to сапу out the size
3.8.5 Checking the diaphragms. . . .
258 reduction operations with greater economy. ОП the other hand, beneficiation of
3.8.6 Checks ;п the interior of the mill
259 raw materials Ьу separation of unutilizabIe constituents and concentration of the
3.9 Size reduction. . . . . . . . .
259 utilizabIe ones Ьу screening or classifying is only exceptionally applied in cement
3.9.1 Height and condition of the material bed 261 mапufасtше. Limestone and clay - the two principal raw materials for cement
3.9.2 Build-up of material оп liners and grinding media. 261 clinker production - as well as secondary raw materials containing aluminium
3.9.3 Determination of wear
262 oxide, silicon oxide and iron oxide, which are used as admixtures in the process,
3.9.3.1 Grinding media wear . .
262 are almost everywhere availabIe in adequate quantities and suitabIe chemical
3.9.3.2 Lining wear. . . . . .
265 composition.
3.9.3.3 Wear of the diaphragms
266 Elaborate beneficiation treatments such as are widely employed in ore and coal
References. . . . . . . . . .
266 preparation are therefore generally not required in the cement industry and, apart
from certain individual cases, not economically viabIe either.
4 Roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.1 Roller mill design fеаtшеs . 267 1 Primary reduction
4.1.1 Mills with truncated-conical rollers (Loesche mills) . . 268 Reducing the raw materials to а fine powder - conventionally called "meal" - is
4.1.2 Mills with convex-surfaced rollers (Pfeiffer MPS mills) 269 necessary in order to produce а homogeneous mixture which will quickly Ье
4.1.3 Mills with spherical grinding elements (Peters mills) 270 converted in the kiln into а homogeneous clinker containing по free lime.
4.2 Grinding action developed in roller mills . 271 As а rule, size reduction (comminution) of the raw materials is effected in at least
4.2.1 Draw-in action of the grinding elements . 272 two main stages: crushing (primary reduction) and grinding (fine reduction). In
4.2.2 Grinding action . . . 273 the cement industry it is not usual to make а sharp distinction between these
4.2.3 Control of roller mills 276 stages in terms of particular product sizes of the crushing machinery. Indeed, the
References. . . . . . . . . .
276 borderline is variabIe, depending оп the performance and attainabIe reduction ratio
of the crushers and grinding mills and thus depending a/so оп the technical
development of these machines.
5 Grinding and drying of coal . 277 Generally speaking. crushing denotes the size reduction process that breaks down
5.1 Preparation of the coal. general considerations . 277 the material to а particle size suitabIe as feed for the next main stage, i.e., grinding.
5.2 Storage......
278 In applying the distinction between crushing and grinding it is of по consequence
5.3 Grinding and drying .
278 whether either or both of these main stages are accomplished in опе or more
5.4 Grinding process . .
279 individual stages.
5.5 Types of coal grinding 285 In present-day cement manufacture, with due regard to the possibi/ities of the
5.5.1 TumbIing mills . .
285 reduction machinery employed, crushing is taken to mean reducing the particle
5.5.2 Roller mills . . . .
286 size to between about 80 and 20 mm. This crushed product is further reduced Ьу
5.6 Safety requirements 291
References. . grinding to а fineness below about 0.2 mm size, in which condition it is called
293 raw meal and is ready for feeding to the kiln.
178
179
 О. Manufactuгe of cement '. Materials preparation technology Primary reduction: Definitions and characteristics

1.1 Definitions and characteristics
Before describing the actual size reduction processes it is necessary to define some
соттоп/у used concepts associated with them:
Single-stage reduction means that the material is reduced to the desired
product fineness Ьу the action of just опе machine, which тау operate either оп
the open-circuit (sing/e-pass) ог the closed-circuit principle (Fig.1). Multi-
stage reduction is effected in two ог тоге machines in series, each of which
constitutes опе stage of the reduction process and which operates either in ореп ог
in closed circuit.
(п open-circuit reduction the material passes only опсе through the machine,
whereas in closed-circuit reduction the material discharged from the machine
is separated Ьу screening ог classifying (the latter usually Ьу air separation) into
fine and coarse particles, the latter being retuгned to the machine for fuгther
reduction (Fig.1 а).
The so-called reduction ratio is frequently applied as а criterion for judging the
operating range of crushers. It is the ratio of the size (Iinear edge dimension) of the
largest piece in the feed material to the size of the largest piece in the crushed
product. As it is difficult actually to determine the largest sizes in the feed and in the
product, these respective particle sizes аге instead defined in terms of а certain
percentage (Ьу weight) passing а screen, e.g., 95% ог 80% ог 63.2% (Fig. 2).

particle size d in mm
0.110" 2 3 4 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 102 2 3 4 5 10.] 2 3 4 5
99.9
1
/ 99
1. ,/
5 95
10
111
9О
20 t/ I! 80
:ю
1/1 J1 70
;;-- 40 60
.!; 50 ./

fine product Fig.1 : Open-circuit size reduction

о'

~ 70
60

B/ V
/
I
:~ J
20 ~!:
~ ВО V V
,§ 90
V A"у
1О
Q
g'
fresh feed
i ......V V 'и
95
е 96 " ~ 8-
actual feed
(fresh feed+oversize)
((----- 1:в 7

99
,/
V
1./
з

1
§
'i
к
0.5
reduction

oversize
Fig. 2: Reduction ratio "z"
1200 800 600
Z95 = - - = 48; ZBO =- = 57 , Z63 2 = -8
6 = 70
25 14 '.
А = crusher feed (fragmented rock obtained Ьу bIasting)
В = crusher product (discharged from а single-rotoг hammer crusher)
classification

The granulometric composition of the feed ог the product of а size reduction

machine is determined Ьу screening ог sieving in the coarse particle size range
(above about 50 microns).
The resu It Qf the particle size analysis (screen ог sieve analysis) сап Ье represented
Fig.1 а: Closed-circuit size reduction in а numerical tabIe and/or as а particle size cumulative distribution curve
180
181
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Primary reduction: Definitions and characteristics

V
v v - ~~
100

90

80

1/
V
v 70

60

50

IIJ~
;f.
~
<:>
'"
~
-'
\
,
~~~~~~ ~
- - ·/.UI а 5U!SSDd UO!lJodoJd
~ Ln--t~ ~ '"
с)

/ 308-
.~ ~
"
/ с ;:!

/V
20 .2
ю 8- ~
'/ О
е
а.
200 БОа '" '"
.~ ~ml$m~~~~m~~~~
800 1000 1200 1600 1800 2000 ~.
particle si1;e d in тт ~

Fig. З: Cumulative distribution сигуе for rock pile produced Ьу large- "о

hole bIasting (Iinear scales оп both axes) ~

с;"'ц-/--1--Ц.1.-\--I-I-J+-\--\-----!-++-f--++-+--+----t----I
~ Е
~ '" j!.;.IJ...I'\-+++t-+--+--+-f+-+-+-+-~t_-+----t-+--+-t_-_t_-_t
from which the percentage retained оп ог passing апу particular aperture size сап
Ье read (Fig. 3). 'П the diagram the particle sizes аге shown оп the horizontal axis,
:в ~I~~В_~~~~<:>
со
....'
while the percentages (Ьу weight) аге marked оп the vertical axis. А linear scale ci
а.

may Ье adopted for both axes ог, alternatively, only for the vertical axis, while the
particles аге plotted to а logarithmic scale. ~I I--Н-fж-+I \'''.:-If-~-н-.-t-+---tГ----t--. г---- г-----~ - f-... +-_.I-'~-I----- ..
Е 'ю \
Quite often the well-known Rosin-Rammler-Bennett (RRB) particle size distri- Е
bution is a(ssum~g6o)r comminuted materials, which uses log d for the horizontal ~
~
с
and log log -R- for the vertical axis (d = particle size, R = percentage
~ S
"
retained).
If the exponential relationship estabIished Ьу Rosin, Rammler and Sperling is
'1 ..
1::
с

о
strictly conformed to, the distribution curve appears as а straight line which is ~
Q;
characterized Ьу two values. the equivalent particle size d' and the uniformity :..;, 8
coefficient n (Fig. 4), where d' is the size corresponding to 36.8% (Ьу weight) ~
retained as residue оп the sieve (oversize) and n is the tangent of the slope of the
line. Particle size distribution diagrams аге commercially availabIe which аге
provided with scales оп the vertical and horizontal axes enabIing the values of n
il
е
g.
'ё
.2
'ё
:::J

and of the specific surface of comminuted materials to Ье read.

The actual values determined in tests generally deviate more ог less from the
theoretical straight lines. Even so, the exponential relationship is а useful
approximate equation.

Fig.4: Сигуе for oversize particles in hammer тill product (RRB

diagram). Material' limestone

182 183
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

The logarithmic division of the horizontal axis of а particle size distribution diagram
offers the advantage that the finer sizes аге characterized тоге prominently, which
is appropriate because of their greater importance than the coarser ones in
determining the overall surface агеа of the comminuted material concerned.
Ву differentiation the particle size distribution diagram сап Ье derived from
the cumulative distribution curve (Fig. 5): The horizontal axis is divided into equal
portions, each representing а particle size class ог fraction, and for each portion the
corresponding ordinate is determined, indicating the percentage (Ьу weight) of
this size class in the comminuted material as а whole.
lumps of clinker ог kiln coating (as discharged from rotary coolers ог shaft kilns, for
example). ОП the other hand, they аге seldom used for the crushing of limestone in
cement works.
The reciprocating motion of the crushing jaw of the doubIe-tоgglе (аг Blake type)
jaw crusher subjects the material to а mainly compressive action. This machine is
especially suitabIe for crushing very hard material fed in coarse lumps (Fig. 6а)
In the single-toggle jaw crusher the jaw moves not only backwards and forwards
but also up and down, so that there is attrition as well as compressive crushing
action. Crushers of this type аге тоге suitabIefor the reduction of hard to medium-
hard material fed in smaller lumps (Fig. 6Ь)
Jaw crushers аге sensitive to moist and plastic feed material and tend to choke if

--
о

J,...-- 1-- there is а substantial proportion of fine particles in the feed. The attainabIe
V/ 1//V/ V/
v reduction ratio is between about 6:1 and 8:1. For obtaining а product of
~ ~~ ~ v favourabIe size for feeding to grinding mills it is generally necessary to apply
t% ~ ~ ~ v secondary crushing in another type of crusher.

.Е 15
t/; v: ~vj ~I/j The particle size distribution of the jaw crusher product is considerabIy affected Ьу
the loading of the machine; а crusher operating substantially below capacity will
~~ t% ~ ~~ ~ v:;
~
yield а coarse product with а high proportion of oversize.
,g1O ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
v::
CII

~ /j ~ :/; l/j ~ t/j l/j ~

О.

~
о
о.
е
5
v::
~~ t% v; v:; ~ l/j ~ l/j v; f/;
~ ~ ~ ~ :/j ~ ~ fjj ~~ ~~~~ >-..- >-..-
0.0 100
О 200 600 800 1(w 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
particle size d in тт -_
Fig. 5: Particle size distribution diagram for rock pile produced Ьу large-
hole bIasting

(а) doubIe-tоgglе crusher (Ь) single-toggle crusher

1.2 Types of crusher
Solid rock which has Ьееп dis/odged from its natural deposit Ьу bIasting ог ripping
forms а coarsely fragmented rock pile, initially with its natura! inherent moisture.
The hardness, fragment size, moisture content, plasticity and abrasiveness of the
material аге important factors affecting the choice of the size reduction machines
and methods for dealing with it. Hard materials causing severe abrasive wear аге
reduced with slow-running machines such as jaw crushers and gyratory crushers,
which function Ьу developing mainly а compressive action. For medium-hard to
hard materials impact crushers and hammer crushers аге тоге suitabIe, they
achieve size reduction mainly Ьу impact.
1.2.1 Jaw crushers
Jaw crushers аге used for the primary reduction of very hard and abrasive
admixtures for cement manufacture, such as quartzite ог iron аге, and of large
Fig. 6: Jaw crushers
1.2.2 Gyratory crushers
The gyratory crusher is seldom found in the Ешореап cement industry, which uses
mainly medium-hard to hard and not very abrasive limestone. In other parts of the
world, however, it is тоге commonly employed in the industry. Its size reduction is
achieved mainly Ьу compressive action between the fixed conical bowl and the
oscillating cone-shaped crushing head, which functions somewhat like а pestle in
а mortar. The lower end of the shaft carrying the crushing head is mounted in ап
eccentric which performs а horizontal rotary motion, while the upper end is
mounted in а fixed ball-and-socket type bearing. As in the jaw crusher, the width
of the crushing gap continually varies between а maximum and а minimum.
The width of the gap сап Ье altered Ьу raising ог lowering the crushing head, ап
adjustment that takes only а few minutes to perform and is effected mechanically ог

184 185
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
(in machines of more modern design) hydraulically. Increase in gap width due to
wear of the bowl and crushing head сап thus Ье compensated, so that the service
life of these parts сап Ье extended Ьу some 50 to 60% without having to
recondition or replace them, while the product size remains approximately
unchanged throughout their lifetime. Vertical adjustment of the head in relation to
the bowl enabIes the gap width to Ье varied within а range of 15-20% from the
average setting (Fig.7).
The ratio between the radial width А of the feed opening and the maximum
discharge gap width С in large primary crushers is between 6: 1 and 9: 1, which
corresponds to the attainabIe reduction ratio for predominantly cubic material. If
the machine is fed with material of а more irregular shape, this ratio, referred to the
maximum dimensions of the pieces, тау Ье as high as 12: 1 to 15: 1.
The largest gyratory crushers in current use attain throughputs of over 6000 t/houг
and have feed openings 1500 тт х 4400 тт in size (А х В), while the discharge
gaps range in width from 150 to 250 тт.
А jaw crusher designed for а certain throughput rate сап accept larger pieces of
rock than the normal gyratory crusher. In order to соре with equally large-sized
feed, the gyratory crusher has to Ье over-designed in terms of capacity.
In а special form of the machine, called the unifeed gyratory crusher (Krupp-Esch;
Morgardshammar), this drawback has Ьееп eliminated. It is substantially similar to
ап ordinary gyratory crusher, except that the feed opening is provided with ап
enlarged receiving space оп опе side, which functions as а pre-crushing chamber
(Fig. 8). The oscillating motion of the crushing head is similar to that in ап ordinary
gyratory crusher.
А general advantage of the gyratory crusher is that it is unaffected Ьу overloading.
It requires по special feedif1g device. the fragmented rock coming from the quarry
Fig. 7: Gyratory crusher
Fig.8: Unifeed gyratory crusher (Krupp-Esch)
186
Types of crushers
or stockpile in heavy trucks сап Ье tipped straight into the feed opening. Uniform
size distribution in the crushed product сап, however, Ье obtained only if а
controlled rate of feed is maintained.
Like the jaw crusher, the gyratory crusher is sensitive to moist and plastic feed
material and it tends to choke if the material has а high fines content.
1.2.3 Roll crushers
Roll crushers are used for the primary reduction of medium-hard moist and
abrasive materials such as marl, shale and clay (Fig. 9). The feed is subjected to
compressive and shearing action between а pair of counter-rotating rolls, which
тау Ье either smooth or corrugated or provided with tooth-like projections. The
teeth give better bite to the feed and concentrate the action of the crushing force,
enabIing large and compact pieces of rock to Ье split.
Fig. 9: DoubIe-гоll crusher
For primary reduction the width of the rolls is approximately equal totheir diameter,
the ratio of these dimensions usually being within the range of 0.8 to 1.2. The
attainabIe size reduction ratio IS fairly low, only from about 3: 1 to 5: 1.
Circumferential velocities of the rolls are 5-9 m/second.
DoubIe-гоll (ortwin-roll) crushers with 1800 тт roll diameter and approximately
equal effective roll width attain throughputs of 1000-1200 t/hour for а gap width
of about 250 тт between the rolls and сап accept feed material up to 1000 тт in
size.
'П some machinesthe two bearings of опе crushing roll arefixed totheframe ofthe
crusher, while those of the other roll are mounted оп slide rails. This movabIe roll is
held in its predetermined working position with the aid of pull-rods and springs.
The movabIe mounting enabIes the crushing gap width to Ье varied, while the
springs provide some "give" to allow uncrushabIe foreign bodies in the feed to
pass. DoubIe-гоll crushers in which both rolls are movabIy mounted are also
availabIe.
As а rule, the two rolls are driven separately, each through а V-belt drive. The
specific power consumption is in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 kWh/t.
1.2.4 Impact crushers
1n its
mode of operation and desig n featu res the impact crusher differs considerabIy
from the slow-running jaw, gyratory and roll crushers, which reduce фе material
Ьу а predominantly compressive (and therefore truly "crushing") action. The
187
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

alternative terms to "crushing" and "crusher" аге "breaking" and "breaker", and it Fig.11: Compound impact crusher (Hazemag)
would perhaps Ье more accurate to speak only of "impact breaker", but in practice
the distinction is seldom consistently made.
'П the impact crusher the feed material entering the crushing chamber encounters
the impactor bars immovabIy mounted оп the rotor and revolving with it at а
circumferential velocity of 30-45 m/second. The fragments are flung against the
upper breaker plate, rebound into the crushing chamber, are again subjected to the
action of the impactor bars, and so оп until they have Ьееп sufficiently reduced to
pass through the upper gap into the space between the two breaker plates. Неге
the process is repeated until the material is fine enough to pass through the second
gap. Besides the impact of the rock fragments with the bars and plates there is also
ап "autogenous" reduction effect due to the rock fragments colliding with опе
another (Fig. 1 О).

energy is greater and the material is broken up into correspondingly smaller

fragments, but the rate of wear оп the bars and plates is of course higher (it
increases proportionally to the square of the velocity). The optimum feed material
size range of 0- 25 mm for raw mills cannot Ье achieved in а single pass through
the coarse impact crusher. Applying the closed-circuit principle in this case does
not achieve апу worthwhile improvement in reducing the product size. А more
efficient method is to use а secondary crushing stage, e.g., in the form of а second
impact crusher operating with higher rotor circumferential velocity.
'П the compound impact crusher the two stages - primary and secondary - аге
combined in а single machine (Fig. 11). This is а dual-rotor crusher in which the
primary rotor runs at about 35 m/second and the secondary rotor (mounted below
and to опе side ofthe primary) runs at about 45 m/second circumferential velocity.
The maximum product particle size is determined Ьу the bottom gap formed Ьу ап
additional ridged comminuting anvil plate. Compound crushers сап accept feed
lumps up to about 1.5 m size, reducing it to а product in which 95% is smaller than
_ _----"IIIiIL. ..s- Fig.10: Single-rotor impact crusher 25 mm, corresponding to а reduction ratio of 60: 1, achieved in а single pass:
The upper rotor is fitted with fixed impactor bars, while the lower rotor has Im-
pactor bars ог movabIy mounted hammers, depending оп the nature of the feed
The impact crusher is best suited for dealing with brittle hard to medium-hard material and the required product fineness.
material with natural cleavage planes. It cannot соре very well with soft, plastic
and moist material. 1.2.5 Hammer crushers
The shape and arrangement of the breaker plates, the circumferential velocity of the
rotor and the number and design of the impactor bars should Ье chosen with due The hammer crusher is the most widely used machine for the primary reduction of
regard to the nature of the feed material (type of rock) and the maximum feed medium-hard to hard limestone and marl in the cement industry.
size. The main feature is the rotor which carries а series of pivoted hammers. When the
Depending оп the hardness and size of the feed, coarse impact crushers reduce the rotor is running, the centrifugal forces cause the hammers to point radially
material to а product size of between 150 and 200 mm and attain reduction ratios outwards. 'П the upper crushing chamber the feed material is subjected to а
of between 6: 1 and 20: 1. The circumferential velocity of the rotor is а major factor: combination of impact and percussive action Ьу the hammers and Ьу repeated
low velocity results in а coarse product; with higher velocity the size reduction collision with the breaker plate, together with "autogenous" action Ьу fragments

188 189
-------------------------------------~%Yi,'~>-----------------------~~~~~-

О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

of rock colliding with опе another. The finer reduction is accomplished in the gap
between the hammers and the breaker plate in the single-rotor hammer crusher.
The width of the product outlets between the bottom grid bars determines the
maximum product particle size. As а rule, the process engineering requirement of
obtaining the finest possibIe mill feed in а single crushing pass is fulfilled Ьу the
hammer crusher.
Наттег crushers аге built as single-rotor (Fig.12) and twin-rotor machines
(Fig. 13). The rotors тау consist of а series of discs mounted оп а square shaft ог
тау alternatively take the form of rollers. If hammers with forged-on individual
pivot stubs аге employed, the rotor discs must Ье axially movabIe for changing the
hammers when they have Ьесоте worn. It is, however, better to key the discs
securely to the rotor shaft and to mount the hammers оп continuous spindles
extending the full width of the rotor. Оп disc-type rotors with recesses and оп
roller-type rotors the hammers аге installed in а staggered arrangement so as to
give complete coverage across the rotor. Rotors аге mounted in plain ог in anti-
friction bearings.
The forged ог cast hammers range from about 30 kg to 200 kg in weight, according
to the size of the crusher. The discharge grids enclose the rotors through ап angle
of between 1200 and 1800 and аге, тоге particularly in large crushers, axially ог
Fig.1З: Twin-rotor hammer crusher. type Titan (О.&К.)
radially divided for convenience of handling in terms ofweight and size. The forged
grid bars аге of triangular ог trapezoidal cross-section (Fig.14). Triangular bars
form wider entry apertures to the product discharge openings and thus offer less
resistance to the passage of the material, but wear away тоге rapidly so that the
openings Ьесоте too wide. This effect is less pronounced with trapezoidal bars,
which moreover, for equal structural strength and equal width of the openings,
have а larger ореп grid surface агеа than triangular ones.

Fig.14: Grid bar cross-sections. Effective ореп grid surface area Fo for
Fig.12: Single-rotor hammer crusher (О.&К.) equal section modulus of bars: FoA = 1.5 Fo•

190 191
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
The grid openings of primary crushers operating as single-stage machines which
supply feed for tube mills are usually 25 mm in width, thus attaining а product with
only 3-5% oversize in the 25-30mm fraction. However, widths of 40-50mm
are employed in crushers which are fed with raw materials containing plastic
components and above 6-8% moisture, the greater width being necessary to
avoid choking of the grids.
Single-rotor hammer crushers are built for throughputs of up to about 2000 t/hour.
For example, а well known machine of this capacity has а rotor of 3300 mm width
and а hammer circle diameter of 3350 mm, equipped with 112 hammers weighing
150 kg each.
The circumferential velocity of the rotors is between about 28 and 33 m/second.
Fig.15: Hammer crusher with feed rollers (F.L.S.). 1 feeder, 2 chain curtain,
3 feed rollers, 4 hammer rotor, 5 adjustabIe impact wall
192
Types of crushers
The hammer crusher shown in Fig. 15 is а special form of construction, equipped
with two rollers wh ich rotate in the same direction, but at different speeds, and feed
the material to the rotor equipped with freely movabIe hammers. Undersize
particles already present in the feed are discharged through the gap between the
rollers. The impact wall and bottom discharge grid, which encloses the rotor
through ап angle of about 1200, are adjustabIe in relation to the rotor, so that the
wear of фе hammers, breaker elements and grid bars сап Ье compensated to some
extent.
'П another version of the hammer crusher there are likewise two feed rollers, but
this machine has two rotors, rotating both in the same direction.
Crusher drive systems
Single-rotor and twin-rotor hammer crushers are usually driven Ьу slip-ring motors
via а V-belt transmission system. As а rule, slip resistors are provided in order to
ensureflexibIe behaviour of the drive motor. In the event of а drop in rotation speed
due to impact loading of the rotor, the motor will still develop а high torque and the
V-belt drive will Ье less severely strained. The drive pulley, which serves as а
flywheel, is overhung-mounted оп the rotor shaft - even оп the largest crushers
hitherto built - and is fixed Ьу means of locking sleeves or similar devices.
The motor shaft is connected to the intermediate drive shaft Ьу means of а flexibIe
coupling. If а squirrel-cage motor is used, а fluid clutch is additionally provided, in
order to facilitate motor starting and prevent surges in the supply system.
Some twin-rotor hammer crushers are equ ipped with rotors directly driven through
reduction gear units.
А new type of drive - direct drive with а travelling-wave (Iinear) motor of
segmental design - has Ьееп used for sing le- rotor hammer crushers. In th is type of
motor the torque is transmitted to the rotating element, which is designed to
function also as а flywheel and is mounted direct оп the rotor shaft of the crusher
thus dispensing with the V-belt transmission. The travelling-wave motor has ~
favourabIe torque characteristic and takes up less space than conventional motors.
Its slightly lower efficiency is hardly ап important drawback, but а more serious
objection is its high cost.
Auxiliary equipment
With the evolution of crushers to larger and larger throughput ratings the
dimensions and weights of their wearing parts are correspondingly increasing.
Removal and renewal of worn parts without the aid of suitabIe lifting appliances is
awkward and time-consuming. The solutions adopted Ьу some manufacturers to
ease these probIems will Ье briefly described Ьу way of example.
Several of them have developed special auxiliary equipment to facilitate the
operations of changing the wearing parts of their machines and thus substantially
reduce the repair downtime periods.
193
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Thus, hydraulic pull-out systems for extracting the breaker plates or bars are
provided. Fuгthermore, hydraulic rams mounted оп the crusher casing епаЫе the
breaker wall and certain parts of the casing to Ье swung ореп оп impact crushers
and hammer crushers, without the aid of other auxiliary devices. Also, various
solutions for changing the bottom discharge grids of hammer crushers have Ьееп
devised. Polysius, for instance, releases the bottom part of the casing and pulls out
the two halves of the cuгved grid, which сап then Ье lifted out Ьу а crane. In the
М iag Titan crusher the rear walls сап Ье swung ореп Ьу hydraulic rams, while the
grids are connected Ьу swivel mountings to the walls of the casing and сап Ье
moved Ьу means of the rams for maintenance and also for adjustment while the
crusher is running.
Design featuгes оп the upper part of the machine епаЫе sections of casing which
are situated beside the rotor shaft to Ье removed, without having to dismantle the
upper casing, for taking out and refitting the rotors (Fig.16). The twin-rotor
crushers of Krupp are likewise equipped with hydraulic rams with which the геаг
walls сап Ье swung ореп, so that the lining and rotors Ьесоте accessibIe for
Fig.16: Auxiliary equipment for changing worn parts (О.&К. Mammut
crusher), а hammer lifting device, Ь hammer spindle extracting device, с discharge
grid extracting device
194
Types of crushers
/ '\
( .. J
'- . ../
/Г~~
,!::-.__ .1==
Fig.17: Various systems for removing and refitting the discharge grids
of twin-rotor crushers
inspection. Polysius has combined the grids and casing rear walls into carriages
which сап Ье moved with the aid of hydraulic rams. The Mammut (Mammoth)
crusher has discharge grid carriages which travel into the crusher casing and are
positioned under the grid halves to Ье removed (Fig. 17). After release ofthe lateral
connections the grid is lowered hydraulically onto the carriage, so that it сап then
travel out of the casing.
The continuous spindles оп which the hammers are mounted аге extracted and
refitted with hydraulic devices. Ап electric chain hoist сап Ье introduced through
ап access door in the upper casing into the interior. In this way each hammer to Ье
dismantled сап Ье lifted out of the crushing chamber.
Auxiliary equipment in а wider sense comprises hammer drills - hydraulically
powered, as а rule - which аге installed оп telescopic mountings пеаг the feed
hopper and аргоп conveyor and сап Ье used to break up апу oversize pieces of
rock that get into the hopper. The same method is used also for dealing with such
pieces that inadvertently reach the hoppers оп jaw crushers ог gyratory crushers.
Wear
The throughput rate and fineness of the product аге affected Ьу the state of wear of
the comminuting components of the crusher. Hammers have to Ье reversed,
resurfaced with hard steel (Ьу welding), ог entirely renewed, before their size
reduction effec! decreases too much. The bottom grid bars, too, must Ье resuгfaced
ог renewed before they let through ап unacceptabIy high proportion of oversize
partic!es in the crushed product.
The hammers and grid bars are made of forged, cast ог rolled steel. The choice of
construction material depends оп the size, hardness and abrasiveness of the
crusher feed and also оп the shapes that the designer adopts as being most
appropriate for these parts to meet the requirements. Generally speaking, а higher
factor of safety against fractuгe will Ье obtained at the expense of wear
resistance.
195
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

It is advantageous to use steel having а constant tensile strength over the whole
length of the hammer, with а high degree of hardness at the head and with
adequate toughness and wear resistance at the pivot hole. The hardness of the
metal around the hole is of major influence оп the service life of the hammer spindle
and is а factor that deserves careful attention in choosing the material for the
hammer to Ье suitabIy compatibIe with that of the spindle.
If the discharge openings in the bottom grids аге narrow and the feed material has а
high moisture content, the striking faces of the hammers should have sharp edges.
When the hammers have Ьееп worn away Ьу ап amount corresponding to about
10% weight loss, they should Ье resurfaced in order to preserve their comminuting
effectiveness and to prevent the throughput rate of the crusher from declining. The
materials of which the hammers аге made should therefore also Ье suitabIy
weldabIe, а property which is only to а limited extent compatibIe with the
requirements of а high degree of hardness and а long service life. Austenitic
manganese steels, possessing good weldability, аге best suited for the purpose.
'П the development of composite cast hammers (Magotteaux) with the comminut-
ing head made of high-carbon cast steel with over 3% С and 16% Сг the possibility
of resurfacing was relinquished from the outset. The head preserves its effective
shape and, under appropriate conditions, the working life is тоге than doubIed in
comparison with that of the usual hammers. Lifetime is limited Ьу the low tensile
strength in the region of the pivot hole and Ьу the restricted height of the high-
сагЬоп cast steel head, which gives rise to cavitation phenomena at the transition
to the parent material.
The net rate of wear оп hammers for the reduction of limestone and таг' is in the
range of about 0.5 to 6 g/t. Grid bars usually last at least as long, and anything up to
about twice as long, as the hammers.
Considerations of есопоту must decide whether to use hammers of high-carbon
cast steel which is unsuitabIe for resurfacing ог instead to make use of а less
resistant material which сап Ье resurfaced. The operational availability of the
crusher, wage costs and material consumption аге factors to Ье taken into account
in connection with this. The general trend is towards the use of high-strength
materials offering long service life.
1.3.1 Stationary crushing plants
'П the Ешореап cement industry, which uses chiefly таг' and medium-hard to
hard limestone as its principal raw materials, single-stage crushing plants
equipped with hammer crushers аге the commonly preferred type.
The feed hopper, feeding equipment, crusher and product removal conveyors аге
the main component units of the plant. The feed hopper should have а capacity
equal to at least twice that of the largest vehicles supplying rock to the crusher
(Fig. 18). Caking ofmoist andstickyfeed material сап Ье minimized Ьу using а well
designed hopper, with rounded transitions from the end walls to the side walls. If
the hopper is of concrete, it should Ье lined with steel plates ог, preferabIy, with
steel rails, which give much better protection against wear.
Robustly constructed аргоп conveyors have proved most suitabIe for feeding.
They fulfil all requirements applicabIe to а feeding system in order to obtain
optimum utilization of the crusher: control of the handling rate within а certain
range, controllability in response to the loading condition of the crusher, feed over
the full working width of the crusher, ability to start under load, feed сап Ье
stopped instantly (по after-trickle of material that could choke the slowing- down
ог stopped crusher).
Particularly with moist feed material it is important that the аргоп conveyor should
have the same width as the crusher rotor, so as to ensure that the rotor is fed

1.3 Crushing plants

А distinction is made between single-stage and multi-stage plants, according to

whether the desired product size is attainabIe with just опе crusher ог requires two
ог тоге crushers operating in series. Each of these crushing stages тау in principle
Ье operated in ореп circuit (with ог without preliminary screening) ог in closed
circuit (with screens ог grizzlies as the classifying devices).
Stationary crushing plants, i.e., installed in а fixed location, аге predominant in the
cement industry, but for new installations, especially when large throughputs аге
required, mobile plants - self-propelled ог easily relocatabIe - have Ьесоте
much тоге numerous since the early 1960s, now that the various systems for
moving them from опе working position to the next have proved reliabIe. Fig.18: Stationary crushing plant (О.&К.) with hopper and apron feeder

196 197
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

uniformly over its full width and undergoes uniformly distributed wear. Optimum
utilization of the crusher is obtained Ьу means of ап infinitely variabIe аргоп
conveyor drive interlocked with the crusher drive. А frequently employed method
of control is to vary the аргоп conveyor speed in response to the rotor speed. А
more suitabIe solution, quicker and more sensitive, is obtained Ьу basing the
control action оп the power consumption of the crusher drive motor.
Rubber belt conveyors аге usually employed for carrying away the product
discharged from crushers equipped with bottom grids. 'П order to prevent caking
and build-ups of adhering material, the belt should preferabIy Ье so wide as to
comprise the whole width of the crusher discharge opening, so that the side walls
of the connecting chute between the crusher and the belt conveyor сап Ье made
vertical.
Steel арroп conveyors ог chain conveyors, though mechanically more elaborate
and expensive than belt conveyors, аге preferabIe for product removal from impact
crushers and from hammer crushers not equipped with bottom grids. The reason is
that the material discharged from the crusher falls with greater impact force оп the
conveyor than when а bottom grid limits the size and impact velocity of the pieces
discharged.
Оп the feed side of the crusher, fine material sticking to the аргоп conveyor and
falling off it оп the return run is removed Ьу а scraper conveyor installed in а
concrete trough in the foundation slab ог otherwise, if accessibIe space is required Fig.19: Stationary crushing plant with direct feed dump trucks
under the аргоп conveyor, in а steel trough mounted directly underthe latter. As ап
alternative solution the product removal conveyor оп the discharge side of the
crusher may Ье extended rearwards to underneath the throw-off end of the feed
аргоп conveyor and thus catch the material falling off. 'П that case а separate
crushers of gyratory crushers, which аге relatively immlJne from overloading and
scraper conveyor сап Ье dispensed with.
сап therefore Ье fed direct from the trucks, the product should Ье intermediately
Multi-stage crushing is employed mainly in older plants whose equipment
stockpiled to allow а uniform rate of feed to the second crushing stage. Ап
dates from а time when high-capacity crushers with high reduction ratios were not
intermediate bunker with ап extracting conveyor controlled in response to the
yet availabIe. 'П general, crushing in two ог more stages will Ье applied in cases
power consumption of the secondary crusher drive motor ensures that this crusher
where the hardness ог abrasiveness of the feed material is likely to cause
сап operate under optimum conditions. From the point of view of the overall
considerabIe crusher downtime and attendant cost.
performance of the primary size reduction system it is generally more advantageous
Gyratory crushers, which аге used as first-stage machines when very hard and
also to apply such controlled feed to the first-stage crusher - of whatever type -
coarse feed material has to Ье reduced, сап receive the material direct from the
through а feed conveyor and hopper, in which case the second-stage crusher,
truck, without the interposition of а feed hopper (Fig.19). As the preliminary
designed with ап appropriate safety margin of capacity, сап Ье fed direct with the
crusher delivers а product in the 300- 500 min size range, the second-stage
product of the first stage of crushing.
crusher сап function under less severe operating conditions than if the size
reduction had to Ье performed all in опе stage.
While gyratory crushers сап often Ье employed also as second-stage machines,
Preliminary screening
high-speed machines such as impact crushers ог hammer crushers аге more
advantageous for obtaining а finer product which is suitabIe as feed for the Separation of the finer particles from the raw stone before it is fed to the crusher is
grinding mills. If it is essential to feed the mills with а finely crushed product from not standard practice in the cement industry. 'П exceptional cases, however, the
which oversize pieces аге strictly excluded, it is necessary to classify the second- material may first Ье passed over а grizzly ог а reciprocating grid screen. Preliminary
stage crusher product Ьу screen ing and retu гп the oversize to the crusher for fu rther separation ofthe coarserfrom the finer material сап serve to relieve the crusher orto
reduction (closed-circuit operation). However, if the second stage of crushing is improve the quality of the raw material Ьу raising the concentration of certain
performed Ьу а hammer crusher with bottom discharge grid, such classification desirabIe constituents. As а rule. it makes for better performance of the crusher,
will not Ье necessary. If the first stage of size reduction is performed Ьу jaw too.

198 199
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Relieving the crusher
The decision as to applying preliminary screening of the raw stone is governed Ьу
the proportion of fine particles in it, the physical properties of those particles, and
th~ t~chnical design features of the crusher employed. The possibility of thus
rеllеVlПg the crusher may, in new plant design, result in deciding to use а smaller
machine than would otherwise Ье required. Also, the subsequent installation of
preliminary screening in ап existing plant сап bring about ап improvement in
crusher performance - higher throughput rate - without involving major capital
expenditure (Fig.20).
Removal of the fines from the crusher feed reduces wear of the crushing elements,
besides cutting down the hazard of clogging and caking in the crusher.
Comparisons of capital expenditure and operating experience show that the
additional installation of mechanical equipment for preliminary screening is
profitabIe only if about one-third ofthe material flow supplied to the crusher сап Ье
separated in this way. For а given feed material а crusher сап Ье relieved to а greater
extent according as the reduction ratio that it сап attain is lower. This is particularly
true of jaw, gyratory and roll crushers as compared with hammer and impact
Fig.20: Static primary crushing plant with preliminary screening оп
stepped (multi-stage) grizzlies (Babbitless)
200
Stationary crushing plants
crushers. The preliminary removal of fine, sticky and moist material may Ье
advantageous in reducing the risk of clogging and diminished performance,
particularly with jaw and gyratory crushers, but also with hammer crushers.
In general, however, preliminary screening offers по advantage when primary size
reduction is done in а single stage in hammer crushers, which attain high reduction
ratios and сап deliver а product below 25 mm particle size, commonly considered
to Ье the maximum acceptabIe as ball mill feed. As а rule, the raw stone seldom
contains more than 15-20% of fine particles, so that their preliminary removal
from the crusher feed is hardly worth-while. The separation of moist sticky material
below about 25 mm size in the crusher feed сап moreover Ье probIematical and сап
only Ье accomplished with poor efficiency.
The preliminary screening devices used before primary crushers are various types
of stationary grizzlies or moving grid-type screens (with bars or with rollers, either
round or elliptical), reciprocating separators, vibrating grates or heavy eccentric-
weight-driven shaking screens (Fig. 21). А relatively recent development is the
Mogensen sizer, which is especially suitabIe for the separation of moist fine
material that is difficu It to remove Ьу screening from the crusher feed (Fig. 22). This
Fig.21 : Grizzly with elliptical rotating rollers
Fig. 22: Mogensen sizer (illustration of its principle)
201
 Stationary crushing plants
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

machine comprises а number of round steel bars individually attached to а

transverse tubular member. The bars аге not all in the same plane, but аге set in а
staggered arrangement. This ensures that the effective size of the apertures
increases in the direction of flow. The bars, up to 2 m in length, oscillate in response
to the weight of the material moving over them; this oscillatory motion helps to
prevent choking. The range of performance of Mogensen sizers is stated to Ье
characterized Ьу cutsizes from 300 mm down to 25 mm. If sharpness of separation
is of major importance, two ог more sizers may Ье operated in series.
The design principle is simple, по drive power is required, and renewal of worn bars
сап Ье accomplished with relatively little effort.

Intermediate screening
With multi-stage crushing, removal of the fine particles from the first-stage product
сап result in notabIy relieving the second stage. Screening applied after the final
crushing stage, i.e., directly before the grinding mill, is advantageous if the
crushers yield а product with а high proportion of oversize which is liabIe to cause
troubIe in mill operation.

Feeding of two components

Moist and plastic clays аге difficult to comminute with their natural pit moisture
content. They сап Ье crushed, without simultaneous drying, in гoll crushers,
operated multi-stage because oftheir low individual reduction ratios. There may Ье
diffi~ulties not only with comminution, but also with storage, reclaiming and
fееdlПg to the grinding mill if such plastic material is handled alone. Combined Fig. 23: Simultaneous feeding and crushing of two components with
crushing of limestone and clay in the limestone crusher is more favourabIe. For this two apron feeders (О.&К.)
purpose the two materials, in their correct quantitative pгoportions, аге tipped into
the feed hopper. This procedure does not, however, achieve sufficiently homo-
geneous bIending of the materials. Ргорег design of the clay hopper is very important. Its walls should Ье as steep
А solution which is both favourabIe from the process engineering standpoint and
as possibIe, and preferabIy Ье plastic-lined, in order to prevent the clay from
relatively simple in terms of mechanical equipment consists in feeding the two sticking to it. The handling appliance - аргоп conveyor, chain conveyor ог belt
components, at controlled rates, from separate feed hoppers, each delivering its conveyor - should not Ье too narrowly dimensioned, even if only quite small
material Ьу its own feeder (Fig. 23). Thus, Ьу means of two аргоп feeders with quantities of clay have to Ье handled, because otherwise arching of the material
speed control, the crusher сап Ье fed with а correctly proportioned mixture of raw between the side guide plates of the conveyor is liabIe to occur, giving rise to
materials which conforms quite closely to the specified chemical composition. The
troubIe with feeding the clay.
limestone-clay mixture сап usually Ье handled without difficulty Ьу the hammer
crusher even if the clay has very unfavourabIe physical properties.
Co~rse.hard limestone as the main component of the mixture performs а cleaning Protection against foreign bodies
асtюп IП the crusher and facilitates the combined reduction of this material with
the plastic clay tending to clog the machine. 'П proportioning the two components In the quarrying and loading of raw materials it inevitabIy occurs that metallic
the clay is deposited onto the limestone. The speeds of the two аргоп feeders аге so foreign bodies - excavator bucket teeth, bгoken drill rods, drill bits, pieces of rail,
interadjusted that the desired mixture is supplied to the crusher. The two feeder chains, etc. - turn up in the feed material supplied to the primary crusher. If the
drives аге coupled together in such а way that апу change in the speed of the main crusher is fed direct Ьу excavators or dump trucks, there is по opportunity of
аргоп feeder in response to the power consumption of the crusher drive motor is
intercepting and removing such pieces of meta\. Nor is it possibIe to remove them
immediately followed Ьу а corresponding change in the speed of the secondary from the feed material flow: the size of the rock fragments and the very
аргоп feeder (which handles the clay component) so as to ensure that the
considerabIe depth of the moving material (sometimes more than 1 m) ru le out the
predetermined mix proportions аге maintained. use of tramp iron separators.
203
202
 Stationary crushing plants
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

'П primary size reduction, тоге particularly with big single-stage coarse crushers, off. Powerful electromagnet systems аге necessary for dealing with coarse material
operational reliability is best achieved Ьу very heavy and robust design of these moving in а stream of great depth. For effective action of the separator it is essential
machines, equipped with mechanically ог hydraulically operated overload рro­ to distribute the material evenly across the full width of the drum. Drum separators
tection devices to prevent damage being caused Ьу foreign bodies that cannot Ье equipped with permanent magnets тау Ье used for iron removal from fine-
crushed. Оп the other hand, secondary crushers which аге fed with pre-crushed grained material of limited depth оп the conveyor.
rock below about 300 тт particle size сап Ье effectively protected Ьу magnetic Electromagnetic belt pulleys, used at the discharge ends of rubber belt
separators Ьу metal detectors. conveyors, are equipped with а rotating set of magnets acting around the full
circumference of the pulley. Pieces of iron аге carried round to the underside and
Overload protection fall off the return run of the belt опсе they have moved out the magnetic field.
The toggle plates in jaw crushers тау Ье designed as "predetermined fractuгing Magnetic pulleys аге availabIe for belt conveyors of all the normally employed
components", i.e., designed to fail first in the event of overloading of the machine, widths and speeds (and for the depths of material which аге determined Ьу these
thus foresta Iling тоге serious damage to other parts. Hydrau lic overload protection operating parameters).
systems аге тоге expensive, but they avoid having to stop the plant for Suspended magnets are installed over belt conveyors, chutes or ducts and lift
replacement of а fractured toggle plate. The stationary crushing plate сап swivel the tramp iron out of the flow of material. From time to time the magnet is swung
about а top pivot, while lower down it is held in its normal working position Ьу aside, and the excitation cuгrent switched off, to allow cleaning of the magnet. For
hydraulic rams. When а large piece of uncrushabIe material enters the crushing dealing with material containing а substantial amount of tramp iron, belt-type
chamber, ап overpressuгe develops in the hydraulic system, causing the crushing suspended magnetic separators (Fig. 24) тау Ье used. А device ofthis kind is
plate to swing aside. As а result, the foreign body drops through the discharge equipped with а continuous rubber belt which carries the pieces of iron out of the
opening, the rams move the crushing plate back to the working position, and the magnetic field, so that the magnet pole face itself remains clear. For reasons of
feeder - which was automatically stopped when the hydraulic overpressure space such separators are usually mounted transversely to the direction of flow of
developed - is restarted. With this protective system the standstill periods due to the material оп the conveyor. FavourabIe mounting positions аге the points of feed
overloads аге substantially shortened. onto, or discharge from, the conveyor, because at these points the material is
The same principle of hydraulically controlled "give" has Ьееп applied to gyratory loosened up and the extraction of tramp iron thus made easier.
crushers: if а large piece of metal becomes lodged in the crushing chamber, the For all types of magnetic separator the rule is that апу equipment and parts within
discharge opening widens to let it pass. А similar purpose is served Ьу the movabIe range of the magnetic field should Ье made of non-magnetic materials, otheгwise
roiis, held in the working position Ьу springs or hydraulically, оп doubIe-гоll
crushers. 'П impact crushers the breaker elements are similarly designed to move
aside and thus prevent overload damage to the impactor bars or plates.
Crushers with bottom discharge grids, especially twin-rotor machines, which pull
the feed material and апу foreign bodies it contains into the crushing chamber, аге
тоге seriously at risk. Single-rotor hammer crushers are less рroпе to overload
hazard if - as, for example, in the Mammut crusher (Fig. 16) - апу pieces of metal
entering the crusher are hurled against the breaker plate and rebound back out of
the crushing chamber onto the feed conveyor. However, the feeding system will
then have to Ье stopped and the metal removed Ьу hand. Ап advantageous feature
is the use of hammers which сап rotate freely through 3600 оп their pivots and сап
thus swing aside if they encounter uncrushabIe foreign bodies.
As а rule, foreign bodies сап Ье more effectively removed from the material after it
has Ьееп pre-crushed (first-stage crushing). Magnetic separators and metal
detectors are used for the purpose and help тоге particularly to protect the high-
speed second-stage crushers.
Drum-type electromagnetic separators comprise а stationary set of magnets
surrounded Ьу а horizontaily mounted rotating drum or cylinder made of а поп­
magnetic material. The crushed material is passed over the drum, and апу tramp
iron contained in it remains clinging to the drum and is carried round to the Fig. 24: Belt-type suspended magnetic separator, mounted transversely
underside thereof, where there is по magnetic field, so that the pieces of iron fall over а horizontal (1) ог ап inclined ascending belt conveyor (2) (Steinert)

205
204
 О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

these would Ье magnetized and undesirabIy attract iron or steel objects. The lateral
clearance from tramp а iron magnet should Ье about 0.3 times the width of the
magnet. Under the magnet а clear headroom equal to 0.7 times its width should Ье
provided.
Metal detectors are used for revealing the presence of tramp metal which is not
magnetically responsive. The equipment generally comprises опе or two detecting
coils installed over and/or under the belt conveyor or enclosing it. The presence of
а piece of metal in the otherwise constant magnetic field of а coil causes ап electric
pulse which сап Ье utilized for switching off the conveyor or causing а certain
at some considerabIe distance from the actual cement works. Besides, the low
specific surface of the coarse material and its short time of sojouгn in the crusher
make effective drying impracticabIe.
The only heating systems applied to primary crushers are intended, not for drying
the material, but preventing the caking of moist sticky materials which might
otherwise cause clogging.
Heating the bottom plate of the feed chute, the side walls and the breaker plates in
0
impact crushers to surface temperatures of 1800 - 200 С is done with the aid of
heat transfer oil circulated at approximately ЗОО С through а system of pipes.
О

length of the layer of material оп the belt, conta;ning the metal, to Ье diverted from
the main conveying path. Obviously, there should Ье по moving metal parts in the
vicinity of the detecting coil. Static metal parts do not distuгb the detection, but are
liabIe to weaken its sensitivity.
Hygroscopic materials which, when moist, Ьесоте electrically conductive тау
cause false alarms due to variations in moistuгe content (and therefore in
conductivity) оп passing the metal detector. The most reliabIe protection against
tramp metal is provided Ьу the combination: metal detector-magnetic drum-
metal detector (Fig. 25). 'П this arrangement the first metal detector operates the
switch-on/switch-off of the drum separator, whose magnetic field therefore is
activated only when metal is detected оп the conveyor. Апу non-magnetic metal
that passes the drum will produce а response from the second metal detector.
Heat input ratings are in the region of 20000 kcal per houг and per square metre of
heated suгface.
Indirect heating of certain areas of the inlet and outlet casing and crushing
chamber where moist material tends to adhere has Ьееп tried out in some hammer
crushers. These critical suгfaces are heated with externally applied electric heating
elements, with the results that caked materiai spalls off. Insulated hoods protect
these radiant heaters and improve the efficiency of this simple and relatively
inexpensive heating system, which requires little maintenance.
Determining the crusher capacity
The nominal capacity, or rating, ofthe crusher will Ье governed bythe required raw
material throughput and the possibIe working time of the crushing plant. The
quarrying operations, of which the crushing plant usually forms part, are in most
cases conducted оп а si ngle-srlift basis with five or six working days per week. For
ап 8-houг shift the effective crushing time per shift сап Ье put at 7 or at most
7.5 houгs. The crusher should therefore, in ап effective time of 35 to 45 houгs, Ье
аЫе to produce sufficient raw material to feed the kiln plant for а whole (7 -day)
week.
The requisite crusher throughput capacity сап Ье calculated from the following
formula:

Dl<iln Х v R / C Х tкiln
Dcrusher = 24 Х terusher Х (1 -f/1 00)
Fig. 25: Protection against foreign bodies Ьу а combination of metal
detectors and magnetic drum separator where:

example:
Heating of crushers Dcrusher capacity of crushing plant (t/houг)
Dl<iln capacity of kiln plant (t/day) 3000
The pre-drying of raw materials prior to primary size reduction is employed only in vR / C raw material/clinker ratio (kg/kg) 1.6
exceptional circumstances. Elaborate arrangements to prevent "false" air in- f natuгal moistuгe content of (%) 4
leakage into the heated crushers are required in such cases. As а rule, по utilizabIe raw material
waste heat is availabIe at primary crushing plants which have to deal with raw working time of kiln per week (hours) 168
materials with а high natuгal moisture content, especially as such plants are often working time of crusher per week (hours) 35
206 207
 Mobile crushing plants
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

For the example values listed above the requisite crusher capacity is thus:

3000 х 1.6 х 168

Dcrusher = 24 х 35 х 0.96
= 1000 (t/hour).

If the crusher is designed for single-shift working, it will have sufficient capacity
even if the kiln plant capacity is subsequently doubIed: in that case the quarry and
crusher will have to work doubIe shifts, leaving the week-ends availabIe for repairs
and maintenance.

1.3.2 Moblle crushing plants Fig. 26а: Wheel-mounted (rubber-tyred) moblle crushing plant (О.&К.)
Because of the coarse grading of the fragmented rock pile produced Ьу bIasting in
the quarry, this material cannot, as а rule, Ье directly handled Ьу belt conveyors. 'П
order to Ье аЫе to use belt conveying - generally less expensive than long-
distance road haulage - from а point as close to the quarry face as possibIe, the
rock pile will at least have to Ье crushed to "belt conveyabIe" size, which generally
means that it should not contain pieces above about 200-400 тт. The need for
crushing at the quarry face and for moving the crusher along with the site of
quarrying operations has led to the development of various mobile installations in
capacities ranging up to the highest throughputs required.
Depending оп the method of moving the crushing plant from опе working position Fig. 26Ь: Crawler-mounted moblle crushing plant
to another, а distinction сап Ье made between truly mobile (self-propelled) plants
and semi-mobile ones (not self-propelled).
Moblie plants ,п the тоге specific sense of the term have their own integral
travelling machinery, enabIing them to proceed from опе location to the next
unaided.
Wheel-mounted (rubber-tyred) crushers аге employed in cases where they have
to travel over relatively long distances and have to Ье highly manoeuvrabIe. Such
machines сап move at speeds of up to about 6 km/hour. Under suitabIe conditions
the running resistance of the tyred wheels is relatively low, so that drive power
requirements аге correspondingly modest. When the crusher is in operation, the
wheels аге relieved of load, either Ьу being lifted off the ground to that the crusher
is directly supported ог Ьу the lowering of strut legs producing the same effect. А
drawback associated with wheel-mounted crushers is the high bearing pressure Fig. 26с: Rail-mounted moblle crushing plant comprising two sections
exerted оп the ground (4.5-9 kg/cm 2 ). They сап travel оп gradients of up to (О.&К.)
about 1 in 1 О. ОП heavy plants, hydraulic axle load adjustment compensates for the Section 1: feed hopper, аргоп conveyor, crusher, product conveyor
effects of irregularities оп rough ground. Sprung wheel suspension systems Section 11: belt conveyor, dust collector, power supply system
serving the same purpose аге used оп smaller and lighter ones (Fig. 26а).
Crawler-mounted mobile crushers сап likewise ascend 1 in 1О gradients and
travel over ground which need only Ье roughly cleared of obstacles. Besides, the Rail-mounted mobile crushers сап suitabIy Ье used in cases where the direction
bearing pressure is low (1 -1.5 kg/cm 2 ). Travel speeds аге between 5 and of travel is well defined in advance (Fig. 26с). Thanks to the low rolling resistance,
8 m/minute. The crawler tracks аге not relieved of load when the crusher is in drive power requirements for travel аге low, and wear оп the travel machinery is
operation and they аге therefore subjected to severer service conditions than other light. Against this there is the disadvantage that gradients of only about 1 in 40 сап
travel systems (Fig. 26Ь). Ье overcome, while maneouvrabllity is limited and moving the plant to а fresh

209
208
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Mobile crushing plants

working location requires preparation of the quarry floor and, of course, track- operating from а hau\age level at the appropriate height above the floor оп which
laying. The ground should have а fairly high bearing capacity. As а rule, по load- the crusher is standing. In that case it is advantageous to build а suitabIy paved
relief of the travel wheels during crusher operation is provided. гатр that сап safely and reliabIy Ье used Ьу the vehicles. With such arrangements
In terms of cost the most favourabIe travel system is the hydraulically powered the hopper capacity сап Ье as large as that for а stationary crushing plant.
walking mechanism, usually comprising а walking pad with three lifting rams
with which the whole pontoon-like platform with the crusher and other equipment
сап Ье lifted. Horizontal hydraulic walking rams installed between the platform and
the walking pad епаЫе the plant to Ье moved orturned in апу direction (Fig. 26d).
Speeds of about 0.7 to 1.5 m/minute аге commonly adopted for walking crushers.
While the crusher is in operation the walking pad is kept raised оН the ground, the
whole plant then being supported оп strut legs.
Semi-moblle crushing plants аге wheel-mounted (оп rails ог оп rubber tyres)
and аге moved to fresh working locations Ьу towing ог pushing, i.e., they аге not
self-propelled. In recentyears ап alternative system has Ьееп to use special rubber-
tyred ог crawler-tracked lifting vehicles which bodily convey the whole plant to
Fig. 26d: Mobile crushing plant with hydraulic walking mechanism
а fresh position. The advantage is that опе and the same lifting vehicle сап serve
(О.&К.)
the needs of several plants and that, when not in use, the vehicle сап Ье stored
under protection from the weather and other adverse influences (Fig. 26е).
Feed material limestone
Besides mobile and semi-mobile crushing plants there аге what сап best Ье
тах. feed size 1900 тт х 1200 тт х 1000 тт
described as relocatabIe ones, being skid-mounted, so that moving them
product fineness 98% < 25тт
requires powerful tractors. Even so, such plants аге restricted to relatively low
throughput 1000t/hour
service weights and low throughput capacities.
Which system of moving the crusher should Ье chosen will depend to а great Туре of crusher single-rotor hammer crusher
extent оп the technical features of the quarrying operations and оп the condition with discharge grate
(evenness, roughness) of the quarry floor. Feeding system
As with stationary crushers, mobile crushers located close to the working face in feed hopper 30 m З capacity
the quarry сап Ье fed directly Ьу loading shovels ог Ьу dump trucks if they аге, for аргоп conveyor

example, gyratory crushers which аге substantially unaffected Ьу irregular loading. width 2500тт
As the crusher will generally Ье standing оп the quarry floor, the vehicles delivering length 22т
the fragmented rock to it should Ье аЫе to travel up а гатр to the requisite drive infinitely variabIe, controlled in
dumping height ог the crusher тау alternatively Ье fed from а higher floor level (ог response to crusher drive load
bench) than that оп which the crusher is standing. Direct feeding of а crushing
Product handling
plant without the interposition of а haulage vehicle was practised in а West
extractor belt rubber belt conveyor (flat)
German cementworks quarry in the 1960s.ln thatsystem the rock pile obtained Ьу
transfer belt rubber belt conveyor (troughed),
bIasting was fed, with the aid of а scraper, via ап inclined plane to the gyratory
slewabIe through 1200
crusher. The crushing plant was equipped with а hydraulic walking system.
Optimum utilization of the crushing plant - whatever the type of crusher used for Travel system hydraulic walking mechanism
reducing the coarsely fragmented rock pile - сап Ье obtained only Ьу feeding it as walking speed 0.7 m/minute
uniformly as possibIe. As in the case of а static plant, the mobile crusher must Ье тах. gradient 1 in 1 О тах.
fed at а steady rate via а feed hopper. For direct loading Ьу excavators ог loadersthe specific ground pressure 1.5 kg/cm 2
hopper is restricted to а height that enabIes these machines to discharge into it, so
Dimensions
that its capacity is correspondingly limited. If larger hoppers аге used, it will Ье
length overall 52.5т
necessary to build earth ramps to them ог otherwise to use relocatabIe steel гатр
width 10.6т
structu res.
height 16.0т
If the quarrying operations require moving the crusher to а fresh position only at
infrequent intervals, it will Ье advantageous to feed it Ьу using heavy dump trucks Weight 920tonnes

210 211
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
о
Fig. 26е: Crushing plant moved with the aid of lifting vehicles
For plants comprising а feed hopper, feeder and crusher the type of conveyor most
commonly employed is the robust аргоп conveyor. For feeding the rock to mobile
crushers, however, heavy-duty belt conveyors аге occasionally used, these having
the advantage of lower weight than аргоп conveyors, so that the overall weight of
the mobile equipment is correspondingly less. То reduce the severity of the service
conditions to which the belt is subjected, а special belt loading hopper with ап
automatically opening and closing bottom. functioning in the таппег of а slide
gate, тау Ье employed (Fig. 27). Loading this hopper with rock is done with its
bottom closed. With the belt conveyor temporarily stopped, the bottom gate
opens, allowing the rock to fall gently onto the belt, which is then restarted and
delivers the rock to the crusher. Continuous feeding of the crusher is not achieved,
however.
(а) gate closed
(Ь) gate ореп
Fig. 27: Belt conveyor feed hopper with bottom slide gate (Esch)
212
Primary reduction - References
As with static systems, the conveying equipment for removing the crushed stone
from mobile plants тау Ье belt, арroп ог chain conveyors. As а rule these handling
appliances deliver the stone to belt conveyors which аге adjustabIe for height, сап
slew through ап angle of about 1200 and аге connected to the frame of the crusher
supporting platform. These belt conveyors in tuгn discharge the stone onto а
mobile intermediate conveyor ог direct onto the extendabIe ог retractabIe end of
the main belt conveyor that carries the material out of the quarry.
Again as with static crushing plants, the choice of crusher will Ье governed Ьу the
properties of the raw material. Single-stage size reduction of the rock pile to
suitabIe mill feed size - i. е., to 25-80 maximum particle size, depending оп the
mill system - is the preferred technique. Апу other proceduгe such as multi-stage
reduction, preliminary screening before the crusher ог closed-circuit operation
must always involve expensive additions to the mechanical equipment as
compared with single-stage crushing.
Very large crush ing pla nts аге subd ivided into two ог тоге pla nt sections. Thus, the
feed hopper and feeding equipment form а structural unit. The crusher and product
discharge conveyor form another unit. These two units аге separately moved from
опе working location tothe next. Mobile lifting units, mounted оп crawlertracks ог
оп wheels, сап suitabIy Ье used as the vehicular base for giving mobility to such
systems.
The technical data for а single-stage crushing plant for а throughput of
1000 t/houг, equipped with а hydraulically powered walking system. give some
guidance оп the mechanical sophistication, the dimensions and the weights of а
modern mobile installation (see Fig.26d).
References
1. Althoff, Н.: Die Weiterentwicklung der Schreitwerke fur schwere ortsbeweg-
liche Brechanlagen. - In: ZKG 21/1968/512.
2. Altmann, Н. F./Liebmann, R.: Wanderfeldmotor als Antrieb eines Schreit-
brechers. - I п: ZKG 28/1975/53.
3. Andreas, А.: Prinzip und M6glichkeiten der Prallzerkleinerung. - In: ZKG
18/1965/580.
4. Andreas, A./J6bkes, J.: Die Anpassungsfahigkeit von Prallmuhlen bei der
Aufbereitung von Rohmaterialien Юг verschiedene Mahlsysteme. - 1{1: ZKG
30/1977 /558 - 560.
5. Baumbach, F.: Оег Mogensen-Stangensizer - eine neuartige L6sung fur
grobe Trennungen. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 18/1977/64.
6. Erni, Н.: Rohmaterialaufbereitung und Homogenisierung. - In: ZKG
24/1971/487.
7. Esken, Н.: Erfahrungen mit dem Einsatz eines fahrbaren Brechers im Stein-
bruchbetrieb eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 2/1961/1.
8. Fabian, Н.' Einsatzm6glichkeiten von mobilen Brechanlagen. - 'п: Aufberei-
tungs- Technik 21/1980/277.
9. Grosse, О.: Wanderbrecher im Steinbruch eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: ZKG
23/1970/141.
213
о. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
10. Gruschka, 1.: Rationalisierung in Bruchen und Gruben durch sich selbst
bewegende Lade- und Brecheranlagen. - 'п: ZKG 20/1967/1.
11. Ноогтапп, W.: Zuteiler fur Zerkleinerungsmaschinen. - 'п: Aufbereitungs-
Technik 7/1966/510.
12. Kirste, R.: Erfahrungen mit Fahrbrechern und Bandtransport in Zementwer-
ken. - In·ZKG 24/1971/456.
13. Kochanowsky, В. 1.: Erfahrungen mit fahrbaren Brechern in den USA und
Ешора. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 11/1970/466.
14. Motek, Н.: Оег Compound-Brecher (System Andreas Oznobichine), ein
neuartiger Brecher fur die Zerkleinerung von Zementrohmaterial. - In: ZKG
24/1971/497.
15. Pietsch, Н. J.: Verfahren zur Nachzerkleinerung in Steinbruchen. - Aufbe-
reitungs- Technik 11/1970/61.
16. Ruppert, Р.: Betriebsversuche mit zweistufigem Brechen von Kalkstein. -
In: ZKG 25/1972/222.
17. Schneider, Н.: Rohmaterial- und Zementmahlung. - In: ZKG 21/1968/63.
18. Sillem, Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung: Tiefreir..er, Fahrbrecher, Mischbetten. - In:
ZKG 21/1968/56.
19. Sillem, Н.: Zerkleinerungstechnik. - In: ZKG 30/1977/549.
20. Sydow, W.: Mobile Brechanlagen mit Querraupenfahrwerk. - In. ZKG
25/1972/211.
21. Taupitz, К.-С.· РгоЫете beim Absieben von grobstLickigem Roh-Haufwerk.
- In: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/149.
22. Weirich, К. Die verfahrbare Brecheranlage im Zementwerk Kirchdorf. - In:
ZKG 24/1971/54.
23. Weir.., Н.· Fahrbare Gror..brechanlage. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 6/
1965/631.
24. Weir.., Н.: Fahrbare Gror..brecheranlagen, Einsatz und Епtwiсkluпgsmбgliсh­
keiten. - In: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/501.
25. Weir..lehner, G.: Einsatz eines Backenkreiselbrechers mit geschlossenem
Kreislauf fur Kalk-Mergel. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/129.
26. Wilmanns, F./Wolf: Grobzerkleinerung mit Backenbrecher, Kreiselbrecher und
Backenkreiselbrecher. - In. Aufbereitungs- Technik 5/1964/234.
27. Wilmanns, F Gror..brecheranlagen mit Hydroschreiter in Steinbruchen. - In:
Aufbereitungs- Technik 9/1968/235.
2 Size classification
In the context of crushing and grinding the term classification means the
separating ог dividing of particulate bulk materials consisting of а mixture of
different particle sizes into two ог тоге size ranges ог fractions. In general,
separation тау Ье effected оп the basis of volume, i. е., the geometric dimensions
of the particles, ог оп the basis of mass, i. е., differences in material properties.
214
Size classification - Screening
Separation according to particle size is done Ьу screening ог sieving. Inertia forces
аге utilized in cyclone separators and in various тоге sophisticated devices
collectively called air separators ог classifiers.
2.1 Screening
In the cement industry, particle size classification Ьу screening as part of the
production operations is of less importance than, say, in the lime industry ог in coal
and оге preparation. Indeed, true classification procedures in the primary size
reduction stage do not оссш in cement manufacture, sincethe aim of the crushing
treatment is to produce а feed material suitabIe for grinding to а fine powder, not
the production of size fractions as required for crushed stone used in road
construction, concrete production, etc.
For particle size separation in the finely pulverized products of the grinding
processes in the cement industry - raw meal and cement - there is по economic
possibility of classifying large quantities Ьу screening ог sieving, which has to rely
solely оп gravity. ОП the other hand, screening ог sieving is of importance as а test
procedure for assessing the effectiveness of crushing and grinding treatments,
тоге particu larly Ьу determining the particle size distribution ог the percentages
retained ог passing certain screen ог sieve sizes and thereby monitoring the
granulometric composition of intermediate and final products.
In crushing plants, screens with surfaces comprising usually square apertures
(formed Ьу а series of wires extending in two directions) ог slots (formed Ьу
parallel bars; these аге known as grizzlies) аге used for the following purposes:
(1) relieving the operating conditions of primary cГlJshers Ьу preliminary sepa-
ration of fine particles from the feed;
(2) removal of unsuitabIe constituents such as sand ог loam, in order to enrich ог
concentrate the lime component;
(3) separation of the product of а primary crusher into fine and coarse fractions;
the latter тау Ье returned to the crusher for further size reduction ог Ье fed to
а secondary crushing stage.
In general, obtaining а sufficiently finely comminuted product, i. е., with particles
not exceeding а specified upper size limit, тау Ье important for the protection of
subsequent size reduction machinery (secondary crushers, grinding mills) ог for
ensuring favourabIe operating conditions in subsequent processing stages (grind-
ing, рге-bIепdiпg).
'П the further stages of cement manufacture, screening is used for the following
purposes:
(4) screens аге interposed into the product flow from clinker plants in order to
remove апу oversize clinker particles ог fragments of fractured grind ing media;
(5) screens installed before packing plants and bulk cement dispatch facilities
serve to protect the machines and equipment from troubIe that could Ье caused
Ьу foreign bodies ог lumps of material;
(6) in clinker dispatch installations, screens аге used for the removal of fine
particles caused Ьу abrasion ог shattering, thus reducing dust nuisance in the
handling of the material.
215
 Classification associated with dry grinding processes
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

material and the separating air, the magnitude of the centrifugal acceleration, and
2.2 Classification associated with dry grinding processes
the method of separating the finished product (the fine particles) from the air
Types and operating principles: stream. In some air separators the material сап moreover Ье given а drying or а
For very fine size reduction using closed-circuit operation it is necessary to cooling treatment.
separate the particles fine enough to qualify as "finished produc(' from the coarser
particles (oversize) in the product discharged from the grinding mill. The
2.2.1 Static air separator (Fig. 29)
requirements that the separator, or classifier, must fulfil are; good selectivity
(sharpness of separation) to епаЫе economical grinding plant operation, and The static air separator or classifier is so called because it has по moving
highest possibIe uniformity of the granulometric composition of the finished mechanical parts. It is used chiefly in conjunction with air-swept grinding plants
product. (operating with tube mills or roller mills). The material to Ье classified is сапiеd
In the dry system of closed-circuit grinding the separation is effected in various along in а stream of air from the mill and enters the separator from below. It flows
types of air-swept devices called air separators or air classifiers and often between the conical outer casing and the inner separating сопе. As а result of the
comprising power-driven rotating elements (in which case they are called
mechan ical а ir separators). 1n the wet system, the classifyi ng devices are screens or
hydrocyclones. fines
Various types of air separator employed in connection with cement manufactuгe
will now Ье described. They all function оп the same principles. А particle in а
rotating cuгrent of air is subjected to the interaction of three sets of forces: the force
exerted Ьу the air (proportional to the square of the теап particle diameter), the
force of gravity, and the centrifugal force (the two last-mentioned forces are outlet duct
governed not Ьу the size, but Ьу the mass, of the particle). If the effective force
exerted оп the particle Ьу the air exceeds the resultant of gravity and centrifugal ring of guide vanes
force, the particie will remain airborne and Ье сапiеd along with the air. If the force (angle setting adjustabIe)
of gravity prevails, the particle will sink, and if the centrifugal forces prevails over
the other forces acting оп the particle, the latter is flung outwards against the wall
of the separator, where its motion is апеstеd so tt1at it is then precipitated as in ап
ordinary cyclone separator (Fig. 28).
Although the separators used in the cement industry are broadly similar in
principle, they differ considerabIy from опе another in matters of design Щld range
of application. The differences consist mainly in the method of introducing the

feed
fines
tailings

F d faree exerted Ьу the air (air drag)

Fc eentrifuga/ faree
Fg faree af gravity tailings
Fig. 29: Static air separator (schematic)
Fig. 28: Forces acting оп а material particle in а rotating current of air
217
216

О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
increasing cross-section the air flow velocity is reduced here, and coarse particles
аге precipitated. At the same time, the tangential admission of the air brings about
а rotational motion in this outer separating chamber, so that а certain amount of
centrifugal precipitation also occurs in it. The material collected here is discharged
through the tailings (oversize particles) outlet of the separator.
'П the upper part of the separator the material-Iaden air enters the inner сопе
through а ring of adjustabIe guide vanes. The material particles will Ье subj~cted to
а centrifugal acceleration whose magnitude depends оп the setting of the vanes.
Just as in а cyclone separator, the air carrying the material spirals downwards in the
inner сопе and is accelerated in doing so. The result of the force of gravity and the
centrifugal force thus prevails over the force that the air exerts оп the larger and
heavier particles, which аге flung against the wall of the сопе, where they lose their
velocity and slide down the wall into the tailings outlet of the separator. The
tailings аге retuгned to the mill for fuгther grinding. ОП the other hand, the smaller
particles (the fines) remain entrained in the air, which carries them upwards in its
spiralling motion and out of the separator. This discharged air laden with fines (the
finished product of the grinding process) is passed into а product collector
- usually а cyclone ог а filter - in which these particles аге finally separated from
the air.
Control possibilities:
The separation characteristic of the static air separator сап Ье varied in several
ways:
Ьу varying the air flow rate and therefore the velocity of the air, which in tuгn
alters the force exerted Ьу the air оп the particles and indirect/y also the
centrifugal force to which they аге subjected.
Ьу adjusting the deflector over the bottom inlet duct through which the
material-Iaden air enters the separator
\п some separators of th is general type the position of the deflector сап Ье adjusted
in the vertical direction. Reduction of the distance between deflector and the
mouth of the inlet duct causes intensified acceleration and change of direction of
the air stream. The material particles impinge оп the wall of the casing and fall into
the tailings outlet. This classification Ьу deflection and impingement is rather
unselective, and for this reason small distances between inlet duct and deflector
аге used mainly in cases where the static separator has to act as а dust precipitator,
е. g., as а pre-collector, and not for the sharp separation of particle sizes. Besides,
this classsification involves excessive pressure loss in the system. Iп тоге
sophisticated forms of construction the deflector, which in its simplest form тау Ье
а mere baffle plate, is given а streamlined conical shape and тау Ье fitted with
attached guide vanes Ьу means of which а laminar spiral flow pattern of the air
entering the separator сап Ье obtained. With this arrangement the precipitation of
the particles in the outer chamber is accomplished chiefly Ьу the cyclone wall effect
already mentioned.
- Ьу adjusting the top outlet duct
As in ordinary cyclones, the cut size - the particle size at which separation
between fines and oversize is effected - сап Ье varied Ьу vertical ac\justment of the
218
Classification associated with dry grinding processes
air outlet duct at the top of the separator. For а constant air flow rate, ап increase in
length of this duct will, within limits, shift the cut size so a~ to give а finer product,
and vice versa. Although most static separators have ап adJustabIe top outlet duct,
this does not constitute а suitabIe method of routine product fineness control, but
serves as а means of basic adjustment to suit the given operating conditions.
2.2.2 Bladed rotor separator
The characteristic featuгe of this type of air separator is а rotor comprising а set of
bIades in а conically tapered arrangement and rotating оп а vertical shaft in а
casing of truncated -conical shape (Figs. 30а and 30Ь). The material- \а~еп stream
of air is admitted from below and is distributed sideways Ьу dеflесtюп at the
underside of the assembIy. The rotating bIades accelerate the rotational flow ~f the
air which already has а spiral motion as it enters the separator casin.g. The rоtаtюпаl
and accelerational effects are intensified Ьу the upward паГГОWlПg of the sp~ce
between the rotor and the outer casing. The air is drawn inwards Ьу suсtюп
through the gaps between the rotor bIades. The heavier particles, i. е., those for
which the resultant of gravity and centrifugal force prevails over the force .exerted
оп them Ьу the air stream, аге flung outwards against the wall ~f the саSlПg a.nd
then fall back into the mill (Fig. 30а) or into the tailings outlet (F~g: 30Ь). The !I~e
particles are carried out of the separator with the air and аге preclpltated from It In
cyc\ones or in filters.
Control possibilities: ..
For constant air flow rate the performance of the separator сап Ье modlf~ed. Ьу
varying the rotor speed. Because of the effect on.th~ p~rformance of the gГlПdlпg
mill, variation of air flow rate is possibIe only wlthln Ilmlts.
а material-Iaden air from grinding chamber
and tailings retuгn
Ь fines discharged from separator (product)
с rotor with bIades,
d variabIe drive
t а'
Fig. ЗОа: Bladed rotorseparator. withdrive. as mounted over rollermills
(Loesche GmbH)
219
 2
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Classification associated with dry grinding processes

а feed material in gas stream, the air current required for the functioning of the separator is generated Ьу а fan
Ь fines discharged from separator (product) inside the separator casing or mounted outside it;
с tailings discharged from separator the material for classification is introduced into the stream of air Ьу means of а
(coarse particles) distributing disc or similar device.
d rotor with bIades Circulating air separators are the most extensively used type of classifying
е adjustabIe сопе
equipment for fine particles in the cement industry. They comprise machines
f adjustabIe air control ring differing widely in their design features, but nevertheless embodying the same
9 variabIe drive basic operating principles, the differences being confined to the method of material
feed and distribution and of controlling the performance of the separator. It would
Ье outside the present scope to attempt а description of the тапу variants offered
Ьу manufacturers. Only two main types will Ье considered: the conventional
mechanical air separator (or centrifugal separator) and the now increasingly used
cyclone air separator.

Conventional air separator (Fig. 30с)

Ап air separator of this general type comprises ап outer casing, ап inner casing (the
upper part of which forms the separating or classifying chamber), а ring of guide
vanes, the distributing disc or plate, the main circulating fan and the auxiliary fan
(the latter known also as counter-vanes or secondary bIades in some manufac-
turers' Iiterature).
The main fan, which functions as а radial fan, produces а circulating air current in
.,
the separator. It flows upwards in the inner casing and downwards in the space
а t с
between this and the outer casing, re-entering the inner casing through the ring of
~ig. ЗО.Ь: Bladed (otorseparator. with drive. as ап independentelassify_
Ing unlt fed through а riser duet (Loesche GmbH)

Range of application:
Because. ofi~s abili!y to ~ccept high air throughputs the bIaded rotor separator is
u~ed ~аlПlу .In СОПJuпсtюп with air-swept grinding mills, more particularly roller
m,lIs, In whlch case the separator is ап integral feature accommodated in ап
upward ex!ension of the mill housing itself. Alternatively, the material-Iaden air
from the т~" сап Ье fed through а riser duct to the separator, which сап thus Ье
use~ as ап I.ndependent device for the separation of coarse particles from а stream
of alr carrYlng d~~t o.r other particulate matter. Its mode of operation, and the
subs~quent рrесrрltаtюп of the fine particles from the carrying air, are as already
descrlbed.

2.2.3 Circulating air separators

The circulating air separator (as а generic designation) differs from the static
separator ап~ the bIaded rotor separator in some important respects:
- th~ mаtепаl f~r classification is fed mechanically to the separator Ьу means of а
sUltabIe сопtlПUОUS conveyor;
Fig. ЗОе: Conventional air separator
220
221

О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
fi~ed guide vanes. The upward current of separating air flows past the distributing
dlSC and through the rotating bIades of the auxiliary fan.
The pu Iverized materia I for classification is fed onto the distributing disc and flung
outwards Ьу centrifugal force. Large particles collide with the wall of the inner
casing and fall into the tailings outlet in the conical bottom part of this casing. The
sm~lIer particles remain airborne and аге carried upwards to the auxiliary fan,
whlch accelerates the air which has already acquired а spiralling motion in the ring
of guide vanes. The centrifugal forces set up in this way fling the coarser particles
a~~inst the wall of the inner casing, so that these, too, аге discharged through the
ta IllПgs outlet. The finer particles continue upwards in the air current and аге drawn
~h~ough the bIades of the та in fan, wh ich further accelerates the air and discharges
It Into the product collecting chamber, i. е., the space between the inner and the
o.uter ~asing. Н.еге the fine particles аге precipitated from the downward spiralling
alr, as In ап огdlПагу cyclone, and pass out of the fines outlet in the conical bottom
part of the outer casing.
Control possibilities'
The separation characteristic of the air separator сап Ье modified in various ways
(1) Adjustments to the auxiliary fan:
Adjustments to the auxiliary fan will affect the spiralling air current and therefore
modify the centrifugal acceleration of the particles carried in the air, sothat а shift in
cut size is obtained. At the same time, for а given performance characteristic of the
main fan, the circulating flow rate and flow velocity will also Ье altered in
consequence. Whatever type of control intervention is applied, the aim should Ье
to obtain the requisite centrifugal acceleration for size separation with the least
possibIe pressure drop.
Some possibilities for the control of various types of air separator.
(а) The speed of the auxiliary fan and the performance of the main fan аге
constant:
Without alteration of the auxiliary fan bIade angle setting: Increasing the
number ог size of the auxiliary fan bIades shifts the cut size to а smaller particle
size. If there is scope for radial adjustment of these bIades, а reduction of the
clearance between them and the wall of the inner casing will produce а similar
shift in the cut size. Conversely, reducing the number ог size of the auxiliary fan
bIades, ог increasing their clearance, will result in increased particle cut size.
Alteration of the auxiliary fan bIade angle setting: Maximum acceleration of the
sp~ral air сuпепt is obtained with the auxiliary fan bIades set vertical. Апу
adJustment up to ап angle of 450 оп either side reduces the effective
(projected) bIade surface агеа and thus also the radial acceleration. If the angle
is further increased with respect to the vertical, а fan effect propelling the flow
of air is developed, while the radial acceleration is further reduced. If the
auxil~ary fan bIades аге sloped in their direction of rotation, they will strengthen
the alr flow due to the main fan, and the cut size will Ье increased. If the bIades
аге sloped in the opposite direction, they will reduce the flow, and the cut size
will Ье decreased.
222
Classification associated with dry grinding processes
(Ь) Adjustment of the auxiliary fan speed while the performance of the main fan
remains unchanged:
The change in speed changes the acceleration imparted Ьу the auxiliary fan to
the spiralling air current. If the availabIe speed control range for this fan is
insufficient for the required purpose, the measures indicated under (а) тау
additionally Ье applied.
(2) Adjustments to the main fan:
The air f\ow velocity, and therefore its capacity to сапу along the particles of
material and keep them airborne, is affected Ьу changing the performance of the
main fan. Depending оп the design of the air separator, the necessary adjustments
тау Ье performed while the machine is running ог тау require it to Ье stopped.
Моге particularly, the following adjustment possibilities аге availabIe:
changing the speed of the main fan,
changing the effective surface of the fan bIades;
reducing the intake cross-section of the fan impeller Ьу means of adjustabIe
louvres;
adjusting the setting angle of the guide vane ring.
'П most air separators there is scope for the interlinking of several control
interventions, so that the separation characteristic сап Ье modified to suit а wide
range of operating conditions.
'П particular cases, е. g., for the optimization of plants operating under high load ог
where special requirements have to Ье fulfilled Ьу the classified material, it тау Ье
necessary to сапу out extensive investigations and tests in order to ascertain the
most favourabIe and most economical setting of the separator to meet these
conditions.
'П general, it is preferabIe not to regard the air separator as ап individual piece of
equipment, but to consider it in combination with the grinding plant with which it
has to interact.
The quality of the separating effect depends not only оп the technical design
features, but also оп the operating load of the separator, and attains its optimum
within the design performance range. Outside this range the qua\ity declines. This
being so, wrong conclusions тау Ье drawn if the separator is considered in
isolation from other equipment. For instance, if some fault in the mill causes роогег
size reduction, the circulating load in the closed grinding circuit and therefore the
operating load of the air separator will increase, а situation that cou Id incorrectly Ье
interpreted as being due to а decline in separator performance.
Cyclone air separator (Fig. 30d):
'П terms of design features and classification principle the cyclone air separator is
basically similar to the conventional type of separator.
The differences consist in the external arrangement of the air circu\ating fan and
product collecting cyclones.
The fan, which is characterized Ьу better efficiency and сап develop higher
pressures than the slow-running internal fan of the conventional air separator,
enabIes the fines to Ье precipitated from the air in high-efficiency cyclones.
223
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Fig. ЗОd: Cyclone air separator (О. & К.)
Although this mode of operation involves greater pressure losses, it is тоге
effective than the classifying action achieved in the conventional separator. The
separating air circulated through the system is thus very largely relieved of its load
of fine particles before being returned to the separating chamber.
In the conventional separator with its less effective separating action there occurs
internal recirculation of тоге particularly the very fine fractions, resulting in
diminished classification performance. This snag is virtually eliminated in the
cyclone air separator. As а rule, such separators сап therefore Ье operated with
lower rates of air circulation than conventional ones of сотрагаЫе throughput
capacity and сап achieve better separation in the very fine particle size range.
224
Classification associated with dry grinding processes
Cyclone air separators аге therefore very suitabIe in connection with the manufac-
ture of high-strength and very high-strength cements, i. е., ground to а high degree
of fineness. Also, the flow rate of the separating air circulating through the cyclone
air separator сап Ье varied within wide limits, enabIing not only the specific surface
but also the particle size distribution of the finished product to Ье controlled.
ОП account of the higher air rates and тоге favourabIe size classification
performance, these separators сап Ье operated at higher specific separating
chamber loadingsthan is practicabIewith conventional separators.lt is particularly
the higher air ratesand the scopeforvarying them over а wide rangethat makes the
separator performance much less sensitively dependent оп ~he loading of t~e
separating chamber, i. е., even quite large variations in the loadlng do not result In
апу major decline in the quality of performance. .
As in conventional air separators, the material for classification тау also Ье drled ог
cooled in the cyclone air separator.
Control possibilities:
In principle, the possibilities for the control of cyclone air separators аге the same as
those of conventional ones, except of course that, as already noted, the air flow rate
сап Ье varied within а much wider range. For normal purposes, i. е., the production
of raw meal and cement in their usual degrees of fineness, the scope for control
provided Ьу changing the auxiliary fan speed and/or the air flow rate is usually
adequate.
2.2.4 Channel wheel separator
'П this machine, which differs radically from the separators described so far, the
mаtепаl for classification is fed from above through а central tube which delivers it
to the centre of the channel wheel, а horizontal rotor comprising а series of radial
feed channels alternating with extraction channels. Rotation of the wheel hurls the
material outwards. Under the action of the Coriolis force it is spread in а thin layer
оп the геаг walls (in relation tothe direction of rotation) ofthe feed channels. Atthe
perimeter the material issues from each channel Ьу streaming out over the throw-
off edge of the wheel. Around the circumference, behind each feed channel, is ап
intake opening through which the air is sucked in and flows radially inwards
(Fig. 31).
The actual separating ог classifying action is accomplished directly in front ofthese
intake openings. The stream of material coming out of the feed channels is
intersected Ьу the air flowing into the extraction channels, so that the trajectories of
the particles undergo varying amounts of curvature depending оп the size and
weight of the particles and resulting from the combination of the inertia forces and
the force exerted Ьу the stream of air. The finer particles, whose trajectories аге so
strongly curved Ьу the air сuпепt that they аге sucked into the extraction channels,
аге сапiеd along inwards and into а collecting duct which delivers them to а
product collecting cyclone. ОП the other hand, the trajectories of the coarser
partic!es аге less strongly curved. These particles аге thus сапiеd out of the intake
range of the extraction channels, impinge upon the wall ofthe separator casing and
fall into the tailings outlet (Fig. 31 а).
225
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Classification in wet grinding

i
i
в
,\
\,.-/1
.1)

\.~,/
.;<:;;;;
:.........:
Fig.31: Channel wheel separator (Krupp-Polysius)
1 separator casing, 2 channel wheel, 3 drive, 4 plenum chamber, 5 feed, 6 feed
downpipe, 7 foreign bodies removal, 8 air fan, 9 fines collecting cyclones

Control possibilities:
Experience so far gained with this separator indicates that the cut size сап most
advantageously Ье altered Ьу varying the rotation speed of the channel wheel.
Field of application:
As the channel wheel separator is а fairly new development, а comprehensive body
of operating experience is not yet availabIe. Results so far obtained would suggest Fig.31 а: Channel wheel separator: operating principle (Krupp-Polysius)
that it сап most suitabIy Ье used in the manufacture of very high-strength cements А feed, В fines. С tailings, D separating air
and for special size classification purposes.

2.3 Classification in wet grinding
As in dry grinding, so also in wet grinding it is possibIe to obtain ЬеНег economy Ьу
closed-circuit operation, i. е., Ьу separating the mill product into fines and oversize,
the latter being returned to the mill for further grinding. Efforts to make the wet
process of cement manufacture as efficient and economical as possibIe within the
currently attainabIe limits have, among other improvements, led to the develop-
ment of а procedure using high solids concentrations (up to 1250 g/Iitre) in the
slurry.
Conventional gravity classifiers, such as rake, screw, bowl and up-current
classifiers, which function satisfactorily only with considerabIy lower соп­
centrations than these, аге unsuitabIe for the purpose. It was therefore necessary
to devise other methods. Developments in that direction resulted in today's
hydrocyclones and curved screens, including the DSM screen.
2.3.1 Hydrocyclones
Along with conventional dry cyclones, hydrocyclones come within the general
class of centrifugal separators ог precipitators, and the two types have features in
common (Fig. 31 Ь). The raw slurry is admitted under pressurethrough а tangential
nozzle into the upper cylindrical part of the hydrocyclone and is compelled to flow
in а downward-spiralling path. The centrifugal forces developed in this way
classify the material particles according to mass. The larger and heavier particles аге
forced outwards and travel in а descending path along the wall of the casing and
аге discharged from the bottom outlet (арех nozzle). ОП the other hand. the finer
particles аге carried upwards in the central part of the swirling flow set up Ьу the
throttling action developed in the narrow bottom of the hydrocyclone and аге
discharged through the central pipe (vortex nozzle) at the top. As the bottom
discharge flow contains mainly coarse particles, its solids concentration is
substantially higher than that of the top discharge flow. 'П practice the not very

226 227
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
selective separating action of the hydrocyclone often necessitates the use of two
stages of classification, the slurry being passed successively through two
hydrocyclones connected in series.
In order to obtain reasonabIy satisfactory sharpness of separation at а cut size of
0.1 -0.2 mm when operating with high-viscosity slurries with solids сопсеп­
trations of about 1000-1250g/litre, large centrifugal forces аге required. These
аге achieved in small-diameter cyclones into which the slurry is fed at relatively
high pressures, generally above 2 atm. (gauge pressure). As а rule, hydrocyclones
range in diameter from 1 О mm (used in multiple assembIies, so-called multi-
cyclones) to about 600 mm.
Against the advantage of technical simplicity of wet grinding systems must Ье set
some drawbacks:
The particle cut size and sharpness of separation аге considerabIy affected Ьу
the slurry feed rate, sol ids concentration, viscosity and admission pressure;
Under normal operating conditions these variabIes cannot always Ье main-
tained at favourabIe values without additional arrangements, е. g., return of
part of the product flow to the pump sump ог other such measures.
For the subsequent stages of the raw material preparation process - de-
watering ог partial dewatering of the slurry and burning it in the kiln - the up to
10% higher water content of the fine slurry discharged from the hydrocyclone
fines
dischorge
top outlet
(vortex nozzleJ
,
outlet nozzle
toilings
(орех nozzleJ Fig. 31 Ь: Hydrocyclone
228
Classification in wet grinding
as compared with the raw slurry fed into it entails extra cost in handling and
treating this liquid with its lower solids concentration. Also, the hydrocy-
clones, pumps and pipelines аге subject to heavy mechanical wear оп account
of the high operating pressures and flow velocities.
Control possibilities:
The separating characteristic of а hydrocyclone is governed Ьу its design features,
the variabIe properties of the feed material, the feed pressure and the operating
conditions. Influencing factors аге:
(1) those determined Ьу the design of the equipment:
diameter;
angle of taper of the conical section;
ratio of the bottom outlet (арех nozzle) and top outlet (vortex nozzle)
diameters (in some hydrocyclones this сап Ье varied);
(2) those determined (and modifiabIe) Ьу the operating conditions:
feed rate;
solids concentration in the raw slurry; viscosity (сап Ье modified Ьу the
addition of thinning agents);
feed pressure.
Determining the settings for optimum selectivity and cut size often involves
protracted trial-and-error procedures because the interactions of these various
factors аге very difficult to gauge, even though they аге linked Ьу physical
relationships.
The separating performance of hydrocyclones responds very sensitively to even
quite minor changes in the above-mentioned factors, and in order to obtain а
slJitabIy uniform finished product it is essential that the items of eqlJipment
connected before and after the cyclones аге functioning properly.
2.3.2 Curved screens
'П the classification devices so far described, the separating effect is achieved Ьу
the action of gravity and/or centrifugal force upon the particles, i. е., the mass ог
weight of the individual particle determines the magnitude of the force thus exerted
оп it. ОП the other hand, in the devices described in the present section, separation
is based оп the repeated comparison of the size of the particles with а particular
aperture (ог the geometric projection thereof). Accordingly, the size classifiers in
this general category аге designated as "screens" (Fig. 31 с).
In principle, а curved screen consists of а grid consisting of horizontal bars of
wedge-shaped ог trapezoidal cross-section which аге arranged so as to form а
cu rved surface. The raw slurry for classification is fed under pressure from above, in
а thin stream, onto the screening surface, оп which it flows downwards. At the
edge of each Ьаг that it encounters а thin layer is "peeled off" from this flow. At the
same time, а separation in particle size is effected at these screen Ьаг edges. In
much simplified terms it сап Ье said that particles whose centres аге above the
edge of а Ьаг which they encounter аге carried along Ьу the flow of slurry in its
further descent along the curved surface, while particles whose centres аге below
the edge аге discharged through the screen.
229
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Classification in wet grinding

Control possibilities:
For а given aperture width between the screen bars the cut size and the selectivity
of the screening operation сап Ье modified Ьу varying the flow ve\ocity and solids
concentration of the slurry. Reduction of the velocity increases the cut size and the
probability that oversize particles will Ье present in the fines, while the probability
of undersize particles being present in the coarse rejects is correspondingly
reduced. Increasing the flow velocity produces the opposite effects.
For equal apertures and flow velocities ап increase in the solids concentration of
the slurry fed to the screen reduces the cut size, but the sharpness of classification
becomes роогег. Conversely, with lower solids concentration in the feed slurry
there is ап increase in cut size and ап improvement in sharpness.
As in the case of hydrocyclones, it requires some trial and епог to determine the
"'-
oversize optimum settings for flow velocity and solids concentration for а given purpose.
Curved screens likewise respond very sensitively to changes in these parameters,
while it is equally essential thatthe equipment installed before and after the screens
should function reliabIy.

Fig.31c: Curved screen (schematic)

I
ОП the curved screens used in the cement industry, which have а curvature radius
of about 0.5 m and operate with flow velocities of 3 - 8 m/second, layers I
corresponding in thickness to about 25% of the aperture width аге skimmed off at
the successive bars. With the usual apertures employed оп these screens, from 0.3
\
to 1 тт, cut sizes of О.15-0.5тт аге obtained.
The edges facing the oncoming flow аге subject to heavy wear and Ьесоте
bIunted in course of time, as а result of which the cut size is shifted to smaller I
particle sizes. Оп the other hand, the геаг edges of the bars Ьесоте gradually fine pгoduct
sharpened Ьу the abrasive action of the particles. Ву reversing the bars from time to
time it is possibIe, despite increasing wear, to maintain the desired cut size of the
screen.
Like hydrocyclones, curved screens сап Ье successfully operated with slurries
containing solids in concentrations up to 1250 g/Iitre, and they have the
advantage over hydrocyclones in that the increase in water content of the fine
slurry is less pronounced. 'П тапу instances, combinations of hydrocyclones with
curved screens as secondary classifiers аге employed. Fig. 31 d: DSM screen (schematic)
231
230
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Criteria for the assessment of classification processes

О5М screen Fines output

The О5М screen (developed bythe Dutch 5tate Mines) is а furtherdevelopment of The fines output V F is the percentage (Ьу weight) of the feed material that is
the curved screen and functions оп the same principle (Fig. 31 d). 'П this case the separated as fine product in the classification process.
screen surface also consists of horizontal bars of trapezoidal ог wedge-shaped
section, but here arranged as а cylinder segment comprising ап агс of 2700. The raw F
vF = - Х 100 [%]; v G = -G Х
0/].,
1 00 [/0 vF + vG = 100 [%].
slurry to Ье classified is fed tangentially under pressure through а nozzle onto the А
А
inner surface of the screen. It rises in а curved path and travels round this surface.
Оп the way, the slurry containing the fine particles is discharged through the As а rule, in actual plant operation it is impracticabIe.to ?etermine the flow rates ~f
apertures between the bars and emerges оп the outside of the screen and is the feed (А), fines (F) and tailings (G) directly Ьу wеlghlПg. Therefore the output IS
collected there. Meanwhile the coarse particles discharged from the inner surface calculated from the results of the particle size analysis:
after travelling completely round it аге collected in another hopper. The one-sided
wear of the bars, which affects the cut size of the classifying operation, is f-a
a-g
compensated Ьу reversing the direction of flow round the screen. The nozzle сап v F =--х100 [%] and vG = --х 100 [%].
f-g f-g
Ье swung over to the other edge for this purpose.
As compared with ordinary curved screens, the О5М screen attains better
sharpness of separation because of the longer path that the slurry travels along the Errors of measurement inevitabIy affect the result of the outp.uts ~alcul~t~d Ьу
curved surface. means of these formulas. А simplified empirical formula, whlch IS sufflclently
accurate for practical purposes, has Ьееп given Ьу Koulen:

5а-
vF = - - 5g
- Х 100 [0/]
/0,
2.4 Criteria for the assessment of classification processes St-5 g
where 5 , 5 g and 5! denote the totals of the unde~size. percenta~~s obtaine~ in
'П the cement industry, classifiers аге used mainly in conjunction with closed-
circuit grinding. Their operation considerabIy affects the grinding process. Various а
the particle size analysis of the samples of feed materlal, flПеs and tal\lngs taken !п а
criteria and characteristics are used for assessing their performance. test оп а classifier. Obviously, only values which correspond to the sarne partlcle
sizes should Ье used for determining the totals (see ТаЫе 1).
Notation:
А classifier feed rate [t/hour] = total mill throughput Recycle ratio
F fines output rate [t/hour] = finished product output
The recycle ratio u is the ratio of the classifier feed rate to the fines discharge rate:
G tailings output rate [t/hour] = circulating load
a,f,g undersize (proportion below а certain size) in A,F,G [% Ьу weight]
L1a,M,L1g = proportion of а particular size fraction of А, F, G [% Ьу weight] А 100 St-5 g
vF percentage output of fines [% Ьу weight] u = F = ~ = Sa - 5 g •

vG percentage output of tailings [% Ьу weight]

U recycle ratio This ratio provides а criterion for the loading of the classifier ~~d thus al~~ o.f the
Р precipitation efficiency [%] grinding plant.ln а grinding plant operating under steady condltlOns (eqUlllbrl~m)
t selectivity [%] the rate of feed of new material to the plant must Ье equal to the rate of flПеs
dt cut size [micron]. discharge from the classifier, i. е., the material removed as finished product from the
grinding circuit. The recycle ratio сап therefore Ье ~al~ulated from the measured
values of the rate of new material (М) fed to the gГlПdlПg plant and of the rate of
Fundamental equations: tailings discharge from the classifier:
A=F+G
М +G А
A'a=F'f+G'g и=---=-.
А . L1a = F . М + G . L1g. М F
233
232
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation techn%gy
Criteria for the assessment of classification processes

ТаЫе1: Determination of fines output Ьу Koulen's method (10); tests юо

оп а cyclone air separator with 5.2 m diameter (О. & К.)

90 ~1----

method 01 particle 80
J
(Jt
f
analysis [~ize]
~uт
[%] [%] &7 /
J
1 з,7 7,S" г,4-
sedimentation
z 6,& "3,0 3,9 /
~ 4"~ г3,7 6,г
l' 17,~ ;и,":f ~4-
11:
111
16
J2
Цг
4~Б
o~6
9'f,J'
-fo,i' \ 1
I

~
гz,J' =2J..SlJ. m
М· 7'1,1 99,3 ~,г 20
J :dt
I

90 ~ :1
air- jet pqo ~3 J'~6
гоо о
sieving 9~7 "'О() 9,1 I

- . N 3,o "J'~4- J'13,~

ю м w ш ~ ~ ю 80 W
particle size in IJ.m
~ 00 ~ 00 ~ ~

Fig. З2а: Separation curve for cement with а specific surface of

v. .. s. - 5я _ ..j,f./,o-ЗfЗ,~ ~ ..
З980сm2 /g (plotted from ТаЫе2)
,. 05'- S9 ·100 - .s.з6;4-ЗfJ,~ • ,О() .... Зf.2 7-

'(е'= 100- У,: = 61,1"1..

stepped diagram corresponding to these functions must Ье drawn and then the
100
I.t::; V;-""~ average smooth separation curve approximating to that diagram.
The selectivity сап Ье calculated from.

G 'Ag Ag о
Precipitation efficiency t= --х 100 = vG х- [Уо].
А ·Аа Аа

The precipitation efficiency of the classifier is:

Cut size (ТаЫе 2)
Fх f f
р = --х 100 = V F х- [%]. The cut size is defined as that particle size dt of which half the particles are
Аха а
discharged in the fines and half in the tailings, i. е., for that size the selectivity is
50%.
The precipitation efficiency is referred to а certain given particle size (and varies
If sharpness of separation is роог, тоге than 50% of even the finest particle sizes
with the size considered). It denotes what percentage of the material finer than the
тау end up in the tailings, so that then по definite cut size dt exists.
reference particle size in the classifier feed is discharged as fines.

Selectivity Specific precipitation efficiency

It is possibIe to assess the performance of а classifier without ~aving to determ!~e
The selectivity (separation efficiency) is characterized Ьу what percentage of а
the separation curve. For that purpose the particle size distгiЬutюп and the speclflc
given particle size in the classifier feed is discharged in the tailings. Plotted against
surface areas of various particle size ranges in the classifier feed material сап Ье
particle size, it appears as а curve (separation curve, Тготр curve) representing the
considered instead.
so-called classifier selectivity function (Fig.32a).
The sieve undersize amounts (percentages Ьу weight passing the respective test
It is not possibIe to determine the selectivity for а given particle size directly from
sieves) аге plotted against the particle sizes, as has Ьееп done in the upper diagram
the size analysis values, as these relate to size fractions, not individual sizes. First, а
of Fig.32b. 'П the lower diagram the Blaine values corresponding to these
234
235
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Criteria for the assessment of classification processes

"о -:;; 100..---....--.,..---.,..---...,....--.....---....,..--....,..---,

ф

Ф
'+-
.L:
~
'ф-
.S 3: 80 - -!
1
~-~

~ ~ ~ > I I
:~ ... 8..... iI')~",+,,-~<:)...~1It) .~ ~ 60 f---+------+---F1-i-+----i--Г I
~ ~ "'-~- ~~'~~~'I',:-~ ~ 2i. -
uQ.I ...... ~ """'~~<:)... ~
I air separator,
"ij Б ~ 'ю 4.5 m diя.
VI ro
~ 80 fines output V F
~ ~ =40,11
.9~ ~ :zt: ~k~~~~~~~~
"U~
tj
~ + ~ ~- ~- 'о' \).., ~'~ k' '", ~
Q.

Q.lO
Q.I-
<1
$
1It)'
~ I
_u
J! Ispecific precipitatL~~
о Е 1---f---f------Jf---41~ efficiency
О
~
IU ~'";;' 00-
"'о
~~bI~~~~~~~ ~ .~ ~ fines output
.!!
а.
Q)
CII
... -
'и
VI
,:><:1 ~

~
(,.,
\1)

~
~ ,",'" ,,",' ~ ,",' '"', ,"'" ~''''-- "'" ~ ~' ф
~
11 = тах. fines output
i VF ;
IU
-§~ ~ 5000 f----j.-~---I---+-, = - - - = 0,536
Q)
r::
.... tJ I V~ та>,<.
f5 ~'i ~~ "f.1I) ~I\I'-;j.. 1::,~~~1>o..
~
О
(j ~ .. ~ '\j' ~ I'J /\,j' 1\1' ~ ~ ~'~ "-- ~ Jооо~--г---г--t--·-?-~оо;;;;;;±===i
>
(,)
IU
~'1 2i
<11
.S 80 '10 60 80 100 120 1110
r::
,....,
О
З --.~ ~~ ~t\o:'i\a '" particle size in JJ.m
J!!CII
a)~
~ ~ ,..,.- "-)- "':.' "'о ~1\iti:"'5<)1:~
~ N" !!) ~- ~- ~ I
Fig. 32Ь: Determining the maximum percentage output of fines V FmaX for
...
Q)

а given classifier feed material (15-)

CII Q о
со
Q)
~
~ ..... ,...., ~
ёii
>
':>
.... ~ ~- ~ ~~~~~~~~~
'\!- ,",' ~ ~ ~ 1)..' ~ ~' 1::,' (
~
'-'
~ ~ '")
>----
.t: ~ ;;: <1 Ё
.~ ~
....
.~ CXI
а
undersize amounts have Ьееп plotted. For this purpose the Blaine values haveto Ье
determined for а sufficient number of different size fractions to епаЫе а continuous
(,)0
и;;-
N
......... 1t)!.I)/'I..CII)-.I\r~It)~
~ ~Io)-~~-~~N:
ф,,-,

ф
... .gЕ
CII
...
Q)
11
<I~ " ~ !'\t 1::,' 1::,' I
~ curve to Ье drawn.
Suppose that the desired ciassifier product must have а Blaine value (specific
... Q) ~
о Е surface) of 3300cm 2 /g, as in the example represented in Fig.32b. /п the lower
r:: IU VI diagram this is found to correspond to а particle size of 75 microns in the classifier
О .-
._
~ Е
"t:I Q.I
;§ '+-2 ~
~~,..,.,.",'OOVIlt)~
"""- !"t ~, ~ ~' ~- ~' ~... ~ ~
"d\i Ic)~ ~~
, feed. Projecting this value perpendicularly upwards into the upper diagram shows
this size to correspond to about 75% passing the sieve (= VF max.). This fines
~N
(,)
-11)
. output VF max. = 75% represents the highest attainabIe output of finished product
~-s having а specific surface of 3300 cm 2 /g if the classifier feed is separated ("cut")
Q.I
N .~ ~~ ~ ~ '-"J~,~~~~~-i
with complete sharpness at 75 microns. Actually, complete sharpness of cut is
never achieved. The ratio of the actual fines output VF (= 40.11 % in the example
-
Q)

J:I ...
...
о
o'iij
а.
~ considered) to the highest attainabIe output VF max. provides а criterion for the
IU IU
1- ... separating performance of the classifier.
237
236
 D. Manufactuгe of cement
Classifier tests
The rate of feed and the partic/e size distribution of the material supplied to the
classifier affect the classification result. Therefore these two parameters should Ье
kept constant duгing the period of the trials, and the grinding plant should Ье
operating under steady conditions (equilibrium). 'П order to compensate for апу
variations in the feed, the samples of the material flow rates А, F and G are taken
over periods of 5 -1 О minutes at close intervals of 1 - 2 minutes. Gross samples of
the three flows - classifier feed, fines, tailings - are respectively prepared and the
specific suгface values and particle size distributions are determined.
The test record should include the relevant technical data of the classifier, е. g., the
speed and setting of the auxiliary fan, the settings of the valves or dampers in the air
circulating system, etc., together with particulars of the mill, the mill feed material,
and the cooling air or hot gas introduced into the grinding plant in so far as these
affect the classification process.
Evaluation of the classifier tests
The undersize percentages (а, f, g) for the classifier feed rate (А), the fines output
rate (F) and the tailings output rate (G) obtained in classifier tests are indicated in
TabIes 1 and 2. The values of а, f and 9 сап advantageously Ье p/otted against
partic/e size in а diagram with linear scales. The values for the percentage output of
fines V F and for the recyc/e ratio u are calculated Ьу the methods given in Section
2.4. The selectivity values, which are needed for drawing the separation cuгve, are
calculated as shown in ТаЫе 2.
References
1. Baumbach, F.: Der Mogensen-Stangensizer Eine neuartige Lbsung fur grobe
Trennungen. - 'п. Aufbereitungs- Technik 18/1977/64.
2. Bundesverband der Deutschen Kalkindustrie e.V.: Technische MerkbIatter,
MerkbIatt 6/1, 11, 111, Sichter in der Kalkindustrie.
3. Eicke, G.: Mahlanlagen zur Erzeugung von Spezialmehlen. - 'п: Aufberei-
tungs- Technik 20/1979/99.
4. Heyd, J.: Vorzuge des drehzahlgesteuerten Windsichters. - In. ZKG
15/1962/486.
5. Ноorтапп, W.: Zuteiler fur Zerkleinerungsmaschinen. - 'п. Aufbereitungs-
Technik 7/1966/510.
6. Jager, Н.: Der Zyklon-Umluftsichter. - 'п: ZKG 15/1962/479.
7. Kayser, W.: Neuentwicklungen auf dem Gebiet der Streu-Windsichter. _ In:
ZKG 15/1962/469.
8. Kayser, W .. Kennwerte und Kennlinien zum Beuгteilen von Sichtvorgangen. _
'п: ZKG 17/1964/547.
9. KnobIoch, O.jMuller, M./Eickholt, Н .. Entwicklungsstand von Streuteller und
Kanalradsichtern. - In ZKG 32/1979/413.
238
10. Koulen, K./Schneider, Н.: Zuг Berechnung des Gewichtsausbringens bei der
Sichtung. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 6/1965/586. .
11. Krogbeumker, G.: Betriebserfahrungen mit dem Kanalradslchter. - In: ZKG
33/1980/233.
12. Mayer, F. W.: Die Trennscharfe von Sichtern. - 'п: ZKG.29/~966/259.
13. Rock, Н.' Die Abscheideleistung von Windsichtern und Ihr ElnfluB auf das
Mahlergebnls bei der Kreislaufmahlung. - 'п: ZKG 30/1977(564. ..
14. Ruegg, А. Abscheide-Effekt und Wirkungsgrad von Streuslchtern fur Ze-
mentmahlanlagen. - In: Schweizer Bauzeitung 85/1967/70.
15. Seebach, Н М. von: Verfahrenstechnische Optimierung von Zementmahlan-
lagen. - In. ZKG 25/1972/71. . .
16. Stumpf, К.: Ein- oder mehrstufiges Brechen von КаlkstеlП. - 'п: Aufberel-
tungs- Technik 4/1963/533.
17. Taupitz, К.-С.: ProbIeme beim Absieben von grobstuckigem Roh-Haufwerk.
- 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/149. . ...
18. Trawinski, Н.: Das Bogensieb zuг nassen Feinabsiebung. - In: Zeltschrlft fur
Erzbergbau und Metallhuttenwesen VIII/1955/1. ..
19. Trawinski, Н.: Mechanische Trennverfahren fur Suspensionen und Schlamme.
- 'п' Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/709. .
20. Tromp, К. F.: Neue Wege fur die Beurteilung der Aufbereitung von StеlП­
kohlen. - 'п: GlUckauf 73/1937/125.
21. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e.V.: AusschuB Maschinentechnik. MerkbIatt
МТ28: Sichteruntersuchungen (1965).
з Grinding
3.1 General Introduction
Ву grinding is understood the comminution of materials to а. powder. 'П c~ment
manufactuгe Ьу the dry process it constitutes the final stage In the рrоduсtюп of
raw теаl (raw grinding). The clinker discharged from the ki.ln has .t~ Ье ground to
а fine powder which, with the admixtuгe of some gypsum. IS the flnlshed product
of the whole process: cement. Th is final clinker grinding operation is often referred
to as finish grinding. The terms "pulverizing" and "milling". are. basically
synonymous with "grinding", but are mostly confined to the соmmlПutюп of соаl
or lignite for use as pulverized fuel. ..
The object of grinding is, more particularly, to i.ncre~se t~e ~pec.lflc suгface of the
material - while conforming to а desired partlcle slze dlstrlЬutюп - to such ап
extent as to obtain adequate reactivity for the next stage in the cement
manufacturing process or adequate reactivity in the finished product (the cement)
itself.
In the cement industry about 75% of the total electric energy consumption is
consumed in grinding the raw materials, the clinker and, where applicabIe, the fuel
239
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Because of the diminishing availabIe sources of energy and the attendant rise in
energy costs it is important to рау particular attention to this major cost item.
Grinding of materials in the two main types of mill now commonly employed
- tube mills and roller mills - inevitabIy involves very considerabIe energy losses.
The actual energy input required for reducing а given material to а certain particle
size far exceeds the energy theoretically needed for breaking down the particles
and thus increasing the surface area of the material. Depending оп the criteria
applied, it is estimated that only between 2 and 20% of the energy supplied to the
grinding system is utilized for producing new surface. The remainder, i. е., between
98 and 80%, is lost energy, largely going to waste as heat and vibration.
There has of course Ьееп по lack of effort to improve present-day grinding systems
and to achieve greater есопоту in terms of energy utilization. Some positive
results have indeed Ьееп achieved. Even so, the attainabIe improvements in this
respect are still only а mere fraction of the energy losses associated with
grinding.
Further developments - е. g., based оп fundamentally different comminuting
actions such as those of the centrifugal forces in planetary ball mills or of the
pressure waves associated with electrical discharges - do indeed ореп up some
interesting prospects, but such processes are still very much in the experimental
stage and nowhere near full development for use оп ап industrially meaningful
scale.
The probIem facing the operator of а grinding plant is to decide how to achieve
maximum есопоту with the equipment now availabIe. For this it is essential to
know the present-day possibilities and limitations and to Ье properly informed of
the ways and means of assessing the performance of the plant. Besides, the
improvement of existing systems and the design of new ones have to Ье based оп
а sound understanding of these principles.
The energy required for the comminution, or size reduction, of а material to а
certain required fineness (characterized Ьу the specific surface of the product
obtained) will depend оп the hardness of the material, its compressive strength, its
brittleness (or its elasticity or its plasticity), the size and shape of its particles, its
temperature and moisture content, and of course also оп the nature of the
comminuting action exerted Ьу the grinding process employed These factors in
combination determine the resistance that the material offers to size reduction and
сап Ье regarded as specific of the material.
This specific resistance to grinding сап Ье expressed as specific energy require-
ment and сап provide а criterion for directly comparing the size reduction
properties of different materials with опе another.
The size reduction of а material - in the cement industry the materials concerned
are minerals or mixtures of minerals - therefore involves overcoming specific
resistances or forces. 'П the main these are crystal bonding forces and interfacial
bonding forces. 'П crystalline materials, fracture is initiated at flaws which are
always present in such materials and which constitute weak spots that impair the
homogeneity of the crystals. When the material is subjected to load, these flaws act
as notches where stress concentrations оссш and where fracture will Ье initiated
when the stresses exceed the local strength of the material.
240
Forms of comminuting action - Types of grinding mill
The probability of fracturing is governed not only Ьу the magnitude of the loading,
but also Ьу the rate (speed) of load increase because it is this that determines
whether the material will, within limits, behave in а more plastic or in а more elastic
manner.
The efficiency of а size reduction process тау Ье judged Ьу comparing the energy
consumption of ап industrial grinding plant with the energy theoretically required
for achieving the size reduction оп the basis of the physical theories of particle
fracture. The actual energy consumption is always found to Ье тапу times greater
than the theoretical value, the difference between the two values being ап
indication of the energy lost or wasted in grinding the material.
More particularly, these energy losses are due to:
(1) Friction between the particles of the material themselves and between them
and the grinding elements (grinding media, liner plates, grinding rollers,
grinding bowl, etc.). 'П ball mills there is moreover friction between the
grinding mediathemselves and between them and the milllining. Thefriction is
converted into heat, noise and electrostatic charge.
(2) Wear of the grinding elements; elastic and, to some extent, plastic deformation
of the elements.
(3) Elastic deformation of the material to Ье comminuted until the fracturing stress
is attained at the flaws and weak spots in its particles, so that these break up.
(4) Plastic deformation of the material to Ье ground.
(5) Formation of particle agglomerations.
3.2 Forms of comminuting action
The conventional machines for the size reduction, or comminution, of materials
make use of the following types of mechanical action applied to the particles:
compression, shear, percussion and impact. As а rule, there are по clear-cut
divisions between these various actions, and in most machines two or more of
them оссш simultaneously, i. е., the particles are subjected to а combination of
actions.
3.3 Types of grinding mill
3.3.1 TumbIing mills
In machines of this category the size reduction of the feed material is accomplished
Ьу the action of gravity upon the contents of the mill - which is usually а tube-
shaped or drum-shaped unit rotating оп а horizontal axis - in the course of its
rotation. 'П the cement industry such mills are used for raw material, coal and
clinker grinding.
А distinction is to Ье made between tumbIing mills containing grinding media,
usually consisting of steel balls, and those containing nogrinding media (or only а
small quantity), the comminuting action being performed mainly Ьу the feed
material itself, i. е., the coarse particles act as their own grinding media in tumbIing
upon, and rubbing against, опе another (autogenous mills).
241
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Motion of grinding media in tube mills

TumbIing mills operated with grinding media аге usually of the type called tube would, however, Ье тоге logical to apply this designation to this whole class of
mills. mills, irrespective of the length/diameter ratio.
Tube mills сап Ье classified according to various criteria.
3.3.2 TumbIing mills with grinding media (tube mills) (1) number of grinding compartments:
In this very extensively applied grinding system the grinding media and the feed - single-compartment mills;
- multi-compartment mills;
material to Ье ground are brought together in а rotating tubular or drum-shaped
(2) method of product discharge:
compartment. The media and material are lifted some distance at the rising side of
end discharge through mill bearing trunnion;
the mill in its rotational motion and, after reaching а certain height, соте tumbIing
end discharge through trunnion with stream of air (air-swept mills) ,
down (cascading and/or cataracting). The actual height to which they are lifted
end discharge at periphery of mill;
depends оп а number of factors' the speed of the mill, the type of lining, the
central discharge at periphery of mill;
composition and shape of the grinding media, the filling ratio (mill loading
(3) nature of the grinding process:
percentage), and the properties of the mill feed material.
Size reduction work is done both during the rising movement and during the wet grinding:
in ореп circuit;
subsequent cascading/cataracting of the mixture of grinding media and feed
in closed circuit;
material. In the first part of this cycle, i. е., the lifting stage, the material is reduced
dry grinding:
mainly Ьу compressive and shearing action. Then, in tumbIing back to the bottom
in ореп circuit;
of the mill, it is subjected mainly to impact and percussion.
in closed circuit (with air classifier equipment).
The grinding media used in the cement manufacturing industry are nearly always
steel balls or short cylindrical steel media (Cylpebs). Porcelain or rubber-jacketed
steel balls or porcelain Cylpebs аге used only for exceptional purposes, е. g., in the
production of white cement. Grinding media consisting of other materials, such as 3.4 Motion of grinding media in tube mills
flint, тау Ье used for the reduction of very soft raw materials, е. g., chalk.
Rotation of the mill causes the charge consisting of grinding media and feed
Th~ mill is lined with plates, usually of steel and commonly referred to as liners,
whlch serve to protect the mill shell against wear and also to assist the lifting of the material to Ье lifted some distance Ьу friction between the media and the lining.
feed material/grinding media mixture. 'П wet grinding, linings made of rubber or а The helght to which the charge is iifted will depend оп а number of factors.
combination of rubber and wood тау Ье used. These materials, and also porcelain circumferential velocity of the mill;
linings, are employed in white cement manufacture. shape, size and weight of the grinding media,
friction between the lining and the grinding media; its magnitude сап Ье
А third function - besides providing wear protection and helping to lift the mill
contents - thatthe liners are sometimes required to perform is that of "classifying" modified Ьу design features of the liners;
the grinding media according to size along the length of the mill. This effect is friction within the mill charge itself; the magnitude of these frictional forces is
in turn governed Ьу the loading percentage, the proportion of feed material in
achieved Ьу the use of specially shaped liners.
relation to grinding media, and the properties of the material, such as its
moisture content and flowability.
3.3.3 Various forms of construction for tube mills It is not possibIe toquantify all these variabIes and estabIish ап exact mathematical
analysis. То simplify the probIem of grinding media motion, the behaviour of just
The design features of certain types of tube mill which are of little or по importance
in connection with cement manufacture (е. g., rod mills, trommel screen mills, etc.) опе of them - say, а ball - will first Ье considered.
The ball is subjected to centrifugal force (due to the rotation of the mill) and to the
will not Ье described here.
force of gravity. Under the combined action of these forces the ball will travel in а
The technical nomenclature applied to tumbIing mills tends to Ье inconsistent. For
circular path, i. е., in contact with the rising wall of the mill, so long as the radial
instance, the designation 'Ъаll mills" is sometimes rather loosely applied as а
component m х 9 х cos а of the gravitational force is less than the centrifugal force
generic term to describe all these mills (except rod mills, autogenous mills, etc.) or,
тx~ .
alternatively, this term is confined to such mills with а low length/diameter ratio __ -о At the point of the circumference where the radlal component of the
(below 3'1 or 2: 1). The latter is а rather arbitrary distinction, whilethe designation r
'Ъаll .mills" тау Ье misleading because the grinding media are not necessarily gravitational force becomes larger than the centrifugal force, the ball detaches itself
spherlcal: but тау ~e cylindrical bodies such as Cylpebs. Mills characterized Ьу а from the wall and falls back into the mill. 'П doing this it travels along а parabolic
length/dlameter ratlO of 3: 1 or more are conventionally called "tube mills". It path (Fig.33).

242 243
 О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Motion of grinding media in tube mills

The assumption оп which the above calculation is based, namely, equal angular
velocity of the grinding media and the mill shell, is not fu/filled under actual
operating conditions. Only at rotational speeds substantially higher than the
theoretical critical speed will the grinding media remain in contact with the lining
all round the circumference.
Непсе the critical speed serves merely as а reference value for describing mill
speeds, which are often expressed as а percentage of the critical speed.
As has Ьееп determined experimentally, the most favouгabIe grinding effect is
obtained in the range between 68 and 75% of the critical speed. Tube m;lIs are
normally operated within these limits. As а rule, the various manufactuгers have
adopted certain speed ranges as most suitabIe for their mills.
The bulk volume of the grinding media charge in tube mills is usually between 20
and 35% of the internal volume of the grinding compartment. This filling ratio is
known as the loading percentage or grinding media load of the mill. The media
form а bed comprising а number of layers. When the mill rotates, the inner layers
Fig. 33: Forces acting оп а grinding ball detach themselves before the outer ones. If the speed of rotation of the mill is
sufficiently high and the loading percentage is appropriately chosen, the media
The following notat;on will Ье used' perform а cataracting motion (Fig.34).

m mass of the grinding ball [kg]

v (circumferential) velocity [m/second]
r radius of the circular path [т]
а angle of detachment [degrees]
n speed of mill rotation [revolutions/minute]
9 acceleration of gravity [m/second 2 ].
Оп the assumption that the ball cannot slide or roll оп the mill lining and that
it therefore moves at the same angular velocity as that of the mill shell, the
ang/e of detachment сап Ье determined from the equilibrium condition
m х v2 .. v2 2 Х 11 Х r х n
mх9 х cos а = ---, glvlng: cos а = --, while v = _
r 9 х r 60
so that cos а = 1.118 х 103 Х r х п 2 . Above а certain rotational speed - the so-
c~lled criti~al speed - detachment of the grinding media will not occuг, i.e., they Fig. 34: Cataracting Fig. 35: Cascading
wlll Ье саПlег round and round the circumference. Непсе cos а = 1. This speed is of grinding media of grinding media
characterized Ьу the condition that the centrifugal force and the gravitational force
. тx~
at the top of the clrcumference are in equi/ibrium. so that: - - - = mg. The feed material, which is lifted along with the grinding media and is subjected to
r compression and shear duгing this part of the motion, is pulverized mainly Ьу
2x11xrxn impact and percussion in the zone "А", where almost the entire energy of the
Putting v = 60 ,we obtain for the critical speed. falling grinding media is concentrated. This form of communuting action is
especially effective in the primary size reduction of relatively coarse feed material
30 42.3 supplied to the mill.
ncr;t = l;r or ----,=:== [г.р.т.], Under similar conditions, but with higher loading percentages, the grinding media
Vr у О;
will perform а cascading motion (Fig.35). 'П this case the inner layers of the
grinding media charge detach themselves before the outer ones, and the latter fall
where О, denotes the internal diameter of the mill (in т).
back onto the media which аге already detached and moving downwards. As
244
245
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Motion of grinding media in tube mills

contrasted with what occurs in cataracting, in cascading the motion of the I

I
grinding media in their downward stream is characterized Ьу flowing and rolling I
I
rather than falling. Thus the energy of falling is distributed over а larger агеа and I
.----------------т---
therefore less concentrated. For this reason, cascading is not very suitabIe for the I
I
comminution of coarse feed material, but is оп the other hand very effective for fine _ 0--0- -0- -0- - 0--0 -- 0-- o-J-----
(secondary) grinding. 234 5 67:

For equal circumferential velocity of the mill shell the actual pattern of grinding
media motion Ьетееп the two extremes of cascading and cataracting is governed
screen
Ьу а number of factors: , 1,6 1,5
,
shape and surface configuration of the liners;
composition of the grinding media charge; 1', ~
.Е
O,()gтm
........... \

--.
loading percentage of the mill; <1J
~ 1 1,4
lJl
resistance of the material to comminution; , ........... а

moisture content of the feed material.

0,217'117'1
......... " r--- ~
.S
Through the first three factors it is possibIe to modify the motion of the grinding \
~~
""~~
<1J
1', Е
media so as to adapt it to the operating conditions in апу given case. 1 1,3 :J
~~ i О
>

3.4.1 Motion of the material being ground 1,017'117'1 '\.

~ 1,3 -+1,2
'П tube mills the raw material is fed, and the product discharged, in а continuous
flow. 'П the course of size reduction, the material moves from the inlet to the outlet 3,Отт
"'r-.. ".,
~.-
"./ \
\ j
.\ "\, /
1"11,0
of the mill. This motion is due to several causal factors. 'П dry grinding these аге: 5.0",,"
1,2

\ "'х i'--.
--
11" .......
increase in bulk volume of the material according as it is ground to finer particle ,,"Отт

size;
increasing flowability of the material as it is тоге finely reduced;
r-юmm
7S",т
~~ t----._ --- \'-..... 1,1
displacement of the fine material with better flow properties Ьу the coarser feed о J 4 5 6 7
material with роогег flowability. effectlve length {т}
In addition, in air-swept mills the stream of air passing through the mill assists the
- - - гetQlned
longitudinal progress of the material. - bulk denslty - ' - ' - volume Incгease

3.4.2 Effect of volume increase оп grinding (Fig, 36)
Besides ргорег adjustment of the grinding media to suit the feed material, the
proportion of material in relation to grinding media in the mill is а major factor
governing the effectiveness of the grinding process. If the proportion of material is
too low, а high percentage of direct impacts between grinding media will оссш, so
that по material is pulverized between them and nocomminuting work isdone. Оп
the other hand, if there is too much material in the mill, too much of the energy of
falling will Ье dissipated in displacing the particles from between the impacting
grinding media and will thus Ье wasted.
Experience shows that the best grinding results аге generally obtained when, with
the mill at rest, the top level of the material coincides with the top level of the
grinding media charge along the whole effective length of the mill. In order to
obtain such conditions it is necessary that, with increasing bulk volume of the
material with progressively finer size reduction along the mill, the speed at which
Fig. 36: Increase in volume (bulking) of the feed material with increas-
ing fineness of grinding in а tube mill of 4.0m diameter and 7.5m
effective length
the material is transported longitudinally through the mill proportionally increases.
This is achieved thanks to the better flowability that the material acquires as it
becomes тоге finely ground.
The level that the material settles down to under continuous mill operating
conditions is governed Ьу the composition of the grinding media ch~rge. As а. rule,
this level сап Ье lowered and the residence time of the materlal IП the mlll Ье
shortened Ьу using coarser grinding media (Iarger balls, etc.), and vice versa .. ln
actual practice the ргоЫет is to determine the operating point at which, wlth
maximum throughput, the required degree of size reduction is achieved.

246 247
 --- --~~"-"~~-"~----------------------~!!rr----------------- --------------- ...
О. Мапufасtше of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Calculating the mill drive power

Wet grinding Gxa 2хпхп

'П wet grinding сапiеd out in tube mills the axial progress of the material is
governed mainly Ьу the flow velocity of the sluпу, its water/solids content and the
fineness of the raw sluпу particles. If the water content is appropriately adjusted,
classification of the material according to particle size оссшs in the mill, which is
advantageous because particles already sufficiently reduced in size will then not
unnecessarily Ье fшthег subjected to grinding action.
N=--,---
102 60'
in which а is ап unknown quantity. Ву way of simplification it сап Ье assumed
that, in all mills with сотрагаЫе loading percentages and rotational speeds, there
is а constant ratio between а and the internal diameter of the mill, so that we сап
write: а = Х х DLi .
ОП substitution of this relation into the above expression for N we obtain.

3.5 Calculating the mill drive power

Gх Х х DLi 2 х 1t Х n
N= х - - - [kW].
The power input required for driving а tube mill сап Ье determined from the 102 60
relationship:
power = torque х angular velocity (Fig. 37). То obtain а simpler expression, we сап introduce а power factor.

Хх2хп
С = --- so that: N = G х DLi Х nх С [kW] ,
60 х 102

where:
1\1 power consumption [kW]
G weight of mill charge [t]
DL1 internal diameter of mill [т]
С power factor
1t speed of mill rotation [revolutions/minute]

This calculation is, as already stated, based оп the assumption that in all mills with
сотрагаЫе loading percentages the distance а is а constant proportion of the
diameter. Thus по account is taken of апу fеаtшеs that affect the lifting height of
the mill charge and the magnitude of the distance а, such as the shape of the liners,
the type of grinding media, the weight of the grinding media charge, and the
physical properties of the feed material.
Values for the factor С have to Ье determined empirically. Unfortunately, they
Fig.37: Simplified geometric relationships for determining the mШ
drive power exhibit а wide range of scatter between the upper and lower limiting sizes of the
grinding media employed, so that the power consumption values calculated with
the aid of such factors tend to Ье iпассшаtе. The power consumption of а tube
When the mill is in operation, the mass of grinding media and feed material forms mill determined in this way, which takes account of the mechanical losses of the
ап iпеgulагlу shaped asymmetrical body whose centre of gravity is at а distance а mill and drive but not the efficiency of the drive motor, is therefore to Ье regarded
from the vertical centre-line of the mill cross-section. The opposing torque is thus only as ап approximate guide value. То allow for the efficiency of the motor ап
equal to the weight G of the grinding media multiplied Ьу the distance а, i. е. extra 4% should Ье added (Fig.37a).
М = 9 ха.
Relative to the rotating mill shell, the centre of gravity S, which is at rest, has the Example
2хпхп
angular velocity ---о Data of the tube mill:
60 internal diameter DLi = 3.13 т; effective length 11.5 т; grinding media charge
From the relation: 82.5t; loading 20.5%;
power = torque х angular velocity we obtain. С = 0.252 (coarse grinding media);

248 249
 а

О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

TumbIing mills without grinding media (autogenous mills)

rotational speed n = 17.5 r.p.m.;

Differences in design between tube mills and autogenous mills аге due to the fact
feed material. raw material for cement manufacture.
that in the latter type of grinding machine it is necessary to operate with а larger mill
Power consumption: N = 82.5 х 3.13 х 17.5 х 0.252 = 1139 kW
charge volume and greater height of fall of the "grinding media" in order to develop
adding 4% (= 46 kW) gives I\J = 1185 kW.
sufficient comminuting energy, because the lumps of material that have to perform
This calculated value compares with N = 1195 actually measuгed for this mill this function аге of lower density than the steel balls ог Cylpebs used in tube mills.
operating under these conditions.
The comminution of опе piece of feed material Ьу another is more effective if there
is а pronounced difference in mass between the two pieces; therefore the particle
с.> size distribution of the feed material in ап autogenous mill must not Ье
(; homogeneous along the length of the mill. This requirement is fulfilled Ьу using
tJ mills which аге short in relation to their diameter and Ьу installing so-called
~
...
Q)
deflectors, which аге internal fittings that deflect the material towards the centre of
~ the mill.
8. Besides requiring larger effective volumes and different length/diameter rati~s,
autogenous mills must also rotate at higher speeds than tube mills - so as to 11ft
0,26
the charge higher and thus obtain greater heights of fall - in order to attain
comparabIe throughput rates. Autogenous mills do indeed differ considerabIy from
0.25 large balls
tube mills in having very low length/diameter ratios, of the order of only 1 :5, and
>40mm their speeds аге in the range of about 70 to 100% of critical. They аге used both for
0,24 drying grinding (Aerofall mills) and for wet grinding.
'П dry grinding, the sufficiently pulverized material is removed from the mill usually
0,23 Ьу а stream of air, which enabIes the granulometric compositi~n of the prod.uct ~f
the mill to Ье controlled within certain limits. Such air-swept mllls demand hlgh а/г
small balls/
throughput rates, which сап Ье turned to advantage Ьу combining the autogenous
0,22 Cyl pebs grinding operation with drying of moist feed material. .
<40mm In wet grinding, the product is discharged Ьу overflow through the t~u~пюп.ou~let

0'21~ ог through sieve plates. In comparlson with ord inary tu Ье mllls conta In IПg grl nd IГIg
media, the raw slurry fed to ап autogenous mill shou Id have ап approximately 7 to
10% higher water content.
0,20 _
With autogenous grinding, whether dry ог wet, it is possibIe to grind "nat~rally"
granu lar bu Ik materials ог materials that have Ьееп suitabIy pre-crushed, subJect to
-~----Т---'-""""'--'-""'-'---Т--т--r- the maximum feed particle size not being too large. Sometimes, оп the other hand,
I 1
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 specially separated larger pieces of rock аге added to act as "grinding media" in
power factor С % mill /oading what could otherwise Ье too fine-grained а feed material. For the same reason,
large steel balls (up to а loading of about 10%) may Ье introduced i.nt? the ~ill to
fig. 37а: Power factor С for determining the drive power of а tube mill assist the autogenous grinding action and compensate for vаГlаtюпs In the
granulometric composition of the feed material.
'П the cement industry, autogenous grinding is used only in certain individual
3.6 TumbIing mills without grinding media (autogenous mills) cases and then only for the primary grinding of raw materials. With the currently
availabIe mills of this kind it is not possibIe to obtain а finished product of sufficient
The motion of the mill charge in ап autogenous mill is subject to the same fineness to serve as raw meal for kiln feed. This is so because the selective size
principles as those operating in ап ordinary tube mill, except that instead of balls ог reduction effect associated with autogenous grinding, which may Ье advan-
other grinding media the larger pieces of feed material themselves perform the tageous in the preparatory processing of other raw materials, is rather undesirabIe
com~inut.ing function. Both types of mill аге governed Ьу the same physical in raw grinding for cement manufactuгe. Моге particularly, it means that
~еlаtюпshIРS, .namely, that the new surface produced is proportional to the energy homogeneous hard components in the feed material аге liabIe to Ье inadequately
IПрut to the m,11 and that the work done in comminuting the material is determined broken down.
Ьу the mass and height of fall of the grinding media.
The main advantage of autogenous grinding, i. е., without (ог with only а limited
250
251

D. Мапufасturе of сеmепt 1. Materials ргерагаtiоп tесhпоlоgу
ргорогtiоп of) gгiпdiпg media, lies iп the lower rates of wear iп соmрагisоп with
gгiпdiпg iп tube mills. Оп the other hапd, claims that аutоgепоusgгiпdiпg iпvоlvеs
lower specific power сопsumрtiоп, such as аге sometimes put forward iп the
literature, арреаг поt to Ье suЬstапtiаtеd. Iп mаkiпg апу such соmрагisопs it is
песеssагу to compare the results of the gгiпdiпg process поt merely оп the basis of
регсепtаgеs геtаiпеd оп test sieves, but also iп terms of specific surface values.
Because of the more highly selective character of the соmmiпutiпg асtiоп, which
tепds to produce more cleavage аlопg the сопtасt faces of the micro-crystals, the
аutоgепоus gгiпdiпg product tends to сопtаiп а lower ргорогtiоп of very fiпе
particles.
3.7 Monitoring of wear
The iпtегпаl fittiпgs oftube mills, such as the liпегs, the feed апd discharge devices,
the iпtегmеdiаtе апd discharge diaphragms апd the gгiпdiпg media charge, аге аll
subjected to severe mесhапiсаl асtiопs. These mапifеst themselves iп wear of the
parts сопсегпеd, the degree of wear Ьеiпg dерепdепt оп the properties of the feed
material to Ье gгоuпd апd оп the quality (wear геsistапсе) of the materials of which
these wеагiпg parts аге made. Besides, the аgеiпg effect of mесhапiсаl repetitive ог
cyclic loading оп these parts is imрогtапt.
Iп order to еlimiпаtе as far as possibIe the оссuггепсе of damage duriпg mill
орегаtiоп апd to соmрепsаtе for dесliпе iп mill регfогmапсе due to wear, it is
advisabIe regularly to inspect the gгiпdiпg соmрагtmепts for wear of their iпtегпаl
fittiпgs. Furthermore, iп order to reduce dоwпtimе апd wages, the песеssагу
рrерагаtiопs shouid Ье made in аdvапсе, i. е., before асшаi рlапt shutdоwп. These
include taking samples of the material before апd after the mill whеп the gгiпdiпg
рlапt is орегаtiпg uпdег steady-state сопditiопs. For process епgiпеегiпg checks
it is iпstгuсtivе to iпсludе the регfогmапсе of еquiрmепt "upstream" апd "dоwп­
stream" of the mill iп the аssеssmепt of the fuпсtiопiпg of the mill itself.
The регsоппеl who have to Ье iп аttепdапсе for орепiпg апd епtегiпg the mill
should Ье summопеd iп good time, апd the песеssагу tools, ladders, lamps апd апу
mеаsuriпg iпstгumепts that may Ье required should Ье iп геаdiпеss. Samples of
material at роiпts spaced 1 m apart should Ьеtаkеп from withiп the mill апd stored
iп idепtifiаЫе сопtаiпегs. Properly tгаiпеd апd ехрегiепсеd регsоппеl should
preferabIy Ье used for this work iп order to reduce the risk of mistakes iп sаmрliпg
апd mеаsurеmепt. Obviously, it is песеssагу to take adequate safety ргесаutiопs so
as to епsurе that the mill will поt Ье iпаdvегtепtlуstarted while there аге men iпsidе
it. А supervisor should Ье ргеsепt, outside the mill, while the iпtегпаl iпsресtiоп is
Ьеiпg made.
3.7 1 Месhапiсаl checks
Despite the use of high-grade епgiпеегiпg materials апd fiхiпg tесhпiquеs iп
mоdегп mills, damage to iпtегпаl fittiпgs саппоt Ье ruled out. As ргеsепt-dау
gгiпdiпg рlапts аге iп mапу iпstапсеs operated uпdег remote сопtгоl - i. е., they
252
Мопitогiпg of wear
аге started, stopped апd mопitогеd from control stаtiопs some сопsidегаЫе
distапсе away - there is а risk that relatively miпог iпitiаl damage may produce
major сопsеquепtiаl damage before it is detected.
It is advisibIe to take every availabIe оррогtuпitу to detect апd remedy possibIe
sources of troubIe iп their early stages. Iп саггуiпg out the iпsресtiоп of the mill it is
therefore imрогtапt also carefully to ехаmiпе the iпtегпаl fittiпgs.
3.7.2 Mill liпiпg
As а rule, the iпtегiог of а tube mill is accessibIe опlу through mапhоlеs. These сап
most сопvепiепtlу Ье орепеd апd сlоsеdwhеп they аге positioned atthetop ofthe
shell whеп the mill has stopped. However, if this is adopted as stапdагd practice, it
mеапs that always опlу the same approximately two-thirds рогtiоп of the
сiгсumfегепсе поt covered Ьу the gгiпdiпg media сап Ье iпsресtеd. Iп order to
ехаmiпе the other parts of the liпiпg, the iпsресtiоп should from time to time also
Ье carried out with the mапhоlеs iп а diffегепt роsitiоп. The task of hапdliпg the
heavy mапhоlе covers uпdег such сопditiопs сап Ье facilitated Ьу герlасiпg the
covers Ьу temporary lightweight опеs, е. g., сопsistiпg of 1 О mm thick steel plate,
whеп the mапhоlеs аге iп the top роsitiоп.
Fractured ог Ьгоkеп parts of the lihiпg аге а роtепtiаl source of troubIe. The liпегs
thus affected should Ье replaced Ьу пеw опеs, еvеп if the fractured pieces арреаг
to Ье firmly interlocked апd perhaps also held iп роsitiоп Ьу gгiпdiпg media
wedged iпtо the liпiпg.
If а fairly large пumЬег of liпегs аге fоuпd to Ье damaged iп а particular агеа of the
mill, it is песеssагу поt опlу to repair the damage, but also to fiпd the cause. Besides
the more obvious possibIe causes of damage, such as material flaws ог iпsесurе
fiхiпg of liпегs, there аге others, iпсludiпg: lоаdiпg регсепtаgе too low, so that
саtагасtiпg gгiпdiпg media overshoot the bed апd strike the liпегs; too low а rate of
feed uпdег сопtiпuоus орегаtiпg сопditiопs (uпdег-Iоаdiпg of the mill); too
coarsely graded gгiпdiпg media charge; iпсоггесt iпtегаdjustmепt of the hагdпеss
values of the gгiпdiпg media апd liners.
For орегаtiопаl reliability of the liпiпg the liпегs rтшst Ье satisfactorily supported
апd secured. If some ог all of the liпегs аге bolted, the bolts should Ье checked from
time to time iп order to аsсегtаiп that they аге still tightепеd to the correct torque
гесоmmепdеd Ьу the mапufасturег.
Already at the time offirst iпstаlliпg the liпiпg it should Ье епsuгеd that the Ьеагiпg
surfaces to which the liпегs аге fixed аге properly еvеп. Апу irregularities such as
burrs ог fiпs must Ье removed before the liпегs аге fixed.
3.7.3 Iпtегmеdiаtе апd discharge diaphragms
The diaphragms (divisiоп plates ог partitions) аге subjected поt опlу to wear, but
also to сопsidегаЫе cyctic mесhапiсаl loads. These affect more particularly the
suррогtiпg frames оп which the liпег plates ог the slotted sсгееп plates of the
diaphragms аге mоuпtеd. The iпеvitаЫе diffегепtiаl mоvеmепts Ьеtwееп these
frames апd the mill shell, апd also Ьеtwееп them апd the plates they саггу, have to
253
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Ье resisted Ьу the fixing bolts. It is these bolts in particular that аге liabIe to
fracture.
Having regard to the cost and effort of making good the consequences of damage
to, say, ап intermediate diaphragm, it is reasonabIe and advisabIe to test each and
every bolt Ьу tapping it with а hammer.
The liners ог the slotted screen plates of mill diaphragms аге often secured Ьу
means of shear bolts. Particularly in mills of relatively large diameter it is difficult,
if not indeed impossibIe, to replace individual bolts пеаг the periphery of the
diaphragms. If the attachment of а liner ог screen plate appears to Ье critically
weakened, it тау Ье advisibIe, as ап interim measure till the next major overhaul, to
remove the sector affected and substitute ап ordinary steel plate cut to the
appropriate shape. То епаЫе this temporary sector to Ье secured Ьу bolting, ап
opening should Ье provided in it through which it is possibIe to reach the back of
the plate and manipulate the fixing bolts. When the plate has Ьееп fitted to the
diaphragm, the opening should Ье closed with the piece of steel originally cut
away to form it. This piece should then Ье welded in position.
Replacement of the bolts for fixing the supporting frame to the shell in а large mill,
which аге likewise difficult to get at, сап Ье facilitated Ьу inserting а piece of wire
from outside the mill through the hole in the shell and welding the new bolt to the
end of the wire inside the mill. The bolt сап then Ье pulled carefully between the
lifters into its hole.
'П inspecting the diaphragms in the mill all their visibIe parts and those of the
supporting frames should Ье checked for the presence of cracks. The condition of
the screens ог perforated plates in the middle of the diaphragms shou Id also receive
adequate attention. Апу metallic foreign bodies that have Ьесоте wedged in the
slots of diaphragms and protrude into the grinding compartment should Ье
removed because impact with large grinding media тау produce а wrenching
effect that will fracture the bars adjacent to the slots.
3.7.4 Feed and discharge equipment
T~e feed and discharge devices аге frequently provided with lifting and/or
conveying inserts. As these internal fittings аге also subject to considerabIe wear,
they should Ье inspected а! suitabIe intervals. Their fixings should Ье checked and,
if necessary, renewed.
3.7.5 Other checks
During fairly long shutdown periods the critical or especially severely stressed
parts outside the actual grinding compartment of the mill should also Ье duly
inspected. The following аге especially important·
Trunnion bearings
The trunnion bearings оп тапу mills аге lubricated Ьу means of oiling rings and
wipers. The condition of these components should Ье checked. In particular,
depending оп the design features in апу given case, the joints of the oiling rings
should receive attention. Worn wiper elements should Ье renewed in good time.
The trunnions themselves shou Id Ье examined for the presence of scratches and
grooves.
254
Monitoring of wear
То ensure operational reliability of the trunnion bearings it is essential not only to
supply them adequately with lubricant, but also to ensure that the lubricant is free
from contamination. The bearing housing should Ье effectively sealed. The sealing
elements, usually rubber lip seals ог fabric seals, should Ье adjusted ог renewed, as
necessary. It should also Ье ensured that these sealing elements аге coated with а
film of lubricant to protect them against wear.
Drive
In the case of mills equipped with girth gear and pinion drive the tooth bearing, the
condition of the tooth flanks and the lubricant film should Ье checked at regular
intervals. If spray lubrication is employed, the spraying devices should likewise Ье
regularly checked to make sure that they аге functioning properly. This сап Ье done
Ьу laying а sheet of рарег оп the part of the girth gear destined to receive the
atomized spray and to allow the lubricating system to perform опе operating
cycle.
With properly functioning spray nozzles the lubricant should Ье uniformly
distributed over the full width of the girth gear. The quantity of lubricant dispensed
in each successive spraying operation сап Ье determined from the difference in
weight obtained Ьу weighing the sheet of рарег before and after spraying. The
result should, with due regard to the number of spraying operations that the
lubricating system performs рег hour, Ье checked against the recommendations of
the mill manufacturer ог lubricant supplier.
The requirements applicabIe to the seals of the girth gear housing аге similar in
principle to those already stated for the trunnion bearing seals. Неге, too, it is
important to prevent dust getting into the housing.
Mill heads
Although the mill heads (end walls) аге designed оп the basis of sound structural
and metallurgical principles, and аге manufactured and tested with all possibIe
саге, fracturing and damage cannot Ье completely ruled out. It is therefore
advisabIe also to inspect these components at regular intervals, with particular
attention to the transition between the trunnion and the head. То епаЫе апу
cracking to Ье detected as early as possibIe, it is desirabIe to keep these parts free
from dust.
Mill shell
The same as has Ьееп said concerning the mill heads applies also to the shell, i. е.,
the cylindrical body of the mill. The parts especially at risk аге those where, as а
result of the unavoidabIe deformation and deflection of the shell, stress соп­
centrations аге liabIe to occur during operation. Such parts аге the joints of the
cylinder segments and those of the manhole strengthening surrounds, which аге
usually welded to the shell. These areas of the mill shell should therefore also Ье
inspected.
255
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Process engineering checks

3.8 Process engineering checks Alternatively, the following approximation тау Ье adopted f = 1.068 - 1.164
HL;/D Li ·
3.8.1 Determining the loading percentage Ап even simpler approximation is obtained Ьу counting the number of exposed
The loading percentage, ог filling ratio, is defined as the ratio of the bulk volume of liners visibIe around the circumference, i. е., not covered Ьу grinding media, and
the grinding media to the total internal volume of the grinding compartment. For relating this to the total circumferential number of liners. This yields the formula:
practical purposes it сап Ье expressed as а ratio of cross-sectional areas:
f = 1.34 _ 0.172 х number of exposed liners
f = cross-sectional агеа of grinding media charge F DLi
internal cross-sectional агеа of mill For the sake of ЬеНег ассшасу, the dimensions DLi and HLi should Ье determined
as averages from а number of measurements, especially if the mill is fitted with
For determining the ratio, the internal diameter of the mill and the distance from the profiled liners.
top surface of the grinding media bed to the highest point of the milllining should The filling ratio is often expressed in рег cent, and as such is тоге particularly
Ье measured. If the lining is provided with profiled, е. g., corrugated ог stepped,
known as the loading percentage ог рег cent loading of the mill.
liners а suitabIe correction should Ье made and the average diameter Ье adopted The weight of the grinding media charge of the mill, ог of а compartment thereof,
(Fig.38). сап now Ье calculated from

L D ,2 Хп
G =4 - х f х qGM Х LM [t].
where LM is the effective length of the mill ог compartment [т] and qGM the bulk
density of the grinding media [t/m 3 ]. The bulk density for steel grinding media
(balls ог Cylpebs) ranges from about 4500 to 4800 t/m 3 . For normal grinding
media mixtures ап average of 4550t/m 3 is generally reasonabIe.

3.8.2 Grinding media classification

For effective size reduction there shou Id Ье ап appropriate ratio between the size of
the feed material particlesand the mass of the individual grinding media. As the size
of the particles decreases along the mill, the mass and therefore the size of the
media (Ьаll diameters, etc.) should correspondingly decrease. This condition сап
Ье satisfied Ьу providing the mill with so-called classifying liners.
In order to obtain ап objective assessment of the effectiveness of the grinding
Fig. 38: Average interna! dimensions with profiled liners media classification and to determine what changes оссш in the grinding media
grading over fairly long periods, it is advisabIe to perform checks from time to time.
For that purpose, samples ofthe media аге taken from the top layer at points spaced
Notation' at equal distances along the mill. The number of media to Ье sampled at each point
DLi internal diameter of the mill (within liners) [т] should either Ье determined in advance ог should Ье the total number found to Ье
HLi distancefrom top of grinding media bed to highest point ofthe lining [т] present within а specified агеа of the top layer. The samples thus obtained аге
r internal radius = DL ,/2 [т] weighed and the average weight and (in the case of balls) the corresponding
а central angle [degrees]. diameter аге calculated. Obviously, the number of grinding media taken at each
sampling point should Ье sufficient to епаЫе reliabIe averages to Ье determined.
The central angle is determined from: cos a/2 = 2 HLil DLi -1. The guarantees issued Ьу the suppliers of classifying liners are often based оп the
averages of 100 balls ог other grinding media. For routine checks in the works,

(-360
а sin а ) however, smaller numbers - 50, for example - will yield sufficiently accurate
The filling ratio is: f = -- -- .
2п results.

256 257
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
3.8.3 Determining the number of fractured grinding media
Despite reliabIe production methods and regular quality control, defects of
manufacture in grinding media cannot Ье ruled out. In the mill such defects ог
flaws тау result in spalling ог fracturing of the media beyond ап acceptabIe limit.
The fragments detached from them аге liabIe to have ап adverse effect оп grinding
performance.
The proportion of fractured grinding media in the whole charge сап Ье estimated
Ьу а sampling method similar to that used for monitoring the grinding media
classification. The grinding media and fragments thereof which аге present within
а predetermined circu lar агеа in the top layer аге weighed and sorted. The fractured
proportion is expressed as а percentage of the total weight of the sample.
Fragments of larger grinding media аге classified in the mill as though they were
small grinding media, so that а higher proportion of fragments is bound to occur in
the samples obtained close to the outlet end of the grinding compartment. The
samples should preferabIy Ье taken at regularly spaced points (1 m apart, say)
along the length of the mill.
The proportion of damaged grinding media is expressed Ьу.
0D 1+ 0D 2 + 0D 3 + ... 0Dn
fractured percentage = х 100 [%],
0s1 + 0s2 + Оsз + . Osn
where 0D is the weight of the damaged proportion in ап individual sample and os
is the weight of ап individual sample.
3.8.4 Checking the lining
The design and configuration of the milllining is of major influence оп the motion
of the grinding media charge and thus оп the comminuting action developed Ьу it.
Wear that reduces the profiling of the liners, so that their lifting action is impaired,
will promote undesirabIe premature sliding back of the grinding media. As а result,
the point of detachment of the media from the wall of the mill is gradually shifted
lower down. The power consumption, and therefore the energy availabIe for size
reduction, diminish in consequence. For this reason it is necessary to inspect the
condition of the lining from time to time.
Wear of the corrugations, ridges ог other features of the lining сап Ье checked with
the aid of templates conforming to the profiling of the lining in its original (new)
condition. Ву applying а template to, for example. liners that сап Ье conveniently
reached from а manhole, changes in the condition of the lining сап quickly Ье
detected.
3.8.5 Checking the diaphragms
The purpose of the diaphragms with their slotted plates is to act as screens which
allow feed material which has Ьееп sufficiently reduced in size to pass to the next
grinding compartment ог to the mill outlet, while grinding media and oversize
particles аге retained. The effective cross-sectional агеа of the openings in the
258
Size reduction progress
diaphragms should Ье sufficiently large to епаЫе the fine particles as well as the air
ог hot gas (for drying the material in the mill) to pass at the required rate. Fragments
from fractured grinding media, heavily worn media ог the feed material itself
- especially if it is too moist and/or the air flow through the mill is inadequate -
тау cause choking of the slots in the diaphragms and thus obstruct transfer ог
discharge of the material.
То reduce the risk of choking, the slots аге so formed that they widen in the
direction of passage of the material through them. With increasing wear the slots
Ьесоте wider and thus let coarser particles through This oversize material is liabIe
to cause probIems in the fine grinding compartment.
3.8.6 Checks in the interior of the mill
For the checks and inspections described here it is important that the grinding
plant should Ье shut down direct from steady-state operation with its normal
throughput, without апу alterations - either before ог after shutdown - that тау
affect the granulometric composition and quantity of feed material inside the mill.
This requirement сап perhaps most readily Ье fulfilled Ьу stopping the mill quickly
Ьу means of the emergency switch ог, in the case of а fully interlocked system, Ьу
switching off ап important unit of plant downstream of the mill. The mill fan should
also Ье stopped at the same time, otherwise the air sweeping through the mill тау
alter the condition of the bed of material and thus cause incorrect conclusions to Ье
drawn.
High temperature in the mill тау, however, make it necessary to cool the interior
before it сап Ье entered for inspection. In that case the fan will have to Ье switched
оп again, but taking саге that it is started with its control damper ог Inlet vanes
closed and that these аге subsequently opened up only to such ап extent as is
necessary to lower the temperature sufficiently.
3.9 Size reduction progress
For monitoring the size reduction progress, i. е., the degree of comminution of the
feed material achieved оп its way through the mill, samples of material should Ье
taken at points spaced 1 m apart along the mill. starting at а distance of 0.5 m from
the mill inlet ог the intermediate diaphragm.
As the granulometric composition of these regularly spaced samples is likely to
vary according to whether the sample is taken at опе particular spot ог comprises
several samples taken across the width of the bed of material, it is advisabIe to
adopt ап agreed sampling procedure before carrying out the checks. It is
recommended that each sample at 1 m intervals should itself Ье composed of three
individual samples consisting of equal volumes of material. Two of these samples
sh.ould Ье taken at а distance of about 0.5 m from the lining оп each side, and the
thlrd sample from the middle of the bed. The last sample along the mill should Ье
taken at 0.5 m before the intermediate diaphragm ог discharge diaphragm. Because
the bed of material falls away here, it is often difficult to obtain samples at such
259
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Build-up of material оп liners and grinding media

points. Yet it is these samples that аге particularly informative, and it is therefore 3.9.1 Height and condition of the material bed
worth making the effort to remove some layers of grinding media in order to reach
the material. The presence ог absence of а high concentration of coarse particles of The bed of feed material being ground shou Id cover the top layer of grinding media,
material in this part of the mill, i. е., close to the intermediate diaphragm ог the but not to апу appreciabIe depth. If the bed is too high ог too low, it indicates
outlet, сап provide important information оп the condition and effectiveness of the defective composition of the grinding media charge. With too coarse media the
grinding media charge. bed will Ье too low, and vice versa.
The samples thus obtained at 1 m intervals along the mill аге screened and the Wavy ог hump-like irregularities in the bed of material and grinding media тау Ье
cumulative quantities retained оп the screens аге plotted as а curve in а diagram. caused Ьу varying resistance in the bed. Моге particularly such variations тау Ье
The ordinates represent the cumulative percentages (Ьу weight) retained, while due to: transition from non-classifying to classifying liners, unfavourabIe grinding
the distances in metres along the mill аге marked оп the horizontal axis. Points of media grading (with too abrupt а transition from coarse to fine media), inadequate
equal particle size in the diagram аге connected to опе another. In addition, with initial comminution in the first few metres ofthe mill and therefore too much coarse
appropriate feed material and fineness of grinding, the specific surface values тау material arriving in the zone with finer grinding media.
also Ье determined and Ье plotted. The "grinding diagram" obtained in this way In the vicinity of the intermediate and discharge diaphragms there should Ье а
gives clear information оп the quality of the size reduction process (Fig. 39). distinct falling-away of the bed of material. If this is not the case, ог if indeed there
is а local accumulation of material instead, this is generally attributabIe to
inadequate discharge capacity of the diaphragm, i. е., the effective агеа of its slots
is inadequate. In mills operating in closed circuit with а classifier а distinct
accumulation of feed material often occurs пеаг the mill inlet, which is due to
tailings from the classifier continuing to enter the mill for some time after the plant
has Ьееп stopped. It is not, therefore, ап indication of inadequate comminuting
action.
То епаЫе the condition inside the mill to Ье assessed, the height of the material bed
and the арреагапсе presented Ьу the media and material should likewise Ье
measured and recorded at each point where samples аге taken for estabIishing the
grinding diagram. The material bed heights тау Ье included in the diagram. Quite
scгeenl often, distinct functional relationships аге seen to exist between the cumulative
100 2500 screen curves, the curve for specific surface and the depth of the bed of material.
I
О,О9mт I I
......
90 2300 ~ If the bed is fairly high, the measurement сап Ье performed Ьу inserting а strip of
О,2тт t'-- I I I N
80 , 2100 § cardboard ог sheet metal into it. The strip should have а width equal to at least
-о
CI> 0/5,"," 1\. '\ I I ,. I
twice the largest grinding media size.
~
З
с: 70
60
1ртт

2.отт
~ 1\.
............. I1
I
,. I
1900
1700.Е ..
~ ~l\ \ .'
50
40
30
~.oтm

8,Отт
~ ,\ 1\
1-- ~\ \
"
II
II

I
I
102
'" '-....
00-

r-.....
I

I
1500 V1Z

1300 ~ ~
1100
:;Ш

u<!
~ .....
3.9.2 Build-up of material оп liners and grinding media
Build-up (caking of material) оп liners and grinding media тау Ье due to various
causes. Their interactions giving rise to this undesirabIe phenomenon have not yet
~l'-... i'.1/: .. '1'-.. 1'--.
-.,
I

-
20
I
900
v1 Ьееп fully explained.
'6тт
1\' ~ '- I I
r--.. The following causal factors тау Ье mentioned:
10 32тт
1..-"'-.. -
~ ;::;;;::: ~' 'tйi r- г-..' - r-- 1---
I
I
700
500
- static electric charging and free surface energy,
0,5 4,5 0.5
I - adsorption;
9, 5
О 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2,0 3,0 (О 5{) 6,0 7,0 8.0 9,0 - mechanical pressure.
effective length (rn) .. Higher temperatures in the mill increase the tendency, which also appears to
-. interrnediate diaphragrn 8 rnrn width of slots increase not only if there is too much moisture in the mill atmosphere, but also if the
• • dischaгge diaphгagrn 10 rnrn width of slots atmosphere is too dry. As the caked material has а cushioning effect which impairs
- retained ~he grinding performance, it is likewise something to look out for during ап internal
---- specific surface
~nspection of the mill. The nature and extent of апу build-up should Ье noted. The
Fig.39: Grinding diagram of а clinker grinding mill (closed circuit Information thus collected should Ье included in the mill record sheets. Моге
operation with bucket elevator) particularly, the following data should Ье obtained:

260 261
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Grinding media' Balls

where the first build-up occurs (at what distance from the mill inlet ог
intermediate diaphragm);
what parts аге affected (Iiners, grinding media);
extent of the build-up (approximate estimate of the areas covered with caked
material оп that part of the lining which is visibIe); ....
strength and thickness of the build-up material (е. g., сап Ье easily wiped off, ф~
..а-

ог cannot Ье removed without the aid of а tool). E~

:::J_
Because of the тапу causes and their interaction it is not possibIe to lay down с:: О

generally-valid rules for the prevention of build-up. The measures to betaken must
therefore Ье decided for each individual case. Ouite often, however, the ргоЫет
сап Ье overcome Ьу improving the air flow conditions in the mill. For example, if it
is confined to the mill lining, it тау Ье due merely to condensation of moisture.
Improved air flow тау provide the remedy. Other possibIe measures to combat
build-up аге: injection of water into the mill in order to lower the temperature
and/or the additiori' of а grinding aid to neutralize the forces associated with free ~~ООГ--Г--~ОФ~ОN~~~~ООМООГ--ОГ--~~
Ф~~ооm~м~mФ~Nм~~m~М~ООN~m~
surface energy. ~~~~NММММММ~~~~~~~Ф

3.9.3 Determination of wear

Besides the process engineering consequences of wear, such as decline in
grinding performance and undesirabIe changes in the granulometric composition ОГ--О~МNФ~ОО~Ф::~О
of the product, the economic aspects of wear аге also of importance in connection ~~NООМNо~оо~м~mN~N~мmФм~оо~
ФФММФООГ--О~ОФМ~~ММNN~~~~
with the operation of grinding plants. ~MO~OMOO~N~
Ф~~NN~
In order to obtain precise information оп wear and Ье аЫе to сотраге the
behaviour of parts made from different materials and/or supplied Ьу different
manufacturers, It IS advisabIe to observe and record the wear ofthe gгiПdlПg medla,
liners, intermediate and discharge diaphragms.
ReliabIe information оп specific rates of wear moreover facilitates the spare parts
ф
inventory and the planning of repairs. OO~Г--OO~~~~Г--~Г--~~~
Е ~~~~NМ~ОО~~О~~Г--~~~
:::J", ~Г--~NОООМ~М~ОО~Ф~~~ММNN~~~О
"'Е "о Е
> (.)
О~NООФОО~ФМ~
~Ф~МN~~
3.9.3.1 Grinding media wear ~
о>
Weighing the whole grinding media charge before putting it into the mill and г--

subsequently - after а fairly long period of service - weighing it again is certainly r....:
со
the most accurate method of determining the rate of wear. However, because ofthe ~ ф
'(ij со
considerabIe effort it involves, it is а method which, if at all, сап Ье considered only с::
ф ф ОО~Г--Ф~N
(.)
for very small mills (е. g., experimental mills). ~ .Е",
~ММФ~ФN~ФМNООО~М~
Nо~~~~моооооmООФ~МN~оmоо~Ф~~
.!:!2 ::; Е ~OO~~O~~~~N~~~~~~~~
ilOmed,a со (/) (.) ~MMNN~~

The specific wear is. 0spee = [g/t], ..а

ilOmaterial со

:.:о
ф
where ilOmedia is the difference in weight of the grind.ing media (in grams) before Е
and after the period of service, and ilOmater,a, is the quantity of feed material that о>
с::
has Ьееп put through the mill during that period (in tonnes). Q)
:.:о
As ап alternative to this laborious and therefore rather impr<jcticabIe method, the :ё с::
.;;: ОООООООООО~~МN~О~ООГ--Ф~~МN

specific wear of particu lar grinding media sizes ог size fractions сап Ье estimated Ьу ~ ~
N~О~ООГ--Ф~~МNNNNNN~~~~~~~~

262 263
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
weigh.in.g .samples cont~i~ing representative numbers of these media. In many
ca~es It IS Just these speclflc wear rates that аге of interest to the mill operator. It is а
sUltabIe method when starting with а grinding media charge consisting of
co~pletely new media ог otherwise of very carefully selected and graded media
whlch аге all of the same quality.
Before commis~ioning the ~ill with а newly assembIed grinding media charge, а
number of medla of each slze аге taken and weighed, in order to determine the
average weight of опе ball, Cylpebs, etc. of that size. The number of media to Ье
taken i~ each ~amp~e will depend оп how greatly the individual weights vary within
~ cert~ln ~oml~al sl.ze and оп the degree of accuracy required. For ordinary works
I~vеstlgаtюпs It wlll normally Ье sufficient to take 30 grinding media of each
slze.
~fter а suita~ly long period ofservice in the mill, thesame numbers ofthe individual
slzes аге agaln taken and the average individual weights determined. The wear that
has. occurred is ~btained Ьу d~termining the difference between the original
welght (new m~dla) and the welght after service and multiplying this Ьу the total
number of medla, of each size, with which the mill was charged. This method
becomes impracticabIe when wear has progressed to such ап extent that it is по
long.er possibIe reliabIy to determine the original nominal sizes of the grinding
medla.
If. grinding media of а different quality from the existing charge аге added with а
vlew to investigating their wear behaviour, and if these new media do not differ
subs~antially in shape and dimensions from the existing ones, they should Ье
~rovl?~d with identification marks (grooves ог drilled holes) to епаЫе them to Ье
Identlfled from the others after а period of service in the mill.
А differen~ ~rocedure con~ists IП determlning the filling гаtюs before (f,) and after
(f 2 ) а sufflclently long регюd of service. The weight calculated from the difference
in filling ratio (Ioading percentage) provides ап indication of the wear that has
taken .pla?e. It sh?uld. Ье Ьогп.е in mind, however, that the average bulk density of
the grlndlng medla mlxture wlll undergo а change in consequence of the different
we~r rates of the respec~ive grinding media sizes. It should in each particular case,
hаVlПg regard to the deslred accuracy, Ье considered whether ог not а correction to
take account of this change in bulk density is necessary.
DL o
2
7t
The wear is expressed Ьу: АО = --'4- х 4ft хМ Х qb [t],
where:
м difference in filling ratio before and after the service period
considered = f, - f 2
АО grinding media quantity lost Ьу wear [t]
DLi internal diameter of mill [m]
Left effective length of mill ог grinding compartment [m]
qb average bulk density of grinding media charge [t/m З ].
264
Lining wear
Specific wear: О"рее = АО х 104 /ц"аtегiаl,
where Omaterial is the throughput of feed material during the service period
considered (in tonnes).
3.9.3.2 Lining wear
Wear of the mill lining сап impair its purely protective function of preventing
damage of the mill shell and moreover diminish its effectiveness in lifting and
classifying the grinding media. For process engineering as well as economic
reasons it is therefore necessary to monitor the wear behaviour of the lining.
The most reliabIe method of quantifying the wear is to remove some liners, from
points uniformly distributed along the length of the mill, from time to time and
compare their weight with the weight of those plates in the new condition. As
this is а very laborious and time-consuming ргосеduщ however, in practice а
somewhat less accurate but more convenient method will generally Ье adopted.
Опе such method is based оп measuring the internal diameter of the mill, i. е.,
within the lining, applying а correction to allow for the average profile depth оп
corrugated ог stepped liners. The volumetric amount of lining wear сап Ье
calculated from the difference between the diameter of the worn lining and that of
the lining in its new condition. The specific wear is:
Vwear Х qlining
Оорее = - - - - - [g/t],
Qmaterial
where:
Vwear volumetric wear of the lining [сm З ]
qlining specific gravity of lining [g/сm З ]
Qmaterial throughput of feed material during the service period
considered [t].
А drawback of this method is that, to obtain reliabIe results, the measurements
must Ье performed very accurately and that changes in the profile of the liners due
to wear аге very difficult to take into account.
Another method consists in comparing the liners with templates corresponding to
their profiles in the new condition. After appropriate service intervals these
templates are applied always to liners at the same points in the mill, е. g., at joints
between diaphragm plates, ог between end wallliners, ог at she!! liners that сап Ье
reached from а manhole. The volumetric wear сап Ье determined from the
difference between the template profile and the profile of the liner in its actual
(.worn) condition. If the specific gravity of the lining material and the number of
Ilners аге known, the weight of this material lost Ьу wear сап Ье approximately
calculated. Taking account of the total throughput of feed during the period
considered, the specific wear сап then Ье found.
265
 D Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
3.9.3.3 Wear of the diaphragms
The ?iaph~agms in tu?e mills are subject to considerabIe wear from the grinding
medla rolllng, саsсаdlПg and cataracting in contact with them. Determining the
actual pattern of wear for calcu/ating the loss of lining material from measured
di~ferences in volume is usually very laborious. For practical purposes, however, it
wlll usually Ье sufficient regularly to determine the thickness of the plates at the
most heavily worn points and estimate the service life from the measurements.
Th~se ~а.п Ье facilitated Ьу using а piece of wire bent at right angles at опе end,
whlch IS Inserted through а slot in the diaphragm and turned. With closed rear wall
plates of dia~hragms the thickness measurements сап Ье performed at the joints.
When the dlaphragm plates are due for renewal, it is advisabIe to take the
opportunity to determine the actual rate of wear Ьу comparing the residual weight
with the weight of the plates as they were when new.
References
1. Bundesverband der Deutschen Kalkindustrie е. У.: Technisches ArbeitsbIatt
Mahltechnik.
2. Drosihn, U.: Das neue Klinkerwerk im Werk Amoneburg. - 'п: ZKG 23/
1970/449.
3. Fahlstrom, Р. Н :son: Autogenes Mahlen. - 'п: Zeitschrift fur Erzbergbau und
Metallhuttenwesen, XIII/1960/598.
4. Hardinge, Н.: Autogenes Mahlen. - 'п: Aufbereitungs-Technik 1/1960/46.
5. Lehmann, Н.: Praktische Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung des AbIaufes von
Mahlkorperbewegungen in einer Modell-Trommelmuhle von 1 m Durchmes-
ser. - 'П Tonindustrie-Zeitung 88 (1964) Nr. 7/8.
6. Schoneck, С.: Rohmaterial-Mahlung in Aerofall-Muhlen. - 'п: ZKG 16/
1963/244.
7. Schubert, Н.: Aufbereitung fester mineralischer Baustoffe, Band' - Leipzig:
УЕВ Deutscher Verlag fur Grundstoffindustrie 1964.
4 Roller mills
This class of mills comprises тапу variants which nevertheless have certain basic
fe~tures in с.от~оп. There is some confusion in the terminology designating these
mllls, especlally In the German language. 'П English, "roller mills" has соте to Ье
widely accepted as а generic term including even those machines in which the
ro.llers are in fact balls. Designations such as ring-roller mills, ring-ball mil/s, bowl
mllls, etc. are generally confined to the description of specific types. AII these
machines are characterized in having rollers (or comparabIe other grinding
elements) which travel in а horizontal circular path оп а bed of feed material with
whic~ they ~re pressed in contact Ьу vertical forces applied externally to them, the
ma~erlal ЬеlПg comminuted Ьу а combination of compressive and shearing
асtюп.
Roller mills employed in the cement industry have grinding elements of various
266
Roller mill design features
shapes. Thus, in some mills they are cylindrical rollers, in others the rollers are of
truncated-conical shape or have flat lateral faces and а convex circumferential
surface. Some leading manufacturers equip their mills with balls as the grinding
elements. The force that keeps the rollers or balls pressed in contact with the bed of
material оп the grinding path тау Ье exerted Ьу gravity, centrifugal force, spring
pressure, hydropneumatic action, etc.
'П recent years, roller mills ranging up to very large throughput capacities have
соте into widespread use for raw material and соа' grinding in the cement
industry. Technical development has reached ап advanced stage, but has Ьу по
means Ьееп completed, and there are as yet по discernibIe reasons why even
bigger mills with higher throughputs should not Ье introduced. There also exist
interesting prospects for using these machines as finish grinding mills, i. е., for
clinker grinding. Encouraging results have Ьееп obtained in this direction, but it
still remains to Ье seen whether economical solutions will emerge for the major
probIem of wear and the associated effects оп the quality of the cement produced
Ьу grinding in roller mills.
Оп the other hand, roller mills have a/ready long estabIished themselves as very
suitabIe for соа' grinding, i. е., for the production of pulverized fuel (see Section
5.5.2). The widespread return to pulverized соа' and lignite in cement manufacture
is having а stimu lating effect оп the development and optimization of these mills
which, for this type of work, are usually of relatively small size and operated with
direct firing systems.
4.1 Roller mill design features
1n view of the тапу different manufacturers and design variants, both in Germany
and in other countries, it is obviously not possibIe to deal with а" the various makes
of roller mill in this book. It will, however, Ье endeavoured to classify and briefly
describe the familiar main types with reference to the mills supplied Ьу some
manufacturers mentioned Ьу пате, оп the understanding that this must not Ье
construed as implying preference in terms of performance or quality.
А соттоп characteristic of all the mills described here is that size reduction is
effected Ьу rollers or comparabIe grinding elements travelling over а circu lar bed of
material and that the material, after passing under the rollers, is subjected to а
preliminary classifying action Ьу а stream of air sweeping through the mill.
Depending оп the air flow velocity, а certain proportion of the pu Iverized material is
thus сапiеd into а classifier (air separator) which normally forms ап integral feature
of the upper part of the casing of the mill. Oversize particles rejected Ьу the
classifier fall back into the grinding chamber, while the fines are swept with the air
out of the mill and are collected in а filter or а set of cyclones. As the pneumatic
conveying of the material in the mill to the separator requires considerabIe air flow
rates, and as the materialleaving the grinding bed and сапiеd up into the classifier
comes into intimate contact with the air, roller mills are especially suitabIe for the
drying of moist feed material in combination with grinding. This is particularly
advantageous because these mills сап accept large quantities of hot air or gas at
relatively low temperatures such as commonly occur in the waste gases of cement
manufacturing plants.
267
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
4.1.1 Mills with truncated-conical rollers (loesche mills)
Two or more conically tapered grinding rollers in fixed mountings travel оп ап
annular path оп the upper surface the revolving grinding tabIe оп which the bed of
feed materiallies. T~e rollers.are mounted оп swivel arms оп which they сап Ье
swung out f~r repalrs or таlПtепапсе. Roller pressure is exerted Ьу springs оп
sm~lIer тасhlПеs and hydropneumatically оп larger ones (Fig.40). The tabIe оп
whlch the.rene~abIeliner segments of the grinding ring forming the roller path are
mounted IS drlven through gears in а gearbox which is designed to resist the
pr~ss~re exerted Ьу the rollers. The material to Ье ground is fed centrally onto the
gГlПdlПg tabIe and is c~rried Ьу centrifugal force, due to the rotation of the tabIe, to
the roller path. A.tthe clrcumference ofthetabIe is а raised rim, а so-called dam ring,
Ьу means of whlch the depth of the bed of material сап Ье adjusted. Between the
outer edge of the. tabI~ ~nd th.e casing of the mill is а stationary ring comprising
ports thro.ug,h whlch alr IS admltted from under the grinding tabIe into the grinding
and сlаSSlfУlПg chamber.
!he pulverized material that spills over the rim is caught Ьу the upward stream of air
Issшпg from the ported air ring. The air is guided and accelerated Ьу vanes or
louv.res, so that а kind of fluidized bed is formed. Widening of the flow cross-
sесtюп causes the air velocity to decrease over the rollers, so that coarser particles
Fig.40: МШ with truncated-conical rollers (loesche GmbH)
268
Roller mill design features
fall back onto the tabIe. The particles swept up to the rotor-type classifier undergo
а separating action, the oversize fraction likewise falling back onto the tabIe for
further grinding, while the fine particles (the finished product) are сапiеd out of
the mill.
Depending оп the grindability of the material and the air flow rate, а recycling of the
material thus develops insidethe mill casing. The circulating load тау amountto as
much as 8 to 1 О times the rate of fresh feed to the mill. This recycling requires а high
air flow rate а fact which, as already stated, сап Ье turned to advantage for drying
the material during the grinding process. It is thus possibIe to grind and dry cement
raw materials with up to 18 % moisture content without unacceptabIy lowering the
throughput of material. For coal grinding it is possibIe even to accept а feed
moisture content ranging up to 25%.
The bIaded rotor classifier mounted over the grinding chamber has variabIe speed
control. 'П rotates оп а vertical axis and its rotary motion imparts а horizontal
centrifugal acceleration to the mixture of air and material particles rising from
below. The oversize particles, оп account of their greater mass, are deflected
further out of the air stream, impinge оп the wall of the casing and fall back into the
grinding chamber. The fines discharged from this classifier are characterized Ьу
about 1% retained оп the 0.2 тт sieve and 12% оп the 0.09 тт sieve.
А notabIe feature of the тill described here is that its rollers are mounted in
bearings that are outside the grinding chamber with its high dust concentrations
and elevated temperature.
4.1.2 Mills with convex··surfaced rollers (Pfeiffer MPS mill)
In principle this roller mill is similar to the machine described in the preceding
section. It is equipped with three rollers, likewise in stationary mountings, running
оп ап annu lar path of concave cross-sectional shape to accommodate the convex
surfaces of the rollers. The material is fed from опе side onto the rotating grinding
ring. The grinding pressure is developed Ьу the dead weight of the rollers operating
in conjunction with а hydropneumatically tensioned spring system. After being
discharged from the edge of the grinding ring the pulverized material is entrained
Ьу the upward stream of air issuing from the ported air ring and undergoes
preliminary classification in the same way as in the loesche mill.
ObIique setting of the ports imparts а circulatory motion to the material in the
direction of rotation of the rollers. The coarse particles that fall back onto the
grinding ring here and the oversize rejects from the classifier are returned to the
roller path to undergo further size reduction (Fig.41), while the fines are carried
with the air stream out of the top of the mill and classifier casing. The cut size of the
rotor classifier is adjustabIe.
'п terms of size reduction performancethe MPS mill issimilartothe loesche mill of
comparabIe specification, but its very ample flow cross-sections in the grinding
chamber allow even larger air flow rates through the mill. According to information
supplied Ьу the manufacturer, cement raw material with above 20% moisture
content сап Ье dried in the mill to below 1 % residual moisture.
269
О. Manufacture of cement I Materials preparation technology
Fig.41 : Mill with convex-surfaced rollers (Gebr. Pfeiffer)
4.1.3 Mills with spherical grinding elements (Peters mill)
In this type of mill, known also as а ring-ball mill, the grinding action is performed
Ьу balls set close together and rolling оп а power-driven rotating grinding ring. At
the top the balls аге held in position and pressed down - Ьу springs ог hydro-
pneumatically - Ьу а pressure ring, which is stationary. The whole assembIy
resembIes а very large ball bearing.
The material is fed centrally оп to the grinding tabIe and carried Ьу centrifugal force
to the grinding ring оп which it is pulverized Ьу the balls rolling over it. At the
perimeter of the ring the pulverized material is entrained in ап upward stream of air
and undergoes preliminary classification, as in the previously described mills, after
which it passes to the classifier (usually of the static type), where the oversize
material is rejected and falls back into the mill. The fines аге carried out of the mill in
the air stream (Fig. 41 а).
Ву passing hot air ог gas through the mill, drying performance сотрагаЫе to that
of the other roller mills сап Ье obtained.
270
Grinding action developed in roller mills
Fig. 41 а: МШ with spherical grinding elements (Claudius Peters AG)
4.2 Grinding action developed in roller mills
The material is comminuted Ьу the grinding elements rolling оп а circular bed of
feed material. The larger pieces of material аге crushed Ьу the rollers as in а roll
crusher, while the smaller ones аге reduced Ьу rubbing action. The pulverized
material spilling over the edge of the grinding tabIe ог grinding bowl - the
terminology tends to vary from опе manufacturer and mill design to another - is
entrained Ьу а high-velocity stream of air, so that the smaller particles аге swept
upwards into the classifier and the coarser ones fall back onto the roller path. This is
the preliminary classifying eHect, as distinct from the final separation ассот­
plished in the internal classifier in the upper part of the casing.
Because of the short residence time of the feed material in the grinding chamber as
compared with that in а tube mill, the bed of material is kept substantially free from
fine particles which do not require further grinding, unnecessarily load the mill and
271
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
tend to form undesirabIe agglomerations. The important basic conditions for
effective grinding in а roller mill аге that the grinding elements develop а good
draw-in action and adequate pressure and that а stabIe bed of material is
formed.
4.2.1 Draw-in action of the grinding elements
As in а roll crusher, there is а geometric relationship between the diameter of the
grinding elements (rollers or balls) and the maximum particle dimensions that the
mill сап accept. 'П roller mills, maximum feed particle sizes of between about 1/20
and 1 /15 of the roller (or ball) diameter are permissibIe. If material coarser than this
is fed to the mill, there is the danger that the coarse particles will not Ье drawn in
under the rollers but will simply Ье displaced, i. е., pushed along in front of them.
Furthermore, within the permissibIe maximum particle size limit, the draw-in action
is governed Ьу the granulometric composition and coefficient of friction of the feed
material. Thus, the bed of material should possess adequate stability so as not to Ье
displaced Ьу the rollers. Also, in order that the rollers do indeed roll оп the material
and not merely slide along, а sufficiently large frictional force must Ье developed
between their circumference and the material.
It may occur that, while the mill is operating under steady-state conditions, the
granulometric composition of the feed material changes drastically, е. g., due to
/1
/1
/ I
Fig. 42: Draw-in action of feed material between roller and grinding ring
h = depth of bed
Н = initial depth
272
Grinding action developed in roller mills
segregation оп emptying the feed hopper, so that the mill temporarily receives only
fine material. This may adversely affect the stability ofthe bed: part ofthe material is
displaced, the depth of the bed is therefore reduced, and (assuming the pressure оп
the rollers to Ье unchanged) the specific pressure exerted оп the material is
increased. It may thus оссш that the rollers "punch through" the bed in places,
resulting in "bumpy" running.
As the condition of the feed material is liabIe to vary with regard to its grindability,
composition, granulometry and moisture content, mill designers strive to achieve
adequate draw-in capacity of the rollers that will соре with апу variations likely to
оссш in the feed material. Measures to achieve this include: providing the rollers
and roller path with raised profiling (ridges) and utilizing the joints of the
renewabIe segments оп these components to provide positive grip. Another
possibility is to use alternate segments with different wear properties or to form
ridge-type raised features оп the rollers Ьу means of highly wear-resistant weld
metal deposited with special electrodes.
А dam ring at the perimeter of the grinding ring serves to maintain the required
stability and depth of the bed of material. Furthermore, in large machines with
hydropneumatically applied grinding pressure, the pressure сап Ье varied to suit
the existing conditions of grinding.
4.2.2 Grinding action
The grinding that the material undergoes between the rollers and the roller path оп
the grinding ring comprises the following actions:
Draw-in of the material : The particles of feed materlal are grlpped between
the roller and the grinding ring. The larger ones, which project above the others
and are the first to Ье subjected to the crushing action, are broken down. This
size reduction is of course promoted Ьу the fact that the pressure is initially
concentrated оп these larger particles, so that their compressive strength is
quickly and greatly exceeded. The pressure exerted Ьу the roller is then
transferred mainly to the particles ranking next in size, and so оп. This process
continues to the narrowest part of the gap between the roller and the grinding
ring. The continuous and progressive size reduction of the material is
accompanied Ьу ап increase in its specific surface.
Compaction of the bed of material: In conjunction with the reduction in
size there occurs intensive spatial rearrangement of the individual particles
under crushing load. The compressive and shearing forces associated with this
have а further size reducing effect, mainly Ьу attrition, which is indeed the key
factor in achieving fine pulverization in а roller mill. It is assisted Ьу а certain
amount of relative movement - depending оп mill design features - between
the rollers and the grinding ring. This relative movement also helps to prevent
build-up оп the ring if the mill is fed with moist or sticky material.
Depth and condition of the bed of material: As explained, final size
reduction in а roller mill is achieved substantially Ьу attrition, i. е., the rubbing
together of the material particles subjected to compression and shear while
273

D Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
und~rgoing rearrangement of their positions in the bed. То accomplish this
геqшгеs the fulfilment of several conditions:
sufficiently high specific grinding pressures;
sufficiently large number of points and areas of contact of the particles
with опе another;
sufficient possibility of movement of the particles in relation to опе
another.
These c~n.ditions аге directly interrelated. If the bed of material increases in depth,
the speclflc pressure exerted оп the material, for а given pressure applied Ьу the
~ollers, becomes less. If the depth of the bed decreases, the specific pressure
Increases, but the scope for relative movement of the particles is restricted and the
number of their points and areas of contact is reduced. Непсе every bed of material
in а roller mill must Ье а compromise between the specific grinding pressure that
pulverizes the material and the bed depth needed for achieving the product
fineness required.
'П most cases, if the mill is fed with material which is uniform in its granulometric
composition and size reduction properties and which develops sufficient friction, а
stabIe bed of тоге ог less constant depth is formed оп the grinding ring. With
difficult materials there is scope for modifying and controlling the depth of the
b~d Ьу dam rings ог other such devices. If the feed material is too dry and has а
hlg.h co.nte~t of fine particles, stabilization of the bed тау Ье achieved Ьу
mОlstеПlПg It.
It has Ьееп found that for the grinding of relatively soft materials, such as marl, the
addition of high-grade hard limestone - required primarily for correction of the
deficient chemical composition of the raw material - improves the performance of
P=const.
angle of pressure сопе аррrox.БО О
high specific low specific
grinding pressure grinding pressure
Fig. 43: Effective агеа of material subjected to pulverizing action during
а roller pass, depending оп bed depth
274
.:
Grinding action developed in roller mills
roller mills in terms both of throughput and of operational behaviour. То achieve
such improvement, however, the limestone should Ье as coarse as possibIe within
the maximum feed size limit that the mill сап accept. The beneficial effect is due to
the fact that, in the bed consisting largely of softer and finer particles including а
very high proportion of recycled classifier rejects that have already Ьееп сот­
minuted, the coarse limestone particles act as individual "hard spots" that offer
higher resistance to the rollers and cause them to lift slightly. The rollers with their
mechanical ог hydropneumatic spring action then fall back onto the bed and do
correspondingly тоге size reduction work оп the finer particles they then
encounter. Moreover, these hard spots promote тоге intensive spatial rearrange-
ment of the particles of material in the bed and thus help to loosen it up, which
likewise makes for тоге effective fine pulverization.
'П general it сап Ье stated that with feed material which тау cause difficulties оп
account of low friction due to its specific material properties and/or granulometric
composition it is possibIe to achieve distinct improvements in mill throughput,
operational behaviour and specific power consumption Ьу the addition of hard
coarse particles. Improvements сап similarly Ье obtained when dealing with feed
material thattends to Ьесоте solidly compacted оп the grinding ring because of its
moisture content and composition, е. g., too high а proportion of clay
Grinding speed; time of roller passage
In addition to the factors so far discussed - specific friction of the feed material,
ratio of roller diameter to feed size, depth of the material bed, specific grinding
pressure applied, composition of the material - the order of magnitude of the
grinding speed is another important factor that governs the size reduction process
in а roller mill.
The grinding speed is determined Ьу the dimensions of the grinding ring and the
magnitude of the centrifugal force needed for transporting the material. Apart from
minor differences bound up with individual design features of the various mills, the
grinding speed is much the same in all the usual roller mills {ог апу given grinding
ring diameter. То increase the grinding speed Ьу some substantial proportion is of
little benefit, because the larger centrifugal force that is then developed will shorten
the residence time of the material оп the roller path. Besides, because the time of
roller passage - i. е., the time during which апу particular particle of material is
subjected to the action of the roller - is reduced, the availabIe grinding pressure
cannot Ье so effectively utilized for breaking down the particles.
It is known from materials testing technology that when compressive loads аге
applied at substantially higher speeds (rates of stress increase) than those
employed in normal strength testing, distinctly higher crushing strengths аге
measured. 'П roller mills operating with the usual grinding speeds and pressures
the rates of stress increase to which the material particles аге subjected аге very
тапу times greater than those in compressive strength tests. Further increases in
grinding speed would only increase the comminution resistance of the material
even тоге and thus serve по useful purpose.
ВЬгпег has given а characteristic value k which expresses the time of action of the
275
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
grinding pressure (contact force рег effective unit агеа) and provides а criterion for
comparing roller mills differing in design:
zx Р
k = - - [kg х second/m 2 ],
vxa
where.
z number of rollers [ - ]
Р total contact force [kg]
v angular velocity х rolling circle radius [m/second]
а effective width of rollers [т].
The effective width of conically tapered rollers сап Ье taken as 100% of the actual
width of the contact surface, wh ile for rollers with convex surfaces about 60% тау
Ье adopted. For the latter, а тоге precise value сап Ье found Ьу examining the
extent of wear оп the rolling surface.
4.2.3 Control of roller mills
Оп account of the short residence times of the feed material in а roller mill - for
example, а cycle time of about 30 seconds was measured in опе such mill - these
mills respond much тоге rapidly than tube mills to disturbing influences, е. g.,
variations in feed rate, grindabi/ity ог moisture content of the material to Ье
ground.
During the short cycle time in the mill the material is either оп the grinding bed ог is
in suspension in the stream of air. Апу influences that affect the residence time of
the material оп the bed will therefore quickly also manifest themselves in the
change in dust concentration of the conveying air that sweeps through the mill. As
the entire recirculation of material in nearly all these mills is effected entirely Ьу
pneumatic conveying action, it is directly associated with а pressure drop of the air.
The pressure drop within the mill therefore, оп the assumption of а constant
volumetric rate of flow, constitutes ап important controlled variabIe. Ву varying the
feed rate and/orthe pressure exerted bythe rollers it is possibIe to keep the pressure
drop at а constant value and thus to achieve а fairly uniform rate of classifier
loading.
Besides the pressure drop, in combined grinding and drying mills the temperature
in the grinding chamber and the rate of exhaust gas discharge аге used as
controlled variabIes.
References
1. Вё>rnег, Н.: Das Mahlverhalten von weichgebranntem Kalk. - Referat zur
8. Technischen Tagung der Kalkindustrie ат 19.-20.10.1967 in Bad
Kissingen.
2. Kaminsky, W. А.: Die Entwicklung der groP..en Fеdепоllепmuhlеп fur Ze-
mentwerke. - 'п' ZKG 14/1961/489.
276
Grinding and drying of соаl
3. Klovers, Е. J.: Energieeinsparungen Ье; Rollenmuhlen. - In: ZKG 32/
1979/24.
4. Loesche, Е. G.: Оег EinfluP.. von Walzenmuhlen auf das Rohmehlaufberei-
tungsverfahren. - 'п: ZKG 25/1972/225.
5. Schauer, S.: Walzenschusselmuhlen, Stand u. Entwicklung, Teill.- In: ZKG
24/1971/506.
6. Schauer, S.: Walzenschusselmuhlen, Grundlagen zur Auslegung, Teilll. - In:
ZKG 26/1973/368.
7. Schneider, G.: Die Walzenschusselmuhle М PS fur Vermahlung von Steinkoh-
le. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 20/1979/537.
8. Schneider, L./Blasczyk, G.: Mbglichkeiten der Kohlevermahlung. - In: ZKG
32/1979/248.
9. Schuler, U.: Mahltrocknung mit Fеdепоllепmuhlепunter besonderer Beruck-
sichtigung von Schusselmuhlen. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 16/1975/401.
10. Schwendig, G.: Versuche und Betrachtungen zur Oberwalzzerkleinerung
eines Mahlbettes. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 72/1966/489.
5 Grinding and drying of соаl
5.1 Preparation of the coal, general considerations
With the steep rise in cost that fuel oil and natural gas have undergone since the
early 1970s there has Ьееп а return to coal for industrial firing systems, including
the kilns of the cement industry. This trend is reflected in the extensive literature
that has appeared оп the subject of pulverized fue/ (coal and lignite), dealing with
process engineering and also very extensively with safety engineering experience
and requirements associated with the operation of coal grinding and drying
plants.
The preparation of coal in the cement works - as distinct from its preparation in
central plants which supply pu/verized fuel ready for firing to industrial consumers
and which do not соте within the present scope - comprises the grinding and
drying of the raw coal delivered to the works. In cases where coal consumption
rates аге high and coal from different sources of supply is used, it тау Ье
advantageous to bIend the various coals in conjunction with stockpiling, so as to
obtain а resulting fuel that is physically and chemically as closely uniform as
possibIe and thus to achieve well balanced kiln operating conditions.
As а rule, for reasons of environmental protection and safety, cement works
operate with relatively small соаl stocks if they сап rely оп regu lar deliveries. Under
these circumstances по elaborate storage installations аге required. Stocks
сопеsропdiпg to about 30 to 60 days' consumption аге normally held at the
works.
Information оп pulverized fuel firing systems is given in Section 0.111 "Firing
technology".
277
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Coal' grinding process

5.2 Storage especially relevant to high-ash coal. Оп the other hand, for firing in а (pre)calciner
Coal has the property of absorbing oxygen from the air. This is associated with heat associated with the preheater system it is quite appropriate to use а тоге coarsely
evolution. If the heat cannot Ье given off at а sufficiently rapid rate to the pulverized coal, as experience has shown [24].
surroundings, self-ignition тау оссш over а prolonged period of storage during
which the temperature gradually rises to above the critical value of about 700-
5.4 Grinding process
800 С. The danger of self-ignition is especially great in coal that has соте fresh
from the mine and also in coal that has Ьееп crushed, so that а substantial increase With regard to the functional coupling of the coal grinding plant with the firing
in reactive surface агеа has occurred. operation, various grinding/drying systems have Ьееп developed which аге not
The self- ignition tendency is greater according as the volatile content of the coal is always very consistently designated Ьу the terminology used in the technical
higher and also, because of the larger reactive specific surface, as its percentage of literature.
fine particles is higher. In principle, а distinction сап Ье drawn between the direct firing system and the
Special safety precautions аге not necessary for coal that is to Ье stored for only а indirect system. In the former, the pulverized coal is fed direct from the grinding mill
few days, as in transfer ог transhipment stockpiles. For longer-term storage, (with reference to fuel grinding it is often called а "pulverizer") to the Ьшпег, the
however, the coal should Ье deposited in layers which аге each well compacted coal being carried in а stream of air which passes through the mill and is supplied as
with the aid of rollers ог crawler-mounted vehicles, so as to minimize the entry of primary airto the kiln. ОП the other hand, in the indirect system the pulverized coal,
atmospheric oxygen to the interior of the pile. Alternatively, the coal should Ье separated from its carrying medium, is temporarily accommodated in ап in-
deposited in а thin layer and as loosely as possibIe, so that the heat evolved Ьу termediate storage Ып, from which it is fed independently to the Ьшпег.
oxidation сап Ье quickly dissipated [22]. The direct system in its basic form is shown schematically in Fig.44. The
pulverized coal is, as already stated, fed direct to the kiln, without intermediate
5.3 Grinding and drying storage. The hot air ог gas needed for drying the coal in the mill тау Ье availabIe as
exit gas from the kiln ог exhaust air from the clinker cooler; alternatively, it тау Ье
The raw coal, which generally has а moisture content of between 4 and 12% Ьу
supplied Ьуа hotair generator (air heater). The mill system fan drawsthe hotairor
weight in the as-supplied condition, is normally dried in combination with
gas (which тау have а temperature not exceeding 3500 С) through the grinding
grinding in the mill. If coal slurry with а water content in the range from 15to 30% is
mill and discharges it, together with the pulverized coal it carries, as primary air to
used, however, separate preliminary drying in а rotary dryer will Ье necessary
the kiln Ьшпег. This fan therefore functions also as the primary air fan The diagram
before grinding and final drying in the mill аге possibIe.
shows that with this system the entire gas flow - comprising the hot air ог gas, the
As а rule, in conjunction with grinding, the coal is dried to а residual moisture
water vapour driven out of the coal, and the "false" airthat inevitabIy infiltrates into
content of between 0.5 and 1.5%, which is suitabIe for firing. Completely dry соаl
the plant - is thus supplied to the kiln.
is тоге difficult to ignite. In systems with intermediate storage of the pulverized
The advantages of the direct firing technique аге its simplicity in terms of layout
coal it is, however, preferabIe to reduce the moisture content to below 1% in order
and equipment, with correspondingly low capital expenditure, and its operational
avoid possibIe troubIe with build-up (caking) and difficulties at Ып discharge
reliability, because there is по pulverized coal to Ье stored, пог апу dust-Iaden
outlets, rotary gates and screw conveyors.
exhaust gas to Ье dedusted. А disadvantage, however, is the high rate of primary air
The fineness to which the coal should Ье ground for firing will depend оп its
flammability and its combustion rate. These properties аге in turn governed Ьу the
content of ash and volatile constituents. Coal with а low volatile content will in
general have to Ье ground finer than соаl with а high volatile content. Commonly
applied fineness criteria аге: 10-15% Ьу weight retained оп the 0.09 тт and 1 -
2% Ьу weight оп the 0.2 тт standard sieve (DIN 4188 sieves). As ап approximate
guiding value the required fineness of the pulverized coal is expressed Ьу the
following rule of thumb. the percentage Ьу weight retained оп the 0.09 тт sieve
should Ье equal to between 0.5 and 0.7 times the percentage volatile content (dry,
ash-free) [24]. This will ensure good combustion with а short flame.
According to this rule, coal with а 30% volatile content would have to Ье
pulverized to а fineness of 15-21 % оп 0.09 тт. In practice, however, it is
preferabIe not to exceed 15% retained, even if the volatile content is fairly high, as
this greater fineness of the coal is desirabIe to ensure complete combustion. This is Fig.44. Direct firing system (С. Е. Raymond)

278 279
 •
Coal: grinding process
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
,
SYSTEM FAN

flow, resulting in correspondingly higher heat consumption of the kiln. Also, from
the process engineering standpoint, the direct coupling of the mill to the firing
system is unfavourabIe. The throughput of the mill has to Ье varied to suit the
requirements of the kiln at апу given time, so that optimum settings for the mill are
generally not possibIe. Another drawback is that the operation of the kiln is
dependent оп that of the mill. Malfunction of the mill results in shutdown of the
kiln, as does апу interruption in the supply of raw coal to the mill, since there is по
stored quantity of pulverized coal to serve as а buffer supply to bridge over апу ТО FLASH

temporary breaks in the continuity of fuel output from the mill. Апу variation or CALCINER

irregularity in the functioning of the mill will directly affect the firing system and
~
thus the operation of the kiln. PRIMAAY

А more sophisticated version of the direct firing principle is schematically

AtR
, ~AN

illustrated in Fig.45. Here the соаl is ground in ап air-swept ball mill. The •
VЕNТUЯI

pulverized coal is, however, collected in а cyclone; the mill system fan handles the
substantially dedusted exhaust air, and this cleaned gas is supplied to the primary
air fan. Part of the mill exhaust air remains as circulating air in the grinding system.
This variant is а little more elaborate and expensive than the preceding опе: the
cycloneseparator, which supplies the pulverized соаl to the burner, has а damping
effect оп the transmission of апу variations in performance or output from the mill
to the burner. This technique is the semi-direct firing system. It is а somewhat
80WL MILL
comprehensive designation which includes а number of variants.
For instance, the semi-direct system shown in Fig.46 is suitabIe for the grinding Fig.46: Semi-direct firing system (С. Е. Raymond)
and drying of соаl with а high moisture content [14]. It is more particularly
advantageous when the quantity of hot gas that has to Ье passed through the mill
in order to drive out the moisture is greater than the quantity of primary air that the
kiln burner сап accept. The surplus exhaust gas from the mill is discharged into the

Fig. 47: Semi-direct firing system (F. L. Smidth)

Fig.45: Direct firing system (F. L. Smidth Tirax Mill)
1 Ып for raw coal, 2 weigh belf feeder, 3 air-swept mill (Tirax), 4 air heater, 5 air
1 Ып for raw coal, 2 weight belt feeder, 3 air-swept mill (Tirax), 4 air heater, 5 air
separator, 6 cyclone, 7 air circulating fan, 8 primary air fan, 9 rotary kiln,
separator, 6 cyclone, 7 air circulating fan, 8 primary air fan, 9 rotary kiln,
1 О planetary cooler (Unax), 11 surge Ып
1 О planetary cooler (Unax)
281
280
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Coal' grinding process

atmosphere through а dust collecting filter. The filter, of course, constitutes ап

extra expense and is moreover а potential source of fire or explosion hazard.
The air-swept ball mill coal grinding plant shown in Fig.47 is also ап example of
semi-direct operation. А surge Ып of limited storage capacity is mounted оп load
cells which serve to control the rate of coal feed to the ball mill. 1n this arrangement,
too, air is recirculated to the mill, and а quantity of exhaust air equivalent to the hot
air supplied to the system is used as primary air.
In the grinding plant shown in Fig. 48, which serves two burners, there still exists
the operational coupling of kiln and соаl grinding mill. This semi-indirect plant
supplies fuel to the kiln Ьшпег and to the precalcining Ьшпег in the preheater. Both
burners аге supplied with pulverized coal from а Ып of limited storage capacity.
,
г

I
Fig. 49 shows yet another semi-direct firing variant. The raw coal is fed to the roller I
mill through а controllabIe feeder. The pulverized coal is collected in а cyclone and Ь 'SOmb:
I
delivered through а rotary gate to а Ып which is mounted оп load cells and controls
the set point of the mill feeder. The mill system fan is installed after the cyclon. The
exhaust air from the cyclone, still containing а certain amount of fine dust, is used
I
: с
~--- -10тl>t
I
I

:
:&
1,

I'-т::!
. I :
J &
9
...1

partly as primary air for combustion and is partly returned, mixed with fresh hot air,
~~~-~
I
to the air-swept mill.
In general, if direct firing is used for two ог тоге consumer units - тоге
particularly' cement kilns - it will Ье necessary to use two ог тоге соаl grinding
J tek
mills to achieve suitabIy tгоubIе-fгее plant operation. L -_ _J..-_ _.... mах. 1.50·С
The indirect system is characterized Ьу the interposition of а substantial storage j
capacity between the coal grinding mill and the consumer equipment, which тау
comprise опе ог тоге burners. These аге decoupled from the mill. Thus, опе Fig.49: Semi-direct firing system (Loesche GmbH) .
а ЫП for raw coal, Ь соаl feeder, с coal grinding mill, d cyclone, е mlll fan,
f puiverized coai Ып, 9 primary air fal1, 11 pulverized coal feeder, i kiln Ьшпег, j hot
air, k cold air

Fig. 48: Semi-direct firing system
centrally installed mill of appropriate throughput сап supply the fuel requirements
of several kilns. Such а pulverized fuel system is therefore sometimes referred to as
а central grinding p\ant. . .
Exhaust air from the clinker cooler ог preferabIy (because of ItS Inert character
thanks to its low oxygen content) exit gas from tl1е kiln is used for drying the coal in
tl1е mill.
А central grinding plant equipped with а fabric filter is shown schemati.cally in
Fig. 50. The exhaust gas, with а temperature of ab~ut 800 С, .is dis~harged,lnto the
external atmosphere. Fig. 51 shows а central gгiпdlПg plant In whlch ап alr-s~ept
ball mill is the pulverizing unit. The hot gas for coal drying is taken from t,he flГlПg
hood of the kiln. The mill exhaust gas is drawn through the system fan Installed
after the cyclone and is then divided into two flows, опе of which is recirculated to
the mill, while the other is discharged into the dust collector and thus to the
atmosphere, , .
А solution in which the exhaust air from the mill is supplied as сооllПg alr to the
clinker cooler and which therefore does not require а dust collecting filter is shown
(С. Е. Raymond) in Fig.52.

282 283
 •
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Types of coal grinding mill

j--@--'
I I
I
г
I
I

I
I
t
I
I
I
I
:1-
I I
I I
Ь г-- -50ть: : MUhlE>

~~-Ф=:-.{~ : I
С I 1:
I -- г
-10ть: !
~ I II
9---~
L.-
: ..J
L
k

j
Fig.50: Central grinding plant (Loesche GmbH)
а Ып for raw coal, Ь coal feeder, с coal grinding mill, d fabric filter, е mill fan,
f pulverized соаl Ып, 9 primary air fan, h pulverized coal feeder, i kiln burner, j hot
air, k cold air
Fig. 52: Central grinding plant with exhaust air discharge into clinker
cooler. requiring по dust filter (Heidelberger Zement AG, employee's inven-
tion, patents already granted in individual countries, applied for in others)
Advantages of the indirect system аге: operational independence of coal grinding
and kiin firing with regard to each other, possibility of supplying several consumer
units from опе central grinding plant; possibility of choosing the optimum rate of
supply of primary air to the kiln; greater ассшасу of feeding the pulverized соаl to
the burner, with shorter control dead time.
There are some disadvantages, however: higher capital cost of the equipment,
which is more elaborate in terms of mechanical installations, control technology
and safety arrangements; the need for а filter with а high dust collecting efficiency;
the need for creating inert conditions as а safety precaution.

5.5 Types of соаl grinding mill

The mills used for соаl grinding and drying аге either tumbIing mills or roller mills.
Some commonly employed types of mill will now Ье briefly described, without
laying claim to completeness.

5.5.1 TumbIing mills

Fig.51 : Central grinding plant (F. L. Smidth)
1 Ып for raw coal, 2 weigh belt feeder, 3 air-swept mill (Тirax), 4 air heater, 5 air
separator, 6 cyclone, 7 air circulating fan, 8 primary air fan, 9 rotary kiln,
1 О planetary cooler (Unax), 11 pulverized coal Ып, 12 dust collector
284
The tube mill or Ьа" mill is especially suitabIe for the indirect firing system, i. е.,
wherethere is nodirect connection between mill and kiln and where the pulverized
and dried coal is stored in ап intermediate bin of ample capacity. Thus the mill сап
Ье operated economically at а constant optimum rate of throughput, inde-
pendently of the demands of the burners fed Ьу it.
285
 Types of соаl grinding mill
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

The ball mill is insensitive to foreign bodies in the feed material, and the wear of the
grinding media сап Ье compensated without апу great effort or cost. The relatively
long residence time of the coal in the mill has the effect of equalizing апу short-
term variations in the quality of the mill feed, thanks to the bIending action of
the system. Also, harder constituents such as quartz and pyrite are effectively
pulverized
Ball mills for coal grinding are almost invariabIy operated as air-swept mills. As а
rule, in order to соре with the relatively high moisture content of the raw coal, the
mill is preceded Ьу а drying compartment. The mill is mounted in trunnion
bearings, usually at both ends. Ап advantageous alternative system of mounting
that enabIes larger quantities of gas to Ье introduced into the mill is the sliding shoe
bearing (Fig.53) .

Fig.54: Ring-ball mill for соаl grinding; standard type. designed to

Fig. 53: Air-swept tube mill with drying compartment and sliding shoe resist pressure surge (Claudius Peters)
bearing at inlet end (Krupp-Polysius)

and the operational availability of the plant is correspondingly diminished. This is

5.5.2 Roller mills
As already noted in Section 4, the designation "roller mill" is often used as а
ge~eric опе, comprising mills in which the grinding elements тау not only Ье
vаrюus types of roller, but тау alternatively consist of balls. Ап advantageous
feature for direct firing systems is the short residence time of the material in these
mills, so that mill operation сап Ье quickly adjusted to suit the firing requirements at
апу given time. Economically advantageous is moreover the fact that the power
consumption of а roller mill drive is more closely dependent оп the rate of material
throughput than that of а tumbIing mill. The throughput control ratio is about 1 2
in all types of roller mill.
Quartz and pyrite are frequently present in coal. They cause а higher rate of wear of
the grinding elements, so that more frequent renewal of these parts is necessary
obviously а drawback in direct firing with close interconnection of mill and kiln.
The Claudius Peters direct-firing mill is а ring-ball mill which is availabIe in two
versions for operation under inert internal atmosphere and designed to ап
explosion-resistant specification so that it сап withstand pressure surges of 3.5 bar
or 50 psi (Fig.54).
The Krupp-Polysius АМК roller mill сап Ье supplied with а housing designed to
resist pressure surges of up to 8 bar. This range of соаl grinding mills comprises
throughputs from 2.3 to 62 t/hour for а Hardgrove grindability index of 55 and а
product fineness corresponding to 12% retained оп the 0.09 тт sieve (Fig. 55)
The Atox coal grinding mill is а fairly new develop.ment of the firm of F. L. Smidth
(Fig. 56). It has а flat-topped grinding tabIe, and the three grinding rollers are each
mounted оп а shaft which is attached to а central yoke. The mill is designed to

287
286
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of coal grinding mill

• Fig. 57: Three-roller direct firing

mill LM 26.30 D. of modular design
(Loesche GmbH)

Fig.55: Roller mШ for соаl grinding (Krupp-Polysius)

Fig.58: MPS roller mill

Fig. 56: Atox roller mill for соаl grinding (F. L. Smidth) (Gebr. Pfeiffer)

288 289
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Safety requirements

comply with the United States and Ешореап safety codes for resistance to
explosion pressure surges. The mills in this range have throughputs from 5.5 t/hour
(drive motor power rating 55 kW) to about 80 t/hour (800 kW), their product
having а fineness corresponding to 10% retained оп the 0.09 тт sieve.
The roller mill originally developed Ьу the firm of Loesche for соаl grinding, and
subsequently used also for the grinding of other materials, is at present availabIe in
two ranges intended тоге particularly for coal. The principal features of the range
of smaller mills with their two grinding rollers and their grinding tabIes from 1300
to 1900 тт diameter аге: throughputs from 14 to 40 t/hour, with corresponding
drive power ratings from 112 to 330 kW, yielding а product ground to а fineness of
15% retained оп 0.09 тт for coal with Hardgrove grindability index of 90. These
mills are resistant to pressure surges of 3.5 bar, thus satisfying the conditions of the
German VDI Code 3673. The larger coal grinding mills built Ьу Loesche are
characterized Ьу modular design and have two, three or four rollers. This range
starts with а mill designed for а throughput of about 40 t/hour (420 kW installed
power) and equipped with а grinding tabIe of 2100 тт diameter. See Fig.57.
Other extensively used coal grinding mills are the MPS roller mill of Gebr Pfeiffer
AG (Fig.58) and the type Е ring-ball mill of Fives-Cail Babcock (Fig.59).

5.6 Safety requirements

Fig. 59: Туре "Е" ring-ball mill (Fives-Cail Babcock)
Special requirements intended to ensure safe operation of coal grinding plants
have to Ье fulfilled in order to eliminate explosion hazard. The potential existence
of such hazard is due to the following factors:
combustibIe materials in finely divided form аге present;
the dust (pulverized coai) concentration is within the explosive range, 1. е.,
between the lower and the upper limit of flammability;
oxygen is present in concentrations that сап sustain explosions;
sources of ignition тау develop.
Even fairly coarse coal particles of about 1 тт size, suspended in air, сап constitute
ап explosion hazard. In the grinding plant the pulverized соаl is always present in
ignitabIe fineness.
The explosive range for pulverized coal, ог coal dust, suspended in air depends оп
its physical properties, such as its fineness and moisture content, and оп its
chemical composition, such as its ash content and volatile content. The lower limit
above which the concentration of coal particles in atmospheric air is potentially
hazardous thus varies according to circumstances. Values from 200 g/m 3 to as low
as 15 g/m 3 in the most unfavourabIe case have Ьееп reported (Narjes 1963,
Wibbelhoff 1981). Of course, the figures found Ьу various investigators depend
not only оп the physical and chemical properties of the pulverized coal, but also оп
experimental conditions such as the ignition energy input.
The important fact, however, is that it is not economically possibIe to operate coal
grinding systems with concentrations of pulverized coal which аге consistently
below the lower limit of flammability and thus "safe".
There is also ап upper limit of flammability, which is located at concentrations of
between 1500 and 6000 g/m 3 , again depending оп various circumstances. At

290 291
 D. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
concentrations of соаl suspended in air in excess of this limit there is considered to
Ье по danger of explosion. Duгing start-up and shutdown of а соа' grinding plant
the internal conditions always pass through the explosive range bounded Ьу these
two limits.
'П terms of oxygen concentration the lower limit of flammability is around 14%
Ьу volume of the air in which the соа' particles аге suspended. А gas mixtuгe
containing less than this oxygen amount is regarded as inert with regard to соаl
dust explosion and therefore "safe".
Lowering the oxygen content in the grinding circuit has the effect of raising the
lower limit offlammability and lowering the upper limit, so thatthe explosive range
is narrowed. Also, with lower oxygen content the ignition temperatuгe of the
mixtuгe of pulverized соа' and air is raised, and this effect, too, tends to reduce the
hazardous range of concentration.
The most dangerous souгce of ignition liabIe to initiate explosions аге smouldering
pockets that may develop in соа' dust deposits inside the plant. Ignition of the dust
may Ье brought about Ьу too high а temperature of the gas used for drying the
coal.
Непсе the conditions for the occurrence of ап explosion аге at times fulfilled in а
соаl grinding plant. As it is not possibIe to eliminate deposits of combustibIe dust
inside the plant, the required degree of safety is attainabIe only Ьу using inert gas
for drying and conveying the pulverized coal. 'П the event of failuгe of the supply of
inert gas а potentially hazardous condition may still arise, so that, theoretical.ly at
least, it would Ье necessary to provide а separate and independent souгce of !Пегt
gas for immediate availability in ап emergency. . .
'П actual practice the grinding plant normally operated under Inert Internal
conditiorls is designed to ап explosion-resistant specificatioГl in that it is аЫе to
withstand pressuгe surges of а certain magnitude, while it is additionally provided
with pressuгe relief venting, so that the consequences of ап explosion аге kept
within acceptabIe limits and по serious damage is done. Venting devices аге of
various types: bIow-оut panels, explosion doors, etc. 'П the interests of safety,
personnel should not Ье allowed to enter certain "no-go" zones пеаг these devices
while the plant is in operation. Maintenance, repairs and inspections of vital parts
• should Ье carried out only duгing plant shutdowns.
The principles and precautions applicabIe to соа' grinding and drying аге even
more stringently applicabIe to lignite (brown coal), which is especially hazardous
оп account of its higher content of volatile matter.
292
Grinding and drying of соаl - References
References
1. Bartknecht, W.: Explosionen, AbIauf und SchutzmaBnahmen. - Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag 1978.
2. Baumeister, W.: Erfahrungen mit einem kombinierten pneumatischen System
zuг Dosierung und Fbrderung von Kohlenstaub. - 'п: ZKG 34/1981/247.
3. Billhardt, Н. W.: Betriebserfahrungen mit einem neuen Kohlenstaub-Dosier-
system. - 'п: ZKG 34/1981/255.
4. Birolini, P./Sammartin, L.: Explosionseigenschaften von Kohlenstaub und ihre
Berucksichtigung beim Bau von Kohlenstaubmahlanlagen. - 'п: ZKG
32/1979/613.
5. Bbcker, D./Kreusing, Н.: Braunkohlenstaub, Herstellung und Verwendung. -
'п: ZKG 34/1981/221.
6. Brundiek, Н.: Aufbau, Funktion und neue Betriebserfahrungen mit Walzen-
Kohlenmuhlen. - 'п. VGB Kraftwerkstechnik 61/1981/328.
7. Buchmuller, Н. А.: Rohrmuhlen fur Kohlevermahlung. - 'п: Aufbereitungs-
Technik АТ 12/1971/179.
8. Durr, М.: Kohlefeuerungen aus der Sicht des Ofenbauers. - 'п: ZKG
32/1979/367.
9. Eicke, G.: Moderne Zentralmahlanlagen fur Kohle. - 'п: Aufbereitungs-
Technik АТ 18/1977/520.
10. Flbter, Н. J. : М it Ofenabgas inertisierte Kohle- Mahltrocknungsanlagen fur die
Zementindustrie. - In: ZKG 34/1981/257.
11. Fredenberg, К. G./von Wedel, К.: Kohlemahltrocknung mit Vertikalmuhle und
Inertkreislauf. - In: ZKG 33/1980/446.
12. Kline, J. P./Kreisberg, А. J./Deroche, D. L.: Cut fuel cost with indirect соа'
firing. - Unverblfentlichte Mitteilung der Fuller Company, Bethlehem,
Pennsylv. 18001.
13. Kuhlmann, К.: Betriebserfahrungen mit einem Kohlenstaub- Dosiersystem
nach dem Fbrderleitungs- Differenzdruckverfahren. - 'п: ZKG 34/1981/251.
14. Musto, А. L.: Соа' firing of cement kilns. - In: СЕ Raymond Technical Briefs,
No.1,1978.
15. Narjes, А.: Vermeiden von Kohlenstaub-Verpuffungen duгch Inertgasbetrieb.
- I п: ZKG 16/1963/357.
16. Niemeyer, Е. А.: Planung und Bau einer zentralen Mahltrocknungsanlage fur
55 t/h Kohlenstaub im Werk Li:igerdorf. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/415.
17. о. V.· Вгепп- und ExplosionskenngrbBen von Stauben. - In: BG 1980.
18. Parpart, J. Entstaubung von Kohlenstaubanlagen. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/265.
19. Patzke, J. Sicherheitstechnische Betriebserfahrungen bei der Kohlemahlung
im Zementwerk Lagerdorf. - 'п. ZKG 34/1981/238.
20. Ruhland, W.: Dosierung von Kohlenstaub mit einer Differential-Dosierwaage.
- 'п: ZKG 34/1981/243.
21. Schmidt, А. J .. Regeleinrichtungen fur Kohlenstaubfeuerungen. - In: ZKG
33/1980/555.
22. Schneider, F.: Kohlenaufbereitung und Kohlenfeuerungen fur Zementdreh-
Ыеп. - 'п: ZKG 29/1976/289.
293
О. Manufacture of cement 1. lVIaterials preparation technology 11. Raw meal silos

23. Schneider, L.: Verfahrenstechnische Gesichtspunkte fur Kohle-Mahl- Trock- 11. Raw теаl silos
nungsanlagen in druckfester Bauweise mit Oruckentlastung. - Vortrag auf
dem Symposium "Kohlenstaub" der Steinbruchsberufsgenossenschaft ат
10. Febr. 1981 in Hannover. Ву Н. К. Klein-Albenhausen
24. Schneider, L./Blasczyk, G. Mbglichkeiten der Kohlevermahlung. - In: ZKG
32/1979/248.
25. Schneider, L./Blasczyk, G./Lohnherr, L.: Betriebserfahrungen mit modernen 1 General . .295
Kohlenmahlanlagen - Kugel- und Rollenmuhlen. - In: ZKG 34/1981/260. 2 Batchwise homogenization .295
26. Scholl, Е. W.: Вгепп- und Explosionsverhalten von Kohlenstaub. - In' Oie 3 Continuous bIending .297
Industrie der Steine und Erden 1981/45 and ZKG 34/1981/227 4 Combined systems .304
27. Scholl, Е. W./Fischer, P./Oonat, С .. Vorbeugende konstruktive SchutzmaP..- 5 Summary .304
nahmen gegen Gas- und Staubexplosionen. - In. Chem. Ing. Techn. References. 305
51 /1979/Н. 5.
28. VOI-Richtlinien 2263' Verhutung von Staubbriinden und Staubexplosionen.
- August 1969.
29. VOI-Richtlinien 3673' Oruckentlastung von Staubexplosionen. - Juni 1979.
30. Voos, Е.: Betrieb von Kohlenmahlanlagen. - In: ZKG 17/1964/526. .. 1 General
31. Wehren, P./Kortmann, F. Н.' Oie Schwingmahlung, ein neues Mahlsystem fur
For the manufacture of cement clinker it is necessary to ргераге а raw mix fulfilling
die Zerkleinerung von Kohle und Koks. - In Braunkohle 31 /1979/Н. 4.
certain conditions as to its chemical composition (see Section CI12). Raw
32. Wibbelhoff, Н. Oerzeitige sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen ап Kohle-
materials which already in their natural state conform to these requirements аге
Mahl-Trocknungs-Anlagen. - In' Oie Industrie der Steine und Erden
exceedingly гаге. 'П orderto obtain а suitabIe mix, in modern cement production it
1981/61 and ZKG 34/1981/234.
is therefore standard practice to apply bIending and homogenization of the raw
materials at some point between the crushing plant and the raw mill This is
normally done in а so-called bIending bed -а stockpile which serves not only for
Information literature is obtainabIe from the following firms. storage of the crushed stone, but is so built up and equipped that preliminary
homogenisation of its composition сап Ье effected (see Section ВII).
а) Krupp Polysius Aktiengesellschaft, 0-4720 Beckum
Homogenization also takes place during the grinding process. Although this
Ь) CPAG Claudius Peters, 0-2000 Hamburg
further improves the chemical uniformity of the material, it is in most cases still not
с) F. L. Smidth & Со. A/S, ОК-2500 Valby Kopenhagen
enough to meet the strict requirements of present-day cement burning (see
d) Fuller Сотрапу, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18001
Section С).
е) СЕ Raymond Combustion Engineering, Inc., Chicago, Illinois 60606
This being so, over the years various methods and systems have Ьееп developed
f) Loesche-GmЬН, 0-4000 Ousseldorf
which епаЫе а high degree bf raw meal homogenization to Ье achieved
g) О. & К. Orenstein & Koppel Aktiengesellschaft, Werk Ennigerloh,
economically. Special silos equipped for storing and homogenizing the raw meal
0-4722 Ennigerloh
аге availabIe. The systems сап Ье broadly subdivided into those with batchwise
h) Five-Cail- Babcock, Hauptverwaltung, 0-4150 Krefeld
(intermittent) and those with continuous operation. Which system should Ье
i) Gebr. Pfeiffer AG, 0-6750 Kaiserslautern
chosen in а given case will depend оп circumstances and requirements. Also,
besides chemical and technical considerations, the question of есопоту (cost of
construction, operating expenses, etc.) must not Ье ignored.

2 Batchwise homogenization
With this system the raw meal in а large-capacity silo is completely fluidized Ьу the
admission of compressed air through suitabIe inlets in the bottom of the silo. The
air penetrates the silo contents, thus greatly reducing ог cancelling the friction
between the particles (Fig.1). Ап overall circulatory motion is obtained Ьу

294 295
D. Manufacture of cement 11. Raw meal silos Continuous bIending

admitting the air cyclically through different zones (е. g., sectors ог segments) of
the silo bottoГfi. The greater part of the air enters the silo in the so-called active
aerating zones, while in the other zones only so much air is supplied as to keep the
material over them merely in а fluidized condition. With this method even very large
and long-term variations in the chemical composition of raw meal сап Ье reduced
to very low amounts.
The actively aerated zones аге switched systematically at regular intervals Ьу
means of special valve equipment, so that they move round and round the silo
bottom - е. g., sector Ьу sector - in а clockwise ог anticlockwise direction. It is
more particularly this continual progression of the active zones that keeps the
contents of the silo in motion and effects the desired homogenization.
А homogenizing silo is generally designed to hold 1 О to 12 hours' grinding output,
so as to ensure sufficient treatment to сапсеl out the remaining variations in the
chemical composition of the raw meal. The time required for achieving this will of
course depend also оп the degree of prehomogenization of the raw material ahead
of the mill.
The height (depth) of material in the silo should not exceed 1.5 times the silo
diameter. Normally а height/diameter ratio of 1.2: 1 is adopted.
The specific air supply rate (m З of air рег minute and рег m 2 of aerated silo bottom
агеа) will depend оп the ease with which the material сап Ье fluidized. For normal
raw meal the required specific air rate is about 1 m З /m 2 minute, with air supplied at
а pressure of 2-3 Ьаг.
These figures indicate that pneumatic homogenization demands а substantial
energy input. It does, however, achieve а relatively high degree of homogenization,
so that even quite large variations in the composition of the raw meal сап Ье
effectively reduced The result is а function of the homogenizing time and thus of
the energy consumed. Fig. 2 shows ап efficiency curve for а system of this type.
То compensate for the intermittent operation, two homogenizing installations may
Ье employed, опе being aerated while the other is supplying raw meal to the kiln.
"Two-storey" construction - опе silo mounted over the other - is commonly
employed.

з Continuous bIending *)
As already mentioned, with modern quarrying methods and with the introduction
of efficient bIending beds а substantial degree of homogenization of the raw
material is achieved already before it is supplied tothe raw grinding mill. As а result,
little ог по homogenization of the raw meal may Ье necessary, in which case the
raw meal silo will function merely as а buffer store. AII the same, the raw meal
composition will generally still show some residual variation, and it is advan-

') In the literature по clear distinction is drawn between "bIending" and "homogenizing",
these terms often being treated as synonyms. Some authors, however, use "bIending" where
two or more recognizabIy different material components have to Ье merged or mixed or
Fig.1: Homogenizing silo embodying the quadrant system where more or less distinct layers of material are incorporated with опе another

296 297
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200
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100
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i'" ....
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0,2
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I
I I I I I I I I I I I I ...
20 1.0 БО 80 100 120 11.0 1БО 180 200 220 21.0 HOMOGENISIERZEIT I mln]

0,1 0,2 0,3 0,1. SPEZ ARBEITSBEDARF

I kw h/t I
Fig. 2: Performance diagram of а pneumatic homogenizing silo
spez. Arbeitsbedarf = specific power consumption
Homogenisierzeit = homogenizing time

."
«5'
w
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9:
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О. Manufactuгe of cement 11. Raw meal silos Continuous bIending

д ]~---"il__ t_ д Jtr
~_.- I
I
-_IIIIIIIIIII_

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1_0 -о
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_0
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Schnilt В- В
Schnitt В- В

Schnltt Д- д

Schnltt д- д fig. 5: Blending chamber silo (schematic)

fig. 4: Blending chamber silo (schematic)

tageous to reduce this as far as possibIe. 'П modern systems this is usually done in
continuously operating silos equipped with special discharge aerating chambers,
referred to as bIending ог mixing chambers, often conical in shape.
The raw meal is deposited 'ауег Ьу layer in the silo (Figs. 3,4,5). It enters through
а system of troughs and several inlet openings so as to build up these layers as
uniformly as possibIe over the entire cross-sectional агеа of the silo. The actual
bIending is effected during the emptying process, this being brought about Ьу
cyclic aeration of bottom sectors ог zones in such а way that funnel flow develops,
causing the respective layers to flow into the "funnel" cavity and merge. 'П order to
prevent fresh raw meal from rushing prematurely into the funnel, this action must
Ье stopped from time to time and а new funnel Ье formed. This isdone cyclically Ьу
ап air distribution system ог preferabIy Ьу means of shut-off valves associated with
the conical discharge chamber.
The bIending efficiency of such ап installation is inevitabIy limited and will depend
substantially upon the manner in which the raw meal is deposited layerwise in the
silo and how effectively the funnelling-down of the material to achieve the
mingling of the layers is continually accomplished. It is reckoned that а homo-
genization factor of at least 3: 1 is attainabIe with опе such silo, and that 5: 1 and
higher сап Ье attained if two silos аге operated in combination with each other.
However, the efficiency varies considerabIy from опе silo system to another. Power
consumption is relatively low - about 0.1-0.2kWh рег tonne of raw meal.

301
300
 Combined systems
о. Manufacture of cement 11. Raw meal silos

.ъ .,,'

Fig. 7: Blending chamber silo with integral homogenizing compartment

Fig. 6: Blending chamber silo with elevated homogenizing compart-
(schematic)
ment (schematic)
зоз
З02
О. Мапufасtше of cement 11. Raw meal silos
4 Combined systems
Raw meal silo installations embodying а combination of the two principles
outlined аЬоуе - batch homogenization and continuous bIending - are so
designed that the meal is prehomogenized (bIending of layers) in а continuous silo
and then passed to а comparatively small second silo for final homogenization.
As а result of the bIending of the layers of material Ьу funnel action in the
continuous silo not only the maximum values but also the frequency of the
variations are reduced, so that the final homogenizing treatment сап Ье performed
fairly quickly, which in turn means that the second silo need only have а
correspondingly small volumetric capacity for attaining the specified uniformitv in
chemical composition of the raw meal (Figs. 6 and 7).
The small second silo is aerated continuously and is fed with material at а rate equal
to the rate of discharge from this silo, which may take the form of а homogenizing
chamber installed within the continuous bIending silo and constituting ап integral
feature thereof.
5 Summary
Which type of bIending/homogenizing silo system will provide the technically
optimal and economically favourabIe solution for апу particular cement works is а
question that must Ье viewed in the overall context of the raw material conditions
and preparation equipment envisaged. Various combinations of raw meal silos are
shown in Fig.8.
DOPPELSTOCK DOPPELSTOCK
HOMOGENISIERSILO HOMOGENISIERSILO
DURCHLAUFM ISCH SILO KOMBINATIONSSILO
Fig. 8: Various raw meal bIending silo installations: two-storey homo-
genizing silo. continuous bIending silo. combination silo
304
References
References
1. Ahrens, N.. Tendenzen der Rohmaterial-Homogenisierung. - In ZKG
26/1973, 1.
2. Daniel, Н.: Homogenisierung im Multi-Strom-Silo. - In: ZKG 32/1979/161.
3. Grapengiesser, J. С.: Eine neuartige Beli..iftungseinheit fur beli..iftete Silo-
bbden. - In: ZKG 22/1969/218.
4. Grapengiesser, J. С.: Gror..raumsilos mit Mischeffekt. - In: ZKG 24/
1971/512.
5. Kirchhoff, K./Johansen, V.· Homogenisierung in Zementfabriken mit dem
'Funnel flow' -Verfahren. - In. ZKG 27/1974/373.
6. Klein, Н .. GеsеtzmiШigkеitеп bei der pneumatischen Homogenisierung. - In:
ZKG 15/1962/399.
7. Klein, Н.: Verbesserung bei der Chargen-Homogenisierung - In: ZKG
24/1971/515.
8. Kraur.., W. Vorrats- und Mischsilotechnik mit Tunnelentleerung und пеи­
artigen Mischsilos. - In: ZKG 29/1976/3.
9. Kraur.., W.: Kontinuierlich arbeitende Rohmehlmischanlagen. - In. ZKG
30/1977/526.
10. Kurz, Н. Р.: Allgemeine Ahnlichkeitsgesetze der pneumatischen Siloentlee-
rung und Mer..ergebnisse uber den Geometrieeinflur.. auf die Flier..vorgange. -
In: Aufbereitungstechnik АТ 16/1975/569.
11. Lochmann, Н O./Schillo, Н.: Rohmehlvergleichmar..igung mittels Prozer..-
rechner. - In. ZKG 25/1972/177
12. Matouschek, F.: Rohmehl-МisсhргоbIеmе in der Zementindustrie. - In: ZKG
22/1969/357.
13. Nystrbm, L./Sbderman, J.: Ein neues Verfahren zur Homogenisierung уоп
Rohmeh! und Zement. - In: ZKG 27/1974/194.
14. Parnaby, J.: Mengen- und pneumatische Homogenisierungssysteme fur die
Kontrolle der Qualitat уоп Rohmehl. - In: ZKG 26/1973/22.
15. Pennell, А. R./Watson, О.: Auslegung und Betriebsverhalten уоп kontinuier-
lich arbeitenden Mischsystemen fur die Homogenisierung уоп Zement-
Rohmehl. - In: ZKG 26/1973/27.
16. Radewald, Н.: ProbIeme der Homogenisierung уоп Rohmehl in Harburg.
In: ZKG 22/1969/371.
17. Rbtzer, H./Hagspiel, W.: Untersuchung des Homogenisierungseffektes in
Vorratssilos fur Zementrohmehl mit Hilfe уоп Radioisotopen. - In. ZKG
29/1976/527.
18. Schmidt-Pathmann, W./Kraur.., W.: Mischkammersiloanlagen zur Rohmate-
rialvergleichmar..igu ng. - In АТ 14/1973/6.
19. Schramm, R./Zeig, К.: Untersuchungen der Mischwirkung einer Homogeni-
sier- und Rohmehlanlage. - In: ZKG 32/1979/557.
20. Sommer, H./Cuenod, M./Thibaud, О.: DieVergleichmar..igungdes Kalkgehal-
tes уоп Rohmehl. - In: ZKG 28/1975/508.
21. Voos, E./Blatton, В.: Das pneumatische Homogenisieren. - In: ZKG 12/
1959/519.
305
О. Manufactuгe of cement 11. Raw meal silos
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology

22. Weislehner, G.. Ein Beitrag zum ProbIem der pneumatischen Mischung
staubfbrmiger GLiter. - In ZKG 22/1969/345.
111. Cement burning technology
23. Wildpaner, H./Kuhs, R.: Rohmehl-Mischungsregelkreis in Zementwerken. -
In: ZKG 24/1971/362. 1 кi 1n systems
24. Ziegler, Е.: Erweiterung des Zementwerkes Burglengenfeld. - In: ZKG 29/
1976/479. Ву Е. Steinbiss
25. Zulauf, J.: Systemidentifikation von Homogenisieranlagen. - In. ZKG
26/1973/35. 1.1 Types of kiln 307
1.1.1 General . . . 307
1.1.2 Long rotary kiln . 308
Acknowledgements for illustrations. 1.1.3 Short rotary kiln . 308
Fig.1: IBAU HAI\IIBURG 1.2 Method of support for rotary kilns. 308
Fig. 2: IBAU HAMBLIRG 1.2.1 Rollers and their bearings 308
Fig. 3: IBAU HAMBURG 1.2.2 Thrust rollers . 312
Fig. 4' CPAG 1.2.3 Tyres. . . . . . . . 314
Fig.5 CPAG 1.2.4 Rotary kiln drive. 315
Fig. 6. IBAU HAMBURG 1.2.5 Air seals at kiln ends. 316
Fig. 7: CPAG References. 319
Fig. 8' IBAU HAMBURG

1.1 Types of kiln

1.1 1 General
In the early days of cement manufactuгe the clinker was produced in shaft kilns
(vertical kilns) which were manually charged and controlied It was а process
involving strenuous physicallabour and had the drawback of irregular operation,
yielding а clinker ofvariabIe and often inferior quality. Besides, the capacity of such
kilns was low.
This unsatisfactory system was superseded Ьу the automatically operating shaft
kiln. With good raw materials and suitabIe fuels it is thus possibIe to obtain regular
kiln performance, but the disadvantage of limited output рег kiln - not above
about 300 tonnes рег day - remains.
Late in the nineteenth centuгy the rotary kiln was developed in Britain, introduced
into the United States and, from that country, adopted in Continental Euгope. With
this kiln it had become possibIe to use апу type of fuel: solid, liquid ог gaseous
(coal, oil, gas). The raw materials were introduced into the rotating tube in the form
of "slurry" (wet process) ог "raw meal" (dry process). In comparison with the
shaft kiln, the capacity of the rotary ki In was soon greatly increased, especially after
very effective homogenization methods, preheating and precalcining systems had
Ьееп developed, and efficient measuring and control instrumentation had Ьееп
introduced.
AII these developments and improvements have helped to bring the rotary kiln to а
high level of performance. Thus, clinker outputs of 3000 t/day аге now regarded as
perfectly ordinary, while kilns сараЫе of producing 6000 to 8000 t/day аге Ьу по
means very exceptional. Besides the development of large kiln units there has Ьееп
а very notabIe reduction in specific heat consumption, which makes for greater

306
307
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Kiln systems

economy and is of course а desirabIe development in the general effort to conserve
energy. AII this has Ьееп achieved without detriment to the high quality standards
with which the cement clinker has to comply.
'П view of this evolution, the present chapter will Ье concerned оп Iy with rotary kiln
systems.
The thrust due to the slope of the shell and its rotation has to Ье resisted. ОП small
ki\ns with rollers of correspondingly small diameter the latter аге disposed with
their axes slightly at ап angle to the longitudinal axis ofthe kiln instead of parallel to
it (Fig. 2). However, оп present-day big kilns the axes of the rollers аге placed
parallel to the kiln, ап arrangement which enabIes the kiln to perform continuous

1.1.2 Long rotary kiln Fig.1 а: Кiln mounting

(from Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974)
Feed: slurry with about 30 to 45% water content (wet process) ог dry raw
meal (dry process).
Shell diameter: up to about 7.0 m.
Length of kiln: for wet ог dry process between 32 and 35 times shell diameter.
Inclination of kiln: 3.0 to 4.5%.
Rotational speed of kiln: 1.5 to 2.5 r.p.m., corresponding to а circumferential
velocity of about 0.3 to 0.9 m/sec.
Refractory lining: see Section 0.111.5.
Internal chain system: weight of chain fittings about 0.1 to 0.13 t/m 3 of effective
kiln volume.
Thermal rating of refractory lining in burning zone: 20 to 25 GJ/m 2 . h
Residence time of material in kiln: 3 to 5 hours.

~
I
Fig.1 Ь:
Rotary kiln mounting
1.1.3 Short rotary kiln (КНО HumboldtWedagAG, Cologne)

Feed: semi-dry ог dry raw meal (semi-dry ог dry process).

Shell diameter: up to about 7.0 m.
Length of kiln. between 15 and 17 times shell diameter.
Inclination of kiln: 3.0 to 4.5%.
Rotational speed of kiln: up to about 2.5 r.p.m.
Refractory lining: see Section 0.111.5.
Thermal rating of refractory lining in burning zone: 20 to 25 GJ/m 2 . h
Residence time of material in kiln: 40 to 60 minutes.

1.2 Method of support for rotary kilns

Oepending оп the length of the kiln, it is supported оп two ог more tyres (riding
rings) mounted оп carrying rollers. The ratio of roller diameter to tyre diameter
ranges from 1 : 2.2 to 1 : 4.4 and depends оп the kiln shell diameter and оп the
number of tyres and roller sets оп which the kiln is supported, this in turn being а
determining criterion for roller size with respect to permissibIe bearing contact
pressure.

1.2.1 Rollers and their bearings

The centres of the carrying rollers аге positioned at ап angle of 30 degrees оп each
side of the vertical centre-line of the kiln shell cross-section. See Figs. 1 а, 1 Ь and
1 с. The spacing of the roller sets along the kiln will depend оп the positioning of
the tyres and оп the longitudinal thermal expansion of the shell.

308 309
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Kiln systems

"uphill" and "downhill" movements, while now thetyres will not Ьеаг obIiquely оп
the rollers and thus not cause grooving and lateral deformation of them.
The carrying rollers аге mounted in scoop-Iubricated plain bearings, occasionally
in roller bearings (Figs.3 and 4).

Fig.1 с: Bearing pedestal for kiln rollers (КНО Humboldt Wedag AG,
Cologne)

11
'. ~2
-.r:::-h
~~~q-..J-
~..
'.
11-- 1/ ~..
ы -s...c:t-, ':r~2
. ы
: -~~~
.'
11
-S-.r±-:r
Fig.З: Кiln roller
mounting
(КНО Humboldt
Wedag AG,
'1 11 I /i Cologne)

а с

ь d

\1 ~.. \! --\,1 ~.. \1

-$-1 ~вэ--dз-i~-d3-
,'\ о ~ I"\-- 1\ о ~ 1\ а = k!ln rotates clockw!se
I ь klln rotates clockwlse
= Fig. 4: Кiln roller
с = kiln rotates anti-clockwise with mounting
Ofenauslaufseite
ki 'П outlet end d = kiln rotates anti-clockwise (КН D Humboldt
Wedag AG,
Fig. 2: Кiln roller adjustment (from Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974) Cologne)

310 311
D. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology

1.2.2 Thrust rollers

'П order to limit the uphill and downhill sliding movements of the tyres оп the
rollers, small kilns аге provided with thrust rollers which аге given а certain
permanent setting to limit the range of movement. Large kilns аге equipped with
а тоге sophisticated system comprising hydraulically controlled thrust rollers а;-
с
(Figs.5, 6 and 7). о)
о
о
u
<3
«
о)
ф

"о
Ф

~
:о
о
.Q
Е
:::J
I
О
I
~
Е
Q)
+"
111
>
111
...
~
Fig.5: Thrust roller (KHD Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne)
J "§
+"
111
2
$:о
+"
"о
~
"§
+"
1:
О
U

~
са
.2
:::1
са

-о
>
:I:
\\ ,.....
о)

~
Fig.6: Thrust roller set (KHD Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne)
313
312
 Kiln systems
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology

1.2.3 Tyres Under normal operating conditions а clearance ranging from 3 to 20 тт is formed
between the shell and the tyre, depending оп the respective temperatures of these
The tyres (riding rings) аге among the most important constructional features of а соmропепts. Because of this loose fit (so-called floating tyre) there ~ccu~s some
rotary kiln. They constitute the supporting elements which have to transmit the circumferential slip ог lag of the tyre in relation to the s~ell. 'П .t~e aXlal dlгесtюп
load of the kiln and its contents to the carrying rollers. This function has to Ье (Iongitudinal direction of the kiln) the tyre is located IП РОSltюп Ьу .means of
reliabIy performed despite longitudinal movements and thermal expansion of the retaining elements welded to the shell. With floating tyres the shell ovallty ca~ Ье
kiln shell. kept to acceptabIy low values only Ьу sufficiently rigid s~ell an.d tyre ~o.nstructl~n,
The internal diameter of the tyre must Ье sufficiently large to provide adequate in conjunction with the least possibIe clearanc~ compatlbIe Wlt~ аVОldlпg the Гlsk
clearance for the shell when the kiln has attained its full operating temperature. of the shell being constricted Ьу the tyre. SlПсе there геmаlПS. ап el~ment of
Insufficient clearance is liabIe to cause pinching and possibIe constriction of the uncertainty, the tyre clearance or the circumferentiallag of.the tyre In ге!аtюп to the
shell Ьу the tyre. shell should Ье continuously monitored. If the clearance IS too large, It should Ье
Generally speaking, the tyre should Ье so dimensioned in relation to the shell that reduced Ьу the insertion of filler plates (packings) between the shell and tyre. The
the "ovalling" (e/liptical distortion) of the latter remains less than 0.2% (as stated require plate thickness сап Ье calcul~ted from·.p = Um in/1t - 3, Vl:'here Umin ~enotes
Ьу Nies, 1942). The ovality сап Ье measured оп the rotating shell Ьу means of the the minimum lag distance of the tyre In тт durlПg normal орегаtюп ofthe klln. The
Shelltest apparatus. Damage to the refractory lining due to excessive cross- ratio of circumferential lag to clearance is generally between 1.5 and 2.5.
sectional distortion сап Ье avoided Ьу ensuring that the ovality measured in this Various tyre mounting systems аге shown in Fig.8.
way does not exceed the amounts indicated in ТаЫе 1.
1.2.4 Rotary kiln drive
ТаЫе 1: PermissibIe relative ovality values, as determined Ьу the The drive system comprises the two-piece girth gear \toothe? ring), encirclin~ the
Shelltest method (according to Erni/Saxer/Schneider, 1979) skiln shell, and the pinions (dual pinions for large, Slпglе РI~ЮП for s~all k\lns),
together with couplings, c\utches, main and auxiliary gear Unlts and drlv~ m~tors.
The kiln drive should Ье аЫе to meet the requirements of all operatlng Sltuаtюпs,
kiln diameter m 3 4 5 6
including extreme cases (Figs.9 and 10).
ovality % 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Fig. 8: Туге mounting systems

(from Erni, 1974)
А Bolted chairs
В Welded chairs, with wearing plate
С Guided chairs, keyed
Fig.9: Rotary kiln drive assembIy (КНО Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne)

315
314
 Kiln systems
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement burning technology
800~----"""--------Т-----A

бооL-------t-------t----:<<<~

ОЗ '"
5 б

Ofendurchmesser in m
kiln diameter in m
Fig. 11: Approximate drive power ratings for rotary kilns with cyclone
preheaters
Fig.10: Кiln drive pinion and mounting (КНО Humboldt Wedag AG,
Cologne)

The girth gear and pinion(s) аге accommodated in ап oil-tight and dust-tight
sheet-steel casing. Scoop lubrication is employed оп small kilns, large ones аге
equipped with atomized spray lubrication.
Main drive motor. vагiаbIе-sрееd thyristor-fed ОС motor designed to а rating
about 100% above the theoretical power demand.
Auxiliary motor: its puгpose is to serve as а standby to епаЫе the kiln to continue
rotating (at reduced speed) in the event of а power supply failuгe ог fault in the
main motor. If the cement works has ап emergency power supply system, the
auxiliary motor тау Ье а three-phase АС machine, otherwise ап internal
combustion engine - diesel ог petrol (gasoline) - designed for quick starting will
Ье provided.
Instead of girth gear drives, oil-hydraulic drive systems have occasionally Ьееп
used for rotary kilns, but have not gained wide acceptance.

1.2.5 Air seals at kiln ends

For reasons of thermal есопоту it is necessary to prevent as effectively as possibIe
the infiltration of ambient air into the rotary kiln at the feed (ог inlet) and at the
discharge (ог outlet) end respectively. Specially designed seals аге used which
have to withstand high temperatuгes and also the wear caused Ьу the abrasive dust
contained in the kiln gases. Various forms of construction аге employed. Figs.11 Fig.12: Rotary kiln feed end seal
and 12 show examples. Ап important requirement is that the seals should continue (КН D Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne)
317
316
 ц

О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology

References

to function prop~rly in preventing air entry when they have undergone а certain
amount of unavoldabIe wear and also if the kiln runs somewhat out of true. They
must compensate for thermal expansion.
Ca~eful maintenance of the kiln seals is important. Infiltration of air is liabIe to cause
m~jor hea~ losses. The amount of infiltrated air сап Ье approx;mately estimated
wlth the a,d of the following formula:
V= 30000А· р (m 3 /hour)
~her~ А is the area of the gap (in т 2 ) and р is the negative pressure (suction) in the
klln (IП mbar).
References
1. Beigel, В.: Abdichtungen fur Dгеhбfеп. - In. ZKG 5/1971/208-215.
2. Вопп, W. / Saxer, В.: Shelltest-Messungen ап gro/?'en Dгеhбfеп. - In ZKG
29/1976/329.
3. Das, Т. К. / Jeschke, Р.: Spannungen und Verformungen im feuerfesten
Mauerwerk. - In' Ber. Deutsch. Keram. Ges. 52/1975/126 und Ref. ZKG
28/1975/252.
4. Erni, Н.: Betriebserfahrungen mit gro/?'en Dгеhбfеп und Folgerungen fur
Konstruktion und Uberwachung. - In: ZKG 27/1974/486.
5. Erni, Н. / Saxer, В. / Schneider, F.: Deformation von Dгеhбfеп und ihr Einflu/?,
auf die Futterhaltbarkeit. - In: ZKG 32/1979/236-243.
6. Geryk, M./Genda, М.: Die Wahl des richtigen Konstruktionsspiels zwischen
Ofenmantel und Laufring bei Dгеhгоhгбfеп. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/436.
7. Hilber, Н.: Folgerungen aus den Stabilitatsmessungen ап Drehofenmanteln.
- 'п: ZKG 14/1961/339-346.
8. Huggett, L. G.: Radial deformation in rotary kilns. - Iп: British Ceramic Soc.
Febr.1967.
9. Labahn, О. / Kaminsky, W. А.: Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure, 5. Aufl. -
Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH. 1974.
10. LiebIer, К. W.: Ovalitatsverformungen wahrend des Anfahrbetriebes. - In:
ZKG 29/1976/56.
11. Meedom, Н.: Elastizitatstheoretische Bestimmung der Ofen-Ovalitat und ihr
Einflu/?, auf die Futterstandzeit. - In. ZKG 29/1976/568.
12. Nies, Н. W.: Die Berechnung der Drehofenlaufringe. - 'п: Zement
31/1942/23-31
13. Ramamurti, V. / Gupta, L. S. Design of rotary kiln tyres. - In: ZKG
31/1978/614.
14. Ramamurti, V. / Reganatha Sai, К. Deformation and stresses in kilns. - In.
ZKG 31/1978/433.
15. SchroebIer, W.: Zementmaschinen - Antriebe - Ubersicht. - In: ZKG
27/1974/41.
16. Steinbi/?', Е .. Messung der Ovalitatsverformung und des Laufringspiels von
Dгеhбfеп. - (п: ZKG 29/1976/321.
17. Steinbi/?', Е.: Untersuchungen zur mechanischen und thermischen Beanspru-
chung feuerfester Steine in Zеmепtdгеhбfеп. - Iп: ZKG 30/1977/625.
18. Strub, О. Olhydraulik-Antriebe fur Zеmепtdгеhбfеп. 'п. ZKG
30/1977 /181 .
19. Xeller, Н. / Jбhпk, Н.: lIberwachung, planma/?'ige Wartung und vorbeugende
Instandhaltung Ье; Laufringen. - Iп. ZKG 29/1976/557

Fig.1 З: Rotary kiln outlet end seal (КНО Humbo/dtWedag AG, Cologne)

318
319
 Preheaters апd ргесаlсiпiпg
D. Мапufасturе of сеmепt 111. Сеmепt Ьuгпiпg tесhпоlоgу

2 Preheaters and precalcining

Ву Е. StеiпЫss
9

2.1 Gепегаl. . ... 320

2.2 Grate preheaters . 320
2.3 Сусlопе preheaters 322
2.4 Ргесаlсiпiпg processes. 324
Rеfегепсеs. . . . . . . . . 326 ---------' ,I ~\
h ' Ь
/ (", , С " " /
, /)' (j
2.1 Gепегаl
а
It was гесоgпizеd quite early that the heat liberated iп the rotary kilп сап, besides
Ьеiпg used for the actual ргосеssiпg of the feed material, аdvапtаgеоuslу Ье
utilized for ргеhеаtiпg the material. То promote this, the iпlеt zопе (ргеhеаtiпg
zопе) of the kilп may Ье equipped with susрепdеd сhаiпs апd/ог iпsегts made of
hеаt-геsistiпg steel ог ceramic materials which assist heat ехсhапgе (quаdгапtаl
iпsегts, etc.). Other devices sегviпg the same purpose iпсludе, for example, sheet-
steel соmрагtmепts сопtаiпiпg hеаt-ехсhапgiпg media disposed агоuпd the
сiгсumfегепсе of the shell. Fig.1 а: Grate preheater (а rotary kilп, Ь hot chamber, с grate, d suсtiоп
AII such devices aim to provide а large сопtасt surface агеа Ьеtwееп the hot gases chamber, е fап, f overflow duct, 9 fresh air iпtаkе, h dгуiпg chamber)
апd the kilп feed material iп orderto promote hеаtехсhапgе. If а kilп is fed with dry
h
raw meal, these Iпtеmаl fittirlgs stir up а great deal of dust which is swept аlопg
with the exit gases discharged from the kilп. То collect this dust а сусlопе is
iпtегроsеd iп the gas flow апd сап also usefully serve as а simple heat ехсhапgег.
From this ргiпсiрlе were evolved more sophisticated heat ехсhапgегs with а view
to further imргоviпg the thermal еffiсiепсу of the kilп system. These devices аге
ехtегпаl to the actual rotary kilп апd iпstаllеd at the feed епd, where the hot exit
gases flow through them апd preheat the feed material апd, if песеssагу, dry it. For
the wet process of сеmепt mапufасturе various types of slurry dгуiпg апd
ргеhеаtiпg devices were developed.
With the dry process, fed with suЬstапtiаllу dry pulverized materials (raw meal),
the dгуiпg fuпсtiоп is uпimрогtапt; what is imрогtапt is the ргеhеаtiпg аttаiпаЫе
iп suitabIe devices. Siпсе а сопsidегаЫе part of the thermal ргосеssiпg of the
material is accomplished iп these heat ехсhапgегs ехtегпаl to the kilп, the kilп itself
сап Ье made соггеsропdiпglу shorter.

k
2.2 Grate preheaters
Efforts to achieve further heat sаviпg, i. е., imргоviпg the thermal еffiсiепсу of а kilп Fig.1 Ь: DoubIe-раss lepol kiln system (from Petzold, 1960)
рlапt, led to the dеvеlорmепt of grate preheaters (Fig. 1 а, Ь).
Моге particularly, а preheater of this kiпd сопsists of а tгаvеlliпg grate саггуiпg а
(а Fuller cooler, Ь rotary kilп, с Lepol grate, d hot chamber, е dгуiпg chamber,
bed of pellets (ог поdulеs) formed from mоistепеd raw meal iп а реllеtiziпg device. f +9 suсtiоп chambers, h +i+k fапs)

320 321
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Preheaters and precalcining

This method of cement manufacture is called the Lepol process, the preheater
being known as the Lepol grate. The пате is derived from that of the inventor, Dr.
Lellep, and from Polysius, the firm that built the first grates. The hot kiln gases flow
through the approximately 15 to 20 ст deep bed of pellets оп the grate, either оп
the single-pass principle or, more particularly in later versions of the system, the
dou~e-pass principle. This process сап Ье used not only for dry raw materials, but
also in cases where they сап Ье prepared only Ьу wet methods, i.e., as а slurry. 'П
that case the slurry is first dewatered as much as possibIe Ьу means of filter presses
and then moulded into cylindrical "fingers" which break into nodules. These are
processed оп the travelling grate in the usual way. .'
With raw materials prepared dry (raw meal) the pellets are formed with а certain
quantity of added water in а pelletizer, usually in the form of а tilted rotating рап or
dish, though drum-type pelletizing (or nodulizing) devices are still used to some
extent. The pellets must have sufficient mechanical strength so as not to shatter
when deposited onto the Lepol grate from the pelletizer. Moreover, they must
possess а certain amount of plasticity to prevent them from prematurely disinte-
grating as а result of the relatively rapid heating they undergo оп exposure to the
hot kiln gases. Otherwise the fragments of broken pellets are liabIe to cause
choking of the grate and thus obstruct the flow of gas through the bed, giving rise
to serious troubIe in operating the kiln.

2.3 Cyclone preheaters

The first application for а patent in respect of а cyclone preheater for raw теа' was
filed in Czechoslovakia Ьу Vogel-Jorgensen, then employed Ьу the Danish firm of
F. L. Smidth. 'П due course the patent was granted, in 1934. It proposed preheating
the raw теа' in а cyclone separator before feeding it to the rotary kiln, the latter
being correspondingly shortened in comparison with а conventional dry-process
kiln. It was not till nineteen years later (1953), however, that the first functionally
satisfactory cyclone preheater (or suspension preheater) was commissioned - for Fig. 2: Humboldt preheater
а 300t/day guaranteed clinker output from а kiln in the works of Bomke & (from Bomke, 1978)
Blechmann, Beckum, Germany - after the technical practicability of the new
method had Ьееп conclusively proved Ьу Franz Muller. This first kiln plant with
cyclone preheater was built Ьу the firm of Humboldt (now КН D Humboldt Wedag The demand for increasingly high clinker outputs from individual kiln plants
AG~, Cologne. Upto 1959 that firm was the sole supplier of the cyclone preheater,
resulted in corresponding increases in the size of the kiln shells and of the preheater
the prototype of which it had developed (Fig. 2). From then onwards, however, cyclones. This general growth in the dimensions of the installations was attended
other German and foreign cement machinery manufacturers entered the market Ьу а number of probIems and difficulties which had to Ье overcome. For example, it
with their own versions of the cyclone preheater, all utilizing the same fundamental Ьесате impracticabIe to transport very large prefabricated kiln sections from the
principle.
manufacturing works to the site of erection, the thermal rating of the burning zone
Whereas in 1953 most cement kilns had clinker outputs of between 300 and in the kiln Ьесате very high and thus severely reduced the working life of the
500 t/day, nowadays kiln plants producing around 5000 t/day are not uncommon refractory lining, etc. These and other probIems prompted cement plant manufac-
and are likewise equipped with cyclone preheaters embodying the same basic idea turers to consider the possibility of shifting more of the processing treatment from
of heat transfer from the hot kiln exit gas to the raw теа' in suspension in the gas the actual kiln to the preheater, i.e., making the latter contribute more to the cement
stream. For further information the reader is referred to the article Ьу Bomke
burning process than just preheating the raw meal. This approach led to the
(1978), which moreover contains а comprehensive list of literature references. development of precalcining.

322
323
О. IVlanufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
2.4 Precalcining processes
The. precal~ining principle and its applications have Ьееп developed more
partlcularl.y In Japan and Ешоре. А feature which all precalcining systems have in
common IS that the supply of fuel is divided between two firing units, i.e., two
?u~ner~ or.sets. of burners, опе in the kiln and the other in the suspension preheater.
rhls prmclple IS shown schematically in Fig. 3. The burners in, ог associated with,
the preheater аге fed with combustion air consisting of exhaust air from the clinker
coo.ler. T~is air isdrawn eitherthrough the kiln itself orthrough а separate duct (the
tertlary alr duct). If the precalcining combustion air is drawn through the kiln, the
latter has to Ье about 20% larger than if а separate duct is provided, and the air
excess factor of the firing process is increased from 1.1 to about 2.1. The kiln
volu.me.rating. (loading рег unit volume) is about 2 t/m 3 ' day in conventional kilns,
~ut т. k~lns wlth precalcining it is about 3.3 t/m 3 . day if the precalcining combus-
tюп ~Ir IS fed.through the kiln and about 4 t/m 3 ' day if а separate tertiary air duct is
provlded. Thls means that in the last-mentioned kiln roughlytwice as much clinker
for а given internal volume of the kiln сап Ье burned as in а conventional kiln
without precal.cining. At the same time, despite the much increased volume rating,
the сгоss-.sесtюпаl thermal rating is lower than that of the conventional kiln, the
reason beт~ that а m.uch lower proportion (about 40%) of the total fuel supplied
to the burnmg plant IS actually fired in the kiln, the remainder being fired in the
precalcining system.
As alrea.dystated, up to 60% ofthe fuel may befired in the (pre)calciner. (With this
ргорогtюп of fuel, the term "calciner" is perhaps preferabIe to "precalciner", since
Feststoff (Mehl. КlinkerJ
~ solids!meal.clinkerJ
<J-- L':lft. Gas
alr. gas
Vorwarmer <== Brennstoff
preheater fuel
Calcinator
calciner
Ofen
kiln
Kuhler
cooler
Fig. 3: Diagram illustrating the precalcining principle
324
Preheaters and precalcining
the decarbonation of calcium carbonate is very largely accomplished in this device;
оп the other hand, the designation "precalcining" ог "precalcination" is well
estabIished.) This process is especially advantageous when relatively low-grade
fuels with low calorific value and/or high content of inert matter have to Ье used
(charcoal, lignite, waste materials such as old motor tyres, etc.), as these сап Ье
fired in the calciner, where flameless combustion at relatively low temperatures
below 9000 С will suffice for obtaining the required calcination. Thus if 60% of the
total fuel input is fired in the calciner, the raw meal will Ье about 90% calcined Ьу
the time it enters the kiln. With precalcining there is only а slight increase in heat
consumption and а small rise in exit gas temperature as compared with the
conventional kiln-cum-preheater system.
Precalcining with tertiary air supply through а separate duct is especially
advantageous in conjunction with а bypass system for reducing the alkali content
in the clinker. Моге particularly, with this precalcining equipment the heat losses
associated with bypassing some of the kiln gas in order to reduce the so-called
alkali cycle сап Ье substantially cut down, more particularly because the un-
desirabIe constituents (alkalis, chlorides) аге now volatilized in the kiln rather than
in the preheater, so that а higher proportion of them сап Ье discharged via the
bypass with ап equal amount of gas.
'П а conventional preheater the raw meal is calcined only to а fairly limited extent
(ranging from about 1 О to 50%), the remainder of the сагЬоп dioxide being driven
out in the kiln itself. With precalcining almost the entire decarbonation process is
effected in the calciner, опе result of which is that the thermal conditions to which
the refractory lining in the kiln is exposed become much less severe. This in turn
means that, for equal clinker output, the diameter and length of the kiln сап Ье
сопеsропdiпglу reduced. The significant feature is that the calciner is separate
from the kiln and that part of the thermal energy required for the clinker
manufacturing process is utilized in the calciner and not in the kiln. Besides, the
heat contained in the exhaust air from the clinker cooler is also utilized (as
preheated tertiary combustion air for the precalcining burners).
Ву conversion to precalcining, the clinker output of existing rotary kilns with
cyclone preheater equipment сап Ье substantially increased - Ьу up to about
100% in certain cases. 'П new kiln plants equipped with (pre)calciners it is possibIe
to increase clinker output up to threefold, as compared with а conventional kiln-
cum-preheater plant, while the kiln dimensions (diameter and length) сап
moreover Ье reduced.
Further information оп these and other aspects of precalcining systems will Ье
found in the following bibIiographic references.
1 Gerstner, В. / Schlegel, R. / Schwerdtfeger, J.: Calciniertechnik durch Zweit-
feuerung am ZAB-Vorwarmer. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/222-226.
2. Кароог, G. К.: Beitrage zur Energieeinsparung beim Zementbrennen mit
Warmetauscher. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/602 - 605.
3. Kobayashi, Т.: Modeгne Vorcalcinier-Ofenanlagen епеiсhеп 45 Mio t Jahres-
Leistung - Beschreibung, Charakteristiken und Vergleich mit anderen Ver-
fahren. - Iп: ZKG 32/1979/311 - 317 (mit Schrifttum).
325
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
4. Kohanowski, F. 1. / Shy, J. L.: Warmetauscherblen mit Vorcalcination und
By-Pass zur Alkalikontrolle. - In: ZKG 31/1978/595-601.
5. Kwech, L.: Brennverfahren. - In: ZKG 30/1977/597-607 (with сотрге­
hensive references).
6. Popescu, О./ Radu, О./ Brezeanu, 1.: Berechnungsverfahren fur Zement-
brennanlagen mit Zweitfeuerung und einige experimentelle Ergebnisse. - In:
ZKG 31/1978/27 - 29.
7. Ramesohl, Н.: Betriebserfahrungen beim Verbrennen fester Brennstoffe im
Zementdrehofen und daraus resultierende Folgerungen. - In: ZKG 31/
1978/227 - 229.
8. SteinbiB, Е .. Erfahrungen mit der Vorcalcinierung unter Berucksichtigung von
Ersatzbrennstoffen. - In: ZKG 32/1979/211-221 (with references).
9. Sutanto, О.: Betriebserfahrungen mit einer modernen Zementwerkslinie mit
Pyroclon ® - Warmetauscher. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/322-329.
10. Takemoto, К. / Fukuda, У. / Akita, S.: Betriebserfahrungen mit dem RSP-
Verfahren in Ofunato. - In: ZKG 31/1978/22-26.
The occurrence of alkali and chlorine cycles in kiln systems and the possibility of
controlling these phenomena Ьу bypassing have already Ьееп mentioned. In
general, these form рап of the "dust cycle" probIems which, in some plants тау
cause serious operational difficulties, such as тау also arise from excessive
formation of coatings in kilns. То find effective ways and means of coping with
these probIems has long claimed the attention of cement plant designers.
References
1. Bade, Е .. Verfahren zur Reduzierung des Alkalikreislaufes beim Zement-
Ьгеппеп. - 1п: ZKG 15/1962/403 - 408.
2. Bomke, Е.: 25 Jahre Schwebegas-Warmetauscher zum Vorwarmen von
Zement-Rohmehl. - In: ZKG 31/1978/589-594.
3. Buzzi, S.: MaBnahmen zum Vermeiden schwieriger Ansatze im Warme-
tauscherofen. - In: ZKG 25/1972/289-291.
4. Danowski, W. / Strobel, U.: Alkalibelastbarkeitsuntersuchungen in Trocken-
brennanlagen. - In: ZKG 29/1976/458.
5. Davis, W. G.: Die Ursache von Ringbildungen in Drehblen. - In: Rock
Products 56/1953/July issue. Ref. in ZKG 6/1954/56.
6. Elle, К.-Н.: Ringbildung und Ringbeseitigung aus betriebIicher Sicht. - In:
ZKG 25/1972/26-27.
7 Frankenberger, А.: EinfluB der Staubkreislaufe auf die Wirksamkeit von
Rohmehlvorwarmern. - In: ZKG 23/1970/254-262.
8. Frankenberger А. / Matejka, J.' Alkali-Schwefelkreislauf in einem Drehofen
mit zweistufigem Zyklonvorwarmer. - In: ZKG 31/1978/30-31.
9. Hatano, Н.: Uber das Verhalten des Schwefels im Warmetauscherofen. - In:
ZKG 25/1972/18-19.
10. Herchenbach, Н.: Staubkreislaufe - EinflUsse im Schwebegas-Warmetau-
scher auf Ansatz, Vorentsauerung und Teilgasabzug - 'п: ZKG 25/1972/
13-14.
326
References
11. Ihlefeldt, Н.: MaBnahmen zur Verminderung des Alkalikreislaufs im Lepo\-
ofen. - 'п: ZKG 25/1972/15.
12. Keil, F. / Goes, С.: ОЬег das Verhalten der Alkalien beim Zementbrennen. -
Ref. in: ZKG 13/1960/430-432.
13. Konopicky, К.: Beitrag zur Frage der Ansatzbildung in Drehrohrblen. - 'п:
ZKG 3/1951/240-245.
14. Kunnecke, М.: Ringbekampfung in Zement-Drehblen. - In: ZKG 25/
1972/28-30.
15. Locher, F. W. / Sprung, S. /Opitz, О.: Reaktionen im Bereich der Ofengase. -
'п: ZKG 25/1972/1 -12 (with comprehensive references).
16. Majdic, А. / Schwiete, Н. Е.: Uber die Ansatzbildung im Drehofen. - 'п: ZKG
11/1959/89 -100.
17. Matouschek, F.: Schlechte Verbrennung = Ansatzringe. - In: ZKG
3/1951/67 -69.
18. Mussgnug, G.: Ansatzbildung im Zementdrehofen und Futterhaltbarkeit. -
In: ZKG 1/1948/41.
19. Mussgnug, G.: Beitrag zur Alkalifrage in Schwebegas-Warmetauscherblen. -
In: ZKG 15/1962/197 -204.
20.0pitz, О.: Das Entfernen storender Ansatze in Zementblen. - In: ZKG
22/1969/132 -135.
21. Petzold, А.: Chemie und Technologie der Bindemittel. - Freiburg 1960.
22. Plank, F. W.: Die Anwendung des Cardox-Verfahrens zum Beseitigen von
Ansatzringen in Drehblen. - In. ZKG 18/1965/486-490.
23. Ritzmann, Н.: Der EinfluB von Staubkreislaufen auf den Warmeverbrauch von
Drehofenanlagen mit Rohmehlvorwarmer. - In. ZKG 24/1971/576- 580.
24. SchlUter, Н.: Verfahren zur Reduzierung von Alkall- und Chiorkreislaufen in
Rohmehlwarmetauscherblen. - In: ZKG 25/1972/20-22.
25. Schoneck, С.: Beseitigung von Ringen aus Кlinkerstaub ат Drehofenauslauf.
- In: ZKG 16/1963/481 -482.
26. Slegten, J.: Beitrag zum Studium der Ringbildung in Zementdrehblen. - In:
ZKG 8/1 956/397 - 402.
27. Sylla, Н.-М.: Untersuchungen zur Bildung von Ansatzringen in Zementdreh-
Ыеп. - In: ZKG 27/1974/499-507 (with comprehensive references).
28. Sylla, Н.-М.: Ansatzbildung durch Salzschmelzen. - In: ZKG 30/1977 /487-
493 (with comprehensive references).
29. Teoreanu, 1. / Puri, А.: Kreislauf flUchtiger Stoffe in Zement- Drehblen. - 'п:
ZKG 28/1975/377.
30. Warshawsky, J./ Porter, Е. S.: Verminderung des Alkali- und Schwefelgehalts
im Klinker durch einen Ofen-By-Pass im Vorcalciniersystem. - 'п. ZKG
31/1978/284- 287.
31. Weber, Р.: AlkaliprobIeme und Alkalibeseitigung bei warmesparenden Trok-
kendrehblen. - 1n : ZKG 17/1964/335 - 344.
32. Witols, G.: Die Bekampfung von Sulfatringen im Drehofen. - In ZKG
15/1962/205 - 207.
327
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - main types of coolers

з Clinker cooling What all types of cooler have in common is that the cooling air flows directly - in
counter-current or cross-current - through the clinker and that some or all of the
Ву Н. Xeller heated air from the cooler is fed as combustion air to the kiln.
Water as а direct cooling medium for clinker is used only in the manufacture of
3.1 Introduction: main types of coolers . . . . . . . . . . 328 special types of clinker or for after-cooling subsequent to cooling with air.
3.2 Selection criteria and principal characteristics of coolers . 329 Indirect air cooling, with separating walls dividing the clinker from the air flow
3.2.1 Clinker quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 passages, is sometimes used, but only for after-cooling.
3.2.2 Final cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 The main types of clinker coolers, listed in the order of their frequency of
3.2.3 Scope for adaptation to the drying and burning system and to application, are:
raw material conditions. 332 direct coolers (Fig.1);
3.2.4 Environmental nuisance 333
grate cooler, planetary cooler, rotary cooler, shaft cooler;
3.2.5 Capital cost. . . . . . 335
3.2.6 Operating costs . . . . 337 indirect coolers, after-coolers (Fig. 2);
3.2.6.1 Heat input and heat recovery 337 gravity cooler ("g" cooler).
3.2.6.2 Electric energy requirements 345
3.2.6.3 Costs associated with wear, repairs, materials and wages 348 3.2 Selection criteria and principal characteristics of coolers
3.2.7 Availability - indirect expenditure. . . . . . . 348
3.3 Description of the various types of clinker cooler 348 The following aspects have to Ье considered in choosing the appropriate type of
3.3.1 Grate coolers . . . . . . . 348 cooler in апу given case:
3.3.1.1 Travelling grate coolers. . . 349 raw material situation;
3.3.1.2 Reciprocating grate coolers . 350 projected or existing kiln plant;
3.3.1.2.1 General design features. 351 projected or existing works installations;
3.3.1.2.2 Single-grate coolers . . . . 354 local environmental conditions.
3.3.1.2.3 Combination coolers. . . . 354 The relative importance of the following requirements applicabIe to clinker coolers
3.3.1.2.4 Multiple-stage coolers with intermediate size reduction 355
must Ье assessed accordingly:
3.3.1.2.5 Air demand and duotherm circuit . 355
3.3.1.2.6 Design dimensions; ап example of ап actual cooler . 355 obtaining good clinker quality Ьу optimum cooling rate;
3.3.2 Planetary coolers. 375 final cooling of the clinker to the lowest possibIe temperature;
3.3.3 Rotary coolers . 397 optimum adaptation to the raw material drying system and burning system
3.3.4 Shaft coolers . . 400 preceding the cooler;
3.3.5 Gravity coolers . 401 least possibIe impact оп the environment;
3.4 Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers 404
3.4.1 General considerations. . . 404 low capital cost;
3.4.2 Grate coolers . . . . . . . 405 low operating expenses,
3.4.3 Rotary and planetary coolers 409 i. е., favourabIe energy balance with а high proportion of heat recovery,
3.4.4 Shaft coolers . . . . . . . 414 low electric energy consumption,
3.4.5 Gravity coolers ("g" coolers) 416 low wear and maintenance costs,
3.5 Dust collection arrangements for clinker coolers 416 low susceptibility to faults (minimum downtime).
3.5.1 General considerations . 416
References. . . . 417 3.2.1 Clinker quality
The soundness, chemical resistance and strength of the cement, as well as the
grindability of the clinker, are affected Ьу the rate of cooling applied to the
3.1 Introduction: main types of coolers clinker.
The hot cement clinker discharged from the kiln is further treated in clinker The differences in cooling rate in the significant temperature range and for the
coolers. commonly employed raw material compositions between the various clinker

328 329
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

AbIuft
exhaust air

Ki.ihlluft
grate cooler cooling air

Vom Direktki.ihler (
from direct cooler

Г'_'_'_'_'_'

Fig. 2: Indirect cooler, after-cooler

.~;. cooling air

cooler systems are, however, so small that for practica/ purposes there are по
differences in the quality of the clinker finally obtained. Only the grindability of the
clinker from grate coolers is, for equal grinding conditions, а little more favourabIe
than that from other types of cooler.

ш ~ Ki.ihlluft
rotary cooler ::::
п!
:~ГСООliпgаjГ
'<':;,
li::I:3
3.2.2 Final cooling
Cooling of the clinker with air as the sole cooling medium cannot achieve so low а
final temperature in the planetary, rotary or shaft cooler - in which all the cooling
air has to Ье used as combustion air supplied to the kiln - as in the grate cooler.
With the latter, especially if а clinker breaker is interposed, final temperatures of as
low as 800 С for the cooled clinker сап easily Ье attained, whereas the correspond-
ing temperatures for rotary and planetary coolers, particu larly if they are large ones,
are generally above 1500 С, while the clinker discharged from shaft coolers has
tem peratures above 3000 С.
With these last-mentioned types of cooler the only way to attain lower final
temperatures is Ьу after-cooling or, with rotary and planetary coolers, alternatively
Ьу supplementary cooling with water.
Against this, cooling to low final temperatures in the grate cooler requires large
quantities of cooling air. If the air heated in the cooling operation cannot Ье utilized
for raw material drying, its dedusting before discharge into the atmosphere will
involve heavy expenditure оп dust collection equipment. For this reason it тау
even with grate coolers in certain cases Ье advantageous to employ separate
shaft cooler Fig.1: Direct cooler after-coolers.
330
331
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

3.2.3 Scope for adaptation to the drying and burning system and to raw material The chemical and mineralogical composition of the raw material is also of
conditions considerabIe influence оп the effectiveness of the various cooling systems. For raw
material which produces а very fine-grained clinker or gives rise to frequent
The widest-ranging possibilities for adaptation to the requirements of economical dislodgment of coating in the kiln the best scope for adaptation to the burning
drying of raw material and fuel, or the preheating of fuel, are afforded Ьу the grate system is provided Ьу the grate cooler. . .
cooler. The various grate cooler designs range from systems with по exhaust air With planetary, rotary and shaft coolers the fluctuating rate of cllnker d\~charge
(for example, short grate coolers with additional after-coolers) to multiple-stage from the kiln due to ring formation and coating movements causes hlgh and
grate coolers embodying the duotherm principle with intermediate clinker break- markedly varying final clinker temperatures, since the radiation heat losses remain
ing and intermediate air offtake. substantially constant and the cooling air rate availabIe to these coolers сап
With these arrangements, in cases where the raw materia! has а low moisture practically not Ье altered. .
content and requires little exhaust air from the cooler for drying, additional With unequal granulometric and discharge conditions there are Ilkely to 'Ье
expenditure оп dust collection equipment for cleaning the exhaust air сап Ье cut difficulties in operation more particularly in the shaft cooler. .
down. At the other extreme, raw material with as much as 14% moisture content The occurrence of large quantities offine-grained clinker causes probIems wlth all
сап Ье dried without any extra heat input Ьу utilizing the exhaust gas from the cooling systems, but grate coolers are best аЫе to соре with ~uch con~itio~s
clinker cooler in combination with exit gas from а preheater kiln with because of the lower air velocities and less pronounced dust сусllПg effect In thls
precalcining. type of cooler. See Fig.3.
With regard to adaptation to the kiln system the grate cooler is more versatile than
the other systems of clinker cooler. More particularly, it offers the best conditions
for optimal extraction of hot air for precalcining kiln systems with separate tertiary 3.2.4 Environmental nuisance
air supply. А potential environmental nuisance due to dust and noise emissions is associated
For kiln systems with grate-type preheaters, in which the exit gases cannot Ье with grate coolers. With other types of coolers there is по discharge of dust, only
utilized for material drying purposes, there is practically по economical alternative the noise probIem.
to the grate cooler, because in such cases the exhaust air from the cooler сап
always Ье utilized. Dust emission:
Оп the other hand, по surplus hot air that сап Ье used for material drying is
availabIe from planetary, rotary and shaft coolers. With the planetary cooler there is The official clean air reglJlations in nearly all countries necessitate substantial extra
по possibility at all of obtaining tertiary air, while in the case ofthe rotary cooler and
expenditure оп equipment for dedusting the exhaust air in cases. where а
the shaft cooler а tertiary air offtake is indeed possibIe near the kiln hood or from the conventional grate cooler is to Ье used. Centrifugal dust collect?rs wlth ~urel.y
cooler shaft, but not without practical difficulties. See ТаЫе 1. mechanical action are unabIe to meet the strict present-day reqUlrements In thls
respect. Expensive granular bed filters, electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters
have to Ье used for the purpose. For this reason, alternatives to the conventional
grate cooler have Ьееп developed for use in cases where the exhaust air from the
ТаЫе 1 : SuitaЫlity of the various types of coolers for economical ех­ cooler cannot Ье utilized in raw material or соаl drying installations. Examples of
traction of hot air such modified grate coolers are the shortened grate cooler with ancillary after-
cooler (the latter an indirect cooler with по dust emission) or the so-called
grate planetary rotary shaft duotherm grate cooler with intermediate indirect air-to-air cooler. Ev~n s~, the dust
cooler cooler cooler cooler nuisance in the immediate vicinity of these modified grate coolers IS s1ll1 greater
than that arising from rotary or planetary coolers, which have to Ье operated with а
secondary air х х х х fairly high negative pressure at the rotating seal with the kiln hood, so that, becau~e
tertiary air х О О of the greater cycling effect, better retention of dust within the cooler system IS
hot air for соаl х
obtained.
drying
Noise emission:
hot air for raw х

material drying AII types of clinker cooler emit а great deal of noise, attaining levels of between 95
and 100 dB(A) at points of maximum loudness in the imm~diate vicinity (a.bo~t 1
х = possibIe О = partly possibIe - = not possibIe to 5 m distance). With grate and shaft coolers the cooling alr fans are the prlnclpal

333
332
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

[d Р д]
100
Кliпkегkбгпuпgеп 90 1. .
'"----- 1--- I '~lwr'l
w О/О
99.5

99
clinker gradings
г-----тг-т-1-----.--т--r-t--гт-г-г-гт,.-,---,-,г-1----,---.---r-гтт-r..,...,,,...-.-г-Г""""""
80
70
I'~~~~, IJ'~~I~ -1--;;; ~" ~~ ~t-..
,'11 I ,~I'"
"

)!\';,\~'i~: I~~IP" - Grenzlinien:

nach Li.ibke
~ ~ -~ boundary li nes
~-.:Э according t о
60
98
50 ~~~.
"~"'wl ' Li.ibk е

97 10 100 1000 - --
IL'O.. t":J д в с l,п.
95
95 Fig. 4: One-third octave analysis of the sound emitted from а planetary
I

cooler for normal kiln running at rated output (from Kadel, 1974)
90
1----++-+-+-++-++-++t--+++++--t-1--t--+~++M-+:l+>f--IO -1-
noise emitters, whereas most of the noise from rotary and planetary coolers arises
80 from the uninsulated lifter zone. See Fig.4.
With all types of clinker cooler in locations susceptibIe to noise nuisance it is
therefore necessary to apply noise control measures. Appropriate sound insulation
arrangements аге most elaborate and expensive in the case of planetary coolers
because of the sheer size of the noise source, the elevated position thereof and the
high ambient temperatures due to radiation and convection of heat. Depending оп
the distance from the cooler to adjacent residential areas, arrangements such as
sound-attenuating walls, movabIe noise suppression covers ог sometimes even
totally closed buildings with forced ventilation тау Ье necessary.

3.2.5 Capital cost

Besides the actual capital expenditure оп machinery, electrical engineering
components including measuring and control instrumentation, refractory and
insulating material, buildings and erection of the cooler, the expenditure as-
sociated with the space requirements and the altitude (height above sea level) of
the installation will also have to Ье considered.

Space requirements
А rotary cooler which is installed under the kiln and in the direction oppositeto that
of the material flow in the kiln represents ап economical arrangement in terms of
the space needed to accommodate it. Ап even тоге favourabIe arrangement in this
respect is the grate cooler with complete exhaust air utilization, installed under the
kiln. However, for operational reasons it is better not to place the clinker cooler
with its material flow direction opposite to that in the kiln.
А shaft cooler requires very little extra space in the horizontal directions, but оп
account of its great headroom it тау cause probIems оп sites with unfavourabIe
soil conditions.
Planetary coolers and those grate coolers which have to operate in conjunction
with highly efficient dust collection equipment (granular bed filters, electrostatic
precipitators, fabric filters with air-to-air coolers) will require а relatively large

334 335
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

amount of space. Оп the other hand, planetary coolers require the least headroom Refractory lining and insulation
and сап therefore Ье advantageous оп sites with critical ground-water conditions, The highest cost arises in planetary coolers, while grate coolers are least
i. е., waterlogged sites where subsurface construction (pits, chambers) presents
expensive.
difficu Ities.

Structural engineering
Altitude Planetary and rotary coolers are much less expensive in this respect than shaft and
grate coolers.
With increasing altitude of the site above sea level the density of the atmosphere
becomes lower, so that the required vo/umes of cooling air and combustion air
Ьесоте larger. This most unfavourabIy affects rotary coolers, whose diameter is Erection
determined Ьу the air velocity in the cooling tube and in which therefore, at higher Because of the more difficult conditions due to the handling of heavy parts and the
altitude, the specific throughput is reduced while the capital cost of the cooler elaborate welding work involved, planetary coolers are substantially more ехреп­
increases. Similar considerations apply to the planetary cooler, though in this type sive to erect than the other types of cooler. The latter differ little from опе another in
there are generally somewhat ampler reserves or margins with regard to the critical
erection costs.
air velocity.
Grate coolers and shaft coolers present the least probIems in this respect, because
3.2.6 Operating costs
the increase in fan capacity and size of housing necessitated Ьу higher altitude has
only а minor effect оп the overall cost of the cooler. Оп the other hand, with the The operating costs of clinker coolers mainly comprise the direct expenditure
shaft cooler the attainment of suitabIy low final clinker temperatures becomes even оп:

more probIematical at high altitudes, while in the case of grate coolers it becomes replacement of wearing parts, repair materials,
advisabIe under such circumstances to install а type comprising ап intermediate wages for repairs and maintenance;
breaker and а circulating air system.
energy costs comprising electricity and heat (the latter because heat recovery
The actual capital expenditure associated with the various types of clinker cooler
is liabIe to vary greatly from опе case to another, especially if after-coolers is never 100%).
and/or eiaborate noise control measures have to Ье included. 'П every case where Besides, indirect expenditure has to Ье taken into account. This arises when, as
complete utilization of the exhaust air from the cooler is possibIe, the multiple- result of faults or deficient operation of the clinker cooler, the plant is unabIe to run
stage grate cooler with circulating air system will involve the lowest capital at optimum efficiency or indeed has to Ье shut down.
outlay. The relative operating cost items are very similar for the various types of cooler. The
cost relationships exemplified Ьу а grate cooler with exhaust air utilization are
indicated in the accompanying diagram (ТаЫе 2). These percentage figures are
Mechanical and ancillary equipment
based оп the foilowing assumptions:
Wherever complete exhaust air utilization is possibIe, the grate cooler will always cost of heat: (21 ОМ/10 6 kcal/kg) 5 DM/GJ
Ье the least expensive type in terms of purely mechanical engineering and
electricity: 0.075 DM/kWh
ancillaries. In this respect the shaft cooler is also quite favourabIe, whereas in
repair wages: 17 DM/h
the case of the rotary cooler and planetary cooler, as also the grate cooler with repair materials: see ТаЫе 2.
high-efficiency dust collection system, the cost of mechanical and/or ancillary
equipment is distinctly higher, though in this there is very little difference between The high proportion of expenditure оп energy as compared with that оп repairs
these three last-mentioned types of cooler. and parts clearly emerges from the diagram.

Electrical equipment. instrumentation 3.2.6.1 Heat input and heat recovery

'П so far as these expenditure items are concerned, the planetary cooler is distinctly
superior to the other types even though it requires а more powerful kiln drive and
higher-capacity exit gas fan, while the shaft cooler and grate cooler are the most
expensive types in this respect.
The cost of heat for the cooler is taken to comprise all expenses attributabIe to that
proportion of the clinker heat which is not recovered, i.e., not utilized in опе of the
following possibIe ways:
- preheating the combustion air for firing the kiln;

336 337
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

utilizing the heat in Н1е exhaust air from the cooler for materials drying ог other internal thermal efficiency, which relates only to the heat utilized within the clinker
heating purposes outside the burning system (coal, raw material ог slag drying; burning process itself, and the external thermal efficiency, which takes account of
preheating of fuel oil ог water). the entire quantity of clinker heat that is utilized. This latter efficiency concept has
The proportion of heat recovery is sometimes referred to as the thermal efficiency of significance only in the case of grate coolers from which the exhaust air сап indeed
Ье utilized for its heat content.
the cooler. Моге particularly this denotes that proportion of the total heat content
of the clinker (as it is discharged from the kiln) which is utilized for опе ог тоге of The thermal efficiency is calculated from:
the above-mentioned purposes. А distinction тау further Ье drawn between the
0Cg - ОСI
ТаЫе 2: Operating cost relations for the grate cooler with exhaust air 11 = х 100 (%)
utШzаtiоп °Cg
.-----~------.....,.,.,.rmт;777ТТ,__SZ 100%
-тr:~-- ~-'-с:=UI:-еI'''-t._---!il97% where
- - - - - t = - = - = t - - - - - J , L 93% OgC heat gain of cooler = 0cll + 0air
----'<---..-------r-----j~-~+_-----Jl ев%
0CI. heat content of clinker discharged from kiln

I~IIIII
0air heat content of cooling air
ОСI = heat loss from cooler = 0hC + ОГ+С + Ow + Ое/
0hC heat content of clinker discharged from cooler
----L-® ----+-7-'[ -.------------!2\7 75%
ОГ+С heat loss due to radiation and convection

~-
ow heat loss due to water cooling
l-y,,%
Г I (~. =72%) -
Ое/
(water injection, water-cooled plate)
heat content of exhaust air from cooler
I !,. Verwertbare АЫuft (in calculating the external thermal efficiency only
o I (utllizаЫе exhaust air
the proportion of unutilized exhaust air is considered).
: I The efficiency of the clinker cooler is governed not only Ьу the type and design of
I I
- - ' - - - - - - - - - - 1 : , ,,-><~ ~:'f---.-----'----~ •• % the cooler, but also Ьу the following:
('l' =50%)
clinker entry temperature;
!nterner Warmeri.ick- secondary air flow rate,
gewinn granulometric composition of the clinker;
internal heat recovery exhaust air heat not utilized in the burning process.
These last-mentioned four factors аге dependent оп the kiln and the material
conditions, not оп the design and таппег of operation of the cooler. For this
reason it is necessary to exercise due caution in making comparisons between
coolers оп the basis of thermal efficiency.
For example, the internal efficiency of а cooler will decrease if the secondary air rate
is reduced and/or the clinker entry temperature is lowered. 80th these quantities
аге largely dependent оп factors outside the influence of the cooler.
The secondary air rate is determined Ьу
1) overall cost (if по heat recovery at all)
2) cost of energy (if по heat recovery at all) the heat consumption of the kiln plant as а whole;
З) cost of power the primary air rate,
4) replacements for wear and repairs the amount of inleakage of air at the kiln hood,
5) wages for repairs and maintenance the air excess with which the kiln is operated.
6) cost of heat in the case of optimum heat recovery (поп-utilizаbIе thermal The clinker entry temperature, i.e., the temperature at which it is discharged from
radiation and convection, final temperature of clinker, water) the kiln and enters the cooler, depends тоге particularly оп the length of the flame
7) cost of heat in the case of 50% internal heat recovery and of the Ьшпег in the kiln. If the firing nozzle is fairly long, part of the kiln will in

ЗЗ8 ЗЗ9
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Clinker cooling - selection criteria

effect function as а cooling zone. As а result, the cooler efficiency will Ье less good,
With а favourabIy designed kiln burner the following primary air rates will Ье
but the overall heat consumption of the burning plant will in general Ье somewhat
required:
improved. А long firing nozzle has the additional advantage that the thermal rating
- the "heat load" or thermal intensity per unit area of wall surface or unitvolume of coal: approx 7 -12 % of combustion air rate
internal space - of the kiln outlet and of the cooler is reduced. This is ап important heavy fuel oil: approx. 3 - 5% of combustion air rate
advantage more particularly in kilns equipped with planetary coolers, while in grate natural gas: approx. 0- 3% of combustion air rate.
coolers it especially reduces the formation of objectionabIe accretions ("stalag-
mites" or "snowmen") in the chute or shaft leading into the cooler. Instead, а From these figures it is evident that, for example, when the fuel is changed from
соа' to natural gas, the calculated efficiency of the cooler becomes higher, even if
clinker dust-ring is, in such cases, likely to build up in the kiln itself, but such rings
generally do not grow beyond а certain size, after which they collapse spon- equal clinker cooling rate curves are assumed in both cases. The reason for this
taneously and break up. increase in efficiency is that the secondary air rate for natural gas firing is higher
than for соаl firing. Yet, as а result of this change-over of fuel, the heat
The secondary air rate (Lsec ) сап Ье calculated as follows:
consumption ofthe plant as а whole will increasefor other reasons (higher exit gas
L.ec = Lcom - Lpr - Linf (NmЗ/kg clinker) rate, poorer heat transfer from the flame).
The proportion of infiltration air at the firing hood of the kiln will depend оп the
where: Lcom combustion air rate
design and condition of the seal. The magnitude of the negative pressure in that
Lpr primary air rate
part of the system is also of major importance with regard to this. The greatest
Linf rate of air infiltration
negative pressures occur in the hoods of kilns with planetary or rotary coolers,
(inleakage) at kiln hood
because with these cooler systems the air flow resistance in the cooler has to Ье
and:
Lcom overcome Ьу the kiln fan. 'П the case of the rotary coolers, in particular, the entry of
n 'lmin . К(Nm З /kg clinker)
infiltrated air сап Ье а probIem, because with this type of cooler, besides the high
where: n air excess factor
negative pressure required, there are two rotating seals where inleakage of air тау
minimum quantity of air required for complete
occur.
combustion and dependent оп the heat consumption The secondary air requirements of wet-process kilns or long dry-process kilns with
of kiln and type of fuel used
а specific heat consumption of 5.0-5.5 GJ/t of clinker (1200-1300 kcal/t) is in
К rate fuel to clinker (kg/kg)
the region of 1.3 -1.5 Nm З /kg of clinker.
Since Lmin is dependent оп the fuel fired in the kiln, it will have to Ье calculated Heat-saving kilns with less than 3.3 GJ heat consumption per t of clinker
from the elementary analysis thereof for each individual case. (790 kcal/kg) require secondary air at а rate of about 0.85 - 0.9 Nm З /kg of
Thefollowing approximatevalues тау Ье adopted forthe standard fuels of average clinker.
composition (H u = net calorific value): Because of the considerabIe effect that the secondary rate has upon the clinker
1.001 entry temperature and the calculated efficiency of the cooler, the relevant vaiues
coal: Lmin = -- Hu + 0.5505 (NmЗ/kg) are, for the sake of better comparability, sometimes converted to equal secondary
1000 air rate and, with the aid of the cooling curves determined, also to equal clinker
(corresponding to about 1.08 Nm З /1000 kcal) entry temperature. However, this procedure is meaningful only in those rare cases
where the granulometric characteristics of the clinker in the respective plants to Ье
1.228 compared are also similar.
heavy fuel oil: Lmin = -- Hu -1.37 (NmЗ/kg) The heat losses assignabIe to the following items are indicated in ТаЫе 3'
1000
sensibIe heat in the clinker leaving the cooler;
(corresponding to about 1.089NmЗ /1000kсаl). radiation and convection;
natural gas: Lmin = approx. 1.092 Nm З /1000 kcal. water cooling;
exhaust air;
secondary air.
The air excess сап Ье calculated from the exit gas analysis at the feed end of the kiln
as follows: The nexttwo diagrams (Figs. 5 and 6) show the various loss proportions - varying
with the clinker exit temperature - for grate coolers and for planetary or rotary
n = ------------
coolers, оп the assumption that these operate with а heat-saving kiln system and
1 - 3.762 (02 - 0.5 CO)/N 2
that these coolers сап at best attain about 66% efficiency.
340
341
 ТаЫе З: Heat balances of coolers in GJ/t (kcal/kg)
w ~
~ type of cooler grate coolers tubular coolers
N
s:
Q)
travelling inclined horizontal сот- multistage planetary rotary shaft ::1
с:
grate grate grate bination duotherm cooler а!'
~
с:
heat supplied ф

clinker 1.507 1.507 1.507 1.507 1.507 1.222 1.356 1.507 st

(")
(360) (360) (360) (360) (360) (292) (324) (360) ф

3
ф
cooling air О О О О О О О О
~
clinker dust (0.096 0.108
(23) (26) :-
heat expenditure (")
ф

clinker 0.092 0.067 0.079 0.067 0.033 0.117 0.158 0.301

3
ф

(22) (16) (19) (16) (8) (28) (38) (72) ~

о-
с:
secondary air 1.009 1.026 0.950 1.026 1.080 0.896 1.005 1.194
3
(241 ) (245) (227) (245) (258) (214) (240) (285) S'
со

clinker dust 0.054 0.067 .....

ф
(")
(13) (16) ::1"
::1
о
radiation 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.025 0.251 0.209 0.012
о"
and convection (4) (4) (4) (4) (6) (60) (50) (3) со
-<
exhaust air 0.364 0.397 0.461 0.397 0.369
(87) (95) (11 О) (95) (88)
water cooling 0.025 0.025
(6) (6)
therm. efficiency
internal % 67 68 63 68 72 72 73 79
external % 96

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О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - selection criteria

AbIuftwarme verfi.igbar: The heat lost from the grate cooler in the exhaust air сап in part Ье recovered. With
exhaust air heat availabIe exhaust air utilization the most favourabIe conditions аге obtained if the largest
possibIe thermal gradient is availabIe for the kiln Ьу the different types of coolers.
bei Ki.ihlerwirkungsgrad 67%
The best hot gas utilization ratings for raw material drying аге obtained with grate
at 67 рег cent efficiency
coolers equipped with air circulation systems.
of cooler
The amount of heat given off to extraneous systems сап permissibIy Ьу credited
са. 0.38 GJ/to ~ Trocknet Rohmaterial mit to the cooler only if this really does result in heat savings in those systems.
арргох. 0.38 GJ/to ~ dries raw material with This is illustrated in Fig.7.
Heil3gasaus - The amounts of hot air needed for drying the same raw material will differ greatly
nutzungsgrad 4% Feuchte 4,5% Feuchte according to the temperature of the availabIe hot air. For example, if the raw
exhaust gas bei Normalki.ihler bei Duothermki.ihler material has а moisture content of 4.0%, the utilization rating for hot air with а
?[-] utilization faetor 4 рег cent moisture 4.5 рег cent moisture temperature of 350 С is 74% and the heat requirement is 0.324 GJ/t of clinker
0

10

0.9

08
ОВ8
т; = 1 9QoCр90
tн.(р_ч_ _
with погтаl cooler
_ --I"'"-.. . .
-= .......
with duotherm cooler
=~=t'()('
(77.5 kcal/kg), while if the hot air has а temperature of 2500 С the corresponding
figures аге 63% and 0.379 GJ/t (90.5 kcal/kg).
From these data it also appears that with preheater kilns it is always most
07 economical first to utilize the kiln exit gas befoгe utilizing the exhaust air from the
06 1"'0!>26J -~~___t--- _ _ - . - - - _ + _ - - - - _ I 7;
cooler.
I Beispiel '1
Because of the intermediate clinker breaker and hot air return, the multiple-stage
о
I example:

::L
cooler with duotherm air circuit is characterized Ьу high exhaust airtemperatures in
I Schotterfeuchte 4,5% 4,0% conju nction with good interna 1therma 1efficiency. This type of cooler wi 11 therefore
II morsture
• content I
always constitute the most economical solution in cases where the raw material
о;
: in crushed stone I has а high moisture content and therefore needs considerabIe heat input for
01

.-'---_ _-----L
1'" drying.
о I ~ For low thermal gradients the heat utilization is economically limited that is especial-
100 ;00 ]00 400 500 600 700 ВОО 900 1000
HeiВgastemperatur Г·с7 'у for heating of water vapor ог fuel oil. The heat recovery that сап Ье achieved

hot gas temperature-- depends very greatly оп the granulometric composition ofthe clinker. 'П the case of
the planetary and the rotary cooler the efficiency will, with very fine-grained
273 500 1000 ,273 ["К] clinker, additionally Ье affected Ьу the heat losses due to the dust cycle.
Example:
moisture content
in crushed stone 4.5% 4.0%
erforderliche Warmemenge
heat required 3.2.6.2 Electric energy requirements
Heil3gas: Кlinker
hotgas: 0.33 GJ/to clinker 0.27 GJ/to Besides heat, the input of electric energy also comes into the energy balance of the
clinker cooler. ТаЫе 4 reviews the average energy consumption figures of the
various systems of cooler.
AbIuft: KJinker
0.39 GJ/to clinker 0.32 GJ/to As appears from this tabIe, the lowest demands аге made Ьу the planetary cooler.
exhaust air:
This type of cooler irldeed does not directly consume апу electric energy at all, but
the energy consumption of the kiln drive is of course higher (because the cooler is
AbIuft: rotated along with the kiln itself), as is also that of the exit gas fan drive. Most
0.46 GJ/to Кlinker 0.38 GJ/to
exhaust air: clinker expensive in terms of electricity consumption is the shaft cooler, namely, about
6.7 kWh/t higher than the planetary соо/ег. Adopting the energy prices indicated in
Section 2.6, this difference corresponds to 0.1 GJ/t of clinker (about 24 kcal/kg)
Fig. 7: Fuller cooler - exhaust air utilization ог а difference in cooler efficiency of about 7%.

344 345
w о
~
о'>
s:
Q)
~
с

Dr
~
с
ф

S.
(j
ТаЫе 4: Electric energy consumption of coolers ф

3
ф

grate coolers planetary rotary shaft ;?

cooler cooler cooler
normal type multistage with :-
duotherm system and (')
ф

intermediate breaker 3
ф

;?
cooler kWh/t 3.4 4.5 3.5 8.5 а­
с
(fans, drives)
:J
exhaust air fan kWh/t 1.8 1.5 S'

proportion for kWh/t 2.0 0.3 0.2

...
(Q

ф
(j
kiln drive and ~
~
о
exit gas fan
о"
(Q
total kWh/t 5.2 6.0 2.0 3.8 8.7 -<

ТаЫе5

material chemical тах. embrittlement price application

designation composition service DM/kg
temp.
% ос 1977
Сг. Ni. other

PG 6 6 600 4.5- 5 grate plates, cool part

4710 7 1 Мп 850 6- 8 scoops
4729 13 2.3 Si 900 5- 7 lifter flights
4777 30 0.6 Мо 1100 + 6- 8 lifters, hot zone
(FM х 1430)
8-10 lifters flights ~
4822 24 4.5 1.5 Мп 1100 + S'
4823 27 4.5 1150 + 6- 8 nose sectors
4835 25 8 1100 9-15 lifters, transition section "~
(j

PG 2710 27 10 1100 7- 9 grate plates, hot zone о

7- 9 grate plates, hot zone Q.

PG 2512 25 12 1100 ~

4832 20 14 1.8 Si 1000 10 lifters, transition section (Q

FMR 71 35 20 1150 13 lifters, refr. lined zone

Umco 50 35-40 grate plates, hot zone с/)
ф

~
о'
~

~
;:;:
ф
w
~ Qj'
--.J
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
3.2.6.3 Costs associated with wear, repairs, materials and wages
Provided that coolers of well developed and ргоуеп design аге employed, the cost
arising from repairs and the replacement of wearing parts is relatively low in
comparison with energy costs. As а rule, the effect of material conditions
(granulometric composition of the clinker, movements of coating material, clinker
discharge) is greater than that of the type ог design of the cooler. In planetary and
rotary coolers the main wearing parts аге the lifter inserts, while in grate coolers
they аге the grate plates: The most economical design and construction features of
these respective wearing parts will depend оп the burning conditions and the
nature of the clinker and will usually have to Ье determined Ьу ап empirical
approach. The grades of material used for these parts аге reviewed in ТаЫе 5.
For planetary and rotary coolers the choice of the refractory bricks and monolithic
refractories is furthermore important and should receive due attention.
3.2.7 Availability - indirect expenditure
The effect of the material conditions оп the operational availability of the cooler is
generally тоге important than the design ог type of cooler itself. With properly
developed cooler designs it сап Ье presumed with regard to all types of cooler, if
they аге given careful and methodical maintenance and if favourabIe material
conditions exist, that the clinker burning plant will not Ье subject to апу substantial
downtime due to troubIe with the cooler and that апу repairs that Ьесоте
necessary сап Ье carried out during the periodic shutdowns for relining the kiln.
From the viewpoint of constant readiness for service the rotary cooler has proved
especially advantageous in practice. Damage to the inserts and to the refractory
lining in such coolers аге least serious in their consequences and least often
necessitate plant shutdowns.
ОП the other hand, conditions for the planetary cooler аге тоге critical. Another
disadvantage of such coolers is that while relining work is being carried out in the
kiln, the execution of repairs in the cooler is awkward because the kiln and cooler
cannot Ье rotated independently of each other.
З.З Description of the various types of clinker cooler
3.3.1 Grate coolers
Nearly all manufacturers of machinery for the cement industry include their own
grate coolers in their product ranges. Непсе ;t is not possibIe, within the present
scope, to go beyond а description of the тоге commonly encountered types and
forms of construction.
'П the main, а distinction is drawn between travelling grate coolers and ге­
ciprocating grate coolers.
348
Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler
3.3.1.1 Travelling grate coolers
The Recupol cooler made Ьу the firm of Polysius is а widely used example of the
traveliing grate cooler.
The grate consists of ап endless "belt" ог "chain" of grate elements and resembIes
the grate of а Lepol kiln. In the cooling process the ciinker is at rest upon the
travelling grate plates which, being in constant motion, аге exposed to high
temperatures only for short periods, so that уегу little wear оп the plates occurs.
Непсе these сап Ье made of spheroidal cast iron, а relatively inexpensive material.
А further advantage is that апу damaged plates сап Ье replaced Ьу new ones whi!e
the plant continues in operation (Fig.8).
,h
UiF
Fig. 8: Travelling grate cooler (from Herchenbach, 1978)
The rotational speed of the drive shaft of the cooler is variabIe. Grate travel speeds
range between 0.5 and 2.5 m/minute, and the depth of the bed of material is
between about 120 and 180 тт, depending оп the grate speed. Average grate
design loads аге about 20-30t of clinker рег т 2 and рег day.
The cooling is effected in two zones: the primary (or precooling) апd the
secondary (ог final cooling) zone. 'П the primary zone pulsating air is Ыоwп into
the bed of сliпkег through the grate slots, so that conditions resembIing those iп а
fluidized bed аге produced, геsultiпg in а powerful cooling action. At the same
time, this aeration helps to distribute the clinker uпifогmlу across the width of the
grate, with the coarser particles underneath and the finer ones at the top ofthe bed.
А lower air pressure is employed in the secondary cooling zone, so that the clinker
settles down at rest here.
Specific cooling air rates range from about 1.8 to 2.4 Nm 3 /kg of clinker, achieving
final clinker temperatures averaging 1200 -1500 С. As will Ье explained with
reference to the reciprocating grate cooler later оп, air recirculation сап Ье applied
with the travelling grate cooler, thus геduсiпg the amounts of exhaust air
discharged.
349
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning tpr'hnnlr,n\/

А clinker breaker (hammer crusher) extending across the full width of the grate
reduces the larger clinker fragments and throws them back onto the grate for
further cooling. А chain curtain protects the refractory lining.
The main probIems associated with the travelling grate cooler аге those of
achieving uniform distribution of the clinker across the width of the grate
immediate/y after its discharge from the kiln.
This distribution ргоЫет is not difficult to solve in small and medium-sized coo/ers
operating with kilns fed with preformed pellets ог nodules. The clinker falls onto а
chute equipped with а water-cooled steel plate, the purpose of which is to prevent
the formatlOn of hot clinker stalagmites ("snowmen") at the inlet to the cooler. The
s/ope of this plate сап Ье adjusted, as also its position in the transverse direction in
order to obtain satisfactory distribution of the clinker. '
1n order to avoid having to use а cooling plate with its associated heat losses and in
order to obtain evenly distributed clinker across the grate width also in larger
c~olers, the design ofthe front end ofthe coolerwas modified asshown in Fig. 9.ln
t~IS arrangement the foremost part of the grate (about 10% of its overall length)
rlses at ап angle of 45 degrees, so that а transverse "trough" is formed at th is end of Fig.10: Inclined grate cooler (from Herchenbach, 1978)
t~e ~ool~r. Cooling air is introduced here under high pressure, achieving uniform
dlstrlbutlOn ofthe clinker, while the grate extracts from this trough а bed of clinker
which, it is claimed, is of constant depth over the full width of the grate.
3.3.1.2.1 General design features
The reciprocating grate system (Fig. 1 О) comprises rows of alternately fixed
and movabIe grate plates, secured Ьу means of T-bolts to grate support girders.
The plates аге of various grades of steel along the cooler, corresponding to the
different thermal and mechanicalloading conditions. 'П the hottest part the plates
аге mostly of chrome-nickel alloy (see ТаЫе 5), while in the after-cooling part
they сап suitabIy Ье made of cast chrome steel. The grate plates аге about 300 тт
х 400 тт in size, while the length of stroke is 120 тт. Allowing for overlap, the
effective length of а plate is 323 тт. The shape of the plates is suited to the
requirements of the clinker bed. Thus, the following types аге to Ье distinguished:
tapered, flat and сшЬ plates, also plates with and without holes. The holes in the
геаг parts of the plates acts as nozzles, directing the cooling air flow vertically
upwards. Air is forced horizontally into the bed of clinker through the gaps
Fig. 9: Travelling grate cooler with rising grate (from Herchenbach, 1978)
between the fixed and the movabIe plate rows and through the holes in the end
faces of the plates.
3.3.1.2 Reciprocating grate coolers
The two cooling air streams and the continual agitation of the clinker Ьу the grate
Мапу variants of the reciprocating grate cooler аге availabIe from the cement movements ensure that the clinker particles соте into intimate contact with the air.
machinery manufacturers. Most of them аге, however, closely similar in princip/e to Grate ratings (specific loads) in modern coolers аге between 26 and 55t of clinker
the most commonly employed type, namely, the Fuller cooler. This cooler and its рег day and рег т 2 of active grate surface агеа
~a~y offshoots and variants comprise such types as the horizontal grate cooler, For attaching the grate plates to the support girder the so-called fingerless
Incllned grate cooler and combination cooler, with ог without а gravity cooler ("g" construction is used, enabIing the plates to Ье dismantled Ьу withdrawing them
cooler) for after-cooling, and multiple-stage coolers with intermediate clinker downwards.
breaking. Furthermore, systems with ог without air circulation аге availabIe. А The fixed girders аге mounted оп bearings bolted to the side walls of the cooler
feature shared Ьу all these coolers is their cross-current and counter-current The movabIe girders аге interconnected via а framed assembIy, the so-called
cooling action. movabIe frame. The latter is carried Ьу two ог тоге shafts which in turn аге

350 351
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Rostplatte
grate plate
/

Rosttrager
grate support girder

Fig. 11 : Dismantling а clinker cooler grate plate

SchleiBplatte
Oberteil
supported оп wheels which run оп short guideways. The bearings and drive of the
shafts аге located outside the windboxes, so as to facilitate testing and servicing wearing plate
while the cooler is in operation (Figs. 12 and 13). upper part
The drive system either comprises а crank mechanism with P.I.V. vагiаbIе-sрееd Fig.1З: МоуаЫе grate support girder
drive ог vагiаbIе-sрееd motor Моге recently, direct pneumatic drive has Ьееп
introduced. The grate operating frequency ranges from 3 to 20 strokes рег minute
(Fig.14).

Rostplatte seitenwand Schwingrahmen

grate plate side wall movabIe frame
/ Spannsatz mit Ringfeder
/ retainer with annular spring

J;

о /р __
-
Mitte Kuhler
centre of cooler

bearing Q",. '

Auflageleiste \

со

"
IP

f)
•
I

t-
Kurbelstange
""
Balancier mit 2 Laufradern
rocker Ьеат with two wheels
conneeting rod

Fig. 12: Fixed grate support girder Fig.14: Drive shaft of cooler (new type)

352 353
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
The grate is enclosed in а refractory-lined sheet-steel housing. The hot clinker
discharged from the kiln falls through the inlet shaft directly onto the grate. In
earlier designs the clinker first landed оп а feed shelf and was then distributed оп
the grate. The drawback of this arrangement was the tendency for stalagmite
formation ("snowmen"), which was counteracted Ьу providing а water-cooled
steel plate at the entrance to the cooler.
From the hot part of the cooler the clinker is shoved along towards the outlet end,
while undergoing continuous agitation during its progress through the cooler. At
the outlet most of the clinker falls through the grizzly (Ьаг screen), while the
oversize particles аге fed to а hammer crusher. А chain curtain protects the walls
and roof of the cooler against damage Ьу pieces of clinker flung back Ьу the
crusher.
The casing over the grate is so amply dimensioned that the air flow velocities
remain low, even if there is а deep bed of clinker оп the grate. This ensures that only
а relatively small amount of dust is entrained along in the hot air discharged from
the cooler.
Along the entire length of the cooler, air is supplied from below through various
undergrate compartments and flows through the grate plates and the bed of
clinker, which is thus cooled. 'П order to attain low clinker exit temperatures,
substantially тоге cooling air has to Ье bIown into the cooler than is needed as
combustion air Ьу the kiln. The surplus hot air (cooling air heated оп passing
through the clinker bed) is utilized as exhaust air for other purposes ог, after
passing through а dust collecting unit with exhaust air fan, discharged into the
atmosphere.
The fine clinker particles falling through the cooling grate, so-called riddlings, have
to Ье extracted from the undergrate соmрагtmепts through devices which seal off
the escape of air from these pressurized compartments. Pneumatically actuated
doubIe-flар valves аге тоге particularly used for the purpose. Alternatively, with
low undergrate pressure, а drag-chain conveyor for direct removal of the riddlings
тау Ье installed in the bottom part of the cooler housing
3.3.1.2.2 Single-grate coolers
These аге either of the inclined grate type (with slope of 3,5 ог 1 О degrees) ог the
horizontal type. They сап соре with up to about 1000 t of clinker рег day The
purely horizontal cooler is now virtually obsolete. Its drawback is that the rapid
expansion of the cooling air in the hot part of the cooler tends to fluidize the fine-
grained clinker оп the horizontal reciprocating grate, so that the to-and-fro
movements of the latter аге rendered ineffective in moving the clinker along.
For throughputs above 1000 t/day the single-grate cooler is nowadays used only
as pre-cooler operating with а gravity type after-cooler, ог otherwise combination
coolers аге employed.
3.3.1.2.3 Combination coolers
The "combination" cooler comprises several (usually two) independent grates
with their own drives and with separately controllabIe speeds. The hot part consists
354
Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler
of ап inclined grate with а slope of 5 (ог 3) degrees, while the after-cooling zone is
provided with а horizontal grate. The inclined grate has а working width equal to
about half the internal diameter of the kiln; it operates at а lower frequency and
carries а clinker bed up to about 600 тт in depth. The horizontal grate is wider,
having two ог three rows of plates тоге, and is usually operated at а higher
frequency of its reciprocating strokes, while the depth of bed оп it is correspond-
ingly less (about 250тт).
3.3.1.2.4 Multiple-stage coolers with intermediate size reduction
This type of cooler is used mainly for clinker throughputs of 2500 t/day and
upwards. It comprises and inclined grate, а short horizontal grate, ап interposed
clinker breaker, and а long horizontal grate.
The advantage of this form of construction is that, thanks to the intermediate size
reduction Ьу the air-cooled clinker breaker, intensive final cooling оп the long
horizontal grate is effected, enabIing exit temperatures of 600 - 800 С to Ье
attained. Against this there is the disadvantage that this type of cooler occupies
а greater amount of space and consumes about 0.8 kWh тоге electricity рег tonne
of clinker. 'П order to derive full benefit from the intermediate size .reduction for
exhaust air utilization, the cooler usually operates with а so-called duotherm
circuit.
3.3.1.2.5 Air demand and duotherm circuit
Conventional clinker coolers аге mostly operated with air ratings of between 2.1
and 2.8 Nm З рег kg of clinker. Since modern heat-economizing kilns require less
than 1 Nm З of combustion air рег kg of clinker, these coolers discharge large
quantities of exhaust air at relatively low temperatures and therefore unfavourabIe
with regard to utilization of its heat content.
'П the duotherm system, part of the hot exhaust air from the cooler is circulated
back and introduced into the front air compartments. As а result of this recycling,
the required intake of fresh cooling air сап Ье reduced to 1.3 -1.8 Nm З /kg of
clinker and the exhaust air rate сап likewise Ье reduced, while its temperature is
correspondingly higher, so that better есопоту in waste heat utilization is
achieved. However, because of the intermediate dust collection required, the
energy consumption, which for а conventional system is about 5.2 kWh/t of
clinker (including the exhaust fan drive), is increased Ьу about 0.8 kWh/t.
With the duotherm system in conjunction with ап intermediate air-to-air cooler for
the circulating air it is even possibIe to operate the grate cooler without апу
discharge of exhaust air at all.
3.3.1.2.6 Design dimensions; ап example of ап actual cooler
'П view of the multitude of possibIe variants, the design of а reciprocating grate
cooler will now Ье illustrated with the aid of ап example allowing а comprehensive
representation of all the тоге important features. See Fig.15.
355
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

AbIuft 1
exhaust air 1

Ki.ihlluft Auslauf
cooling air outlet
Fig. 15: Multiple-stage cooler with intermediate size reduction (from
SteinbiB, 1972')
N
,....
о)
The example relates to а three-stage cooler, with intermediate size reduction, of the
type built Ьу the engineering firm of Claudius Peters. The principles it embodies are cd
essentially applicabIe to all other reciprocating grate coolers, including for ij
с:
example: '.щ
the single-grate cooler (see Fig. 1 О); (J)

the two-grate combination cooler, type Folax, built Ьу FlS (Fig. 16); Е
the three-grate combination cooler built Ьу Fuller (Fig.17).
~
...
ф

AbIuftabzug bei Bedarf Кlinkerbrecher 'о

о
(J
exhaust air extraction if required clinker breaker
с:
i Ki.ihlerabIuft О
',j:
exhaust air са
from cooler с:
:а
Е
о
(J
ф
+"
са
с,
ф
~
J:
1-

...,....
tn
Fig.16: Three grate comblnation cooler (from Erdmann, 1978) ir

356 357
А multiple-stage cooler with intermediate size reduction of the clinker is а
complicated installation and economically justified only in connection with а
heat-economizing kiln fed with meal and attaining а clinker output exceeding
about 2000t/day.
The three-stage cooler envisaged in the example is installed behind а preheater kiln
and designed for dealing with 2100 t of cliriker рег day. Its designation is
8255/1025 H/Zw/1 033 Н, а code denoting the main characteristics, as follows
(see Fig. 18) :

8 8 grate plates effective width

25 25 ft length = 23 grate plates grate 1
5 inclined (slор[гg) grate
10 1 О grate plates effective width
25 25 ft length = 23 grate plates grate 2
Н horizontal grate
Zw intermediate clinker breaker
10 1 О grate plates effective width
33 33 ft length = 30 grate plates grate 3
Н horizontal grate Fig. 18: Three-grate comblnation cooler with intermediate size-
reduction
Cooling is accomplished in а residence time totalling about 40 minutes оп the three
grates, which have separate drives.
The narrow grate 1 forms the recuperation zone. The then following wider The respective pressures in the undergrate compartments, the air rates and the
horizontai grate 2 is the precooling zone, to which preheated "duotherm" alr IS clinker temperatures аге indicated in Fig. 19. Моге particularly in the front part of
supplied. The clinker breaker installed behind this grate extends across the full the cooler, where high air pressures аге employed, the differences in pressure
width of the cooler After-cooling of the broken clinker is accomplished оп the between successive compartments must not Ье too great, otherwise too much air
horizontal grate 3. bIown into the first compartment, for example, will escape into the second
The cooler as а whole has а grate plate surface агеа of 78 m 2 , so that the rating is compartment, for although the compartments аге kept separate from опе another,
27 t of clinker рег day and рег m2 The specific cooling air rate is 2.1 - 2.5 Nm З /kg the air seals at the grate аге never ideally effective in practice.
of clinker, while the intake of cold air from the surroundings of the cooler is only
1.7 NmЗ/kg of clinker. The average cooling air rating is 230-280 NmЗ/hоur рег
Recuperative zone
plate ог 2300-2800 NmЗ/hоur рег m 2 .
The cooler is equipped with six fans for supplying the necessary air to the seven The recuperative zone of the cooler extends from the clinker entry point to the end
cooling compartments. With lowering temperature of the clinker bed along the of the first grate (in this three-stage cooler with intermediate size reduction). The
length of the cooler the expansion of the air decreases and the specific rate of air рег other grates serve only for the final cooling of the clinker. In the inlet shaft to the
unit агеа of grate plate becomes correspondingly less. As а result of this the air cooler and оп grate 1, which comprises about а quarter of the total cooling surface
pressure required for penetration of the bed likewise decreases. Each successive air агеа, the clinker is cooled in about 20 minutes from about 17000 К to about 7500 К.
compartment, from the inlet end of the cooler towards the outlet end, is therefore For this purpose two fans bIow cold air - in а quantity corresponding to the total
provided with а fan developing а lower static pressure than the preceding опе. secondary and tertiary air required Ьу the kiln - into the cooler, where this air is
Thus, the first compartment has а fan developing 50 mbar (500 mm w.g.), while heated to about 11 000 К, which is the temperature of the secondary air. Instead of
the fan for the last two compartments develops 15mbar (150mm w.g.). cold air, preheated "duotherm" air сап Ье used in order to achieve even better heat
The specific air supply rate is likewise graduated from the highest value in the first recovery for the kiln. However, the higher grate temperature rating that this
compartment (about 750 NmЗ/hоuг рег plate) to 100 NmЗ/hоur рег plate in the involves will reduce the operational reliability of the cooler, so that in practice such
last compartment. ап arrangement has proved too critical. For а heat-economizing kiln with good

358 359
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Rekuperation EndkiihlUn9
recuperation final CQolin9 of the exhaust air and secondary air. The distance from the top of the clinker
Vorkiihl un9 Nachkiihlung bed to the lower edge of the partition is about 1 m, so that there is sufficient
I
geneigter Rostabschnitt
pre-cooling
Horizontal-Teil
after~ooling
Horizontal-Teil
headroom to allow occasional large lumps (fragments of collapsed clinker rings
inclined grate section horizontal part horizontal part from the kiln) to pass underneath. From the viewpoint of durability it is advisabIe
Rost 1 Rost 2 Rost 3 to construct the partition as ап arched wall. See Fig.20. Оп the downstream
grate 1 grate 2 grate 3
(cold) side of this partition ап арroп extending down to the top the bed may
Kaltluft Duothermluft Kaltluft
cold air duotherm air cold air additionally Ье provided. This apron may consist of freely ~spended plates of а
1. Kamrner 2. Kammer З. Kammeri4. Kamme 5. Kammer 6. Kam. 7. Kammer heat-resisting steel such as Sicromal. /
1st compart- 2nd compart- З Гd comp. 4th comp. 5th comp. 6th com. 7th comp.
rnent ment
0.5 0.4 0.35 0.35 0,4 0,2 0.2 Kiihlluftmenge Stampfmasse oder Marmorsteine
7:IJ 400 250 220 130 85 75 cooling air rate
monolithic refractory ог bricJ<s
1450 Nm 3 /kg
1400 Nm 3 /Platte
I

1300 plate
50
1200
1100
1000 40
900
8))
30
700
(Jo(J 600 ~
o~ ~ 500 20 ~ ~
~~400 Е=
8.~зоо ~~
Е Е
~~200
10 f.::::~
~~ 100 ~~
2 '5 50 ~:""':'~'-"-~Ч...L.""--'+.LJ.:....L-f-"-...L..L..oi;....L"'-"~'-"-""'-'+"'-"...L.<:r-' О ~§
О 10 20 за 40 50 50 70 80
Kiihlerlange - Rostreihenanzahl
length of cooler - number of grate ГОМ
Auflager im Schnitt gezeichnet
fig. 19: Air and temperature conditions in а combination cooler bearing shown in section
fig.20: Arched wall partition between recuperative zone and final
cooling zone
seals at the firing hood and low primary air rate (Iess than 10% referred to total
combustion air) the secondary air rate, including апу tertiary air required, is about Of primary importance for optimum heat exchange is to distribute the clinker as
0.85-0.90 NmЗ/kg of clinker. The term tertiary air is applied to the air which is uniformly as possibIe across the width of the cooling grate. It has Ьееп found
supplied direct to the firing system in the preheater of а kiln plant equipped for advantageous to align the cooler somewhat off-centre in relation to the kiln to
precalcining. This air should Ье extracted from а point close to the cooler shaft in allow for the non-central discharge of the clinker due to the kiln's rotation
the recuperative zone. (Fig.21 ).
'П order to achieve optimum heat recovery for the kiln system, it is necessary to The space over the cooler and inlet shaft shou Id Ье amply dimensioned to keep the
prevent the air from the after-cooling zone from mixing with the secondary ог the secondary air velocities below about 8 - 9 m/second, so that not too much dust is
tertiary air. For this reason а partition to prevent transverse flow is provided at the carried back into the kiln. The front part of the cooler itself should, оп the other
end of the recuperative zone, in the hot air part of the cooler. Besides, from this hand, Ье narrow, with а width equal to 0.5-0.6 times the effective diameter of the
point the roof of the cooler housing slopes upwards to the kiln and also in some kiln, so that with а grate operating frequency of 6 -1 О strokes per minute а clinker
systems upwards towards the clinker breaker, so as to obtain constant velocities bed of 500-600mm depth is built up.

360 361
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of ciinker cooler

In the three-stage cooler with intermediate size reduction under consideration

there is а vertical front end wall. 'П order to prevent having locally too thin а bed of
clinker, the first row of p\ates is stationary and the plates have по holes. The clinker
that remains Iying оп these plates protects them and prevents the formation of
localized air escape passages. Simi lar considerations apply to the edge plates of the
first two rows not covered with monolithic refractory fill, which likewise have
plates without holes. This is known as the "horseshoe" arrangement of plates. Ап
example of this system in actual practice is shown in Fig.22.

Fig.21 : Кiln/cooler alignment

In practice it has proved advantageous to provide the front part of the cooler with
ап inclined grate. Its slope should preferabIy not exceed 3 degrees, however, so as
to avoid апу risk of uncontrolled rushing down of the clinker оп it.
In the three-stage cooler with intermediate size reduction, as envisaged in the
example, the housing is so dimensioned as to епаЫе ten grate plates to Ье installed
across the width. 'П the recuperative zone, i. е., grate 1, the width is reduced to
eight plates Ьу filling the space corresponding to опе plate width оп each side with
monolithic refractory material to а height of about 500 mm.
The clinker discharged from the kiln should fall directly onto the clinker bed over
the first few rows of plates. А deep bed is necessary not only for good heat
recuperation, but also for protection ofthe grate itself against possibIe damage due
to large pieces of coating detached from inside the kiln The discharge from the
clinker is seldom very regular and, instead, varies with the thickness and shape of
the coating formed at the kiln outlet, while more particularly in kilns fed with Fig. 22: Reduction in grate width
unpelletized meal there is а distinct segregating effect into coarser and finer clinker
particles in the direction of kiln rotation Непсе the grate plating in the zone which
receives the clinker discharge from the kiln will have to Ье adequately suited to the The effect of various plate arrangements оп the air distribution and clinker bed is
operating conditions. schematically illustrated in Fig.23.
'П earlier cooler designs а sloping inlet chute was provided, оп which the clinker In contrast with the example discussed above, the recuperative zone is here,
fell before rebounding into the actual cooler This chute was usually lined with а however, subdivided into three air compartments, the first of which has а length
water-cooled distributing plate to prevent accretions of hot clinker ("snowmen"). corresponding to only three rows of plates. With the high specific air rate supplied
Cooling this plate, however, caused а heat loss of about 0.063 GJ/t of clinker to this compartment the clinker оп the grate is agitated in the manner of а fluidized
(15 kcal/kg). bed, а condition which is claimed to achieve better distribution of the clinker.

363
362
О. Мапufаеtше of eement 111. Cement Ьшпiпg teehnology Clinker eooling - types of elinker eooler

Schwaches Bett UпгеgеlmiШigеs Bett Starkes Bett СшЬ plates: These аге provided with ап approximately 200 mm high raised edge
Schlechter Wirkungsgrad, Sehr schlechte Verbesserte Wirkung. ешЬ and have а retarding and banking-up effeet оп the elinker movement. See
Luft entweicht dшсh Luftverteilung gute Luftverteilung Figs. 24 and 25.
die di.innen Partien These plates may Ье disposed either in eheekerboard fashion оп опе side of the
irregular bed thick bed eooler behind опе another, in order to retard ог divert а eontinuous hot strand of
thin bed very роог better efficiency, elinker ("red river"), ог they may, for example, Ье installed aeross the full width of
lowefficiency, air distribution good air distribution the eooler in опе ог more rows in orderto bank uptheelinkerbed. If ешЬ plate rows
air escapes аге installed, it is neeessary to епsшеthаtthеrow with the highest ешЬ is loeated at
through thin the end of а eooling air eompartment, beeause the depth (thiekness) of the elinker
parts Kammern Kammern Kammern bed should Ье eonstant within eaeh eompartment. If the banking-up effeet of the
ешЬ plates does not eomprise the whole eompartment, so that the bed in the геаг
rri6nts~ntsS part is thinner than in front, the air flow will Ье eoneentrated in this геаг part, while
the thieker bed will get eorrespondingly less of the air and the elinker will Ье less
effeetively eooled. То prevent loeal air breakthroughs it is also important that а row
of ешЬ plates is always followed Ьу а row of plates without holes. Nor should there
~ ~ Ье апу holes in the plates loeated in the eorners direetly behind the portions of the
grate whieh аге filled in with monolithie refraetory.
~В-В
~ ~ In the example of the three-stage eooler with intermediate size reduetion, the last
~
с-с
~ ~ row of plates in grate 1 and the first row in grate 2 аге stationary rows. 1n this way а
tШ±±J ~ ~ banking-up effeet is obtained, sothatthe elinker does not rush too quiekly ontothe

Е HI~I.li ~ ~

I А---1 1---8._ I I с ---J

Keine Oberbri.ickungsplatten NORTHFLEET Dшсhwеg Oberbri.ickungsplatten
по bridging plates bridging plates along full length

Fig. 23: Effect of plate arrangements оп clinker bed and air distribution
I1
(from WardjWatson, 1972)
11
Besides, the pressure in this eompartment responds very rapidly to variations in I1
elinker diseharge from the kiln and сап therefore suitabIy Ье utilized as а eontrol
I1
11
variabIe. 11
In some instanees the first eompartment is divided longitudinally instead of
transversely, with different air supply rates to the two longitudinal sub-eompart- I1
ments, ап arrangement whieh is eonsidered to eounteraet the tendeney for the
elinker to segregate into eoarser and finer partieles. 'П praetiee this has not proved Fig.24: Plate with welded-on raised edge сигЬ (from SteinbiB, 1972')
to Ье а satisfaetory solution, however, beeause it is not possibIe to form а
suffieiently effeetive air seal between the two sub-eompartments.
Besides the "horseshoe" plating system, other speeial arrangements for the plates
have Ьееп devised for improving the air distribution and preventing the develop-
ment of hot strands of elinker extending forward through the bed.
Among the more frequently adopted solutions аге:
'''~:~II~~~:~:~':''::::,',~n~~;~,,~
Bridging plates, with and without holes. With this system, eertain plates аге kept fixed I"OW Б
stationary in а movabIe row of plates, so that the elinker transporting aetion is
arrested. Fig. 25: Wearing ог сигЬ plates оп fixed grate plates (from SteinbiB, 1972')

364 365
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

two extra outermost longitudinal plate rows of grate 2 (which has ап effective
width of 1 О plates, as compared with only 8 for grate 1).
In order to improve operational reliability it is advantageous to install а valve
between the cooling fan and the cooling air compartments and also to provide
closabIe doors between the respective compartments. With these precautions, опе
fan сап Ье stopped in ап emergency without having to shut down the kiln.
Because of the high air pressures in the recuperative zone, it is not possibIe, in this
part of the cooler, simply to use а drag chain conveyor for removing the grate
riddlings (the fine particles that fall through the slots in the grate); very efficiently
closing clinker discharge locks аге required instead. Pneumatically operated
doubIe-flар valves have Ьееп found satisfactory for the purpose. Electric motors
аге not suitabIe for operating them because of their limited working life in the dust-
laden atmosphere.
The valves under the individual collecting hoppers ореп either in а predetermined
sequence at certain intervals ог in response to the level of the material in the
hoppers, which operates а control system. In the latter case, however, the valves
must Ье interlocked so as to make sure that several valves will not ореп
simultaneously and overload the clinker handling equipment.
Fig.26: Intermediate clinker breaker (CI. Peters GmbH)

Final cooling zone

The recuperative zone is followed Ьу the final cooling zone, where the clinker is
cooled from about 7500 К to its final temperature. The grate агеа for final cooling is
nearly three times as large as that for heat recuperation. The reason for this is the
coollng rate, which decreases as the difference in temperature between the cooling
air and the clinker to Ье cooled becomes less.
Intermediate clinker breaker
This is а single-rotor hammer crusher (Fig. 26) with ап air-cooled hollow shaft, the
air being supplied Ьу ап external fan. Alternatively, so-called autogenous cooling
тау Ье used.ln this system the plates which аге mounted оп the shaft and сапу the
hammers аге so interconnected as to form а cooling air duct extending across the
full width of the grate. The duct is provided with numerous openings through
which the air it draws into its interior сап flow out.

Precooling grate
The horizontal grate of the precooling zone is subdivided into two compartments
and is supplied with "duotherm" air with а temperature of about 1500 С. The
heated air is extracted over grate 3, which forms the after-cooling zone behind the
intermediate clinker breaker, and passed through а mechanical dust collector for
protecting the cooling air fans against excessive dust load. With the duotherm
system of air control the exhaust air is thermally upgraded. i. е., the volume of air is
reduced and its temperature raised, enabIing its heat content to Ье тоге effectively
utilized for material drying. The exhaust air should Ье extracted, not from опе side
of the cooler, but preferabIy through the roof, so as to сапу along as little dust as
possibIe. The cooling air rates аге so adjusted that grate 2 gets less air than grate 3
and that part of the exhaust air is supplied in the form of air overflowing from
grate 3. This overflow of air serves also to cool the clinker breaker.
However, as а result of the admission of the hot duotherm air the cooling curve in
the precooling zone presents а flatter shape than in the recuperative zone and in the
after-cooling zone.
After-cooling zone
Оп passing through the breaker, the clinker is substantially increased in surface
агеа and discharged onto grate 3, оп which it forms а bed of completely геапапgеd
particles and where, with а relatively moderate quantity of cooling air, it is cooled
from about 5500 К to its final temperature of below 3500 К. In order to minimize
energy consumption, this after-cooling grate is operated with а low bed depth and
сопеsропdiпglу low air pressure. For this reason. too, there is по need for doubIe-
flap valves to act as air locks to the compartments in this part of the system. А drag
chain conveyor for removing the grate riddlings сап pass direct through the
compartments.
Heat balance and heat flow
The heat flow and balance for the clinker cooler considered in the example аге
indicated in Figs.27 and 28.

367
366
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

with intermediate breaker Good heat recovery is possibIe only if the cooler is operated with а deep bed of
(kcal/kg) GJ/to clinker, with а correspondingly high air flow resistance. For this reason the fans in
heat supplied (358) 1,50 the hot zone should Ье аЫе to deve/op а sufficient/y high pressure. The required
minimum pressures for the fans supplying air to the recuperative zone are as
heat expenditure
clinker follows:
(8) 0.03
radiation and convection (6) 0.03 for single-stage coolers: 30 mbar
exhaust air (86) 0.36 for multiple-stage coolers: 50 mbar.
secondary air (258) 1.08
The other cooling air fans should Ье of correspondingly lower performance in
efficiency
terms of pressure developed, reduced stepwise to 1О mbar, as exemplified in
internal 72
external Fig.19.
96
The electric power consumption of the cooling air fans accounts for more than
Fig.27: Comblnation cooler with intermediate size reduction: heat 70% of the overall power demand of the cooler. Непсе it is essential to use high-
balance efficiency fans which are properly suited to the actual operating conditions of the
cooler.
Single-inlet radial flow fans are most suitabIe for the purpose.
Ki.ihler mit Zwischenbrecher At the design operating point the fan efficiency should Ье between 70 and 80%.
cooler with intermediate breaker Curved -bIаdе impellers are most appropriate. Protection against wear is important
only for fans which have to handle duotherm air or air for the kiln hood seal.
Klinker Sвkundarluft AbIuft As the air pressure to Ье developed Ьу the fans varies greatly with the specific load

U
l JJ
clinker secondaryair exhaust air of the cooler, fans having not too flat а characteristic curve (pressure-volume
1.49: GJ/to 1.08 GJ/to 0',6 GJ/to curve) should Ье chosen. Simple damper control is uneconomical; it is preferabIe

IWiгkungsgгad
Strah/ung und to use inlet vane control.
Ап inlet vane control system (Fig. 29) comprises а static guide-vane unit which is

cv
t f Konvektion 0.025 GJlto
radiation and
convection
installed in front of the fan's impeller and whose radial vanes сап Ье swivelled Ьу
means of а control device so as to vary the inlet alr flow conditions. These vanes
[ffiCien
~ппегег 72% ! deflect the inflowing air in the direction of rotation or in the opposite direction. As а
Internal I КJinker
clinker 0.033 GJlto result of this preliminary guidance, the entry losses are substantially less than those
auBerer 96% . . associated with ordinary damper control.
external '_ _":~~=~~::=IIII: The difference in power consumption between throttling down the inflow Ьу
Duothermluft means of а damper and inlet flow control with guide vanes is apparent from

I~=t::~
Fig.30.
duotherm air
The conditions for fans with inlet vane control which are, respectively, well
I adapted and unfavourabIy adapted to the operating requirements are indicated in
Rost 1 Rost 2 Rost 3 Figs.31 and 32. In these diagrams the static pressure of the fan has Ьееп plotted
grate 1 grate 2 grate 3 against the volume flow for various guide-vane settings. The dot-dash lines
indicate the efficiency of the fan.
(825) (1025) (1033)
In case 1 the operating point is at а pressure of 42 mbar and а flow rate of about
Fig. 28: Cooler with intermediate breaker: heat flow 46000 m З /hour. The vane setting is 45 degrees and the efficiency is over 70%. The
pressure developed Ьу the fan corresponds approximately to the air pressure in the
cooling air compartment. /t is evident that in normal service the fan is working at а
Cooling air and exhaust air fans favourabIe operating point and that nevertheless adequate reserves are availabIe to
Cooling air fans соре with increases in clinker bed resistance due to variations in clinker particle
size or discharge rate.
The correct choice of cooling fan capacity is of major importance with regard to the Different conditions exist in case 2. Here the operating point already in normal
efficiency and the electric energy or power consumption of the cooler. service is at а guide vane setting of О degrees. The efficiency is unfavourabIy low,
368 369
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

1 1111''II~IIWlii''lkUngSgrade
0
700
efficiencies in о - ,О
n = 1340 U/min
n = 1340ino/c + 3 /.

:111 Betriebspunkt
Ki.ihlgebIase 1tЩшtI~
".р.т.

operating point
cooling fan 1

100
90
110

Fig. 31 : FavourabIe adaption of fan to requirements

Fig.29: Inlet vane control equipment

't<W
110 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , Wirkungsgrade in % ± 3%
,efficiencies in
100 БОО
n 1340 U/min
90 500 n 1340 r .р.т.
80 Е
В
400 5
70 ба

БО 300 н-- . I-J--

tJ-
1=
с:
50 ~ 250 ~ 50
!=
!=
.g 40 ~ ,юа
~ н-~
150 ~ t=
~a.

~ ~ зо '"
~ 8 20
~ ~ 10 .....L-=-.!lL:!....!!..~ .....--~~~L----____4OI
.. 8.
~ 016 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 Q mЗ/s
Leistung
volume flow

Fig. 30: Power consumption Fig. 32: UnfavourabIe adaption of fan to requirements
370 371
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

,- \ , , I : I I only 40%; even so, по pressuгe reserves аге availabIe to соре with off-normal
conditions. 'П the event of а rise in pressuгe in the associated cooling air
\ " "i \ I
200 ..... , '" В1 --t'~-'---+--1 compartment, е. g., due to ап increase in the rate of clinker discharge from the kiln,

"'1'0'1" -~~
the cooling air supply rate will therefore decrease, with the attendant danger that
the cooler will Ье overheated.
, 'П many actual instances the futuгe operating conditions cannot Ье predicted with

, oO+t---t--t---1--+--I-+--I-,,~-+_-+_--l_'lh"-----='.:. :Ог:О. : .О-,-,m.;-:.i,-,-n-,'---J-+--i sufficient accuгacy at the design stage. It is therefore advantageous to provide the
fan with а vee-belt drive, enabIing it to Ье adapted quite simply to the actual
9О-н---t--t---1----t--I-+--I-- .....- -"<-+--+---t--t--t--+---J-+--i
8 О-н---t--t---1----t---+-+--I------"-=-4-t.:..........
--+---1f---f---t--+---J-+--i
operating requirements Ьу changing the vee-belt pulleys and thus altering the
7О ..... В -.-,-----\--+--+--+-+-1 speed. This is illustrated in Fig.33.
А further saving in power consumption сап Ье achieved Ьу the use of ап inlet
60tt-----t--t-+---+-+-+-+---+--+----O ,---[----+----+--1---+-1
nozzle, which reduces the entry losses, besides providing а convenient means of
5 О tt-----t--t-+---+-+-+-+---+--+---f----f---t-+-+_+--1
measuгing the rate of flow delivered Ьу the fan. See Fig.34.
4О tt---f-----J-t-t-H---t------t---t---t--t--+---+----\--+-I
!
3 О ""'--........---'-"---"---L......I--I---.l.--.l.-----L.----I.._.l..-..J.......J.......J....J
Arbeitsbedarf: Klinker
t
power consumption: 0,44 ~Wh/t clinker

11 I !

200 i Fig. 34: Inlet nozzle

I
I Exhaust air fans
-----t--
For the sake of operational reliability this fan should Ье of very ample capacity, as
n=5BOmm
-, the operating conditions аге subject to frequent and rapid variations. When coating
,00 --1- becomes dislodged in the kiln, for example, the temperatuгes of the air to Ье
90 handled may rise Ьу more than 2000 К, with а corresponding reduction in the fan's
ВО
f"1"--...
\ 1"", air delivery rate.
70
75' g,- 'П order to cut down electric power consumption it is therefore nearly always
60 ....·0_i\. economically advantageous to use ап adjustabIe-sрееd motor for driving the
50 в \ exhaust air fan.
Besides, а reliabIe water injection system is to Ье recommended, in order to protect
40
the fan, the dust collection system (оп the downstream side of the fan) and the
i
clinker ha!)dling equipment agai!)st overheatil1g in extreme cases.
30
,0 00 20 00 30000 50 00
Vh[m 3 /h] _
Water injection into the cooler
Arbeitsbedarf: 008 kWh/t K~inker
power consumption:' clrnker Except in the manufactuгe ofwhite cement, water is used only for after-cooling the
clinker. The recuperation of heat must not Ье affected Ьу it. The cooler shou Id Ье so
Fig. 33: Adjustment of the characteristic Ьу speed changing amply designed that it will Ье necessary to have recouгse to water cooling only

372 373
О. Manufacture of cement 111 Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

under extreme conditions ог in the event of а fault, е. g., to соре with excessive Fahrbarer Deckel
clinker discharge from the kiln as а result of coating collapse. Under such retractabIe cover
circumstances the injection of water will serve to protect the dust collection Brennerwagen mit Di..ise
equipment and/or the handling appliances. Very small amounts of finely sprayed / kiln firing trolley
water тау also Ье allowed in normal continuous operation of the cooler. Indeed, if
the exhaust air is dedusted in ап electrostatic precipitator, such water is necessary Drehofe~
rotary klln
5 20 m
'
ф/ 1 О Ki.ihl.errohre
10 coollng tubes
2,20 m Ф
for conditioning the air. ro-----+---
Water injection equipment must Ье carefully designed and properly serviced. Тоо
much or poorly atomized water sprayed into the cooler is liabIe to cause serious
troubIe because the very fine particles of clinker will react with the water. As а
result, for example, the air holes in the grate plates тау Ьесоте choked or the
hoppers and discharge devices for the grate riddlings тау Ьесоте bIocked solid
with hardened masses, while clogging of fabric filters тау also оссш.
The following are some important design criteria for water injection systems.
Arra ngement of the nozzles. The nozzles shou Id Ье located оп the roof or оп the
outlet end wall of the cooler. There should Ье several nozzles, whose jets should
not overlap. Wetting the clinker must not begin earlier than at least five rows of

ф IФi $,,:
plates past the recuperative zone and must Ье completed at least five rows ahead of
the discharge end of the grate, so as to ensure that recuperation will not Ье
impaired and that all the water will have evaporated before the clinker leaves the
Ausmauerung Becher- Streuschaufeln
cooler.
mit HubIeisten schaufeln scattering flights
Туре of nozzle: Nozzles should Ье either of the pressure-jet atomizing type or the
refractory lining scoops
twin-fluid type with compressed air atomizing. In the latter case the nozzles are
supplied with water and atomizing air. The jet should Ье fan-shaped and very fine. with lifters
Hubschaufeln
It must not Ье allowed to impinge оп the walls of the cooler
I ifter fl ights
fhe nozzles and control valve should Ье so designed that adequate atomization is
achieved even when operating at the lowest water feed rate. When the water jet is Fig. 35: Planetary cooler (from Kadel, 1974)
turned off, the nozzle should Ье bIown clear with compressed air, and while the
cooler is operating without water injection а scavenging air bIower should ensure
that the nozzles are at all times kept free from clogging with dust. Ап automatic
3.3.2 Planetary coolers
device, actuated Ьу а pneumatic cylinder, for retracting the nozzles when not in use
has also proved advantageous. Water injection should Ье started automatically The planetary or sate\lite cooler, а 10пg-еstаbIishеd type of clinker cooler, has in
through the agency of а control system in response to the exhaust air temperature. recent years re-emerged in improved high-capacity versions which have secured а
Nozzles, control valves, water pump and compressed air supply system (if апу) substantial share of the market in conjunction with new heat-economizing plants
should Ье of such capacity that, in the event of а temporary increase of up to about and is now availabIe from nearly all major cement machinery manufacturers.
50% in the clinker discharge rate from the kiln (е. g., surge conditions due to It is characterized more particularly Ьу its, in principle, simple form of construction.
dislodgment of coating), the exit temperature of the clinker at the outlet of the It has по cooling air fans and по separate drive, being rotated with the kiln. See
cooler and the exhaust air temperature do not rise Ьу more than 1000 К in relation to Fig.35.
normal operation The water feed rate for ensuring this is about 0.15 kg per kg of А planetary cooler consists of а number of cooling tubes, usually ten, disposed
clinker at rated throughput. If the dust collection equipment for the exhaust air is а around the circumference of the kiln shell. Each of these tubes is connected to the
fabric filter, а 1000 К rise in air temperature сап generally not Ье tolerated 'П that kiln via а special elbow-shaped inlet through which the clinker passes. At the
case the air-to-air cooler installed upstream of this filter should Ье of such capacity outlet end of the planetary cooler its tubes (in the newer designs of such coolers)
that the exhaust air temperature rise which occurs despite water injection into the are supported оп the kiln shell, which is extended for this purpose and provided
clinker cooler сап Ье cancelled here. If по such air cooler is provided, the exhaust with ап additional roller stand to carry the extra weight.
air fan should Ье of such capacity as to achieve the necessary cooling of the Access to the outlet of the kiln is obtained through а tunnel formed Ьу а stationary
exhaust air Ьу the addition of cold air from outside the clinker cooling system. tube projecting into the kiln shell extension. This tunnel is thermally insulated

374 375
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology
Fig. 36: Planetary cooler, tunnel
against heat penetration into it from the shell, and the tunnel floor is of hollow
construction and accommodates air ducts for cooling it. With these arrangements
it is possibIe to approach the outlet end of the kiln and the firing pipe installed
there. See Fig.36.
The hot end of the kiln is closed Ьу а refractory-lined cover which is mounted оп
runner wheels and rails in the tunnel and is normally kept pressed against а seal оп
the kiln Ьу the action of counterweights ог pneumatic cylinders.
Each tube of the planetary cooler is mounted оп two supports attached to the
kiln shell. The inlet elbows, through which the hot clinker is discharged from the
kiln into the cooling tubes, and the front part of the tubes themselves аге lined
with refractoгy material embedded in which аге lifting ridges (made of ceramic
refractory) and steel breaking teeth and lifters ("flights" ог "scoops"). The
refractory-lined zone of each tube is followed Ьу unlined zones equipped with
fuгther scoops and lifting devices whose material and shape аге suited to the
various service conditions encountered.
The outlet ends of the cooling tubes rotate in the discharge end housing, where the
clinker passes along а screening grid incorporated in the end of each tube. The
coarser clinker lumps retained оп the grid is fed to а crusher.
In process engineering terms the planetary cooler functions оп the same principle
as the rotary cooler. The cooling air rate corresponds to the secondary air supplied
to the kiln. The air flow through the cooler is sustained Ьу the kiln exit gas fan.
376
Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler
However, as contrasted with the rotary cooler, in the planetary cooler the
movement of the clinker is governed Ьу the rotation of the kiln. There is the fuгther
difference that the flow of clinker is divided among the respective cooling tubes. As
in the rotaгy cooler, the air velocity is allowed to Ье varied only within а fairly
narrow range, so as to achieve good heat transfer and to prevent cyclic movement
ог congestion of fine clinker particles.
The following approximate dimensional relationships аге widely adopted in
planetary cooler design:
throughput: 3-4t of clinker рег day and рег m З of the total volume of the
cooling tubes;
length/diameter ratio: 9: 1 to 11 :1.
The diameter of the individual cooling tubes is chosen in relation to the kiln
diameter. For example, the planetary cooler оп а kiln 3.8-4.4 m diameterwill have
tubes of 1.5 -1.7 m diameter. Оп а kiln of 5 - 6 m diameter they will Ье in the range
of 2.0-2.5т.
The planetary cooler has по independent drive, the power to rotate it being
provided Ьу the kiln drive, which therefore has а correspondingly higher power
consumption as compared with а kiln equipped with а grate cooler ог rotary cooler.
Also, the kiln exit gas fan, which has to sustain the air flow through the cooler,
will have а higher power rating. In general, the additional energy requirements
for planetary coolers fitted to heat-economizing dry-process kilns аге
approximately:
0.7 -1.5 kWh/t of clinker for the kiln;
0.3-0.5 kWh/t of clinker for the exit gas fan.
Оп account of the high mechanical and thermal loads involved, the structural
design of the planetary cooler is especially important. The following аге тоге
particu larly regarded as рroЫет zones:
the kiln shell in the vicinity of the clinker discharge ports, i.e., the openings
through which the clinker enters the cooling tubes;
these openings with their cast steel inlet sockets, seals and elbows;
the arrangements for attaching the cooling tubes to the kiln shell;
the steel shells of the tubes with their internal fittings.
Кiln end section with inlet sockets
The openings (discharge ports) in the kiln shell atthe planetary cooling tube inlets
mechanically weaken it. This must Ье compensated Ьу local increase in shell plate
thickness (upto 60тт in kilns of 3.8-4.6 m diameter, at least 80 and галging up
to 100тт for kilns of 4.6-5.6т diameter). See Fig.З7.
Furthermore, in order not to reduce the width of shell plate between the openings
too much, the latter аге oval in shape and аге protected Ьу inserted sockets made of
heat-resisting cast steel. In а sense, they correspond to the outlet sectors (nose
sectors) of rotaгy kilns with other types of clinker cooler and аге embedded in
refractory lining material. The refractories that have achieved the best results in this
377
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Fig. 37: КИп end section Fig. 38: Inlet socket with breaker Ьаг

part of the kiln are high-alumina/corundum monolithic castabIe materials. They

do, however, require very slow and careful drying and heating.
It has Ьееп found advantageous to provide loose breaker bars (Fig. 38) in the inlet
sockets, achieving better wear behaviour and preventing excessively large lumps
of clinker from entering the cooler. Such lumps, more particularly arising from
dislodged coating, could choke the inlet elbows and damage the internal fittings
(Iifters) in the cooler. In order to prevent them from having а lifting action, these
bars are placed perpendicularfy to the longitudinal axis of the kiln.
Abnormally high temperatures in the discharge zone of а planetary cooler kiln are
especially critical. For this reason it is essential to apply continuous temperature
monitoring for the detection of adverse thermal conditions. Failure to do this is
liabIe to result in damage to the refractory brickwork, involving very expensive
repairs. Cracks may form in the kiln shell itself, and the cooling tubes are subjected
to unequal operating conditions. Some of them will moreover Ье thermally
overloaded, with reduced working life of the refractory lining, steelliner plates and
internal fittings.
А refractory dam ring, built of brick, in the kiln shell has Ьееп found helpful in
protecting the discharge zone (Fig. 39). А properly located and constructed dam Fig.39: Refractory dam. built of brick

378 379
 •
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

ring offers the following advantages:

protection of the kiln shell section carrying the tyre at the outlet end against
overheating;
increased retention time of the clinker in the kiln, so that it enters the cooler at а
lower temperature;
тоге uniform discharge of the clinker into the cooling tubes.
Design:
Form Д F.L.Smidth
Inlet elbows
These аге the ducts through which the clinker passes from the kiln into the tubes of
the planetary cooler. They have to meet а number of requirements:
The clinker should Ье discharged as quickly as possibIe into the tubes and not fall
back into the kiln during the course of each revolution. The height of fall of the
clinker should Ье low, clinker should fall оп clinker, if possibIe, and abrupt changes
Form В of direction should Ье avoided, so that wear Ьу the abrasive action of the dust-
laden secondary air is kept to а minimum.
Finally, the parts should Ье easily demountabIe and convenient to exchange for
replacement parts without necessitating апу modification.
Fig. 40 shows various designs for the inlet elbows to the cooling tubes. The form of
construction in which the elbow is placed somewhat off-centre in the direction of
rotation, and that in which а bridge ог weir is provided as ап internal fitting in the
ENCI elbow, have proved most suitabIe (Figs. 41 а and 41 Ь).
The inner walls of the inlet elbows аге subject to conditions of severe abrasive
wear, and for this reason а good durabIe refractory lining is especially important. If
the shape of these parts allows it, а lining of mullite brick is likely to give the best
performance in terms of tгоubIе-fгее operation and durability. Monolithic ге­
fractories have also Ьееп used with success, тоге particularly: wear-resistant
high-alumina/corundum castabIes ог rammed monolithic refractories developing
chemical and ceramic bond. Whereas the construction of linings with castabIe
GuHhoge ns Bru k refractories in suitabIe formwork is а fairly quick operation, the use of ramming
mixes is slow and requires skilled manpower. Layer-by-Iayer ramming is moreover
liabIe to result in spalling-off of flat pieces of refractory in subsequent service ofthe
cooler.
If chemical/ceramic bonding monolithic refractory is used, it is moreover essential
to preheat the freshly lined inlet elbows under controlled conditions, keeping а
close watch оп the temperature and maintaining а temperature gradient of not
тоге than about 250 C/hour. This is because the chemical phosphate bond
develops only at temperatures above 2000 С, and it takes ап even much higher
Humboldt temperature (10000 С and above) for the ceramic bond to develop. If the elbows
аге mounted directly after being lined, i. е., without preheating, the refractory will
not Ье sufficiently heated Ьу the kiln burner, and the necessary bond temperatures
will therefore not Ье attained until hot clinker is admitted. Ву that time, however,
damage тау оссш because the lining will not yet have gained adequate wear
Fig. 40: Various forms of construction for inlet elbows resistance.

380 381
 F
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Fig. 42: Elbow-to-kiln joint

Cooling tube mountings

The tubes of planetary coolers оп modern rotary kilns аге always provided with two
supports ог bearings рег tube. At опе end is the fixed bearing, locating the tube
axially and also preventing its rotation about its own axis. The movabIe bearing is
аЫе to accommodate the changes in length of tube due to temperature differences.
Particularly at this bearing it is essential to have а sufficiently strong mounting
construction, and the kiln shell plate should Ье sufficiently rigid (not less than
60 тт thick), as should also Ье the cooling tube (plate thickness not less than
20 тт). Attempts to relieve the movabIe bearing Ьу applying additional lubri-
cation to ease its working conditions have not Ьееп successful.
Three solutions for the fixed Ьеагiлg аге shown in Fig.43. Forces due to
longitudinal thrust (caused bythe slope ofthe kiln) and to deflection ofthe cooling
tube occur during the course of each revolution of the kiln. 'П the first and third
solutions these forces аге resisted Ьу robustly dimensioned wide bearing stools. In
the second solution there аге likewise wide stools, but in addition the suspension
stirrup enclosing the cooling tube is designed to tilt within certain limits, so that
there is some "give" in the tube during each revolution and the shear forces аге
thus reduced.

Fig.41 : Inlet elbows

Elbow-to-kiln joint
The inlet elbow has to Ье connected in а positive and restraint-free таппег to
the kiln. Variations in length both parallel and perpendicular to the kiln have to
Ье compensated, and the forces due to heating and deformation must not Ье
transmitted across the joint.
The seal at the joint should Ье effective so that clinker dust cannot escape. Fig.42
shows some commonly emp/oyed forms of joint.
382
Internal fittings in the cooler
With regard to the appropriate choice of internal fittings in the tubes of а planetary
cooler it is important that the kiln itself should Ье equipped with а firing nozzle that
extends 6 -1 О m into the kiln, so that there is а substantiallength of kiln which сап
serve as а preliminary cooling zone and that the temperature of the clinker оп
entering the cooler itself is correspondingly lower. This will reduce the severity of
the thermal conditions in the cooling tubes.
Typical temperature curves for the clinker, secondary air and kiln shell аге shown
in Fig.45.
383
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Becher-
Kammfutter Hubschaufeln schaufeln Streuschaufeln
ridged brickwork lifter flights scoops scattering flights
l' -,. Blech -1' -!" -!
i i 1000-- plate -----., 1"""- _
~rРlаttе~--=J
ос н-t-----+----+I~
li~n~e~r~plates -1-
~
I
.1"' 1" -1
Ausmauerung ~ . VerschleiВbI. I
1200
refr.lining
:! + insulation I
l
+ Isolierung wearing plates
1000 -+--~---+---+------t---+-----i------+--

800 -+-----:---~~---+------+---+---+------+--
ф ф

600 -+--~-~-----+""",,-+----t----+--

CD /,00 +---+--+-----.::......+---+--="'!I""-::-t----t-------+--
Fig. 43: Cooling tube mounting: fixed bearing (from Munk)

200

О 2 8 10 1/, 16 18 20 m
/,00 I I I I I I I I I I I I
I о ge1messene Werte
messured values
350

300

250

200

150

100
Festlager Loslager
fixed bearing тоуаЫе bearing
Fig. 45: Typical temperature curves for the clinker. secondary air and
Fig. 44: Cooling tube mounting kiln shell

384 385
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Relative Schi.ittmenge It should Ье Ьогпе in mind that substantially higher temperatures тау temporarily
relative quantity discharged ~(' '1'" occur if the clinker is unequally distributed among the cooling tubes ог if - in
g '-~ ~'Н',-,Р"'(Jс,,!
consequence of surge produced Ьу dislodged masses of coating from within the
kiln, for example - the total rate of clinker discharge suddenly increases. For this
~'2.,."o~o."
12 О : reason, too, the steel plate thickness of the tubes should not Ье less than 15 тт. 'П
addition, as ап extra safety precaution, the critical zone directly behind the
100 I
I refractory-lined part of the tube should Ье fabricated from а better grade of steel
80 I "
(e.g., 15 МО 3).
" rJ' Another factor to Ье considered is that, in contrast with the transverse-flow
60 cooling effected in grate coolers characterized Ьу good heat recovery and relatively
low rates of wear, planetary coolers operate оп the counter-flow principle
1,0 involving sharply increasing wear according as heat recovery rates аге higher.
Непсе it is necessary, with planetary coolers, to find ап optimum compromise
20
between the various cost factors: quality of the construction materials, design
features, and performance (in terms of lifting and scattering action) of the internal
20 ,О 60 80 100 120 11,0 160 180 fittings have to Ье weighed against опе another.
Drehwinkel The action of some commonly used internal fittings is represented Ьу the curves in
angular rotation Fig.46. Very роог scattering performance is shown in Fig.47 (where the scoops
аге emptied too soon) and Fig.48 (where they аге emptied too late because their
Fig.46: The action of some commonly used internal fittings discharge openings аге not wide enough). ОП the other hand, good scattering of
the clinker in the interior of the cooling tube throughout each revolution of the kiln
is shown in Fig.49. Неге the flights ог scoops аге shaped to а slight twist and
have reinforced wear-resistant edges, besides having а number of stiffening dia-
phragms as а safeguard against buckling.

Fig. 48: lifter flights enclose the clinker too closely and аге emptied
Fig. 47: lifter flights аге emptied too soon too late

386 387
D. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

It is to Ье noted, however, that it is not necessarily always advantageous to scatter

the greatest possibIe amount of clinker. 'П the case of fine-grained clinker too
much scattering action тау even Ье а disadvantage because of the dust cycle it
generates. The relationship Ьетееп clinker exit temperatuгe for various amounts
of scatter is shown schematically for coarse and for fine clinker in Fig. 50. It appears
that, for fine clinker, the final temperature of the clinker оп exit from the cooler
becomes higher with increasing proportion of scatter, the reason being that the
resulting dust cycle produces the following adverse effects:

Hubschaufelzone Ende Isolierung

f: lifter flight zone, end of insulation
53-; "С

~ ... __ ._~ 'J1S

-- Krummer
elbow

-'~~~~~;~:~~~~~O
- - - -....:i -950
~-
~ Кammerfutter Ende
refractory ridges, end
...... Hubschaufelzone Ende
lifter flight zone, end
-~-=5--·
.... Becherschaufelzone Ende
~~_. scoop zone, end
.~,.:

I , I I i I
20 500 1000 1200
Ofenauslauftemperatur 11000с
Fig. 49: The flights аге of slightly warped ог twisted shape and have temperature at kiln outlet
strengthened edges to protect them from wear. Besides, there are а Hoher Кlinkeraustrag
number of intermediate stiffening diaphragms to prevent buckling high clinker discharge rate

=.~~;:~~~M"
ос

500....---..---..---.------. 420 "с

400 ~.___+_--+------+--..cI

... ~ 300l-\,------+.30г---+--*""-­
ara
<'о ... -_~,3~O
~Е ~ CII
200 1-------\+--~~___1-_+_I ~---

~: ~--
't:I CII
с:.:.I.
CII с: ;,~o·r­

~~ Ofenauslauftemperatur
~~ о L-_...J..._ _L-.._...J..._--J temperature at kiln outlet
Gesamt-Streumenge kg/kg Geringer Klinkeraustrag
tota! quantity low clinker discharge rate
Fig. 50: Clinker exit temperatures Fig.51 : Cooling curve of clinker

388 389
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

the specific loading of the cooling tubes increases;

clinker which has already cooled is сапiеd back into hot parts of the cooler ог
indeed into the kiln itself, so that the recuperation efficiency decreases.
As the granulometric composition of the clinker is not always known in advance,
optimization of the internal fittings тау Ье possibIe only when the plant is actually
in service. For this purpose it is advantageous to measure the temperature in the
interior of the cooling tubes Ьу means of thermocouples. Typical temperature
distributions measured in this way, for different operati ng conditions of the kiln, аге
represented in Fig. 51.
The grades of material most commonly employed for the internal fittings of the
cooling tubes аге indicated in ТаЫе 5 оп page 347. As in the rotary cooler, а cast
steel alloy with 30% chromium (material No.4777) has Ьееп found satisfactory.
А typical subdivision of the cooling tubes into various zones relating to the types
of lining and internal fittings is illustrated in Fig. 52а - g.

Fig.52b:
Zone 1 : Ridged brickwork (e.g., 6-1 О ridges 150-200 тт high, each formed Ьу
three high-alumina bricks of wear-resistant and spalling-resistant grade; in-
termediate bricks аге 100 тт high and of standard hard fireclay grade)

Fig.52c:
Zone 2: Refractory lining of hard fireclay wedge bricks, 100 mm high, with cast
steel breaker teeth set in the brickwork. The object of these teeth is to break up апу
large lumps of clinker which тау enter the cooler when fragments of coating аге
detached and thus to protect the lifter flights

Fig. 52а: Subdivision of the cooling tubes of а planetary cooler (from Fig.52d:
Herchenbach, 1978) Zone 3: Refractory lining as in zone 2, but with embedded cast steel lifter flights

390 391
 D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

с:
О
.~

Е
rл
с:
О
(,)

'о
rл

Е Fig.52g
.Е Zone 6: Steel scattering flights (from Kadel, 1975)
rл
::3
О
.~

>
.;: Ап example of the optimization of these fittings in а tube of а planetary cooler for а
rл
Q) throughput of 3000 t/day is given in Fig.53.
10
ёi
о)

.;: Heat balance of the planetary cooler

~
Q)
The heat balance for the planetary cooler envisaged in Fig.53 is set forth in
s ТаЫе 6.
-5 In this example the clinker entry temperature is 11200 С. Although radiation and
.~

\
rл convection losses аге kept low Ьу the thermal insulation provided Ьу the refractory

!
1: lining and the insulated liner plates, the clinker was cooled to а final exit
.~
~ temperature of about 1700 С, without having recourse to water injection. With
ф water injection at а rate of about 3% of the clinker throughput the final temperature
~ was lowered another 400, which was not attended Ьу апу ascertainabIe increase in
Q) heat consumption.
$
rл In general, it has Ьееп found in practice that planetary coolers installed оп heat-
rл
CtJ economizing kilns should always Ье backed up Ьу additional cooling facilities in
~U order with certainty to maintain final temperatures below 1500 С under continuous
NI!)
operating conditions.
~ Q)

.~ § Cooling Ьу the admission of water into the cooling tubes has proved satisfactory
LLN for the purposes and presents по probIems.
392 393
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Geanderte Ausfi.ihrung ТаЫе 6

modified construction
kiln type: preheater kiln
Blech
kiln capacity: t/24 h 3000
JPlate
specific heat consumption kcal/kg 740

Cooling tube dimensions

LxD m 2.2 х 19.8
number of tubes: 10
ratio L. D 9
I Becher- Streuschaufeln cross-sectional агеа рег tube. т 2 3.81
schaufeln scattering flights volume рег tube: m З 75.5
........---е+о-:--------1IoI scoops total m З 755
specific volume rating рег dау/m З 3.97
total cooler агеа: т 2 1365
+ Isolierung specific cooler агеа т 2 /рег day 0.45
+ Insulation
Heat supplied
Urspri.ingliche Ausfi.ihrung clinker + air kcal/kg 264
original construetion Heat losses
clinker kcal/kg 30

~t-'-S-~-80---' -"1Г'-"-81-S -~
radiation + convection kcal/kg 52
secondary air kcal/kg 182
i. : '!-.-:-20-0-.-'-)-. 0.9 Nm З /kg clinker
6340 С
Therma/ efficiency
Ausrnauerung Hubschaufeln Becher- Streuschaufeln cooler % 69

I
1.
refr.lining lifter flights schaufeln
scoops
20800
scattering flights
I
I
cooler + kiln %
power consumption kWh/t
energy efficiency
75
1.5

Fig. 53: Optimization of cooling tubes cooler % 66

cooling as а whole % 73

As ап alternative to the introduction of water into the cooling tubes, external

There аге two methods:
(1) Water is sprayed into the outlet ends of the rotating tubes from nozzles
mounted оп the discharge end housing. А simple control system ensures that
they inject water at the correct intervals as the tubes pass the nozzles. See
Fig.54a.
(2) Water discharged from а circumferential duct, rotating with the cooler, flows
Ьу gravity into the tubes. The water is scooped from ап ореп tank, in which the
water level сап Ье controlled, and enters the cooling tubes through inlet
funnels (Fig. 54Ь)
394
spraying with water is sometimes applied as auxiliary cooling. This system has
various disadvantages, however, besides being тоге expensive. Моге particularly,
intermittent operation of the spraying system - confining it only to periods when
unfavourabIe operating conditions arise (е. g., excessive clinker discharge from the
ki/n) - is not possibIe because the attendant stress variations in the shell plate of
the cooling tubes would Ье harmful to the tubes. For the same reason the quantity
of water sprayed onto the tubes should Ье sufficiently large to ensure that they
remain wet throughout а complete revolution of the kiln.
'П the example in Fig. 55 the cooling tubes аге externally sprayed with water over а
length of 7 m, involving heat removal at а rate of 50-80kcal/kg of clinker. The
water is circulated to the spray nozzles at а rate of 100 m З /hour, the hourly loss
395
D. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

(.) 500.----------------=-------------,
о

':0(.) 400 1--------------I---.3Io.~--­

::::J С
...... -
~ ~ 300 I------------#-------""""-=~--____J
0. .....
Е со
~ ~ 200 I - - - - - - - - - - - - J I I .
~ Е
i3 ~ 1О О 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 -
:.!!!
_ tJ
Q)

~~
8~

I Stampfmasse Sta h ischaufel п. Sta hlschaufel n

monolithic refractory Zwisсhеnr'эumе auf Leisten
I Beri.ihrungslose
Erdschalter
mit Stampfmasse steel fl ights
оп bal's
I :
' proximity limit
Iswitches
Kammauerwerk
(8 Кэmmе)
steel fl ights
monolithic refr'actOl'Y
1 'J' Teilung entsprechend Fig. 55: External waterspraying (from Munk, 1975)
I
. '" ... _ ..._. ---::1.. i Di.isenteilung

~
. spacingcorresponding
( ---1 . tonozzlespacing
'
I .. ..- - - Offnet, wenn n = 1 U/min
L __ - - - - - opens when kiln speed Ьу evaporation being 12-15 mЗ. Although with this method the clinker exit
exceeds 1 Г.р.т. temperatuгes сап Ье kept а! about 1200 С, it is evident, оп comparing this with the
example for which the heat balance is given in ТаЫе 6, that this water cooling
is achieved а! the expense of the recuperation efficiency and саппо! Ье ап
Fig.54a: economical method. In the present example this method was nevertheless adopted
for reasons of environmental protection against noise nuisance. For the sake
of noise control, раг! of the planetary cooler - the zone comprising the lifting
scoops - had to Ье provided with а sound-attenuating enclosuгe. The probIem
of getting rid of the heat trapped in this acoustic hood was solved Ьу external
water spraying. See Fig.56.

3.3.3 Rotary coolers

Fig. 54Ь: Water cooling ёп planetary cooler (from Duda, 1978)
The rotary cooler is the oldest type of clinker cooler built to operate in conjunction
with rotary kilns. With the introduction of the modern heat-economizing kilns,
however, it has largely fallen into disuse. 'П new plants its use is confined to а few
special cases.
The cooler consists of а drum ог tube inclined а! ап angle of 4-7 degrees,
supported а! two points along its length and rotated Ьу means of а girth gear and
pinion drive whichcan Ье controlled, independently of the kiln, to give speeds in
the range of 0.3 to 3 r.p.m.

396 397
О. lV1anufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology

5 а, Ь

~
з

Fig. 56: МоуаЫе acoustic hood to suppress noise emission (from Munk,
1975)

The hot clinker falls directly from the kiln into the cooler, in which its movement is
achieved Ьу the slope and rotation of the tube and with the aid of internal fittings.
As а result ofthe negative pressure existing in the kiln, cold air is drawn in from the
Fig.57:
ореп (outlet) end of the rotary cooler. This air flows through the cooler and cools
Rotary cooler - internal fittings (according to Herchenbach, 1978)
the clinker То achieve optimum heat exchange, the air flow velocity must not Ье
too low. ОП the other hand, it must not Ье too high either, otherwise it will tend to
obstruct the movement of fine clinker particles down the cooler and thus cause
congestion. the clinker аге installed in the after-cooling zone. Some typical fittings installed in
The following design dimensions have generally Ьееп found satisfactory' rotary coolers аге shown in Fig. 57. The following аге to Ье distinguished.
throughput: 2.2-3.0t of clinker рег day and рег тЗ of internal volume of cooler; refractory-lined zone without ridges (1); refractory-lined zone with cast steel
length/diameter ratio: 1 О: 1 to 15: 1. breaker teeth (2); refractory-lined zone with lifters (3); refractory-lined zone with
For the design of the drive, tyres (riding rings), rollers, rotating seals and wall lifters and additional wearing plates (4); lifters with wearing plates (Iiners) (5);
thicknesses the principles and criteria аге basically the same as those for the rotary tyre zone with wearing plates and lifter bars (6); scattering flights with wearing
kiln itself. 'П view ofthe risk associated with overheating of the shell plate, the latter plates (7).
should Ье at least of а boiler plate grade. Power consumption of rotary coolers is low For such а cooler designed in
About 70% of the length of the rotary cooler is lined with refractory material, accordance with the criteria described here, the following formula is valid:
generally in the form of fired brick, graded from alumina (sometimes high-alumina)
Nw = f K • L· 02. n
brick in the hot zone to semi-acid fireclay brick at the cooler end of the refractory
lining. where.
Embedded in the refractory brickwork аге lifters made of heat-resisting and wear- Nw = power at the motor shaft (kW)
resisting cast steel. Purely chrome-alloy steel grades with about 30% chromium L length of the cooler (т)
content have Ьееп found suitabIe for the purpose, the тоге so as they аге relatively О diameter of the cooler (т)
inexpensive. Ceramic internal fittings аге not suitabIe for rotary coolers. Nor have n speed of the cooler (г.р.т.)
special lifter bricks proved satisfactory, as their heads spall ог wear down too fK factor ranging from 0.09 to 0.13 (0.09 for coarse clinker, 0.12 for fine
rapidly. Scoops (ог flights) made of wear-resisting steel and designed to scatter clinker and large number of scoops)

398 399
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler

Because of the high starting torque and the need for reserve drive power capacity
,----~'"
to соре with overload conditions, the installed motor power rating should Ье at I
least 30% higher than the figure calculated with this formula. It should further Ье I

taken into account that with а rotary cooler, as with а planetary cooler, the power +------
I
consumption of the exit gas fan will Ье higher than for а kiln with а grate cooler. I
5ince the cooling air rate in the rotary cooler is predetermined Ьу the amount of ~
-'j..J.r+-"Uс:------

secondary air that the kiln сап usefully accept, the cooling effected in such а cooler
installed behind а heat-economizing kiln is not sufficient to cool the clinker to ап
acceptabIy low exit temperature. Results сап Ье improved in this respect Ьу
spraying water оп the outside of the cooler in the after-cooling zone. А simpler
method, however, is to spray water into this zone of the cooler. 50 long as the
amount of water thus injected does not exceed about 30- 50 g/kg of clinker, it
does not have апу discernibIe adverse effect in terms of process engineering
performance. ProbIems in the operation of the rotary cooler тау Ье caused тоге
particularly Ьу dust cycles due to high air velocities and а high content of fine-
grained clinker. 'П such cases it тау Ье necessary to increase the diameter of the
tube in the critical zone where the lifters аге installed.
Another part where probIems аге liabIe to arise is the inlet chute оп which
accretions ("snowmen") аге formed, especially in large installations with а
considerabIe height of fall of the hot clinker. Remedial measures consist in water-
cooling the chute ог equipping it with ап automatic dislodging device.

3.3.4 5haft coolers

'П the present state of the art the shaft cooler remains suitabIe only for уегу small
units and for plants with exceptionally favourabIe raw material conditions which
guarantee uniform particle size distribution of the clinker with only small
proportions of coarse and fine particles and with а constant rate of clinker
discharge.
The shaft cooler is purely а counter-current cooler. The clinker falls into а vertical
cylindrical shaft and makes its way downwards to the outlet from where it is
extracted through а grate comprising а питЬег of breaker rolls. Its movement
through the shaft is similar to that of the material in а shaft kiln. 5ее Fig.58.
'П the Walther- Beratherm shaft cooler the иррег part of the shaft is of reduced
diameter in order to increase the cooling air flow velocity in this part and thus
produce а fluidized bed effect with the object of distributing the incoming clinker
(discharged from the kiln) оуег the whole shaft cross-section and improving the
heat transfer.
Air consumption for cooling is about 1.05-1.1 NmЗ/kg of clinker. About 35% of
this air is introduced under the grate, 45% into the middle part of the shaft, and 20%
into the narrower иррег part. Air distribution оуег the shaft cross-section is
achieved through specially designed nozzles and air tubes extending into the
clinker mass itself.
Thermal efficiencies from 75 to 80% and upwards сап Ье attained. The advantage
of the high rate of heat гесоуегу is, however, partly offset Ьу additional exit gas heat
losses due to the greater amount of secondary air and the high specific power
Fig. 58: Shaft cooler (from Herchenbach, 1978)
consumption, amounting to 8 -1 О kWh/t of clinker and necessitated Ьу the уегу
high static pressures of оуег 11 О тЬаг for which the cooling air fans have to Ье
designed. The clinker exit temperature ranges from 2500 С to оуег 3500 С, so that
after-cooling of the clinker ог suitabIe cooling arrangements in conjunction with
clinker grinding аге essential.
3.3.5 Gravity coolers
The gravity cooler, ог "g" cooler, сап serve only as ап after-cooler for dealing with
clinker which has already Ьееп cooled to about 5000 С and in which the coarser
lumps have Ьееп crushed to а size that the cooler сап accept.
The clinker is distributed Ьу а drag-chain and descends through the cooler Ьу the
action of gravity alone. ОП its way down it does not соте into direct contact with
the cooling air, but slides slowly in а densely packed mass past the cooling tubes,
of flattened lenticular cross-section, through which the air flows. The air is bIown
into the cooler from below and makes its way upwards through successive banks
of tubes, leaving the cooler at the top (Fig. 59).
The final (exit) temperatures attained Ьу the clinker are between 500 and 1000 С.
Air consumption is in the range of 1.2 -1.8 Nm З /kg of clinker. As the pressure drop

400 401
 А

О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Clinker cooling - types of clinker cooler 11
Кlinkeraufgabe is only about 80-120 тт W.g., the specific power consumption is fairly low: in
tclinker feed-in the region of 1 kWh/t of clinker.
t<. JtJ-Cr-
. ·--u·-сг-·(J·..."..·-О-·(J·..."..·---r5"'·~л То achieve adequate heat transfer, the clinker has to move through the cooler at а
[-I~' -1' .~- '1' ,,1"' ·Т· ..... ·Т - Т' I low speed (1 -2 m/minute), sothat its retention time in the cooler is relatively long
1/ (2-3 hours) and the rate of wear is very low. Depending оп the cooling range

"" Ku
со
required, design is based оп athroughputof9-11 tofclinker perdayand рег m З of
volume of the cooler.
For new plants in which there is по scope for utilization of the exhaust air from the
cooler, the gravity cooler is installed directly behind а reciprocating grate cooler
Кlinkeraustritt {€D which functions purely as а recuperator (Fig. 60). 'П that case the air supplied to
:f clinker discharge \.
\ \ \J::: this grate cooler must Ье accurately equal to the required secondary air, and under
.~._.'" ~ \. such cond itions the exit temperature of the cl inker d ischarged from the grate cooler
will оп average Ье about 750 К. The clinker breaker will have to Ье equipped with а
Kuhlluftrohre suitabIe cooling system, as already described with reference to Fig,26.
cooling air tUb~lb
Apart from operating behind а reciprocating grate cooler functioning purely as а
recuperator, а gravity cooler сап sometimes advantageously Ье installed behind а
K~inker---~ДН~~Н~ДR reciprocating grate cooler with exhaust air utilization, тоге particularly in а case
cllnker \j~.'~?l [~~~JJ~''''k::i;~ where the kiln output has Ьееп subsequently increased and the existing grate
'у 't~f ~"~;' ~ cooler is по longer аЫе to achieve the required final clinker temperature. The
Schieber /~' ;"~ example illustrated in Fig.61 relates to such а case where the capacity of the kiln
damper was increased from 1650 t/day to 2000 t/day. The design and operating data for
Fig. 59: "g" cooler (from SteinbiB, 1972') the coolers аге schematically represented in Fig.62.

Schleppkette Kuhlrohre
drag chain cooling tubes

Fuller-Kuhler
Rekuperator g-Kuhler Fuller cooler
recuperator "g" cooler

~d
Schaukeltroge Axialventilatoren
swing buckets axial-flow fans

Schleppkette
drag chain
Altbestand Erweiterung g-Kuhler
existing I extension: g-cooler
older plant
.. lIIiIIIII<

Fig. 60: Combination of recuperatorwith "g" cooler (from Hellberg, 1977) Fi9.61: "9" cooler (from Kwech, 1974)

402 403
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers

Sekundarl. Mlttenluft Abluft I constant temperature of the burning zone;

seeondaryai eentre exit exhaust аог

ts=860 0 C tM= 380 0 С tA =320 0 С Austritt

exit t ос I " I 49 I 59 I 68 I 88 I unvarying combustion air conditions.
Q Nm 3 /h 77.423 З5.3З3 680 Irrespective of the type of cooler, the following аге important measured variabIes
Qspez.Nm /kg Кl, 0.8754 0.3995 0.0073 and controlled variabIes for monitoring the operation of the cooler:
Qspee. eli. -2.8тт WS
the temperature of the clinker at the kiln outlet;
- the secondary air temperature;
- the final temperature of clinker оп leaving the cooler.
For the particular types of cooler there аге moreover other important parameters.
The number of variabIes to Ье measured and controlled is greatest in the case of
grate coolers, for which, besides those listed above, the following have to Ье
•
?БОС measured:
the cooling air rate supplied Ьу the fans;
I
Каттег I Falsehluft Summe Eintri~ Summe the pressures in the undergrate compartments;
еот artment 2 Inleaked alr total ;n(et total
t L ос .35.15 .15 t'C .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 the exhaust air rate and temperature;
тт WS 430 3БО 261 Qgk ~ ~ 2в'm 26100 8100 49300 the kiln hood pressure.
Q Nm З / h 32.800 31.400 46900 2.317 113.417 Qgksp Р.45З 0.41 Р.327 Ь.295 Р.2!5 1.69 Another very useful aid is television monitoring of the bed of clinker оп the grate,
Qspez. N /К9 Kli·0. 37 0.353 0.533 0.0262 1.2822 kW 17 17 16 16 15 81 including the inlet chute.
ospec di.
Ргорег monitoring of the mechanical functioning of the cooler requires:

Fig. 62: Operating data for the combination considered in the design temperature measurement at the surface and within the material of com-
example ponents especially at risk;
1 Fuller cooler: 11 thermal = 68.2% speed and function monitoring of moving parts;
2 clinker handling: 11 heat loss = 29.5% current and power consumption measurement;
3 gravity cooler: 11 heat dissip. = 70.7% interlocking of material handling sequences.
Power consumption: gravity cooler fans 81.0
feed drag chain 13.0 3.4.2 Grate coolers
extractor belt 4.5 А grate cooler comprises а large number of individual drives, requiring consider-
rocker troughs 2.2 аЫе measuring and control equipment to ensure reliabIe functioning under
total 100.7 kW optimum conditions.
Specific power consumption 1.14 kWh/t of clinker The measured and controlled variabIes involved will Ье explained with reference
to examples of combination coolers with and without duotherm air operation. See
Fig.63.
In the main, the variabIes which аге measured and recorded аге temperatures,
3.4 Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers pressures, flow rates and rotational speeds, comprising more particularly:
3.4.1 General considerations secondary air temperature
The cooler is an integral part ofthe clinker burning process. Kiln and cooler interact exhaust air temperature
and have to Ье adjusted to each other in their manner of operation. For optimum clinker exit temperature
performance of the process as а whole the cooler should aim at attaining. temperature of grate plates
pressure in kiln hood
- consistently high secondary air temperature; undergrate pressures
- low clinker exit temperature. reciprocating grate movement
The kiln should Ье so operated as to attain: cooling air rates.
uniform clinker discharge; Except for the measurement of the secondary air temperature, the above-
- uniform clinker particle size distribution; mentioned quantities сап all Ье measured with standard detecting elements.

404 405
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Fig. 63: Diagram of measuring instrumentation
The main reason why the secondary air temperature is difficult to measure is that
the temperature field in the feed shaft of the cooler is mostly inhomogeneous. Thus,
it is Ьу по means unusual to obtain simultaneous measured values ranging from
3000 to 1 000' С at different measUГlng РОlПts and wlth dlfferent methods. Ordinary
commercial thermocouples inserted laterally ог from above into the rising
secondary air аге indeed exposed to the temperature of this air stream, but a/so
receive much radiation from the incandescent clinker and thus give readings which
аге generally much too high. То overcome this probIem, suction thermocouples
have Ьееп devised which are provided with а concentric outer tube around the
temperature sensor. The secondary air is continuously sucked into the tube Ьу
means of а jet pump worked with compressed air Even so, а suction thermocouple
сап sample only а limited portion of the air flow and moreover requires much
maintenance and attention. Since it is not possibIe to perform accurate measure-
ments оп the secondary air, even with elaborate instrumentation, many plant
operators content themselves with determining only а relative value and trends. А
simple method requiring little maintenance of equipment consists, for example, in
using а radiation pyrometer which is mounted оп опе side of the feed shah and is
aimed at the opposite wall. Control itself is based оп substitute variabIes, usually
the pressure in the first cooling air compartment.
Grate cooler controls
Fig.64 schematically shows the common/y employed control circuits for а
combination cooler with duotherm air. The puгpose of the control system is to
406
Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers
Zur Trockentrommel
to rotary dryer
Qfendrehzahl
kiln speed
Ф
f~~~-~~1!
Fig. 64: Control loops for the Fuller cooler
епаЫе the cooler to achieve its optimum recuperation efficiency Ьу as nearly
automatic adjustment as possibIe. То achieve this, the kiln must at all times receive
sufficient secondary air with the highest attainabIe constant temperature. 'П
addition, the exhaust air extracted intermediately along the cooler and intended for
utilization of its heat content should have а high temperature, while the exit
temperature of the clinker оп discharge from the cooler should Ье low.
These requirements imply that the control system should achieve optimum air
distribution and favourabIe clinker bed depth.
Cooling air rates
As the cooling air is supplied Ьу а number of fans, the respective proportions
supplied Ьу each of them should remain constant in order to maintain the desired
air distribution. The air flow rates must Ье maintained irrespective of the varying
flow resistance through the bed of material оп the grate. In the case of the five-
compartment cooler envisaged in the example there are five individual control
circuits. Flow rates аге measured either at inlet nozzles or, for the warm air fans, Ьу
means ofventuri-type constrictions in the air duct. 'П the event of deviations from а
preset value, the inlet control vanes оп the fan concerned are adjusted to
compensate for them.
The warm air fans are protected from excessively high temperatures Ьу control of а
damper admitting cold air into the system. Similar control arrangements for the
introduction of external air and for water spraying are provided for protecting the
exhaust air dust collecting equipment under critical temperature conditions.
407
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
However, in the present example such sensitive equipment is not necessary,
adequate dedusting being achieved in large cyclone collectors which serve only to
protect the fans from excessive wear and which аге not affected Ьу adverse
temperatures.
Кiln hood pressure
The rate of flow of the secondary air from the cooler to the kiln is indirectly
stabilized with the aid of the pressure in the firing hood of the kiln.
Because of temperature and flow conditions in the hood, the pressure not only
varies from one measuring point to another, but also pulsates very considerabIy.
The usual method of coping with this consists in averaging the pressure at the side
and at the roof Ьу means of а ring duct, which moreover damps the fluctuations. In
large plants the difference in kiln hood pressure as measured at the side and at the
roof тау amount to several тт W.g. This being so, even with а properly
functioning kiln hood pressure control system and а set point of ±О тт W.g. in the
upper part of the hood, а certain amount of dust-bearing hotair is bound to escape,
while external ("false") air will infiltrate into the lower part if the kiln hood seal is
not completely effective.
The hood pressure control system functions as follows: When the pressure in the
hood rises, which тау оссш for example as а result of а decrease in the exit gas
flow ог an increase in the cooling air flow, the controller increases thevolume of air
delivered Ьу the exhaust air fan. It does this Ьу adjustment of а damper ог an inlet
vane control unit ог Ьу varying the fan drive motor speed. Conversely, when the
pressure in the hood goes down, the air delivery rate of this fan is reduced Ьу the
control system. Thus, wlth the aid of the hood pressure controller, the exhaust air
fan performs the function of а pressure relief valve.
Secondary air temperature
The pressure in the first cooling air compartment is used as а substitute variabIe for
the secondary air temperature which, as already explained, cannot Ье reliabIy
measured. This pressure is kept constant Ьу means of а controller which regulates
the movement of grate 1.
Another control circuit maintains а constant speed ratio of grates 2 and 1. For this
purpose either the speeds of these two grates аге controlled direct ог control is
based оп the pressure in the first compartment under grate 2.
As the control of the secondary air temperature via the undergrate pressure is not
entirely straightforward, а number of interrelationships have to Ье taken into
consideration. The negative pressure is affected chiefly Ьу the following factors:
(1) depth of the clinker bed;
(2) granulometric characteristics of the clinker;
(3) distribution of the clinker оп the cooling grate;
(4) temperature of the clinker and cooling air;
(5) cooling air supply rate.
408
Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers
То start with, it must Ье presupposed that the cooling air flow rate control system,
described earlier оп, is functioning properly. If the set point (desired value) for the
cooling air rate is changed, the set point for the pressure in compartment 1 must
also Ье altered. If а process control computer is used, these adjustments will Ье
made automatically. Besides, with а computer, it has been found advantageous to
incorporate а disturbance compensation system based оп control of the rate of
clinker discharge from the kiln. With this arrangement the quantity of clinker fed to
the cooler рег unit time is kept reasonabIy constant Ьу controlled adjustment of the
kiln speed. This adjustment has to Ье performed very sensitively, however. The
desired value of the kiln speed is so calculated with reference to the pressure in
compartment 1, the cooling air supply rate to compartment 1 and the reciprocating
frequency of grate 1 that it varies оп average Ьу only а small amount оп either side
of а certain desired kiln speed depending оп the overall clinker output to Ье
attained. In this way, despite short-term control of the discharge rate, effective
long-term control of the kiln loading factor and clinker production is obtained.
Furthermore, Ьу taking account of the various influencing parameters with the aid
of the computer, it сап Ье decided whether the fluctuations in clinker discharge
from the kiln аге to Ье rated as normal, so that the system сап operate with the
normal setting of the controller, ог whether the fluctuations аге abnormally large,
e.g., due to surges of dislodged coating, and require extremum control for their
correction. From these comments it will Ье evident that conventional pressure
control is probIematical and that the control desk operator should always keep а
watchful еуе оп the clinker cooler and Ье ready to intervene even if the cooler is
being run under automatic control. Such intervention тау also Ье necessary from
time to time for the sake of optimization, as the desired value of the pressure will
have to Ье re-set in response to possibIe changes in the granulometric characteris-
tics and in the distribution of the clinker (е. g., due to ring ог coating formation at
the kiln outlet). These adjustments тау Ье applied with the aid of а computer
which automatically integrates the heat losses, estabIishes heat balances for the
cooler and determines the recuperation efficiency. Further important decision
criteria аге the grate plate temperatures and the television image of the clinker bed
and clinker discharge from the kiln. The size of compartment 1 is also important in
connection with control and should preferabIy not comprise тоге than five plate
rows, so as to achieve а rapid response to changes in the clinker bed.
3.4.3 Rotary and planetary coolers
With rotary and planetary coolers the secondary air temperature сап hardly Ье
influenced Ьу the mode of operation of the cooler. Elaborate control arrangements
аге therefore unnecessary, and the principal object of the measurements is to give
prompt warning of critical operating conditions in order to prevent mechanical
damage.
The surface temperature of the cooling tubes is therefore the most important
measured variabIe, which is determined with а radiation pyrometer or Ьу infrared
television connected to а mini-computer, so that, besides а grey scale thermal
diagram, the temperatures аге made directly "visibIe" and abnormally high
temperatures аге promptly detected (Figs. 65а and 66).
409
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers

Rohr No. In the event of critically high shell temperatures of а temporary character, large
tube No.
cooling air fans - permanent/y installed under the cooler in many installations -
7 сап automatically Ье switched оп when needed. ОП the other hand, апу water
6 spraying applied to the outside of the cooling tubes must operate continuously.
Intermittent operation of the sprays, ог even too great а reduction of the water flow
5 rate (so that the tube surfaces аге not kept permanently wet), is liabIe to cause
t. damage to the shell plate in consequence ofthermal stresses. Another critical point
in planetary cooler systems is the kiln shell outlet section at the clinker discharge
3 ports. The stress conditions аге particularly severe in this region, where cracking of
2 the shell and serious damage to the kiln сап very quickly occur in the event of
excessive temperature. То соре with abnormal stress conditions it is essential,
1 besides providing а maximum-value (4000 С) monitoring and warning system,
10 also to monitor the temperature difference between adjacent discharge ports. This
difference between апу two ports should not exceed 700 С. Since the critical
9 temperature range is difficult to ascertain from а lateral measuring position, it is
advisabIe to install а separate radiation pyrometer which is aimed obIiquely from
8 below at the planetary cooling tubes and the outlet section of the kiln shell.

•
L.aufring
tyre
А
Festlager
flxed bearing
The clinker exit temperature, i. е., the temperature at which it is discharged from the
planetary ог rotary cooler, may sometimes become too high, е. g., in the event of
abnormally high clinker outputfrom the kiln dueto dislodgment ofcoating. Forthis
Fig. 65а: Grey scale thermal diagram for planetary cooler reason the clinker temperature is usually measured directly after the cooler, Ьу
means of а radiation pyrometer, and the rate of cooling water supply to the cooler is
controlled accordingly. Measurement of the clinker temperature with а radiation
pyrometer, however, has the disadvantage that only the surface temperature is
Кгиттег determined and that the temperature readings fluctuate considerabIy. In order to
elOO\lll connect the pyrometer to ап automatlc control system it is therefore necessary to
'9' connect а strongly damping integrator in the output of the measuring device.
In some cases it has Ьееп found advantageous to measure the clinker temperature
inside the cooling tubes of planetary ог rotary coolers. The clinker temperature
350 differentials in the zone equipped with refractory lifting ridges аге of especial
interest. They provide а good indication of the clinker discharge from the kiln and
сап Ье utilized for disturbance compensation in controlling the fuel feed rate.
Transmitting the temperature measurements obtained with thermocouples is
250 somewhat elaborate, with slip-ring pick-up and automatic switch-over from опе
measuring point to another (Fig.66) ог with telemetric transmission. As а rule,
however, the temperature measurements for the cooler сап Ье combined with the
kiln shell temperature monitoring at the adjacent kiln tyre, in which case the extra
expenditure involved is very little.
150
The operation of planetary and rotary coolers requires по special attendant
personnel for control. The cooling air flow rate, the clinker discharge rate and the
secondary air temperature automatically adjust themselves in relation to the clinker
output of the kiln, the heat consumption and the temperature of the clinker оп
••
L.aufrlng Festlager •
Loslbger
entering the cooler. Fluctuations in the discharge rate or temperature of the clinker
оп leaving the kiln which аге caused Ьу, for example, dislodgment of coating
tyre fixed bearing movabIe bearing
cannot Ье compensated in the cooler
Fig. 65Ь: Shell temperature of а cooling tube, infrared measurement In а kiln with planetary cooler the clinker discharge ports and the distribution of the

410 411
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coo\ers

1!:()
change-over .~
switch for measuring 1чv

points, with weighted slipring ~ ~

COllector 1~ ~
pendulum and gearing ."" ~ w r:;;: r/.;~ 125,9 t/h
//~
// 1""/ f/. =302OtJd
Me~for~~r­ Elektron. Gefahren- ~ ~ ~~
1А) ~-//r/
f"/~
spelsegerat
transducer
i.iberwachung
electronic hazard
~~~ ~
110

о
/
feed unit monitor
100
~
о 1 !

~
I
1200
thermocouples 00 I

о о о IЛ А '1 !
50

00
/ v' I

I i
л
I

М >-тm:
f-~- t\ 1080 ос
1-----
'./\./ h;-~/,I .
i Л
50 !,\/ ..
Drehofen bzw.
Planetenki.ihler
Zentraler Leitstand
control center 1000
IV "/1

I I
rotary kiln ог I
planetary cooler 00
Fig.66: Diagram of measuring system for clinker temperatures in the
... V I I
I I
planetary cooler
... "0
Q)

160
\ !I

-
Q)

;§
О
CJ
I \/ . I
,1 I

, >-'+--
.
I

..А С~ .J]1ЗО
Q)
1\
clinker over the individual cooling tubes аге critical. If the material getting into the
ports is too hot and sticky, they сап Ьесоте choked; also, large pieces of detached
~-S
"fi('CI~~ 120
HrAI- i'\
1i '\
\/
11\;\
\1 f\!
('. I
"[
,_/

coating аге liabIe to Ьесоте wedged in the ports and cause congestion in the '-, ......i
!I ' \
с: ('CI

kiln. I
Another source of uncertainty in the cooling process arises from differences in the ю
l I
I I
quantities of clinker discharged into the respective cooling tubes, some of which
will receive more and others less clinker, depending оп coating conditions in the I I I 1 I ',1 I I I I I I I I I I I I
12 15 18 21 О
kiln and оп the degree of wear at the kiln outlet. As а result, cooling will take place
at а slower rate in the over-filled tubes, while the internal fitlings in these will Ье ~ ~ ~
subjected to heavier loads and rougher treatment. Versuchsanfang Versuchsende
Another drawback of the planetary cooler is that fluctuations in the clinker start of test end of test
discharge from the kiln cannot Ье evened out in the cooler. The consequences are Fig. 67: Clinker discharge rate from kiln and clinker temperatures
apparent from Fig.67.
These curves were plotted from а kiln test in which the plant was operated with а
constant rate of raw meal feed and constant kiln speed. discharge rate. The other two curves represent the corresponding clinker tempera-
The top diagram indicates the variations in clinker output, corresponding to hourly tures at the kiln outlet and оп discharge from the cooler. The interaction that occurs
values ranging from 2600to 3400 t/day, while the short-termfluctuations are even is manifest.
greater. The ten-minute integral varies from 2000 to 4000 t/day. The clinker А high clinker temperature at the kiln outlet inevitabIy results in high temperatures
handling system must reliabIy соре with these substantial surges in the clinker of the clinker discharged from the cooler. 'П addition, the temperature of the

413
412
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Operation, monitoring, measurement and control of coolers

secondary air rises. Burning conditions in the kiln Ьесоте "harder". Оп the other Drehofen
rotary kiln
hand, it is troubIesome to restore а kiln from ап under-burning to а hard-burning
Ofenkopf I
operating condition. In such а kiln the secondary air temperature is low and, in
kiln hood
addition, а considerabIe dust cycle is estabIished between the cooler and the рге­
cooling zone in the kiln. This dust cycle causes а further lowering of the
temperatures.
The dead time and the time constant ofthe system аге large. StabIe operation, тоге
particularly in а kiln plant with planetary cooler, therefore requires that distur-
bances аге compensated already before the burning zone. ~. :- ': ...- ......... -
The residence time in the cooler envisaged in the example is about ЗА minutes for
clinker of 10 тт average particle size and for а kiln speed of 2.1 Г.р.т. Ап
unfavourabIe phenomenon is that large pieces travel faster and that small particles
travel тоге slowly through the cooler. If the clinker has а high content offines, with
5
а substantial proportion of particles under 1 тт, objectionabIe dust cycles аге
liabIe to develop. Gegenstromki.ihler
The sound levels emitted Ьу the lifter zone change quite distinctlywith variations in counter-current cooler
the running of the kiln and often correspond (with some time lag) to the variations

in the burning zone temperature. With а high fines content the sound levels,
measured at а distance of 1 m from the cooler, mayvary Ьу about 20dB(A). Ifthese
variations in sound аге utilized as а criterion for kiln control, it should Ье
remembered, however, that а high proportion of fine particles тау, under certain
raw material conditions, also Ье formed as а result of "over-burning" the clinker.
З.4.4 Shaft coolers
The measuring and control iпstгurпепtаtiоп for а shaft cooler is somewl1at less
elaborate than thatfor а grate cooler. The control duties to Ье performed аге similar,
however. The column of clinker in the cooler must Ье maintained at constant
height irrespective of the rate at which clinker is discharged from the kiln.
At the same time the rate of air supply to the cooler must Ье adjusted to the clinker
discharge rate, while the kiln hood pressure should remain as nearly constant
as possibIe. In addition, the clinker exit temperature is controlled Ьу water
spraying.
Control of cooling air or secondary air flow
The cooling air flow rate is measured at inlet nozzles оп the fans. If changes in
pressure gradient through the clinker bed occur as а result of changes in the
granulometric composition of the material, the air delivery rate of the fan will also
change, and so will the pressure differential at the nozzle. The setting of the inlet
vane control unit of the fan will then Ье altered until the desired value for the
cooling air flow rate is restored. This desired value, however, is not itself а constant
quantity, but is subject to feedforward correction Ьу the kiln hood pressure, so that,
in the event of а change in the exit gas flow rate, the cooling air flow rate is
automatically adjusted and the infiltration of "false" air at the hood is kept to а low
value.
--
Walzenrost
roller grate Q
Schleuse
gate---;:::~~L- _
----К
Fig. 68: Shaft cooler with control scheme (from Bade, 1969)
Clinker column control
The excess pressure in the column of clinker over the crushing roller grate is
measured with а heavily damped measuring transducer and compared with а
reference value. А controller then adjusts the speed of the discharge rollers as а
function of the deviation from that value. The ргоЫет factor in this control system
lies in the granulometric characteristics of the clinker, just as it does in controlling
the depth of the clinker bed in the reciprocating grate cooler. Changes in fineness
of the clinker particles cause major changes in the pressure distribution and in the
heat transfer. As а result of these phenomena, very high clinker exit temperatures
тау occur; after-cooling facilities for the clinker аге therefore essential.
Final temperature of clinker
А water spraying device under the grate serves to lower the final clinker
temperature, which is measured Ьу means of thermocouples at the bottom of the
shaft. А controller changes the setting of а valve in the return flow pipeline of the
return-flow nozzles.

414 415
D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Dust collection arrangements for clinker coolers

3.4.5 Gravity coolers ("g" coolers) clinker coolers of heat-economizing kiln plants are generally within the following
As the cooler only has to handle clinker of relatively low temperature and is fed with ranges:
pre-crushed material, its operation presents по probIems. specific exhaust air rate: 0.7 -1.8 Nm З /kg of clinker;
AII that is needed is а system for controlling the level of the material in the cooler. exhaust air temperature: 2000 - 4000 С;
This is measured with the aid of gamma radiation and kept constant through а dust content in exhaust air: 0.7 -15 g/NmЗ ;
system which controls the functioning of the vibrating trough type equipment for proportion of dust particles <10microns: 0-20%.
discharging the cooled clinker. The dust content of the exhaust air and the fineness of the dust depend greatly оп
The rate of air delivery Ьу the cooling fan сап Ье adjusted Ьу manual control of the the granulometric composition and the degree of burning of the clinker. The dust
inlet vanes. Such adjustment, however, is necessary only in the event of major content is likely to Ье near the lower end of the range in the exhaust air from clinker
changes in the rate of clinker output from the kiln. If the kiln is to Ье run at reduced coolers installed behind lepol kilns, whereas it is likely to Ье near the higher end in
output for а long period, опе or more compartments of the gravity cooler сап Ье the exhaust from those installed behind kilns with preheater equipment.
shut оН in order to save electric power consumption. The following types of equipment are used for dust collection from clinker cooler
ТаЫе 6 gives some performance figures of а gravity cooler installed directly Ье­ exhaust air:
hind а reciprocating grate cooler functioning purely as а recuperator. With this centrifugal dust collectors;
arrangement по exhaust air is diverted from the cooler. Непсе the control of the granular bed filters;
grate cooler must ensure that the rate of cooling air supply to this cooler is exactly fabric filters (preceded Ьу air-to-air coolers);
equal to thesecondary air demand of the kiln. For this reason the kiln hood pressure electrostatic precipitators.
is kept constant Ьу varying the set pointfor the airdelivery rate.of the last cooling air
fan of the grate cooler. In comparing thevarious types of dust collecting equipmentwith а view to making
а choice it is necessary to consider not only the collection efficiency they attain, but
also the capital cost and operating expenses.
ТаЫе 6 Capital cost comprises, in addition to the cost of the actual dust collector, the
following items:
measuring point measured values for rated output 2000 t/day, in оС the air cooler (е. g., of the air-to-air type) or water spraying system;
the fan with motor;
normal maximum minimum the control equipment;
the high-tension equipment;
clinker exit from 1350 1400 1325 the dust discharge system with motors;
kiln the filter cloths or the granular bed packing;
clinker exit from 520 750 200 the electrical installation and erection of the component units.
recu perator Operating expenses comprise:
clinker entry into 510 730 193 the electric power consumption of the filter (pressure drop),
"g" cooler the high-tension equipment,
clinker exit from 113 130 50 the motors for dust handling;
"g" cooler the maintenance and repair costs;
the cost of spare parts.

References
3.5 Dust collection arrangements for clinker coolers 1. Agath, Н. /Overkott, Е.: Feuerfeste Zustellung von SatellitenOfen mit Warme-
3.5.1 General considerations tauschern. - I п: ZKG 30/1977/631 .
2. AusschuB Warme und Energie VDZ (Hrsg.): Rostkuhler fur DrehOfen. -
Separate dust collection systems are needed only for grate coolers in so far as there MerkbIatt WE 4.
is а surplus of exhaust air and по after-cooling in а gravity cooler is employed. 3. AusschuB Maschinentechnik VDZ (Hrsg.): Rohrkuhler - January 1960, МТ
The exhaust air design conditions for dust collectors intended for operation with 9, Blatt 1-12.

416 417
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement buгning technology
4. Bade, Е.: Ein neuer Klinker-Gegenstrom-Kuhler zuг Verbesserung der Warme-
wirtschaft des Drehofenprozesses. - In: ZKG 22/1969/385.
5. Bade, Е.: Erfahrungen mit einem Klinker-Schachtkuhler fur eine Leistung von
500 t/d. - In: ZKG 25/1972/440.
6. Bade, Е.: Konzeption und Erstausfuhrung des Klinker-Gegenstrom-Schacht-
kuhlers mit einer Leistung von 3000 t/d. - In: ZKG 25/1972/616.
7.Bartmann, R.: Betriebserfahrungen mit der Neuanlage des Zementwerks
"Alemannia". - In: ZKG 29/1976/103-111.
8. Carlsson, В. / Fernvik, Н.: Ein mathematisches Modell zum Warmeaustausch
im Planetenkuhler aufgrund von Temperaturmessungen. - In: ZKG
27/1974/430-436.
9. Duda, W. Н.: Cement Data Book. Internationale Verfahrenstechniken der
Zementindustrie, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH
1978.
10. Eigen, Н.' Einflur.. der Klinkervorkuhlung im Zementdrehofen auf den Warme-
verbrauch. - In: ZKG 13/1960/226.
11. Enkegaard, Т .. The modern planetary cooler. - In: Cement Technology
1972/45 - 51.
12. Erdmann, J.: Indonesia's Р. Т. Semen nusantara pub new Cilacap plant into
production. - In: Rock Products, April 1978.
13. Goldmann, W .. Lepolbfen und Recupol-Kuhler fur gror..e Leistungen. -
Polysius-Zementtag 1974.
14. Gstattenbauer, J .. Neuanlage fur 3000 t/d Klinker im Zementwerk Wetzlar. -
In: ZKG 30/1977/97 -106.
15. Haese, U.: Neuere Einrichtungen an Rostkuhlern zur Prozer..uberwachung. -
In. ZKG 20/1967/152-156.
16. Hellberg, К .. Betriebserfahrungen mit einem Peters-Rekuperator und Gravita-
tionskuhler fur einen 2000-t/d-Drehrohrofen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/623-624.
17. Heng, Sheng Тао: Tasek Cementexpansion is vital to Malaysian growth. - In:
Rock products 1977/128 -138.
18. Herchenbach, Н.: Survey of the methods of cement clinker cooling. - 'ЕЕЕ
Cement Industry technical conference 1972.
19. Herchenbach, Н. Verfahren der Zementklinkerkuhlung und Auswahlkriterien
fur die gebrauchlichsten Kuhlersysteme. - In: ZKG 31/1978/42.
20. Hochdahl, О .. Erste Betriebsergebnisse mit einer 3300-t/d- Produktionslinie
mit Lepolofen im Werk Lagerdorf. - In' ZKG 28/1975/18.
21. Humboldt-Wedag Nachrichten: Kuhlung von kбгпigеm Schuttgut. - TIZ-
Fachberichte.
22. Jackson, Р. J. Aberthaw's suspension preheater-kiln system plays major part
in energy conservation. - In: World Cement Technology 1977/86-89.
23. Jбhпk, Н.: Neue Kuhlrost-Konstruktion von CPAG - Interne HZ Tagung
1975.
24. Kadel, Н. Р.: Betrieb und erste Erfahrungen mit der neuen 3000 t/d-Anlage im
Zementwerk Schelklingen. - In' ZKG 27/1974/111-117.
25. Kadel, Н. Р.· Zweieinhalbjahrige Erfahrungen mit dem 3000 t/d- Dopolofen
mit Planetenkuhler im Werk Schelklingen. - In: ZKG 28/1975/273 - 277.
418
References
26. Kayatz, К. Н.: Fuller-Kuhler fur Leistungen von 4000 t je Tag und Rostkuhler
ohne Entstaubungseinrichtungen. - In: ZKG 24/1971/574.
27. Kwech, L.: Betriebserfahrungen mit einem Rohrkuhler und erste Betriebs-
ergebnisse mit einem g-Kuhler fur je 2000 t/d - In ZKG 27/1974/405-
414.
28. Kwech, L.: Brennverfahren (Ofensysteme; Vorkalzinierung; Kuhler; Aus-
mauerung, Ansatze, Feuerungen, Abwarmeverwertung; Kreislaufe). - In:
ZKG 30/1977/597.
29. Kuhle, W.: Оег Rohrkuhler, ein optimaler Klinkerkuhler. - In: ZKG
27/1974/423-429.
30. Marshall, В .. Water spray in coolers. - Interne HZ Tagung 1969.
31. Marshall, В .. Beneficial effect of low secondary air velocity in Fuller grate
cooler. - Interne HZ Tagung 1969.
32. Meedom, Н.: Оег neue Unax-Kuhler. - In: ZKG 24/1971/560.
33. Menslage, О.: Planung, Bau und Inbetriebnahme eines 3000 t/d Zement-
werkes in Beckum. - In: ZKG 27/1974/93.
34. Munk, R.: Planetenkuhler fur gror..e Drehbfen. - In: ZKG 28/1975/447-
454.
35. Niemeyer, Е. А.: Umstellung des Zementwerks Lagerdorf vom Nar..- auf das
Halbnar..verfahren. - In: ZKG 28/1975/1 -17.
36. Pastala, А. L.: Recent innovations in reciprocating grate coolers. - In: Cement
Technology 1976/60 - 67.
37. PLA. Conservation Рарег Number 26, Energy Conservation potential in the
cement industry.
38. Pisters, Н.: Verfahren, Innovationen und Betriebserfahrungen im neuen
Readymix Zementwerk Beckum. - In: ZKG 28/1975/459-465.
39. Radewald, Н.: Die neue 3000 t/d Produktionslinie im Marker Zementwerk
Harburg - Planung, Bau und Betriebserfahrungen. - In' ZKG 32/1979/49-
55.
40. Rбssпег, Р.: Ein Kennlinienfeld fur den Schubrostkuhler. - In: Silikattechnik
21/1970/352 - 354.
41. Rбssпег, Р.: Оег Einflur.. des Kuhlerwirkungsgrades auf den Warmeverbrauch
von Drehofenanlagen. - In: ZKG 21/1971/556.
42. Rбtzег, Н / Muhldorf, V. / Hagspiel, W .. Untersuchungen der Materialbewe-
gung in einem Rohrkuhler einer 2000 t/d Warmetauscher Anlage. - In. ZKG
27/1974/415.
43. Sбгgеl, Р.: Rechnersteuerung von Rostkuhlern. - In: ZKG 27/1974/559-
564.
44. Steinbir.., Е.: Stand und Entwicklung der Klinkerkuhler. - In: ZKG
25/1972/519- 529.
45. Steinbir.., Е.' Abkuhlen des Klinkers in verschiedenen Kuhlerbauarten. -
Vortrag auf VDZ-Herbsttagung 1972.
46. Vogel, R.: Zur Fбгdегkеппliпiе von Schubrosten. - In ZKG 29/1976/391 -
395.
47. Ward, Р А. /Watson, О .. Betriebserfahrungen mit Fuller Kombi-Rostkuhlern
im Zementwerk Northfleet. - In: ZKG 25/1972/267 - 272.
419
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology

48. Weber, Р.: Warmewirtschaftlicher Vergleich von Rohr- und Rostki.ihlern hinter 4 firing technology
Zementdreh6fen. - 'п: ZKG 11/1958/94-100.
49. Weber, Р.: Abwarmeausnutzung bei Trockendreh6fen. 'п: ZKG Ву Е. Steinbiss
20/1967/214 - 221.
50. Weislehner, G.: Die Exergie und ihre Anwendung ат Beispiel des Кlinkerki.ih­
lers. - Iп: ZKG 16/1963/366. 4.1 Fuels . 421
51. Wilck, К.: Erfahrungen mit einem 4-stufigen Warmetauscherofen mit Plane- 4.1.1 Coal 421
tenki.ihlern. - 'п: ZKG 24/1971/564. 4.1.2 Oil.. 425
52. Wiles, К. С./ Douvre, С.: Citadel installs ACL-system at Roanoke. - 'п: Rock 4.1.3 Gas. 425
prod ucts 77/84 - 87. 4.2 Storage of fuels 425
53. Will, О.: Мбgliсhkеitеп zur Verbesserung von Klinkerki.ihlung. - Interne HZ 4.2.2 Oil . . . . . . 425
Tagung 1968. 4.2.3 Gas..... 425
54. Will, О.: РroЫете der Klinkerki.ihlung bei groBen Ofenanlagen. - Interne HZ 4.3 Preparation of fueis 426
Tagung 1970. 4.3.1 Coal 426
55. Will, О.: Neuere Untersuchungen ап Fullerki.ihlern. - Interne HZ Tagung 4.3.2 Oil...... 426
1972. 4.3.3 Gas..... 426
56. Xeller, Н.: Stufenki.ihler mit Zwischenzerkleinerung. - In: ZKG 25/ 4.4 Firing systems . 426
1972/283. 4.4.1 Pulverized соаl firing. 426
57. Xeller, Н.: Temperaturmessungen im Planetenki.ihler und Ermitt\ung der 4.4.2 Oil firing . . . . . . 429
Warmei.ibertragungsverhaltnisse. - In: ZKG 30/1977/620-622. 4.4.3 Natural gas firing . . 430
58. Xeller, Н.: Rostki.ihler-Planetenki.ihler. - Interne HZ Tagung 1977. 4.5 Residence time of the material and loading factor of the kiln. 431
59. York, J.: А Non-ventilating Clinker Cooling System. - In: 11 th I.C.S. 4.6 Thermal calculations. . 433
Proceedings 1976/81 -87. 4.6.1 Calorific value of fuel . 433
60. Ziegler, Е.: Stand der Zement- Brennverfahren. Ofen, Vorwarmer, Ki.ihler, 4.6.2 Calculation of exit gases 433
Feuerungen. - 'п: ZKG 24/1971/543. 4.6.2.1 Oxygen requirement. . 433
4.6.2.2 Air requirement . . . . 434
4.6.2.3 Exit gas from combustion of соаl 435
4.6.2.4 Exit gas from cement burning process . 435
4.6.2.5 Expansion of gases . . . . . . . . . 435
4.6.3 Heat consumption of clinker burning process. 435
4.6.3.1 Long wet-process kiln . . . . . . . . . . . 436
4.6.3.2 Rotary kiln with cyclone preheater and exit gas utilization in а
roller mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

4.1 Fuels
The fuels commonly used forthe burning ofcementclinker аге listed in ТаЫе 1. The
values given in this tabIe аге averages.

4.1.1 Соаl

As а rule, соа\ with а volatile content of between about 18 and 22% is used. If
necessary, а suitabIe mixture of high-volatile coal (gas coal, fat coal) and low-
volatile соаl (Iean coal, anthracite) сап Ье fired.

420 421
-1:::>
N ~
N
s::
Q)
:::J
ТаЫе 1 : Comparison of various fuels S,
Q)

constituents and unit medium heavy fuel low-sulphur natural gas

....
n
с:

properties ф
volatile coal oil fueloil (from
Slochteren) 9-
n
со

С % Ьу weight 88.4 86.0 85.0 57.9 3

со
Н % Ьу weight 4.9 11.7 13.5 18.9 ~
S % Ьу weight 1.2 1.5 0.5
N % Ьу weight 1.3 0.2 21.8 :-
О % Ьу weight 4.2 0.6 1.4 ()
со

water (raw fuel) % Ьу weight 2-7 0.1 -0.2 traces 3

со
ash (raw fuel) % Ьу weight 6-20 bis 0.1 traces ~
а-
density at 00 С, 1013 mbar kg/m З
0.830 с:
;
density at 15' С, 980 mbar kg/m З 930-950 830-860 :::J
со
bulk density kg/m З 900-950 <о
n
calorific value Hu kJ/kg, kJ/m З 34750 40200- ~
:::J
(net value for coal 41450 42700 316001) о
о'
free from water and ash) со

gross calorific value kJ/kg, kJ/m З -<

35590 42700-
44000 45550 351001)
theoretical flame temperature, ос
2155 2120 2160 2010
without dissociation and
air preheating

minimum air requirements 1) m З /kg, m З /m З 9.04 10.76 11.13 8.33

minimum air requirements m З /10 З kJ 0.260 0.261 0.261 0.264
referred to Hu 1)
minimum combustion gas m З /kg, m З /m З 9.35 11.42 11.89 9.35
(waste gas, moist) 1)
minimum combustion gas m З /10 З kJ 0.269 0.277 0.278 0.296
(waste gas) referred to Hu 1)
constituents of % Ьу volume 17.4 13.7 13.3 9.6
minimum combustion gas % Ьу volume 7.6 12.5 12.7 18.5
% Ьу volume 75.0 73.8 74.0 71.9

1) Referred to standard conditions (00 and 1013 mbar) s:

:::J
со

<о
n
~
:::J
О
о'
со
-<

-..
с:
-1:::> со
N (j)
W
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology - storage of fuels

The coal, ог coal mixture, is dried and ground to а suitabIe fineness specified, in chemical composition of the raw meal. Coal with тоге than 20% ash content will
Germany, as а certain residue retained оп the 011\11171 test sieve with 0.09 тт in some cases necessitate the addition of рше (high-grade) limestone to the raw
aperture size: this residue is defined as halfthe content of volatile matter in the coal mix in order to compensate for this.
(expressed in рег cent). See Fig.1.
4.1.2 Oil
Kurve'
curve'
Sieb
1 screen 0,09 тт
jAschegehalt bis zu • As а rule, rotary kilns аге fired with "heavy fuel oil" (designated in Germany as "fuel
Sieb 020 ash content up to 20 /. oil S") .Its properties аге listed in ТаЫе 1. The oil used should haveas low а sulphur
2 screen' тт
content as possibIe, ог otherwise а low-sulphur oil ("fuel oil Е1 ") should Ье used,
Sieb Aschegehalt •
3 screen 0.09 тт ash content 40 /. though admittedly it is тоге expensive.
Oil is viscous at low temperatures and has to Ье heated to approximately 500 С for
30-+-------------------_-.. discharging it from tanks, pumping it and generally handling it. For good
atomization in burners the 0;1 temperature has to Ье further raised to 1200 С. The
heat transfer medium used for the purpose is mainly а special oil (thermal oil).
Fuel oil pumping pressures range from 40 to 60 Ьаг, with flow velocities of about
0.2 m/sec оп the suction and 0.4 m/sec оп the delivery side of pumps as maximum
values. То achieve optimum firing conditions the pressure and temperature of the
2O+------------.....,.;JIA~------~ oil fed to the burners should Ье as nearly constant as possibIe.

4.1.3 Gas
Gaseous fuel for cement kilns is predominantly natural gas, the properties of which
аге given in ТаЫе 1. It is supplied Ьу pipeline at pressures ranging from 1 О to
.~.~ 10+-----::>""""""""-----------=-,."".~=----------__J 70 Ьаг, which аге reduced to between 3 and 1 О Ьаг in а pressure regulating station
"1:Jф
с::;, for use in the cement works.
:О"
vtV;
x~
u
:::;' С
4.2 Storage of fuels
~QI
.DQI
4.2.1 Соаl
.~ U
lЛиО-+----+----+----I-----+--~f__--4__--_I_--_+_
Coal сап bestored in outdoorstockpiles, in bunkers ог in silos. It is usually supplied
8 12" 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 in the form of "washed smalls" and suitabIy large discharge cross-sections at
FlUchtige Bestandteile irt./ (Wasserfreie Substanz) bunJ<er outlets, etc. should Ье provided in order to prevent choking, because the
volatiles in • (water-fre'? substance) coal has роог flow properties. The requisite storage capacity will depend оп 'осаl
Fig.1 : Sieve residue of coal as а function of the volatile content and ash cOnditions and оп the rate of fuel consumption of the works. Safety regulations
content (from КНО Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne) applicabIe to соаl storage must Ье duly complied with.

4.2.2 Oil
Lignite (brown coal) is another fuel fired in pulverized form. This substance
This fuel is stored in опе ог тоге tanks equipped with а tunnel accommodating the
generally has а volatile content in excess of 50%. necessitating extra саге and
discharge pipe and with а heating system for suitabIy reducing the viscosity of the
precautions against fire and explosion hazard during grinding, storage and
oil. Storage capacity will likewise depend оп the particular conditions relating to
handling. Arrangements for flooding the system with ап inert gas to suppress а
the cement works concerned. Oil storage tanks and associated installations аге
possibIe outbreak of fire should Ье provided.
subject to special safety regulations.
The safety regulations for dealing with pulverized fuels, issued Ьу the Berufsge-
nossenschaft Steine und Erden (the employers' liability insurance association for
4.2.3 Gas
the German pit and quarry industry) must Ье scrupulously complied with.
The ash from the coal becomes incorporated in the clinker in the course of the Normally, по storage tanks аге required for natural gas, as this fuel is supplied at а
sintering process, а fact that must Ье duly taken into account in determining the constant rate Ьу pipeline.

424 425
 Fiгiпg tесhпоlоgу - fiгiпg systems
D. Мапufасturе of сеmепt 111. Сеmепt Ьurпiпg tесhпоlоgу

4.3 Preparation of fuels

4.3.1 Coal
Coal is gепегаllу supplied to the works iп the form of "washed smalls" апd has to
Ье dried апd gгоuпd before it сап Ье fired iп the kilпs. The same геquiгеmепts аге
applicabIe to ligпitе uпlеss it is supplied ready for fiгiпg, i. е., iп pulverized form, as
is sometimes dопе.

4.3.2 Oil 2
Apart from hаviпg to Ье heated to 500 С for рumрiпg апd to 1200 С for fiгiпg, as
already stated, it requires по preparatory tгеаtmепt. Oil filters should Ье provided, Fig. 2: Direct firing (from Dип, 1979)
however.

4.3.3 Gas
Apart from а pressure геduсiпg апd геgulаtiпg stаtiоп, паtuгаl gas does поt require
апу tгеаtmепt at the сеmепt works either.

4.4 Firing systems

4.4.1 Pulverized coal fiгiпg

А distiпсtiоп сап Ье dгаwп Ьеtwееп direct апd iпdiгесt fiгiпg systems for rotary
kilпs,with semi-direct fiгiпg as ап iпtегmеdiаtе sоlutiоп.
With direct fiгiпg the соаl is gгоuпd апd dried (as а simultапеоus орегаtiоп) апd
thеп supplied dtrect, 1. е., without iпtегmеdiаtеstorage, from the mill to the Ьurпег.
AII the exhaust air from the mill is fed as primary air to the kilп. 7
With the iпdiгесt system the coal is likewise simultапеоuslу gгоuпd апd dried, but
is thеп stored iп а Ьuпkег ог Ып. Fig. 3: Semi-direct firing (from Dип, 1979)
Sеmi-iпdiгесt fiгiпg dепоtеs а system whereby the primary air flow сап Ье reduced
to such ап ехtепt as is compatibIe with adequate removal of the moisture from the
coal gгiпdiпg/dгуiпg mill, while the rest of the mill exhaust air is геturпеd to the
mill.
Direct fiгiпg operates iп сопjuпсtiоп with ап аdditiопаl primary air bIower,
епаЫiпg the pressure with which the air is Ыоwп iпtо the kilп to Ье adjusted to the
desired va/ue of 120-150 тЬаг. With the iпdiгесt fiгiпg systemall the exhaust air
from the mill is dedusted апd thеп discharged iпtо the atmosphere (Figs.2, 3
апd 4).
6
То Ье sure of mаiпtаiпiпg а сопstапt flame iп the kilп the fuel must Ье fed at а
сопstапt rate - iп terms of weight of pulverized coal supplied рег uпit time.
The соmЬustiоп air supplied to the kilп comprises primary air апd sесопdагу air, the
former Ьеiпg the air which serves as the саггуiпg medium for Ыоwiпg the
pulverized соаl iпtо the kilп. This air should preferabIy Ье preheated апd its
volumetric flow rate Ье kept as low as possibIe iп order to achieve maximum
utilizаtiоп of the very hot sесопdагу air, which arises as exhaust air discharged from
the сliпkег cooler. Fig.4: Indirect firing (from Dип, 1979)
427
426
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology - firing systems

The minimum amount of air required for combustion will depend оп the heat carrying the pulverized fuel should Ье between 40 and 80 m/sec. The primary air
consumption of the kiln and сап Ье approximately calculated from: requirement is 0.7 -1.8 Nm 3/kg of coal. High-volatile соаl will normally require а
lower primary air rate than low-volatile coal.
specific heat consumption (kJ/kg of clinker)
Ly = 0.261 X~--------------­
103 4.4.2 Oil firing
Various types of atomizing nozzle have Ьееп developed for achieving efficient
= Nm 3 of air/kg of clinker. atomization of the oil heated to about 1200 С. Some of these аге illustrated in
(Nm 3 denotes "standard cubic metre", i. е., at 00 С and 1013 тЬаг.) Figs.6 and 7. The oil is supplied to the buгner nozzle at а pressuгe which сап Ье
Example: For а specific heat consumption of 3200 kJ/kg of clinker:
L = 0.261 х 3200/1 03 = 0.84 Nm 3/kg of clinker.
y primary oil skew slots
For satisfactory combustion а certain air excess (about 5 to 15%) over and above
the minimum amount will Ье required.
The соаl firing Ьuгпег is essentially а plain tube provided with а nozzle-like outlet at
its tip. The fuel feed arrangement is as shown in Fig. 5. The exit velocity of the air

~ Venturi -Duse
venturi nozzle
r-~-- Primarluft
primaryair
Drallkammer
swirl chamber
Dusenplatte
Pneumatischer Transport orifice plate
-+I+--J-\--;;"pneumatic transport
Fig. 6: Оil burner (from Pillard Feuerungen, Taunusstein)

Mischduse fur pneumatischen Kohletransport

mixing nozzle for pneumatic соаl transport

Mechanischer Transport
mechanical transport

Venturi -Duse Olduse

venturi nozzle
oil nozzle

~===lr=_Ib~~~~~fAxialluft
i ахюl air innen
inside
Dгall-Luft
Primёirluft l.Jz2Z1Z?i====1===""",,:=1J!ifz=~=~ swirl air

1~mmmllmmmmmm,
primaryair
~ axial air aunen
Axialluft outside

Injektorduse fur mechanischen Kohletransport

injector nozzle for mechanical соа! transport

Fig. 5: Feed system for pulverized fuel (from КН D Humboldt Wedag AG,
Cologne) Fig. 7: Oil burner (from Pillard Feuerungen, Taunusstein)

429
428
controlled between about 3 and 10 Ьаг. The length and width of the flame аге
determined Ьу imparting а swirling motion to а certain proportion of the oil
(primary oil) ог of the primary air

4.4.3 Natuгal gas firing

Because of its relatively simple control and convenience of handling, natural gas 2
has gained wide acceptance as а fuel in the cement industry. No primary air is
needed, and the hot secondary air availabIe as exhaust from the clinker cooler сап
Ье utilized to а considerabIe extent. Fig.8 shows а commonly used type of gas
Ьuгпег, operating with exit velocities of up to 600 m/sec at gas pressures ranging
up to about 4.5 тЬаг. This Ьuгпег system сап moreover Ье designed forfiring oil ог
pulverized соа' as а second ог alternative fuel (Fig. 9).
As in ап oil-fired kiln, the shape of the gas flame сап Ье modified Ьу varying the
ratio of the axial to the swirling flow rate of the fuel А factor to Ье taken into
account in determining the capacity of various parts of the equipment, especially
the exit gas fan, is that with gas firing the quantities of exit gas аге larger than with
соа' ог oil.

GasbrennerdUse. axial/radial 5 Zundbrenner

1 gas burner nozzle: axial/radia\ ignition burner
2 Ringspalt fur Kohlenstaub ul"\d Primarluft 6 Feuerfeste Ummantelung
annular gap for аdmittiПQ pulv. coal а. air refractory bricklining

Olbrennerduse
оН burner nozzle
\"Ilrbelluftleitung fur 01 und/oder Kohlenstaub
whirl airduct for oil and /ог pulv. соаl firing system
Fig.9: Three-component burner with high-pressure gas burner (from
I Mantelrohr Юг ZUndbrenner КНО Humboldt Wedag AG, Cologne)
+._u~Flа~mеГ!Q.~~wаСhUПL_._.
'1 tube for pi\ot bumer
аnd flame monitor

The natuгal gas Ьuгпег is designed for а tuгndown ratio of 30: 1, so that the kiln сап,
thanks to this range of firing control, Ье started up from cold without апу need for
auxiliary burners.
It should, finally, Ье noted that special combined firing burners have Ьееп
developed for utilizing low-grade fuels. With the aid of а back-up flame (fed with
gas ог oil) such equipment сап fire inferior grades of coal and certain combustibIe
waste materials.
Axialkanal fur GasDrallkanal Юг Gas
axiol duct for 90Sswirl duct for gos 4.5 Residence time of the material and loading factor of the kiln
Kuhlluft
cooling air The progress of the feed material through the rotary kiln тау Ье characterized Ьу
Fig. 8: Gas burner (from Pillard Feuerungen, Taunusstein) subcritical ог supercritical motion. 'П the former case the material moves in ап

430 431
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology - thermal calculations

oscillatory fashion, being raised some distance in contact with the rotating wall of The average velocity of the material in the kiln is:
the kiln and then sliding down again. Under such conditions there is hardly апу w = те' d п' tan а,
mixing of the material, and heat transfer is correspondingly роог. This being so,
where.
supercritical motion is the what should Ье aimed at, i. е., all the material particles
should proceed along circular rising paths and fall back onto the slope of the а angle of material motion
material in the kiln. Э time of passage
There аге two components that determine the overall motion of the material v angle of kiln slope
through the kiln: р sliding angle of material
<t' loading factor of kiln (about 0.08 to 0.12)
(а) The material moves in the direction of the longitudinal axis because of the
d internal diameter of kiln in m
slope of the kiln, which is generally between 3 and 4%. corresponding to
internal cross-sectional агеа of kiln in m
2
f
angles of 1043' to 2017'.
F cross-sectional агеа of material in m 2
(Ь) It moves in а direction perpendicular to the kiln axis, this being due to the
1 length of kiln in m
rotation. According to Heiligenstaedt (1951) the sliding angle р of the material
L kiln throughput in m З /hour
in the kiln has the following values:
n speed of kiln in min-' (r.p.m.)
raw meal, warm, 0-0.2 mm size 350 w material velocity in m/min.
raw meal, matured, 0-0.2 mm size 450
cement clinker, 0-50mm size 35-400
4.6 Thermal calculations
The resulting motion is characterized Ьу ап angle а which сап Ье calculated as
follows: 4.6.1 Calorific value of fuel
sin v For coal the constituents рег kg аге indicated as follows:
~ina=--' С kg of сагЬоп S kg of sulphur
sin р
Н kg of hydrogen W kg of water
О kg of oxygen А kg of ash.
The hourly throughput of а dry-process rotary kiln сап Ье approximately calculated
from. With this information it is possibIe to calculate the (net) calorific value of the соаl
Ьу means of the following formula:
тed 2
L = <t'. - - ' d . те' tan а' 60· п, Hu = 33900 С + 121400 (Н -1/8' О) + 10500 S - 2500W (kJ/kg).
4 For heavy fuel oil the following formula gives а fair general average value:

ог:
Hu = 41 280 ± 300 (kJ/kg).

L = 148· <t' . d З
. tan а . п. For gaseous fuels the calorific value сап Ье calculated from the volumetric
percentages of the constituents (reckoned for standard conditions, i. е., at 00 С and
'П this formula the loading factor (or filling ratio) <t' is defined as the ratio of the 1013 mbar):
material-filled cross-sectional агеа F to the total internal cross-sectional агеа of Hu = 126.33 СО + 107.83 Н 2 + 358.83 СН 4 + 643.45 С 2 Н 6 + 932.07 СзН в
the kiln f, i.e.,
+ 1238.10 С 4 Н,о + 595 CnH m (kJ/Nm З ).
F
<t'=-. 4.6.2 Calculation of exit gases
f
4.6.2.1 Oxygen requirement
The time of passage of the material through the kiln сап Ье approximately
The equation of the reaction representing the combustion of соаl is.
calculated from.
С + 02 = С0 2 .
1 This corresponds to the quantitative balance:
э=-·----
d те' п' tana 1 kmol С + '1 kmo\ 02 = 1 kmo\ С0 2

432 433
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Firing technology - thermal calculations

ог:
4.6.2.3 Exit gas from combustion of coal
12kgC + 32kg 02 = 44kg С0 2 .
The stoichiometric combustion of 1 kg coal produces а quantity of exit gas at least
8 equal to.
This means that the complete combustion of С kg of сагЬоп requires - С kg
3 Gk = 1 + Lk (kg/kg) (theoretical).
of oxygen. Furthermore'
For complete combustion the purely stoichiometric quantity of air is insufficient,
however. In practice а certain air excess has to Ье provided, usually expr~ssed as ап
"air excess factor" п. The quantity of exit gas formed рег kg of coal IS then:
Gk = 1 + n . Lk (kg/kg) (combustion with excess air).
ог:
4.6.2.4 Exit gas from cement burning process
2kg Н 2 + 16kg 02 = 18kg Н 2 О.
In cement burning the сагЬоп dioxide and water vapour from the raw material аге
Непсе: the complete combustion of Н kg of hydrogen requires 8 Н kg of oxygen.
additional to the gases of combustion arising from the fuel.
5 + 02 = 502' Assumptions.
ог: 1 kg of raw meal contains х kg of water and у kg of СаСОз ; to produce 1 kg of
cement clinker requires z kg of raw meal and k kg of coal
32kg 5 + 32kg 02 = 64kg 502'
The exit gas рег kg of clinker will Ье composed as follows'
Непсе: the complete combustion of 5kg of su/phur requires 5kg of oxygen. from combustion of fuel (1 + п' Lk ) . k kg
Taking account ofthe oxygen already contained in the coal, the quantity of oxygen from raw meal (сагЬоп dioxide) z' у' 0.44 kg
required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of coal is theoretically' from water content (vapour) z .х kg
8 Total. G~ = (1 + n . Lk ) ' k + z' (х + 0.44 у) kg/kg of clinker.
- С + 8 Н - 0+5 (kg).
3 1 kg of ki!n exit gas corresponds to about 0.76 Nm З
Непсе G~ = 0.76 [(1 + п' Lk ) • k + z' (х + 0.44· у)] Nm З of exit gas/kg of
4.6.2.2 Air requirement clinker.

1 kg of air contains 0.23 kg of oxygen and 0.77 kg of nitrogen.

4.6.2.5 Expansion of gases
For standard conditions.
Ап ideal gas undergoes ап expansion of 1/273 of its volume рег degree С С) of rise
1 m of air = 1.293 kg of air,
з
in temperature. Непсе the volume of the kiln exit gas (in mз) at t С is
O

hence' Vt = УП (1 + t/273).
1 m of air = 0.21 m з of oxygen + 0.79 m з of nitrogen.
з
Where УП is the volume in Nm З (i. е., at 00 С and 1013 тЬаг).
Непсе the air requirement рег kg of coal is.
4.6.3 Heat consumption of clinker burning process
8/ з С+8Н-0+5
Lk = (kg/kg). Assume that the kiln is fired with (dry) coal containing the following quantities
0.23 of constituent materials рег kg:
С = 0.78; Н = 0.04; 0= 0.1 О; 5 = 0.04; Н 2О = 0.02; ash = 0.02.
L k = 11.6 С + 34.78 Н - 4.35 О + 4.355.
The calorific value of this соаl сап Ье calculated from the formula in 5ection 4.6.1 :
The air requirement in Nm З
(m under standard conditions) рег kg of coal is
з

Hu = 33900хО.78 + 121400хО.0275 + 10500хО.04 - 2500хО.02 =

L.. = Lk /1 .293 = 8.89 С + 26.67 Н - 3.33 О + 3.335. 30150 kJ/kg.
434
435
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology - thermal calculations

For estabIishing the heat balance it is necessary to calculate the amounts of heat Quantity of exit gas produced:
entering and leaving the kiln system (for а reference temperature of 200 С). from fuel: 0.2 [1 + 1.2 (11.6 х 0.78
The sensibIe heat сап Ье calculated from the following formula' + 34.78 х 0.04 - 4.35 х 0.1 О
~ns = т'· С р ' (t - 20) (kJ/kg of clinker). + 4.35 х 0.04)] = 2.65 kg/kg
from water: 0.56 х 1.54 = 0.86kg/kg
where: = 0.52 kg/kg
т' mass flow referred to clinker, in kg/kg from raw теа' (СО 2 ): 0.44 х 0.76 х 1.54
kiln exit gases per kg of clinker: total = 4.03kg/kg
t = temperature of the material entering or leaving the system, in о С corresponding volume of gas under standard conditions = 3.06 NmЗ/kg
С р = specific heat of the material, in kJ/kg . К.

For calculating the specific heat Ср (in kJ/kg' К) the following approximate Heat balance in kJ per kg of clinker:
equations are availabIe: heat of clinker formation = 1830
for carbon dioxide: 0.80 + 0.000461 t exit gas heat loss from fuel:
478
for clinker: 0.76 + 0.000297t 2.65 (0.96 + 0.000209 х 200) . (200 - 20)
for water vapour: 1.76 + О.ООО77Бt exit gas heat loss from raw теаl carbon dioxide:
0.52 (0.80 + 0.000461 х 200) . (200 - 20) 84
for exit gases: 0.96 + 0.000209 t
for raw material: 0.88 + 0.000293 t. exit gas heat loss from water vapour:
0.86 (1.76 + 0.000775 х 200) . (200 - 20) 296
The fuel consumption of the kiln referred to clinker сап Ье calculated as: = 2110
water evaporation: 0.86 х 2453
o.;uel = Hu . k (kJ/kg of clinker). waste heat in clinker:
1.0 (0.76 + 0.000297 х 200) . (200 - 20) = 147
The heat of formation of clinker сап Ье calculated Ьу the method indicated Ьу
radiation losses, etc. (residual value) = 1085
Н. zur Strassen (1957) and presented in "Berechnungsunterlagen fur Ofen-
versuche des VDZ", 1959. It is approximately 1600-1850 kJ/kg of clinker.
calculated heat requirement per kg of clinker = 6030kJ
For evaporating the free (uncombined) water in the raw теаl or slurry the heat
requirement is 2453 kJ per kg of water. For G~ о kg of water per kg of clinker the
heat required for evaporating this water is: 2

Q~vap = GH20 Х 2453 (kJ/kg of clinker). 4.6.3.2 Rotary kiln with cyclone preheater and exit gas utilization in а roller mill
The heat intake from sensibIe heat of the fuel, cooling air and feed material, and
Rotary kilns with cyclone preheater equipment generally discharge exit gas at а
from апу combustibIe matter contained in the latter, is generally in the range of
temperature of between 3200 and 3600 С. This gas contains only about 12%
1 to 3% of the total heat consumption and will Ье neglected in the following
moisture and is therefore very suitabIe for the drying of raw materials. In the
examples.
following example а rotary kiln with cyclone preheater operating in combination
with grinding/drying mill, in which the exit gas heat is utilized, will Ье
4.6.3.1 Long wet-process kiln
considered.
The following data will Ье adopted
water content in raw slurry = 36% The assumed data are:
water content referred to raw теа' = 0.56 kg/kg of meal, 1 kg of raw meal contains exit gas temperature = 3600 С
0.76 kg of СаСОз temperature of clinker = 1500 С
external (ambient) temperature = 200 С water content of raw теаl = 0.5%
exit gas temperature = 2000 С water quantity = 0.005 kg/kg of dry raw теаl
temperature of clinker = 2000 С fuel consumption = 10.6% = 0.106 kg of coal/kg of clinker assuming а calorific
heat of clinker formation = 1830 kJ/kg value of 30150kJ/kg of coal, i.e., heat input= 3190kJ/kg of clinker
fuel consumption = 20% = 0.2 kg of coal/kg of clinker assuming а calorific clinker output of kiln = 3000 t/day
value of 30150 kJ/kg of coal, i. е., heat input = 6030 kJ/kg of clinker exit gas temperature оп discharge from roller mill = 1200 С
air excess factor n = 1.2. 3000х 1.6
Quantity of raw теаl required to produce 1 kg of clinker is 1.54 kg (see mill throughput = - - - = 200t of raw meal/hour
Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974, р.65) 24

437
436
 D. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
Firing technology - thermal calculations

moisture content of raw material = 7 %

residual moisture in (dried) raw meal = 0.5% According to Labahn/Kaminsky (1974, page 122), water evaporation requires а
heat input of 5400 kJ/kg. Непсе the requirement for evaporating 13980 kg of
For other data see Section 6.3.1 (Iong wet-process kiln).
water рег hour is
Quantity of exit gas produced:
from fuel: 0.104 [1 + 1.2 (11.6хО.78
13980 х 5400 = 75.5 х 106 kJ/hour.
+ 34.78 х 0.04 - 4.35 х 0.1 О The availabIe exit gas quantity is 200000 NmЗ/hОur at а temperature of 36~0~.
+ 4.35 х 0.04)] After utilization of the heat in this gas, its temperature оп discharge from the mlllls
= 1.40kg/kg
from water: 0.005 х 1.54 1200 С. Непсе the heat derived from the gas is:
= 0.01 kg/kg
from raw meal (СО 2 ): 0.44 х 0.76 х 1.54 = 0.52kg/kg 200000 х (1.36 х 360 - 1.30 х 120) = 66.7 х 106kJ/hour.
kiln exit gases рег kg of clinker: total = 1.93kg/kg
corresponding volume of gas under standard conditions 'П this example the exit gas does not provide sufficient heat for drying the raw
= 1.471\Jm З /kg
material. 8.8 х 106 kJ/h will have Ье supplied to the mill Ьу extra heat. This heat
Heat balance in kJ рег kg of clinker:
сап Ье obtained from а separate air heater ог, alternatively, may Ье availabIe as
heat of clinker formation waste heat in the exhaust air from а grate cooler (see below)
exit gas heat loss from fuel:
= 1830 ...
The heat utilized from the exit gas Ьу raw material drying during gГlПdlПg IS.
1.40 (0.96 + 0.000209 х 360) . (360 - 20) 492
exit gas heat loss from raw meal сагЬоп dioxide. 66.7 х 106 Х 24 .
- - - - - - = 534 kJ рег kg of cllnker.
0.52 (0.80 + 0.000461 х 360) (360 - 20) 171 3000х 10 З

exit gas heat loss from water vapour:

0.01 (1.76 + 0.000775 х 360) . (360 - 20) If this heat is deducted from the heat consumption of the kiln, the latter is reduced
7
water evaporation: 0.01 х 2453 from 3190 kJ to 2656 kJ рег kg of clinker. .
25
waste heat in clinker. А further lowering of the heat consumption of the rota~~ klln сап - under
1.0 (0.76 + 0.000297 х 150) . (150 - 20) appropriate operating conditions - Ье achieved Ьу utlllzаt.юп of the ~e~t
105
radiation losses (residual va/ue) contained in the exhaust air from the clinker cooler (grate cooler) IП so f~r.as thls alr
560
cannot Ье supplied as secondary ог tertiary air to the kiln system. Ап аddltюпаl ~eat
calculated heat requirement рег kg of clinker recovery of about 260 kJ рег kg of clinker сап thus Ье gained from the exhaust alr of
= 3190kJ the cooler. .
For determining the capacity of the dust collection eq~ipment, it ~III Ье necessary
Exit gas uti/ization to determine the exhaust gas discharged from the gГlПdlПg/dГУlпg plant:
The following exit gas flow is availabIe for drying the raw material'
3000 х 1 оз х 1.47 exhaust gas from rotary kiln З
= 183800 Nm /hour
water vapour from drying: 13980 х 1.244 = 17390 NmЗ/hОUГ
- - - - = 183750Nm
- - - 24 З
/hоur, including false air about 200000 NmЗ/h.
total З
= 201190 Nm /hour.
For producing 200t of raw meal рег hour the quantity of water to Ье evaporated
(Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974, рр. 118 and 125) is'
At 1200 С exit temperature of the gas discharged from the mill this is equivalent
w - wr 7 - 0.5 to:
Wa = Т г ' - - - = 200 х 1 оз х - - - = 13980 kg of water/hour 201190 х 393
100 - w 100 - 7
~---- = 289625 m З /hour
273
For а gas temperature of 3600 С оп entering and 1200 С оп leaving the mill, the
following quantity of exit gas is needed: Allowing 20% (= 57925 m З /hour) to take account of infiltrated air, t~e total gas
flow (at 1200 С) to Ье treated Ьу the dust collection equipment wlll Ье about
W .k 13980х 5400 347550mЗ /hоur .
Gh = _а_ = = 231300 NmЗ/hоur Similar calculations аге valid for all types of kiln. For the dry-process rotary klln
t'sg 240х1.36
with preheater the heat losses through the walls amount to about 23% of the total
438
439
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Firing technology - References

heat consumption. The corresponding figures for the wet-process rotary kiln and 7. Herchenbach, Н. / Kupper, А.: Ergebnisse und Folgerungen fur den Einsatz in
the shaft kiln are about 17% and 12% respectively. bestehenden und neuen Anlagen. - 'п: ZKG 29/1976/193.
Approximate determination of specific kiln output: 8. Herchenbach, Н. /Weber, Н.: Solid fuels preparation and burning for precalci-
The specific output of the kilns сап Ье used as а basis for comparing different ning systems. - 'п: Rock Products 10 (October) 1978/104.
clinker burning processes. It is а quantity obtained from the clinker output in t/day 9. Hochdahl, О.: Erfahrungen und Gesichtspunkte beim Einsatz von Ersatz-
and the internal volume of the kiln in mЗ, the latter being calculated from the brennstoffen. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/421 -424.
internal diameter d and length L of the kiln: 10. Klaczak, А.: MQglichkeiten zur Verringerung des Brennstoffverbrauchs bei der
Zementherstellung im Nai?lverfahren. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/380-383.
1 1 11. Labahn, О. / Kaminsky, W. А.: Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure, 5. Aufl.
Vint = -п' d 2 . L = - 1t (О - 0.4)2. L.
Wiesbaden u. Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1974.
4 4
12. Liebmann, R./Gruschka, О.: ProbIeme bei der Umstellung von Drehofen-
'П this formula d has Ьееп taken as approximately equal to the internal diameter feuerungen auf Kohle. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/239-241 (mit Schrifttumver-
within the shell D less 0.4 m to allow for the lining. zeichnis).
The following are some guiding values for specific kiln output: 13. Lowes, Т. / Layne, Р. / Watson, О.: Verbrennung und Warmeubertragung von
t/day m З Flammen in ZementOfen. - 1п: ZKG 31/1978/32 - 34.
long wet-process kiln 0.45-0.8 14. Parisis, J.: Wirtschaftliche und technische Gesichtspunkte des Einsatzes von
long dry-process kiln 0.5 -0.8 Nebenprodukten der Kohlenaufbereitung im Zementofen. - 'п: ZKG
kiln with cyclone preheater 1.5 - 2.2 31/1978/245 - 246.
kiln with grate preheater 1.5 - 2.2 15. Ramesohl, Н.: Betriebserfahrungen bei Verbrennen fester Brennstoffe im
kiln with precalcining 3.3 Zementdrehofen und daraus resultierenden Folgerungen. - 'п: ZKG
kiln with precalcining and tertiary air duct 3.5 - 5.0. 32/1979/227 - 229.
16. Russemeyer, Н.: Ergebnisse mit einer Zusatzfeuerung im Warmetauscher eines
With the aid of these values it is possibIe to calculate approximately the kiln 1000 t/d-Drehofens. - In: ZKG 29/1976/198.
dimensions for achieving а specified clinker production rate, if the length/diameter 17. Strassen, Н. zur: Der theoretische Warmebedarf des Zementbrandes. - \п:
ratio of the kiln is known, for which the following approximate values тау Ье
ZKG 10/1957/1-12.
adopted: 18. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke е. V.: M~rkbIatt VZ 1 Drehofenfeuerungen,
long wet or dry kilns L/D = 34 Februar 1974. - Verein Dt. Zementwerke, Tannenstrai?le 2, 4000 Dussel-
short kilns with preheater equipment L/D = 16.
dorf.
19. Wentzel, W.: Einsatzmoglichkeiten fur Koh\enmahlanlagen zur Befeuerung
von ZementdrehOfen. - 1п: ZKG 31/1978/3 - 5.
20. Wiedekind, 1.: Erdgas als Energiequelle fur die Zementherstellung. - In:
Zeitschrift "Gasverwendung" 4/1968.
References
1. Durr, М.: Kohlefeuerungen aus der Sicht des Ofenbauers. - 'п: ZKG 32/
1979/367 -371.
2. Eckelmann, G.: Die Beeinflussung der Flammenform bei Erdgasbrennern fur
DrehOfen. - In: ZKG 25/1972/543-545.
3. Eckelmann, G.: Zusatzfeuerungen ап Warmetauschern und Rosten von.
Zemententdrehofenanlagen - 'п: ZKG 28/1975/281.
4. Eckelmann, G.: Drehofenbrenner fur feste Brennstoffe und Brennstoffgemi-
sche. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/386-389.
5. Heiligenstaedt, W.: Warmetechnische Rechnungen fur IndustrieOfen. -
Dusseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen 1951.
6. Herchenbach, Н.: Hochdruck-Gasbrenner fur DrehOfen. - In' ZKG
26/1973/494-496.

440 441
 •
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Refractory linings - testing the properties

5 Refractory Iinings
Ву О. Opitz
5.1 General . 442
5.2 Testing the properties 443
5.3 Brick sizes . . . . . 448
5.4 Lining construction and demolition . 450
5.5 Drying, heating-up, shutdowns. 452
5.6 Thermal insulation. . . . . 452
5.7 Lining wear . 453
5.8 Coating and ring formation. 454
References. . . . . . . . . . 458
5.1 General
The function of refractory materials is to protect metal parts from coming into direct
contact with flames or with very hot gases or solids. For example, boiler plate
undergoes а marked decline in strength at temperatures above 4000 С, while
clinker temperatures are in the range of about 13500 -15500 С and the flames in
kilns attain almost 19000 С.
The heat loss through the wall of the kiln must moreover Ье kept within acceptabIe
limits. Even so, depending оп the kiln system, between 12 and 22% of the heat
evolved from combustion of the fuel is lost in this way.
About 10% of the heat given off Ьу the flame and its associated combustion gases
is first transmitted to the surface of the refractory lining from which in turn it is
transferred to the feed material being processed in the kiln.
The rough surface of the refractory brickwork moreover promotes the supercritical
motion of the material, so that effective mixing takes place and heat transmission
from the hot gas to the material is improved.
Damage to the lining is liabIe to cause troubIe which тау necessitate shutdown of
the kiln plant for repairs.
The cost of the lining amounts to between 1 and 2% of the cost of construction if
the rate of consumption of refractory material is about 0.5-1.5kg per tonne of
portland cement clinker produced. About 35% of the lining in а modern kiln
typically consists of dolomite brick, 35% of magnesite-chrome brick, and the
remainder (30%) of fireclay brick, lightweight refractory brick, special brick and
monolithic refractories.
Although large rotary kilns тау have lower specific refractory consumption rates
(i. е., per tonne of clinker), the risk of shutdown due to unexpected lining damage is
much higher in such kilns than in smaller ones with shell diameters of not more
than about 4 т. The introduction of "secondary firing" in the preheater, i. е.,
various forms of (pre)calcining, was associated with the advantage that the
thermal rating of the burning zone - and therefore the severity of the conditions to
which the lining in this zone was exposed - was substantially reduced, especially
in large kilns, thus resulting in а significant increase in the service life of the
lining.
The "state of the art" in respect of refractory linings for cement kilns was reviewed
in а literature analysis Ьу Routschka and Majdic (1974), the results of which have
Ьееп used Ьу the present author. Subsequent research оп the subject (1974-
1978) will also Ье considered here, as far as possibIe.
In its "catalogue of refractory materials for cement works" (MerkbIatt WE 1 О),
1968, the German Cement Works' Association (VDZ) lists а considerabIe number
of refractories оп the basis of information supplied Ьу their manufacturers, together
with gu idance оп the appropriate use of these materials. 1n principle, little has since
changed in the range of refractories employed in cement manufacturing plant.
ТаЫе 1 lists categories of materials, with indications оп their application in the
respective parts of kiln systems.
The various kiln zones тау suitabIy Ье lined in accordance with the suggestions in
ТаЫе2, which distinguishes between kilns of 4.4т diameter and larger ones.
When lined for the first time, the kiln hood is given а working (or inner) lining of
high-alumina brick. For repairs to partly worn brickwork, provided that it issuitabIy
stabIe and is properly cleaned, а new wearing layer сап Ье formed with а refractory
mixture applied with а spray gun.
The preheater, clinker cooler, exit gas ducts and other hot parts of the kiln system
are lined with fireclay brick or fireclay concrete. Where high temperatures оссш it
тау Ье necessary to use refractories with ап alumina content above 44%.
Refractory bricks are tested for certain properties and/or uniformity of the
consignment supplied. Guidance for the selection of refractories with reference to
the mechanical, physical and chemical conditions of service is given Ьу Majdic
(1974). The criteria for selecting and using high-alumina and fireclay bricks in
rotary cement kilns have more particularly Ьееп dealt with Ьу Bartha (1978). The
mechanical properties of magnesite bricks in relation to their composition and
texture are described Ьу Kienow/Jeschke/Doas (1977). Dolomite bricks are dealt
with Ьу Munchberg/Opitz/Stradtmann (1977).
5.2 Testing the properties
Cold crushing strength
If it is deficient, bricks are liabIe to suffer damage during handling and transport. As
а rule, а strength of at least 15 N/mm 2 is required from this point of view. It is only
very tentatively possibIe to draw inferences from the cold strength as to the
strength and abrasion resistance of the brick at high temperatures. Such inferences
are indeed not permissibIe at all in the case of brick containing glassy solidified
melt. Н igh cold strength тау moreover Ье ап indication of brittleness, associated
with а tendency for the brick to fracture when subjected to flexuralloading when
incorporated in brickwork.

442 443
~
~
9
~
s:
Q)
::J
S.
Q)
ТаЫе 1: Composition and properties of refractory bricks (approximate values for guidance) (from ~
с::
MerkbIatt WE 1 о, VDZ) ф

where used chemical refrac- refrac- cold true bulk remarks

S.
с1
CD
composition toriness/ toriness crushing рого- density
3
Seger u nder load strength sity t/m З
CD

% АI 2 О з % Fе 2 О з сопе ta ос N/mm 2 % ~

chimney 30-33 2.5 31 1300 25 25 2.0 below 3000 С :-

()
flue 26-29 2.5 28 1300 50 16 2.1 possibIy acid- CD
resistant 3
CD

feed-end ring 30-33 2.5 31 1300 25 25 2.0 fireclay brick ....

::J

а-
26-29 2.5 28 1300 50 16 2.1 acid fireclay с::

brick
:;
::J
се
preheating zone 33-40 2.5 32 1350 25 25 2.0 fireclay brick ....CD
12 45 1.5 lightweight refrac- с1
:т
tory brick ::J
о

40-42 1400 о-
calcining zone 2.5 33 25 25 2.0 fireclay brick се
50 2.0 35 1500 50 19 2.3 alumina brick -<

transition zone MgO: 65 9 1600 30 22 3.0 magnesite-chrome

brick
70 1.5 38 1600 50 18 2.6 high-alumina brick

dolomite brick
burning zone MgO+CaO: magnesite-chrome
0.8 1700 40 19 2.8
96 brick
9 1600 50 19 3.0
MgO: 85
1500 50 19 2.3 alumina brick
cooling zone 50 2.0 35
1500 50 19 2.3 alumina brick
nose ring 50 2.0 35
1500 50 22 2.3 silicon carbide
SiC: 60 37
brick

1500 50 19 2.3 alumina brick

kiln hood 50 2.0 35
1600 50 18 2.6 high-alumina brick
70 1.5 38
1300 50 16 2.1 acid fireclay brick
clinker cooler 26-29 2.5 28
1300 50 16 2.1 acid fireclay brick
pellet and теа' 26-29 2.5 28
preheater 2.3 alumina brick
50 2.5 35 1500 50 19

feed-end 2.0 fireclay brick

30-33 2.5 31 1300 25 25
chamber 2.0 (for hottest parts)
40-42 2.5 33 1400 25 25 ::ю
firing
~
i»
с1

о
-<
3'
3'
се
~ (J")
~
(jl
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Refractory linings - testing the properties

ТаЫе2: Examples of refractory linings for rotary kilns. from MerkbIatt Spalling resistance
WE 10. VDZ
The testing procedure for determining the spalling resistance (also known as
kilns of 4.4 m diameter kilns of тоге than thermal shock resistance) involves heating the brick to 9500 С and then quenching
4.4 m diameter it in water ог, in the case of basic brick (which would undergo hydration), in air.
The test results show considerabIe scatter. They should Ье used only for
nose ring silicon carbide brick with 60% SiC ог high-alumina comparison within the same category of materials.
brick with about 70% АI 2 О з
Chemical resistance
cooling zone 2т-4т 2т-4т
high-alumina brick magnesite-chrome brick Contact reactions сап Ье ascertained Ьу heating relevant substances, е. g., kiln
dust ог cement clinker, in а crucibIe made of the refractory to Ье tested. Another
burning zone 4х ОВ 1 5х ОВ 1 type of test consists in heating appropriate cylindrical specimens placed опе upon
dolomite brick 2 dolomite brick 2 another. The results of such laboratory tests must Ье interpreted with caution. 'П
transition zone 2х ОВ 5х ОВ actual practice, when the refractory is in service in the kiln, the continuous
alumina ог magnesite-chrome infiltration of gaseous and liquid substances into the brick gives rise to chemical
high-alumina brick brick conditions of а different character and different degree of severity.
preheating zone fireclay brick with АI 2 О з content decreasing towards
feed end, ог lightweight brick Thermal expansion
1) Кiln shell diameter in m The increase in dimensions of а refractory material caused Ьу а rise in temperature
2) In kilns in which по coating is formed, ог under very difficult burning conditions, magnesite is important with regard to the design of expansion joints in refractory linings.
or magnesite-chrome brick is used

Abrasion resistance
With regard to the cold abrasion resistance of refractory brick the comments made
оп the subject of cold crushing strength аге valid here too. In а kiln with а stabIe
coating attached to the refractory lining the abrasive action upon the latter is slight.
Under such conditions there will Ье по abrasion of the lining Ьу clinker at all except
when initially heating up the kiln, i. е., before the lining has picked up апу coating,
ог when ап агеа of coating falls off, leaving the lining exposed until а fresh coating
has formed.
Refractoriness
Refractoriness is defined as the property that allows the material to withstand high
temperature. A/though in this sense it is fundamental to the whole concept of а
refractory product, it does not in itself offer much guidance оп the practical
usefu Iness thereof, except for comparison with other materials within the same
category.
Refractoriness under load
The strain behaviour under load is measured; these tests provide ап indication of
the permissibIe thermal rating in the kiln.
Volume stability
The determination of this property consists in mаiпtаlПlПg the brick at high
temperature (without load) for some considerabIe time, then allowing it to cool,
and finally measuring its dimensions, which аге compared with the original
dimensions of brick before the test. These test results аге important only if the brick
is to Ье used at temperatures which аге higher than the firing temperature applied
in its manufacture.
Thermal conductivity
This property сап Ье significant in connection with heat losses through the
refractory /ining. Its determination is not entirely straightforward, however, and
different measuring methods yield different results. Manufacturers' data should Ье
accepted with caution.
Porosity
The apparent porosity, which is the ratio ofthe volume ofthe ореп pores tothe bulk
volume (expressed as а percentage), is of importance in that it gives ап indication
of the resistance of the refractory to attack Ьу liquid and gaseous phases. The
sealed pores - which together with the ореп pores constitute the true porosity -
аге not very important from the viewpoint of performance of the material.

446
447
О. Manufactuгe of cement 111. Cement burning technology Refractory linings - brick sizes

5.3 Brick sizes symbol dimensions in тт volume

The ргоЫет of the most appropriate ог efficient bricks sizes for the construction of dm З
а Ь h
rotary kiln linings has long Ьееп а subject of debate. In connection with the
development of bigger and bigger kilns and the preference for "dry" bricking,
special large bricks have Ьееп introduced as ап alternative to the "VDZ" standard 220 103 82 200 198 3.66
sizes used in Germany (see Majdic, 1974). Two series of standard sizes аге 320 89 3.80
commonly used (see ТаЫе 3), those of the "В" series being confined only to basic 420 92.5 3.87
bricks. Providing each brick with а groove оп its hot face as а means of 520 94.7 3.91
conveniently checking that the bricks have Ьееп correctly installed has Ьееп 620 96.2 3.94
introduced for dolomite bricks. Distinctive marking of bricks Ьу means of several 720 97 3.96
notches is being tried out for other types. Attempts have also Ьееп made to 820 97.8 3.98
introduce tongue-and-groove bricks in order to obtain interlocking and thus
improve the stability of the brickwork. 20 85 80 3.27
The lining in а rotary kiln is generally 200 тт thick, but сап Ье varied to some
extent according to kiln diameter: 322 103 88 220 198 4.15
О в (т): < 3.0 3.0-4.0 4.0-6.0 > 6.0 422 91.5 4.24
lining thickness (тт)' 160 180 200 220-250 522 94 4.29
622 95.5 4.32
'П the English-speaking countries the 280 тт high brick has additionally Ьееп 722 96.5 4.35
introduced. These higher bricks аге expected to fit тоге snugly in the ring and thus 822 97.3 4.36
make for better lining stability. ОП the other hand, as experience shows, the
thickness of the layers spalled оН larger bricks is initially greater. 22 85 80 3.59

ТаЫе 3: Standard refractory brick sizes for rotary cement kilns (from VDI 425 103 90 250 198 4.78
Code) 525 92.7 4.84
-"_._-_......._--- •..-
625 94.5 4.89
symbol dimensions in тт volume
725 95.5 4.91
dm З
а Ь h 825 96.5 4.94

216 103 86 160 198 2.99 25 85 80 4.08

316 92 3.09
416 94.5 3.13 В 216 78 65 160 198 2.27
516 96.5 3.16 В416 75 68
716 98.3 3.18
В 16 85 80 2.61
16 85 80 2.61
В 218 78 65 180 198 2.55
218 103 84 180 198 3.33 В 318 76.5 66.5
318 90.5 3.45 В418 75 68
418 В 518 74.5 68.5
93.5 3.50
518 95.5 В618 74 69
3.54
618 97 3.56
718 97.5 3.57 18 85 80 2.94

18 85 80 2.94
standard size with average width of tapered face in тт

448 449
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology Lining construction and demolition

ТаЫе З: Standard refractory brick sizes for rotary cement kilns (from VDI boiler fireclay magnesite dolomite
Code) plate brick brick brick

symbol dimensions in тт volume linear thermal 0.011 0.005 0.011 -0.022 0.014
dm 3 expansion
а Ь h (тт/т К)
temperature С С) 150 - 450 600 - 800 1000 -1200 1000 -1200
В220 78 65 200 198 2.83 The uncertainty associated with calculating the ргоЬаЫе thermal expansion of the
В320 76.5 66.5 lining is due mainly to uncertainty about what temperature to take into account. As
В420 75 68 ап approximate rule of thumb it is sometimes assumed that one-third of the lining's
В 520 74.5 68.5 expansion is absorbed Ьу the expansion of the kiln shell, one-third is absorbed Ьу
В 620 74 69 the ring joints and one-third Ьу the expansion joints. For the design and
construction of the expansion joints the brick manufacturer's recommendations
20 85 80 3.27 should Ье complied with.
According to Konopicky (1957), the expansion joints should, as а rule of thumb,
В222 78 65 220 198 3.11 Ье designed to absorb half the thermal expansion that develops up to the service
В322 76.5 66.5 temperature of the refractory lining. Approximate values to Ье adopted аге 0.5% for
В422 75 68 fireclay and silicon carbide brick, and 1.2% for magnesite-chrome and dolomite
В522 74.5 68.5 brick. The expansion joints аге filled with cardboard, which burns away when the
В622 74 69 kiln is heated, leaving the joints clear. 1n general, it is тоге favourabIe to provide а
larger number of narrower expansion joints than а smaller number of wider ones.
22 85 80 3.59 It тау occur during а campaign (the working life of the lining between major
repairs) that, as а result of the pores in the refractory becoming filled with
В325 78 65 250 198 3.54 subIimated vapours ог penetrated melt (Iiquid phase), the coefficient of thermal
В425 76.5 66.5 expansion increases as compared with that of the newly installed (unused) brick.
В 525 75 68 Otherwlse the thermal ехрапsюп IS reverslbIe, so that, when the brickwork cools,
В625 74.5 68.5 joints ореп out again - though these will not necessarily coincide with the
в 725 74 69 expansion joints originally formed.
If the expansion joints аге made too wide, there will Ье the risk that bricks will drop
25 85 80 4.08 out of the lining, whereas inadequately dimensioned expansion joints тау give rise
to excessive stresses in the brickwork which тау result in premature destruction
standard size with average width of tapered face in тт thereof ог indeed cause troubIe affecting the kiln structure itself
The normal brickwork joints used to Ье always constructed with mortar, but time-
saving "dry" bricking is now increasingly used, especially for basic brick. Steel
5.4 Lining construction and demolition plates inserted into the joints between basic bricks undergo oxidation (ferrite
formation) when the lining is heated and thus help to bond the individual bricks
А distinction is drawn between radial joints between the bricks in each ring and firmly together. Positive bonding during construction is obtained Ьу sticking
ring joints (ог axial joints) between the successive rings. certain bricks to the kiln shell Ьу means of а suitabIe adhesive, usually ап ероху
Joints аге weak spots in refractory brickwork, as regards both the mechanical resin glue. Possibilities of mortarless lining construction for rotary kilns аге
strength of the lining structure and the penetration of liquid and gaseous described Ьу Zachwy/Konig/Eisemann (1975)
(vaporized) substances into the lining. However, under circumstances where the То епаЫе new bricks to Ье introduced into the kiln and old sections of lining to Ье
thermal expansion of the lining (which generally exceeds that of the steel shell of broken out and the debris removed, the kiln hood should Ье so designed that
the kiln) has to Ье compensated, such weak spots providing а certain amount of loading machines similar to those used in tunnel construction have ргорег access
"give" аге desirabIe and will, where possibIe, Ье methodically planned into the to the interior of the kiln.
lining structure as expansion joints. The following аге some approximate values for As а rule, to achieve better stability of the rings of brick which form circular arches,
the thermal expansion and the operating temperature of the kiln lining. the bricks employed аге of suitabIy tapered shape. Various methods of supporting

450 451
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
the brickwork during lining construction аге commonly used: glueing certain rows
of bricks (strategically disposed around the circumference) to the kiln shell, using
metal ог wooden "centres" (as in conventional brick arch construction), using
props of various kinds ог screw jacks and timbers; fixing steel suppoorting ribs
(rolled steel sections) to the inside of the shell Ьу bolting them to nuts welded to
the shell.
The linings in large rotary kilns аге usually installed Ьу means of the "glue" method
ог the "centre" method. With the latter, а spreader jack is inserted into the final gap
before closing each brickwork ring in order to compress the bricks in the ring and
thus ensure that they аге sufficiently tight. Properties of adhesives for the glueing
of refractory bricks have Ьееп investigated Ьу Steinbiss (1975).
Like the bricking operations, the demolition of the brick lining has to Ье performed
with special equipment, тоге particularly in large kilns. Mobile machines аге used
for transporting the demolished material. Manholes provided in the kiln shell
reduce the transport distances.
5.5 Drying, heating-up, shutdowns
When the refractory lining has Ьееп installed for the first time and also after
subsequent repairs, тоге particularly with mortar joints, it is necessary to dry the
lining before heating-up. The lining in the preheater system of а kiln should Ье
heated for ten days, after which а heating period of three days will suffice for the
rotary kiln itself. After repairs to the lining, а heating-up period of between 12 and
36 hours will generally suffice, but саге must Ье taken not to raise the temperature
too rapidly, as this тау cause considerabIe thermal stresses in the brickwork.
Recent research (Erni/Saxer/Schneider, 1979) has highlighted the danger of
constriction of the kiln shell under а tyre if the kiln is heated at so fast а rate that
there is а significant time lag in the temperature rise of the tyre as compared with
that of the kiln shell. With the usual tyre clearance of 9 тт (cold) with about
30 тт relative movement, harmful constriction of the shell Ьу the colder tyre is
liabIe to occur if the temperature of the tyre is тоге than 1500 С lower than that of
the shell. Small kilns сап Ье heated up тоге quickly after repairs than big ones. As
ап approximate guide for larger kilns. allow 1 hour тоге heating-up time for each
100 t/day capacity above 1500 t/day, starting from а basic time of not less than
12 - 36 hours.
5.6 Thermal insulation
With the present high cost of energy it is imperative to keep heat consumption to а
minimum.
То obtain better thermal insulation, the refractory lining of the preheating zone,
тау Ье constructed in two layers, namely, а dense and strong temperature-
resistant working lining and а backing consisting of а porous grade of refractory
brick. This "back-up insulation", usually between 40 and 80 тт thick, сап Ье
installed behind а basic working lining of dense fireclay brick, lightweight
refractory brick ог insu lating brick, the characteristic feature of апу such composite
452
Refractory linings - lining wear
lining being that the strength decreases and the heat insulating capacity increases
from the hot face to the cold face. The extra cost of two-Iayer lining construction
сап Ье reduced Ьу using two-Iayer bricks, i. е., consisting of lightweight refractory
bonded to dense fireclay forming the working lining, these two layers respectively
corresponding to one-third and two-thirds of the overall thickness of the
composite brick. Strong interconnection of the two layers is aided Ьу their
indented interlocking. Even better insulation is provided Ьу lightweight refractory
bricks of adequate strength as the working lining of the preheating zone.
Particularly the high-silica grades of brick form а glazed layer at the operating
temperatures, which inhibits attack Ьу lime ог volatilized alkalis.
In the burning zone (clinkering zone) the simplest and cheapest form of thermal
insulation is provided Ьу а firmly adhering and sufficiently thick coating оп the hot
brickwork face. But if the conditions in the kiln аге such that little ог по coating is
picked up Ьу the lining, the desired reduction in heat loss сап Ье obtained Ьу
installing back-up insulation. Оп the other hand, in а kiln in which the conditions
for good coating аге right, such ап insulation would reduce the ability of the lining
to take оп а good coating, and for this reason it is а counter-productive measure in
the burning zones of most rotary cement kilns.
Tiles and slabs incorporating ceramic fibres offer the advantage of reduced
thickness in conjunction with equally good heat-insulating capacity, but they
suffer from the drawback of limited strength, so that they сап suitabIy Ье installed
only in relatively small kilns (up to about 3.6 m diameter) and in the static parts of
other kiln plants.
Thermal insulation probIems relating to cement kilns were dealt with in consider-
аЫе detail at the 17th International Refractories Colloquium оп the subject of
'refractory materials in the cement industry", held at Aachen In 1975. The papers
presented оп that occasion have Ьееп pubIished in No. 5/1975 of the journal
"Berichte der deutschen Keramischen Gesellschaft".
5.7 Lining wear
Basic linings in the burning zones of cement kilns undergo wear mainly as а result
of spalling of relatively thin layers (е. g., 60-80 тт in thickness) of the brickwork
which have undergone considerabIe chemical and mineralogical changes in
service.
А reaction zone characterized Ьу the formation mainly of C 2 S is formed at the
interface of the magnesite brick material and the clinker coating. As а result of
accretive crystallization the working face of the brick becomes brittle and also its
texture becomes denser. Alternatively, the brick тау Ье subjected to severe attack
Ьу liquid (clinker melt), destroying the bonding phase of the refractory material
and leaving а porous surface 'ауег behind. Within the brick itself а zonal structure
develops as а result of migration of the liquid phases originally present in the brick
towards the cold face and of subsequent penetration of clinker melt into the
brick.
Alkali sulphate and alkali chloride тау form coatings оп the refractory lining in the
preheater and in the feed end region of the rotary kiln. If high temperatures prevail
453
О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
in the kiln, these deposits will penetrate into the lining and fill up the cracks and
joints, and also the pores within the brick, to а certain depth from the hot face. 'П
the absence of ап effective coating in the burning zone and with high process
temperatures, the alkali melts тау completely penetrate the lining and form а
deposit - а crystallized layer - between it and the steel shell.
The zonal and structural changes that the brick undergoes during its service in the
kiln тау give rise to loosening (Ioss of cohesion) of the material structure and loss
of mechanical strength. Besides, thermal expansion тау increase. The hot flexural
strength of the brick тау Ье seriously impaired during the campaign.
Alumino-silicate refractories аге destroyed Ьу contact with cement clinker in
consequence of reactions involving melt formation. The layer of liquid formed at
the hot face of the lining in this way prevents the attachment of а permanent
coating, so that the lining wears off fairly rapidly in thin layers. А grade of brick with
а higher alumina content сап withstand somewhat higher temperatures without
suffering premature wear. Alumina-based refractories аге not used in the burning
zones of large kilns, however, because here even а very high alumina content will
not protect the brick from melt formation at sintering temperature.
In general, factors which increase the rate of refractory brick wear аге'
frequent plant operating interruptions;
non-uniform composition of raw material;
high alkali content in raw material,
low sintering tendency of the material;
unstabIe kiln shell (excessive cross-sectional distortion),
unstabIe flame,
variabIe coating and ring formation.
Coating and ring formation directly and indirectly affect the service life of the
lining. А relatively thin coating (up to 0.2 т) is beneficial because it increases the
life of the brickwork it covers. But when objectionabIe thicker coatings аге
dislodged, the lining is subjected to very severe loads which аге likely to shorten its
useful life.
5.8 Coating and ring formation
The higher the proportion of liquid (clinker melt) formed Ьу the feed material in the
burning zone, the тоге readily will the refractory lining pick up а coating. 1па coal-
fird kiln ash from the coal will encourage coating formation. In especially
unfavourabIe cases, however, the ash тау Ьесоте concentrated in the upper part
of the burning zone and form а so-called ash ring there.
Coating will form тоге easily in the preheating and in the calcining zone according
as the feed material contains тоге alkali salt melt. Secondary constituents of the
fuel, such as compounds of sulphur and chlorine, promote such coating
formation.
In both these cases, kiln feed material and dust adhere to the lining Ьу the adhesive
action of the melt. For equal melt content the adhesion strength depends оп the
temperature. This strength is highest in the 12000 -12400 С range in the burning
zone. For this reason very thick coating rings тау form at the two ends of this zone.
454
Refractory linings - coating and ring formation
These formations тау prove troubIesome to kiln operation and have to Ье
removed. If the flame is very short, sticking of the clinker to the inlet chute of the
clinker cooler тау оссш In the preheating zone the strength of the coating
consisting of salt melt is highest at temperatures of 9000 -10000 С. 'П this
temperature range several rings will form ог, in short kilns with preheater
equipment, thick coatings in the hot part of the latter. Depending оп the chloride
content in the sticky melt, the temperature at which the coating attains its highest
strength тау Ье below 9000 С and even as low as about 6000 С, however.
In the high-temperature parts of the kiln the tendency to objectionabIe coating ring
formation is greater with raw теаl of variabIe compositi0n than with raw meal
whose composition remains reasonabIy constant. In the preheating zone of the
kiln, cyclic phenomena involving repeated volatilization and condensation of alkali
salts, resulting in excessive concentrations of these substances in the feed material
undergoing processing, promote ring formation. Discharging some of the alkali-
laden gas from the kiln inlet through а so-called bypass (thus avoiding the
preheater) provides а means of keeping the cyclic build-up in concentration of
volatile substances within acceptabIe limits.
Besides salt melts, doubIe compounds such as spurrite composed of calcium
silicate and calcium carbonate ог sulphate spurrite composed of calcium silicate
and calcium sulphate тау give rise to "dry" coating formation, the deposit being
consolidated Ьу felting ог matting of crystals.
The coating in the burning zone protects the refractory lining from wear and
improves the thermal insulation of the kiln wall. As а rule, therefore, coating is а
desirabIe feature. However, under adverse conditions it тау Ьесоте too thick ог,
as already mentioned, form objectionabIe rings. There аге various methods of
removing such excess features.
removal Ьу manual breaking-out with the aid of rods and pneumatic
hammers;
Ьу melting ог spalling off the accretions with the flame;
Ьу quenching them with low-pressure ог high-pressure water jetting, causing
them to break up;
dislodging Ьу shooting them with projectiles from а special gun ("industrial
саппоп") ;
bursting them with the aid of сагЬоп dioxide cartridges, тоге particularly the
Cardox method.
The conditions of application and other information оп these methods аге given in
TabIes4 and 5. The cost figures in the latter tabIe relate to 1970. Ап added
advantage of the pump supplying а high-pressure water jet is that it сап Ье used
also for other purposes in the cement works, such as awkward cleaning jobs, etc.
455
 ~
~ ф ~ 3"О'ёg; ~g,§ ~~;! 3"~~~Q)8~8~~g,~;!iФ~~'S'
(л
~ ::::J 3 ~. а- 3.. . ~ .... Q) .... - Q..... Ф
?1
00 ~~~~~
~,..,
::::JQ)
I I I I I
~~~~~roф_~~----~~_·
9
~ "2 Q о ~,- ~....::r I?З ::::J_

9
~
ТаЫе4: Suitability of methods for the removal of objectionabIe coating
(л ~
(j) Q)
::::J
methods and means employed с:
i»'
4. 5. 6. ~
2. З.
nature 1. shooting with bursting Ьу other
с:

1ow - pressure high-pressure со

of coating melting ог Cardox methodmethods
spalling off water jetti ng water jetting special gun g,
(")
with the flame ф

3
Ьу hand ф

coatings ~
- with
(+)
in preheater pneumatic
hammer :-
()
ф

(+) (+) 3
теаl rings (+) ф

festoon ~
slurry rings chains as а-
с:

internal 3
fittings S'
се
....
ф
(")
sinter rings + + + + ::r
+ Ьу hand ::::J
+ + + о
clinker rings + + with rods о"
се

Ьу hand with -<

+ - +
coatings in rods ог with
inlet of special
cooler equipment
(+) (+) +
тоуаЫе
material

ТаЫе 5: Cost and effort demanded Ьу methods for the removal of а sintering (based оп 1970 price levels)

methods and means employed

effort/cost 1. 2. З. 4. 5. 6.
melting ог low-pressure hig h - pressure shooting with bursting Ьу removal Ьу
spalling off water jetting water jetting special gun Cardox method hand with
with the flame pneumatic
hammer
and rods

downtime reduced 3 to 6 times 3 to 6 times 0.5 to 1 hour 0.5 to 1 hour 2 to 4 days

:tJ
output for 0.5 hour with 0.5 hour with ~
10-20 hours intermediate intermed iate Q3
(")
heating heating о
manpower попе 6 to 8 1 ог 2 2 ог 3 2 ог 3 тоге than -<
required 3 теп ~:
::::J
for about се
(л

1 day
initial cost, попе low ОМ 15000 about ОМ 8000, попе
(")
о
overheads to 18000 ОМ 7000 incl. filling ~.
::::J
machine се
about Q)
::::J
ОМ 15000 Q.

cost рег ring according according to loss of production 500 ОМ to 100 ОМ same as ::::J
to loss increased fuel consumption 2000 2. and З. се

of production а
3
~ With 4. and 5. the loss of production is small because of short downtime ....
Q)

(л о'
-....J ::::J
 О. Manufacture of cement 111. Cement burning technology
IV Clinker storage

References
1. Bart~a, Р ..: Auswahlkriterien fLir den Einsatz von Hochtonerde- und Schamot-
test.elnen ,п ZementdrehOfen. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/35-38.
2. E~nl, H./Sax~r, B./Schneider, А.: Deformationen von DrehOfen und ihr
E~nfluB auf d,e Futterhaltbarkeit. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/236 - 243.
3. ~Ieno.w, S-/ Jeschke, Р./ Das, Т. К.: Mechanische Eigenschaften von Magne-
s.lastel~en /п Abhangigkeitvon der Zusammensetzung und dem GefLige - In
tlZ Ton/ndustrie-Zeitu ng 101/1977/83 - 95. . .
4. Konopicky, К.: Feuerfeste Baustoffe. - DLisse/dorf' Verlag Stahleisen GmbH
1957. ' .
5. Majdic, . А.: Auswahl f~uerfester Materialien nach Gesichtspunkten ihrer
m~.chanlschen, ~hyslkallschen und chemischen Beanspruchung. - 'п: Gas-
Wагmе-lпtегпаtюпаI23/1974/465-471.
6. M.Linchberg, W ..!,?pitz, D./Stradtmann, J .. The wearing of burnt dolomite
brl~ks In .cer:nent kilns. - I.n: World Cement Technology 8/1977/39-46.
7. ~PltZ, ~ .. О/е AnsatZГInge In ZementdrehOfen. - Schriftenreihe der Zement-
IПdustГlе 41/1974. DLisseldorf: Beton-Verlag Gmbh. 1974.
8. Ro.utschka, G:/ Majdic, А.: Feuerfeste Baustoffe fLir die Zementindustrie im
Spl~9~1 der L/teratur. - 'п: ZKG 27/1974/469-485.
9. StеIПЬ/В, Е.:. PrUfung der Gebrauchseigenschaften von Montageklebern fLir
Drehofenstelne. - 'п: ZKG 28/1975/244-251
10. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke е. V (VDZ) K~talog feuerfester Stoffe fLir
Zementwerke. MerkbIatt WE 1О vom November 1968. - VDZ, 4000 DLissel-
dorf, TannenstraBe 2.
11 Zachwy, O./Konig, G./Eisermann, Е .. Neuere Uberlegungen zur mortelfreien
Drehrohrofenzustellung. - 'п: Berichte der Deutschen Keramischen Gesell-
schaft 52/1975/150 -152.
458
IV. Clinker storage
Ву В. Kohlhaas
1 General . 459
2 Forms of construction and space requirements . 459
3 Selection criteria . . . 463
4 Design... . ..... 464
5 Filling and empty Iпg silos and other storage structures 465
6 Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles 465
6.1 Storage buildings . 465
6.2 Outdoor stockpiles 469
References 471
1 Generai
It is still fairly соттоп practice to store cement clinker in outdoor stockpiles ог in
roofed, but not completely enclosed, buildings. The dust nuisance associated with
such ореп storage is accepted as something to Ье put ир with. However, with
increasing size of present-day cement works and the widespread introduction of
environmental pollution prevention regulations the need to accommodate the
clinker in properly enclosed storage structures is growing тоге urgent.
The recommended storage capacity to Ье provided corresponds to between 15 and
30 days' production.
2 Forms of construction and space requirements
Various forms of construction have Ьееп introduced, depending оп the planned
storage capacity, the subsoil and the general local conditions. 'П every case,
however, it is essential to have the greatest possibIe effective capacity and to
ensure efficient emptying. The possibility of storing different types of clinker тау
have to Ье considered.
Some commonly encountered types of storage structure, with their theoretical
effective capacities and space requirements, аге shown in Figs. 1 а, 1 Ь and 1 с.
Comments оп Fig.1 а:
'П the design of large silos for clinker it is a/ways important to find the most effi-
cient and inexpensive shape. The various clinker silos indicated in Fig. 1 а аге all of
approximately the same capacity, the object of these drawings being to show
various possibilities (though without laying апу claim to completeness). The
dotted lines represent the discharge arrangements.
Silo type "а" occupies little space оп plan, but is very unfavourabIe because it has а
large lateral surface агеа and, оп account of the high ground bearing pressure,
requires ап expensive foundation slab. Besides, the bucket elevators аге very
high.
459
 \.;UI'I::iLrUL;LIU'" and space requirements

Туре "Ь" rep~esents а wid~ly applied form of silo construction, which compares б2m

bГ~ ~
favourabIy wlth the рге~еdlПg type in having а smaller lateral surface агеа, lower 30т
bu.cket elevators, and slmpler foundation, especially оп structurally favourabIe
sOlls.
Silo type ."с" ha~ its disc~arge outlet above ground level, enabIing the clinker to Ье
loaded dlrectly IПtо vehlcles. Against this, however, the cost of construction is
higher than for type 'Ъ".
Thanks to its I~rge dia.meter (БОm), silo type "d" is characterized Ьу its small
32т~
surfa~e агеа ,п геJаtюп to its cubic capacity. The cost is nevertheless

8
conslderabIe.

о
The forms of с~)Пstгuсtiоп represented Ьу types "е" and 'Т арреаг favourabIe
~e~ause t~ere IS по expensive foundation slab and the bucket elevators аге of
Ilmlted helght. However, ~il? "е" i~ not t~ Ье recommended in the event of high
805m2
ground-wat~r l~v,~I. and dlfflcult so11 condltions, especially if excavation presents
prob.lems. Sllo f IS тоге favourabIe because of its shallower foundation, but it Fig.1 Ь: Comparison of space occupied Ьу silo. tent-shaped circular
reqUlres two tunnels ог ducts for withdrawing the clinker.
store and hall-type building for 45000t of cement clinker (from Sillem,
The se~re~ation of the clinker into larger and smaller particles, which is liabIe to
occur ,п sll~s of la~ge diame.ter, сап Ье compensated Ьу means of а receiving 1972)
tunnel, provlded wlth а сlеаГlПg plough, under the silo.

8~~
Comments оп Figs.1 Ь and 1 с:
Com~arisons ~etween silos in respect of their capacity should Ье based оп the
ef~ectlve cap~~,ty, namely, the quantity of clinker that сап Ье discharged freely, i. е.,
wlthout геqUlГlПg the asslstance of а bulldozer-type vehicle. I n this sense silos have

Sito Zett НаНе

а) 20 т; Ь}30 m; с)30т" sito tent гоо' hall
fig.1 с: Comparison of effective capacities of clinker storage structures
(from Sillem, 1972)

Q ~
the largest effective capacity, as appears from the comparative diagrams in Fig.1 с
representing а silo, а tent-roof (conical) building and а hall-type building. In аll
three cases а flat Ьонот has Ьееп assumed. 'П the "tent" and the "hall" the clinker
Iying in the dead space сап, however, Ье pushed to the discharge openings Ьу
bulldozers ог other means.

~8~
Rou nd silos occupy the least space, as Fig. 1 Ь shows. Against this is the drawback
that large silos exert high ground bearing pressures and аге therefoгe unsuitabIe оп
structurally роот soil. 'П such cases there remains а choice between the "hall" and
the "tent". The lаНег тау then Ье the less expensive alternative оп account of its
", ",' '~' '?:f' smaller агеа оп plan in а case where а piled foundation is required. Another
c.i possibility оп sites with difficult soil conditions is to bui\d а number of small silos
e)50m; f)50m" instead of опе large silo.
Some clinker storage structures actually built ате shown in the following
fig.1 а: Various forms of silo for the storage of cement clinker (capacity
about 30000 mЗ) (from Funke, 1968) illustrations.
461
460
 D. Manufacture of cement IV. Clinker storage

Entstau bung
dust collec-
tion system

Langsam laufende
KettenbE'cherwerk
(100 t/h) Silomantel
slow-running vorgespannter Beton
chain bucket pres tressed concrete
elevators wall 01 silo

Abraum
clinker to Ье
cleared separately
Fig. 4: View ofthe storage building shown ёп cross-section ёп Fig. 3 (from
Sillem, 1972)
Abzugs- und Transportkanal
Zubringerka"nal
extraction and conveying duct
leed duct
'А prestressed concrete silo of about 50000 t capacity is illustrated in Fig. 2. Clinker
Fig. 2: Silo constructed of prestressed concrete for 50000 t of clinker is fed into it Ьу two low-speed bucket elevators and is discharged through four
(from Funke, 1968) bottom outlets.
Flgs.3 and 4 show а "tent" clinker storage ЬUlldlПg of the EnCI cement works
+40,50
at Maastricht, Holland. It has а capacity of 70000 t. The lower part is of regular
16-angle shape оп plan, with а diame~r of 70 т. The tent-shaped roof is
supported at its centre оп ап internal silo сараЫе of holding 2000t of сllПkег. Ап
+ 28.93
inclined conveyor feeds clinker into the silo and storage building. Extraction is
effected through 26 bottom openings with three belt conveyors.

з Selection criteria
The following considerations аге applicabIe in deciding what type of storage
structure to use and what capacity it shou Id have
What fluctuations in demand for the product, depending оп the state of the
market, will the storage facilities have to соре with?
Should а larger quantity Ье stored as ап operationa/ safeguard, тоге
particu lar/y to соре with fluctuations in production?
What is the structural quality of the subsoil оп which the structure is to Ье
~
built?
70т --------~ Аге there statutory regulations for environmental protection to Ье complied
with?
Fig. З: Cross-section through а tent-shaped clinker store (from Sillem, Is the storage structure to Ье built of steel ог of reinforced concrete?
1972)
What methods of filling and emptying it аге envisaged?
462
463
D. Manufacture of cement IV. Clinker storage
Fig. 5: Steel silos for clinker storage; erection Ьу the spiral method (from
Peter/Erni, 1978)
For example, if the subsoil is unfavourabIe (Iow bearing capacity, etc.), but steel
plate is obtainabIe at relatively low cost, it will Ье possibIe to build inexpensive
ciinker storage sllos Ьу means of the rational "spiral" method of erection. The
construction material should Ье weather-resistant steel (grade WT52-1I1 соп­
forming to EW 087-70, acceptance under test certificate 50049-3.1 С) (Fig. 5).
Steel silos of appropriate construction require по painting and аге therefore
virtually maintenance-free.
In every project involving the selection of а particular type of silo ог other storage
structure it is highly advisabIe to make а careful cost comparison.
4 Design
Besides the temperature of the clinker there аге also some other important aspects
to consider in connection with the design of steel ог reinforced concrete silos. It
would Ье outside the scope of this book to go into these aspects of structural
design. Further guidance is obtainabIe from, among others, the following
pubIications:
Н. J. Klischat, Lengerich/Westf., ZKG 25/1972/494-495.
1. Kleine, Heidelberg, ZKG 25/1972/391 - 394.
К. Pieper, Р. Martens, D. Kroll and К. Wagner, Techn. Univ Brunswick, ZKG
23/1970/337 - 342 (whether further literature references аге given).
К. Hering, Brunswick, ZKG 28/1975/523 - 525 (with further references).
464
Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles
5 Filling and emptying silos and other storage structures
With regard to the filling and emptying of silos for cement clinker it is necessary to
ensure that these operations аге accomplished as smoothly and regularly as
possibIe so as to avoid unequal (one-sided) loads оп the wall and foundation.
The familiar material handling appliances - such as vertical bucket elevators,
inclined bucket elevators, belt conveyors, deep-pan conveyors and steel аргоп
conveyors - аге used for delivering clinker to silos and storage buildings and for
uniformly distribution it in these structures. As the clinker coming straight from the
cooler тау still have а fairly high temperature (upto about 3500 С), great саге must
Ье taken to choose handling devices of the right type and adequate capacity for the
purpose.
Discharge of clinker from storage structures is effected through the appropriate
number of outlets equipped with rotary valves ог gates (as closing devices) with
attached vibratory chutes feeding the clinkerto аргоп conveyors, belt conveyors ог
clinker handling cars.
6 Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles
6.1 Storage buildings
Besides silos, which have already Ьееп тоге particularly described in the
preceding chapters, various types of building classifiabIe as "halls" ог "sheds" аге
used for the storage of cement clinker. Older structures of this category, originally
of semi-open construction, сап usually Ье subsequently closed in. However, the
cranes with which such buildings аге often equipped and which serve to distribute
and reclaim the clinker will then generally have to Ье replaced Ьу handling devices
which raise much less dust. In addition, efficient dust collecting equipment will
have to Ье installed.
New large clinker storage buildings аге designed as fully enclosed structures and
аге equipped with appropriate handling installations. Operation is automatic,
requiring по attendant personnel.
Опе of the largest enclosed hall-type clinker storage buildings is at Rфгdаl cement
works, Aalborg, Denmark (Fig. 6). Its dimensions оп plan аге 240 m х 60 m and its
capacity is 200000t. The roof covering consists of aluminium panels.
Other examples of clinker storage buildings аге illustrated in Figs.7, 8 and 9.
The storage installation shown in Figs. 1 О, 11 and 12 is а special case. Soil
conditions and the ground-water level оп this site made it possibIe to build а
structure with considerabIe effective capacity (about 100000t), approximately
120 m long, 55 m wide and 34 m high. The whole stockpile is roofed Ьу а
lightweight covering consisting of galvanized steel profiled sheeting supported оп
precast reinforced concrete beams. The clinker is fed to the store Ьу means of а
deep-pan conveyor. Short арroп conveyors withdraw the clinker from seven outlet
openings discharging into а handling duct.
465
D. Мапufасtше of cement IV. Clinker storage Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles

Fig. 8: Clinkerstorage building of а cementworks at Boulogne-sur-Mer,

France (from Smith/Homassel/Juan, 1978)

Fig. 6: Clinker store (from Christensen, 1971)

Fig.7: Clinker storage building at Port-Ia-Nouvelle cement works, Fig. 9: Clinker storage building of а cement works at Montreal, Canada
France (from Smith/Homassel/Juan, 1978) (from Smith/Homassel/Juan, 1978)

466 467
D. Manufactuгe of cement IV. Clinker storage Outdoor stockpiles

6.2 Outdoor stockpi les

Fig.10: Plan of clinker store (from Ki.Jhle, 1974)
Where environmental conditions permit it, outdoor stockpiling of clinker is ап
alternative form of storage. 'П that case, however, precautions to prevent excessive
dust formation аге necessary. Some possibIe ways of overcoming dust nuisance
тоге particularly in connection with depositing the clinker оп the pile аге indicated
here.
Оп по account should the clinker Ье dropped from апу appreciabIe height under
ореп (non-enclosed) free fall conditions onto the stockpile. Reclaiming from the
pile should Ье Ьу underfloor extraction through а suitabIy large number of
discharge openings. With such arrangements the dust-raising methods of clinker
handling, е. g., Ьу using bulldozers to push it to the openings, сап largely Ье
obviated. Steel ог reinforced concrete columns ог towers for depositing the clinker
оп the stockpile тау Ье constructed. These structuгes аге provided, for example,
with discharge openings at various levels, closed Ьу gates or flaps, which сап Ье
opened as required to let out the clinker falling from the top of the tower (Figs. 13
and 14).

Fig. 11: Longitudinal section through clinker store (from Ki.Jhle, 1974)

Fig. 12: Cross-section through clinker store (from Ki.Jhle, 1974) Fig. 13: Concrete tower оп outdoor clinker stockpile (from Funke, 1968)

468 469
О. Manufacture of cement IV. Clinker storage IV. Clinker storage - References

Alternatively, stacker belt conveyors mounted оп booms which сап Ье raised and
lowered тау Ье used for stockpiling the clinker. 'П such installations the Ьоот
movements аге automatically controlled Ьу means of sensors responding to the
height of the pile. А storage system of this kind is shown in Fig.15.

References
1. Bomke, Е.: Erganzungen und abschlieBende Stellungnahme von Н. Sillem zu
3. - In:ZKG 25/1972/456.
2. Christensen, В.: Die Zementfabrik Rфdаl bei Aalborg. - 'п: ZKG
24/1971/407.
3. Funke, G.. Die Lagerung von Zementklinker - ein StaubprobIem? - In: ZKG
21/1968/376.
4. Gstattenbauer. J.: Neuanlage fl.ir 3000 t/d Klinker im Zementwerk Wetzlar. -
'п: ZKG 30/1977/97.
Fig.14: Steel tubular structure оп outdoor clinker stockpile. at end of 5. Haspel, H./Gerok, Н.' Stahlklinkersilo bis 3500 С fl.ir 48 000 t HeiBklinker. -
belt conveyor (from Funke, 1968) 'п: ZKG 29/1976/541
6. Hering, К.: Zur Berechnung der Temperaturbeanspruchung von Klinkersilos.
Stellung 1 . Transport zum Lager - 'п: ZKG 28/1975/523.
position 1 . delivering to stockpile 7. Кleine, J.: Beitrag zur Ermittlung des Temperaturgetalles in der Wand eines
Stellung 11 Transport уот Lager Klinkersilos. - 'п: ZKG 25/1972/391.
position 11 . reclaiming from stockpile 8. Klischat, Н. J.: Temperaturmessungen ап einem Stahlbeton-Klinkersilo. - 'п:
ZKG 25/1972/494.
кl inkerhalle
Betonmast 9. Kl.ihle. W.· Ein Klinkerlager fiir 100000 t. - In' ZKG 27/1974/278.
clinker store concrete tower 10. Peter, М. F./Erni, Н.: AlIgemeine Betriebseinrichtungen. - 'п: ZKG
Drehofenhaus 31/1978/117 .
.' ~oe~e~
rotary kiln building \3Gt'\o~o e'l0~ ....-~:х",1I>.. 11 Pieper, К./ Mertens. Р. / Kroll. О. /Wagner. К.: Silos fl.ir Zementklinker - 'п.
\ c.ot'\'I.-~...".-<,
'ое\ 1.C){'f\ ZKG 23/1970/337.
~~~?;:: 12. Radewald. Н .. Die neue 3000 t/d - Produktionslinie im Marker Zementwerk
Harburg. - In. ZKG 32/1979/49.
13. Sillem. Н .. Mahlen und Lagern von Klinker und Zement. - 'п: ZKG
Hi.ilsenfundament 25/1972/53.
Straf3e
foundation socket 14. Smith, О. / Homassel. В. / Juan. F.: Die Bauarten von М ischbett- und Klinker-
road
- ~ EI.-Zug lagerhallen in modernen Zementwerken. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/131.
Abwurfkopf electric hoist
throw-off head
Forderer
сопуеуог
Gammastrahler
gamma radiator Mast Rolle
tower roller

Fig. 15: Outdoor clinker stockpile with belt conveyor that сап Ье raised
and lowered (from Funke. 1968)

470 471
О. Manufacture of cement V Cement silos Large-capacity silos

А principle that all pneumatic emptying systems have in common is that of partial
V. Cement silos
aeration of the silo floor ог bottom. The object is to introduce only so much
compressed air into the silo as is needed for discharging the cement at the desired
Ву Н. К. Klein-Albenhausen rate and to keep the energy consumption as low as possibIe.
The air bIown into the silo is automatically switched cyclically from sector to sector
of the bottom Ьу а special distributing device in conjunction with pneumatically
General . . . . . 472 operated valves which аге opened and closed as required.
2 Large-capacity silos . 472 The silo bottom should Ье so designed as to Ье free from апу slopes ог other
References. . . 476 features that аге liabIe to cause "bridging". Vertical walls and short handling paths
at the bottom of the silo аге two basic requirements for efficient emptying. With
fairly long paths it may оссш that "dead" zones аге formed in which the cement
remains stagnant and may eventually harden, necessitating subsequent removal Ьу
manuallabour. Important, too, is that all the aerating sectors of the silo should Ье
1 General activated uniformly in succession, in order to ensure that the material level goes

Installations for the storage of cement аге ап important feature of а modern cement
works. With the steady increase in size of the production units there has Ьееп а
corresponding increase in silo capacity. Large-capacity silos with diameters of
20 m and more, and сараЫе of holding anything up to 30000 t of cement рег
silo, must Ье so designed that they сап Ье efficiently emptied. Also, expensive
intermediate handling ofthe cement should Ье eliminated as far as possibIe in order
to have suitabIy rationalized procedures for despatching the cement from the
works.
The number and size of the cement silos will depend оп the operating and despatch
conditions of the works in question 'П the past, silos were preferabIy installed at
ground !eve!, but in recent years the trend towards elevated construction has Ьееп
manifest, the advantage being that it is then often possibIe to feed the cement
direct - i.e., without intermediate handling - from the silo to the sack filling
machines ог to the bulk despatch loading bays.
The present article will not Ье concerned with the various devices for the emptying
of bins, hoppers, etc. but will deal only with the bottom discharge arrangements
used in modern big cement silos.

2 large-capacity silos
The silos used for the storage of cement present по probIems as regards filling
them. То achieve equally ргоbIеm-fгее emptying is much more difficult. Modern
cement silos аге invariabIy equipped with pneumatic handling systems and
pneumatic discharge and flow regulating devices. Integral features of such silos
comprise ореп trough-type conveyors and/or aerating units supplied with
compressed air for enlivening the cement to assist its discharge from the silo. The
air is supplied Ьу rotary piston bIowers at pressures ranging from about 4000 to
8000 mm W.g. Depending оп the silo emptying system, the air supply rate for Fig.1 : Flow control
attaining а certain cement discharge rate varies. In some systems the compressed gate. pneumatically
operated
air admitted into the silo is partly discharged through venting pipes, while in others
(IBAU Hamburg)
all the air is discharged along with the cement.

472 473
 ~ ~ :!!
CIIф(О
_. CII •
CllCIIСА)
... Ф •.
9:Q,C
CII 11) CII
(') _.ф
':7-'
11) - о
-.11)-+\
(O~(')
Ф (') о

...~ 3'
о

---~ -~ ~ -1-- -----т--

--г-
I

I
I

I
I

Sila with ареп si/a with sila with sila with

central сапе displacer сапе callecting chamber relief chamber
Fig. 4: Various types of silo bottom construction
.j::.
-...J
01
D. Manufacture of cement V. Cement silos Е. Packing and loading for despatch 1. Packing

down at а regular rate over the entire silo cross-section. Failure to achieve this тау
give rise to funnelling, so that some of the contents will rush to the outlet, while in Е. Packing and loading for despatch
other parts there is little ог по motion of the cement, which is thus liabIe to solidify
and harden there. 1. Packing . . 477
Flow regulating valves control the rate of cement discharge from the silo (Fig. 1 ). Ву Р. Schwake
То prevent bIockage of the outlet in the case of cements tending to form lumps,
1 Intгoduction 477
disintegrators for breaking the lumps тау Ье installed ahead of these valves . \ 478
2 Types of packaging
(Fig. 2). Large lumps which cannot Ье dealt with in this way have to Ье broken up 478
2.1 Sacks .
from outside the silo with the aid of compressed air lances (Fig. 3). 479
2.1.1 In-line packing machines
Fig. 4 shows various forms of construction used for silo bottoms in the present-day 483
2.1.2 Rotary packers . . . . .
cement industry. 488
2.1.3 Fully automatic operation
2.1 .4 Sack magazine . . . 489

References
11. Despatch of cement . 490
1. Ferrando, 1.: Restentleerung bei modernen Zementvorratssilos. - In: ZKG Ву Е. Bomke and G. Schafer
31/1978/178. 1 Despatch in sacks. . 490
2. Lauren, К. G./Myreen, B./Venho, J.: Homogenisierung des Fertigprodukts im 490
1.1 Individual sack loading
Zementwerk Pargas. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/335. 1.2 Palletization. 492
1.3 Direct loading . . . 494
2 Bulk loading . . . . 495
2.1 Loading installations 498
2.2 Weighing systems. . 502
3 Loading of clinker and crushed stone . 503
4 "Big bag" despatch. . . . . . . . 503
5 Shrink-wrapping......... 506
6 Automation of despatch pгocedures. 512
References . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Acknowledgements for illustrations . . . . 514

1. Packing
1 Introduction
What type of packaging is chosen for the despatch of cement will depend оп local
circumstances and оп the most favourabIe transport facilities availabIe: road, rail ог
water (ship ог barge).
In principle, there аге three possibilities: packing in sacks*) (ог bags), despatch in
bulk, and "big bag" despatch.

') The terms "sack" and "bag" are synonymous in the present context; "bag" is the preferred
term in American pubIications.

476 477
2 Types of packaging
2.1 Sacks
Cement used to Ье packed in wooden casks ог steel drums. Nowadays jute ог рарег
sacks аге used, especially the latter. The рарег valve sack is the type most
extensively employed. In contrast with the ordinary ореп mouth sack the valve
sack is closed оп all sides except for а small opening at опе согпег through which
the cement is introduced into the sack. As а result of the excess pressure that
develops inside the sack, this opening automatically closes (in the manner of а
non-return valve) оп completion of the filling operation.
These sacks аге mostly of the so-called pasted end type, but sacks with sewn end
closures аге still used to some extent.
Рарег sacks for cement аге generally of two-ply construction, consisting of kraft
рарег made from soda pulp, each ply having а weight of 90-1 00 g/m 2 . For rough
handling conditions, sacks with three, four ог five plies may Ье used.
Fig.1 : Three-spout packer. Operated Ьу опе man, this machine сап fill
about 900 pasted-end paper sacks per hour, each sack containing 50 kg
of cement
478
Special machines are required for filling valve sacks. These machines аге
commonly called sack (or bag) packing machines ог merely "packers".
Sewn valve sacks are more awkward to fit onto the filling spouts of the machine,
besides requiring more attendant personnel to achieve equal filling rates, than
pasted valve sacks.
2.1.1 In-line packing machines
Packers of the in-line type, with three ог four stationary filling spouts side Ьу side,
аге now used only for capacities of up to 80 t/hour. The type more extensively
used, with capacities ranging up to 120 t/hour, is the rotary packer (Figs.1
and 2).
The cement fed to the packer is passed through а screen which stops апу foreign
bodies, oversize particles ог lumps (above 3 mm in size) which аге undesirabIe in
the cement and а possibIe hazard to the machine.
The level of the cement in the feed hopper over the machine must Ье kept as nearly
constant as possibIe.
Fig. 2: Four-spout packer for about 1100-1200 sacks per hour
479
Е. Расkiпg апd lоаdiпg for despatch 1. Расkiпg Types of расkаgiпg: iп-liпе расkiпg mасhiпеs

The most favourabIe аrrапgеmепt for а sack расkiпg iпstаllаtiоп is as follows

(Fig. 3):
bucket elevator;
sсrееп to rеtаiп oversize (viЬrаtiпg sсrееп);
storage hopper with miпimum апd maximum level iпdiсаtоrs;
rotary valves сопtrоllеd Ьу the material level over the расkiпg mасhiпе;
расkiпg hopper;
расkiпg mасhiпе;
spillage hopper for rеturпiпg сеmепt, spilled iп the sack filliпg ореrаtiоп, to the
расkiпg circuit.

The feed bucket elevator must оп по ассоuпt Ье followed Ьу рпеumаtiс hапdliпg

devices which fluidize the сеmепt, as this would adversely affect the расkiпg
ореrаtiоп.
То еlimiпаtе dust пuisапсе, dust extraction iпtаkеs соппесtеd to соllесtiпg
еquiрmепt of ample capacity should Ье provided at all роiпts where dust is
especially likely to arise. The "dust" (i.e., сеmепt) collected iп this equipment is
returned to the расkiпg circuit.

1 equal-arm weigh-beam
2 weight Ьох
3 upper guide rod
4 lower guide rod
5 sack support
6 filliпg spout
7 damping system 6
8 fiпе feed сопtrol device
I

9 proximity switch
1О proximity switch

Fig. З: Main features of а packing plant

1 bucket elevator
2 vibratory sсrееп /
3 storage hopper
4 gate valve 1О sack сlеапiпg uпit
5 rotary valve 11 lоаdiпg belt for road vehicles
6 расkiпg hopper 12 lоаdiпg belt for railway wаgопs
I
7 расkiпg mасhiпе 13 spillage rеturп screw 5 It 7 2
8 flat belt сопvеуоr 14 spillage rеturп screw Fig. 4: Weighing system of ап in-line packing machine with equal-arm
9 flat belt сопvеуоr 15 spillage соllесtiпg hopper weigh-beam

480 481
 Е. Packing and

The filled sacks аге conveyed, Ьу the shortest possibIe routes, to the despatch 2.1.2 Rotary packers
loading bays. The number of transfer points from опе опе belt conveyor to another
'П contrast with the in-line packer with its filling spouts mounted stationary side Ьу
shou.ld a~so Ье as few as possibIe, for at each transfer the sack receives а jolt,
causlng ItS contents to shift over to опе side. As а result the sacks become side, requiring the machine operator to move from spout to spout, the spouts оп the
so~ewhat lopsid~d in thickness and more difficult to stack. Arrangements to
rotary packer move опе Ьу опе into position in front of the operator, who merely
- achleve ~mooth Jolt-free transfer from опе belt to the next will avoid abrupt has to fit the valve sacks onto them as they successively pass him. Figs. 7 and 7 а
changes ,п level, e.g., Ьу means of curved transition belts. show the weighing systems conventionally used for rotary packers, while Fig. 8
Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate the weighing system of the in-line packen. schematically shows ап electronic system. There аге rotary packers with 6, 8, 12
and 14 spouts.
Besides higher capacity, the rotary packer has the advantage that the period
between depositing the successively filled sacks оп the belt conveyor is constant,
so that they аге equally spaced оп the conveyor, а fact which is especially
10 advantageous when sacks have to Ье stacked Ьу hand.
20 Manual application of valve sacks to the spouts.
9 It has hitherto Ьееп common practice to fit the sacks Ьу hand onto the filling
11 spouts. With in-line machines ап operator сап attain rates of 300 sacks рег hour in
12
this way. With ап eight-spout rotary packer he сап attain approximately the same
2 rate. Much will depend оп his skill and experience, however. Some performance
13 14 figures аге given in ТаЫе 1.
18 5
6
7
19 1
15
8 1. Sack bundle magazine
2. Pivoting Ьelt
3. Sack bundle feeder
4. 5ack bundle elevator
3 5. Packer
6. TurnabIe
main feed fine feed filling 7. Discharge СОПУеуо'

~
1 ~1
~
1 completed
С Г
(~~?'112 ~ Г О
L _

I
(1
I /
L

L. 112
(-
I -
~ со
L ,12
Fig. 5: Diagram of ап in-line packing machine with equal-arm-weigh-
beam
1 weigh-beam 11 filling tube
2 sack support 12 filling tube plate
3 weight Ьох 13 pointer
4 trickle feed regu lator 14 sca le
5 magnet 15 suspension for weigh-beam
6 catch 16 upper guide rods
7 engaging hook 17 lower guide rods
8 damper 18 suspension for fine feed control
9 sack holder 19 saddle 4
1 О switch for magnet 20 roller Fig. 6: Automatic Rotating Packer

482 483
 Е. Packing and loading for despatch

5 Fjg. 7а: Diagram 01 а rotary 1 filling spout

packing machine with equal-arm 2 valve sack 10
weigh-beam
13
3 sack sadd 'е
Description: 4 sack support
Eight such weighing units are 5 compression spring
mounted together оп а turnabIe and (overload protection)
are jointly served Ьу а storage hop- 6 mounting frame 12
per. Each unit comprises ап equal- 7 flexural bar
arm weigh-beam (5), the weight Ьох 8 flexural bar attachment
(8), the support for carrying the 9 machine frame
valve sacks (sack saddle) which is 1О weight indication
guided Ьу the guide rods (1 and 12), 11 guide rod 1
the fine feed control device (11), 12 tare relieving spring
r-цp'ffi"'""- --1
the damping system (6 and 7), and 13 tension adjusting screw
the quick-action cut-off system 14 fixing aperture i
(3 and 4). 15
16
stop
stop screw
+-2
4 i
I
J
11 з

:; Fig. 8: Diagram 01 ап electronic weighing system

~
.
-8

12 -10

13
Description (Fig. 7Ь):
The cement is discharged Ьу the impeller (1) through the filling spout or tube (2)
into а valve sack standing оп the saddle (3), which is guided parallel Ьу the rods
(4 and 5). The load istransmitted fromthesaddlethrough thetension rod (7) tothe
equal-arm weigh-beam (8) comprising two levers interconnected Ьу а cross-piece
(1 О). The weight Ьох (13) is suspended from the weigh-beam. The damper (15)
functions only when the left arm of the beam descends. For quickly cutting off the
feed flow when the specified filling weight has Ьееп attained, the upper flange of
the channel-section cross-piece (1 О) causes the small weight (9) to tilt, so that its
attached lever now suddenly swings down and strikes the lower flange of the
cross-piece and thus accelerates the closure of the feed device. The spring (14) оп
3
the damper assists this action. Оп removal of the load, the right arm of the weigh-
Fig. 7Ь: Diagram 01 а
beam rises, and the lower flange of the cross-piece swings the small weight (9)
packing machine with ~II:IUаl-CjIГН!!)i,)i
back to its upright position of rest against the stop (11).
weigh-beam
Up to eight of these weighing units сап Ье assembIed оп а single turnabIe for а
Description (Fig. 7Ь): see р. 485 rotary packer. Maximum load per unit: 50 kg.
484
485
~ m
00
о'> "'tI
Q)
(")
7'
3'
(Q
Q)
:::)
Q.

о"
ТаЫе 1 : Rotary packer data: filling time, diameter and number of filling spouts (Haver & Boecker, Oelde/Westf.) Q)
Q.
3'
filling time рег speed circumferential velocity time/sack time/sack packing rate packing rate (Q

time revolution 8 spouts 6 spouts 8 spouts 6 spouts Q

Qj 2000 Qj 1600 Q.
ф
(f)
'о
(sec) (sec) (r.p.m.) (m/sec) (m/sec) (sec) (sec) (sacks/h) (sacks/h) Q)

n
:r
7 9.8 6.17 0.65 0.518 1.22 1.63 2940 2200
:-
8 11.2 5.4 0.568 0.456 1.4 1.86 2570 1930 "'tI
9 12.6 4.8 0.505 0.403 1.57 2.08 2290 1730 Q)
(")
10 14.0 4.3 0.45 0.362 1.75 2.34 2060 1540 7'
3'
11 15.4 3.91 0.41 0.328 1.93 2.58 1870 1400 (Q

12 16.8 3.6 0.378 0.303 2.1 2.81 1710 1280

13 18.2 3.32 0.338 0.278 2.32 3.1 1550 1160
14 19.6 3.08 0.324 0.259 2.45 2.28 1470 1100

ап angle of 2600 for filling has Ьееп assumed

-n
сВ'
w
DI
:::)
Q.
.d
О

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с:::
....о
3
DI
....
n·
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2-
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а
Qi
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~
00 ~
-....1
 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 1. Packing Types of packaging: sack magazine

2.1.3 Fully automatic operation

The fully automatic s.ack applicator functions independently of the human
operat~r, whose physlcal effort it relieves, leaving him теге/у to perform а
supervlsory function (Figs. 9 and 1 О).
The autom~tic app/ic.ator comprises а stationary part and the applicator arms оп the
r~tary расklПg machlne. Each sack is taken individually from а гееl of sacks and is
Ilfted Ьу means of suction cups, which a/so ореп the valve of the sack. Each spout
ofthe packer is provided with а swivel агт (rotating with the machine) fitted with а
gripping device which seizes а sack and swings it into position over the spout as
soon as the previous sack has Ьееп filled and released from the spout.
The automatic system does, however, suffer from а disadvantage: whereas the
human operator сап smooth out апу crumpled sacks before applying them to the
spouts, the automatic applicator is unabIe to do this. Непсе it is essential to ensure
that the empty рарег sacks аге supplied uncrump/ed to the packer. Fig.11
illustrates а rotary packer of compact design.

2.1.4 Sack magazine

Н itherto standardpractice has Ьееп to combine the empty valve sacks into bundles
of 25, stacked in ап interlocking configuration to form 1000-sack bales held
together Ьу steel straps. This method of packaging the empty sacks presents по
probIems so long as they аге applied manually to the filling spouts of the packing
machines. With the advent of the automatic applicator а different form of
packaging for the empty sacks had to Ье devised, however.
The following procedure has Ьееп found satisfactory: 'П the sack factory the empty
sacks аге laid overlapping опе upon another and wound оп а spool. The гееl of

Fjg. 11 : Rotary packer of compact design Fig. 12: Paper sack reels
488
489
sacks formed in this way is held together Ьу means of two strips of plastic which are
likewise wound into the reel. Up to about 3000 two-ply sacks сап thus Ье
assembIed into а reel, usually of 1500 тт diameter, which is sufficient to keep the
average packing machine supplied with sacks for about 1'/2 hours.
The reels of sacks are delivered to the cement works, where they are each mounted
оп а spindle and placed оп the unreeling stand (Fig.12).
Experience has shown the reel to Ье the best form of sack magazine. because with
this method the sacks do not crumple; indeed, they are smoothed in the reeling-up
operation. Besides, convenient and easy separation of the sacks is possibIe only
with the overlapping arrangement.

Fig. 1 З: Loading machine for open vehicles

11. Despatch of cement
The ratio of the quantities of cement despatched in sacks to those despatched in
bulk varies greatly from опе country to another and from опе part of the world to
п "'"~~lГ''""''-ОО--l
another. For the individual cement works the respective proportions of "sack" and
"bulk" are dictated Ьу outside circumstances and cannot Ье notabIy altered. There Q-~II 1, !
is, however, scope of choice with regard to the type of loading equipment to Ье
used and the degree of automation of the loading and despatch operations.
So-called 'Ъig bag" despatch is as yet of minor importance in comparison with
g~~Ш-,"1t
despatch in sacks and in bulk.
~0-3БОО I 2200 11500 \ "'00-710~
1 Despatch i n sacks
Products packed in sacks are despatched either as loads consisting of individual
sacks and formed with the aid of loading machines or as palletized unit loads, i.e.,
each consisting of а number of sacks stacked and secured оп а pallet. Palletizing
of the sacks сап take place either directly оп the floor of the despatch vehicle itself
or indirectly for intermediate storage. The loading of sacks from intermediate
storage тау vary in the method of supporting and of securing the unit loads.

1.1 Individual sack loading

Machines for the loading of sacks individually into road vehicles or railway
waggons are used in circumstances where fully automated loading systems are not
appropriate to requirements or offer по advantages. The wide variety of sack
loading machines that have Ьееп developed over the years сап Ье subdivided in
principle into those for loading ореп vehicles and covered vehicles respectively.
Also, а distinction сап Ье made between machines for side loading, for rear-end
loading and for loading "from above", more particularly from the upper storey of
the sack packing house (Fig. 13).
For loading sacks into railcars, machines comprising three main sections and Fig. 14: Railcar loading machine
mobile in three dimensions are employed, as illustrated in Fig. 14. mobile in three dimensions

490 491
 Despatch in sacks: palletizing
Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement

Despite the degree of mechanization, sack despatch with the aid of such loading
machines is labour-intensive. As ап approximate guide, а gang of at leasttwo теп
сап attain а loading rate of about 1500sacks per hour.

1.2 Palletizing
'П cases where conventional systems of individual sack loading are ruled out,
palletizing is often applied, i.e., the sacks are assembIed into unit loads (stacks)
оп pallets Ьу machines. These loads are placed in intermediate storage, from
where they are removed with the aid of fork-lift trucks and loaded into vehicles
for despatch. 'П the storage areas, the palletized loads have to Ье stacked

_----4235
------5776

Figs. 15а and Ь: High-capacity automatic palletizers for the building

materials industry, embodying different design principles 1>
493
492
опе upon another, and this means that these loads themselves have to consist of
stabIe stacks of sacks held securely in place. The standard sack used in the cement
industry has dimensions of 600 mm х 400 mm х 130 mm and is usually stacked five
to а layer (with dimensions of 1000 mm х 1200 mm) оп so-called рооl pallets
(800mmx1200mm) ог оп 150 pallets (1000x1200mm). The size of the
palletized unit load is determined Ьу the number of layers of sacks. Four layers form
а load weighing 1 ton. Loads comprising from four to eight sacks аге commonly
employed. They аге handled usually Ьу fork-lift trucks equipped with doubIe-
length forks, so that pallets сап Ье handled two at а time. For this more efficient
operating procedure, it is best to employ trucks with 7.5 t lifting capacity. As а
rule, automatic palletizers аге required to attain rates of 2000 to 2400sacks рег
hour in order to епаЫе these machines to operate directly in-line with modeгn
high-capacity sack filling machines which operate at similar rates. Examples of
automatic palletizers of such capacity аге shown in Figs. 15а and Ь.
'П conjunction with the further development of high-capacity rotary sack packing
machines, automatic palletizers have Ьееп developed to а high level of technical
performance, enabIing palletizing rates of up to 5000 sacks рег hour to Ье attained.
5ubstantial savings in terms of capital expenditure оп buildings and handling
appliances сап Ье effected Ьу the use of such machines.
For making comparisons between direct palletizing оп vehicles and the use of sta-
tionary automatic palletizers producing palletized loads for intermediate storage,
it will Ье useful to summarize the advantages offered Ьу these two alternative
systems
With direct palletizing, the sacks аге transferred directly from the packer to the
vehicle, оп the floor of which the empty pallets, provided Ьу the customer, аге
piaced in readiness to receive the sacks of cement. The obvious advantage of this
system is that the space and cost of construction required Ьу а storage building аге
saved. Also, less personnel is needed than when palletized loads have to Ье put
into, and reclaimed from, intermediate storage, and the expense of handling empty
pallets and repairing damaged ones is likewise eliminated. Against this, the
stationary palletizer producing palletized loads for intermediate storage has the
advantage that the stored loads form а buffer stock wh ich makes the cement works
and/or the customer less closely dependent оп the availabIe sack packing and
palletizing capacity. It also enabIes the packers to Ье operated оп а single-shift
basis and yet to meet peak demands from customers Ьу using more fork-lift trucks
to load their vehicles when circumstances require this. Besides, with loading
palletized sacks from store, there is а high degree of flexibility in assembIing а
mixed load - e.g., different types ог grades of cement - оп опе and the same
vehicle. А rule of thumb for estimating the required intermediate storage capacity is
that it should Ье аЫе to contain between two and four times the daily quantity
despatched.
1.3 Direct loading
Direct loading means the placing and stacking of sacks directly оп the floor of
the vehicle Ьу means of automatically functioning machines.
494
Modern machines of this kind operate оп the same principle as automatic
palletizer, i.e., they stack the sacks in а regular interlocking pattern a~d thus. form
а carefully assembIed load with adequate stability. From the technlcal Р~lПt of
view, these automatic loading machines embody different modes of ор~гаtюп.. lп
опе type of machine, the individual sacks, ог а whole layer of sacks: аге Ilfted wlth
the aid of suction cups and lowered Ьу the action of hydraullcally powered
telescopic arms onto the floor of the vehicle. Another type of machine ~as
electromechanical operation: ап automatic machine of this kind, for direct 10аdIПg
onto ореп vehicles, is shown schematically in Fig.16. .
А fully automatic machine for the rear-end loading of sacks into covered.v~.hlcles
ог into containers has Ьееп developed. It consists essentially of а telescoplc Jlb and
а palletizing (stacking) head, the whole installation being mounted ?п а tra~sverse
travel unit, so that it сап serve several vehicle loading bays located slde Ьу slde and
рага lIel to опе another (Fig. 17) .
Because of the prevailing climatic conditions, а high proportion of covered
vehicles is used for cement despatch in Western and Northern Europe. 5uch
vehicles, and also ореп ones with fixed superstructural features (e.g., on-.board
cranes), сап most suitabIy Ье loaded with side loading machines tr~velllng at
ground \evel. These deposit the sacks in layers equal in width to the wldth of the
vehicle Ьу means of а retractabIe fork extending sideways over the floor of the
vehicle. After each layer has Ьееп placed, the loading fork is raised а distance equal
to опе layer depth, and the next layer is then formed оп the previous опе. When t~e
predetermined number of layers has Ьееп loaded, the machine travels а cert~ln
distance (parallel to the longitudinal direction of the vehicle) eq~al to the stасklПg
width it сап serve from each working position. It then lowers ItS fork and starts
loading the first 'ауег of the next stack оп the vehicle ~Ioor, ап? so оп.
Automatic loaders for sacks аге at present built for поmlПаllоаdlПg rates of up to
2500 sacks рег hour Idle time due to vehicle changing ог ~o switc~~ng from опе
sack packing machine to another сап Ье reduced Ьу the IпtеГрОSltюп of buff.er
sections, i.e., sections a\ong the handling path where fil\ed sacks аге temporarl.ly
accumulated in order to smooth the irregularities in supply from the packers ог In
demand from the loaders.
For the loading of sacks into railcars, only partially automated systems have
as yet become availabIe.
2 Bulk loading
Despatch of materials in bulk offers better possibilities for automation of ~he
material flow than does the despatch of unit loads. This is reflected in the deslgn
features and arrangements for bulk loading in the cement industry. Ап important
requirement applicabIe to such bulk loading installations is that they must епаЫе
the cement to Ье fed into tanker-type bulk carrier vehicles under dust-free
conditions. Handling rates for the bulk loading of road and rail vehicles should
range up to about400 t/hour, while ship ог barge loading installations usually have
495
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@ тёlе de chargemenl
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@ Sackbugelband @ PressBelt
@ Bande а repasser les sacs
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@ Abschleber - РОSltюпiегеп @ Sl'de Positioner
О Positionneur а Iгапslаlюп
@ Andruckbalken @ Pressplate @ Poussolr
@ Hubwerk @ Winch
@ Moteur de levage
@ Schaltschrank т,! Sleuenafel @ Control Рапеl with 'nstrument Board @ Armoire electrique avec labIeau
@ Slrome,nspe,sung @ Power CabIes
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Fig. 16: Diagram illustrating the principle of ап automatic sack loader, with electromechanical action,
for ореп vehicles

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Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement Bulk loading: loading installations

p.5QQ
to attain substantially higher rates (1000 -1200 t/hour). The equipment must Ье
simple to operate, so that it сап Ье worked Ьу the vehicle drivers themselves.
А well regulated and continuous supply of the bulk material is obviously essential
to the ргорег functioning of а bulk loading system. The handling and feeding
devices for conveying the cement to the actualloading equipment comprise rotary
gates, screw conveyors, flow regulating valves, vibratory troughs, chain соп­
veyors, belt conveyors, etc.

2.1 loading installations

The principal feature of а bulk loading system is the loading unit (Fig 18)
comprising the inlet casing with dust extraction ports, the doubIe-Ьеllоws loading
spout (alternatively, а telescopic steel tube тау Ье employed), the conically
tapered nozzle which fits into the inlet opening of the Ьц Ik carrier veh icle to form а
dust-tight seal, and the filling level monitor. The doubIe-Ьеllоws spout made of
textile fabric сап suitabIy Ье used for the handling of non-abrasive bulk materials.
For abrasive materials, ог where high throughput rates аге required, the telescopic
steel tube is тоге appropriate. The dust-Iaden air displaced from the interior of the
vehicle's bulk carrying tank during the filling operation escapes through the
annular space between the inner and the outer tube of the doubIe-Ьеllоws spout
(ог between the telescopic steel tube and the bellows-type outer tube in which it is
enclosed) and is extracted Ьу suction. In this way апу dust pollution of the
environment is obviated.
The level monitoring devices used for bulk loading systems аге - depending оп
the nature of the material handled - based оп опе of various operating principles'
mectlanicai, capacitive ог inductive level sensing.
Bulk loading installations as described here аге either of the stationary ог the
mobile type. In the latter, which тау in turn Ье of the swivelling ог the travelling
variety, the loading unit is connected to а movabIe feed system. The vehicle to Ье
loaded is moved into position in the loading Ьау and need then not Ье moved again
until the filling operation has Ьееп completed. The loading spout is successively
moved to the several filling inlets along the vehicle. The movabIe feed system
supplying the spout is of various types, depending оп the nature of the bulk
material being handled' screw conveyors, airslides (of single ог articulated
construction), telescopic tubes, etc. Mobile bulk loading installations аге shown in
Figs. 19а and Ь.
AII the loading units тау either Ье connected to а central dust filter ог each Ье
equipped with ап individual dust filter forming ап integral feature of the loading
unit (Fig. 20). If different grades ог types of cement аге loaded Ьу means of the
same installation, the individual-filter system avoids mixing of the different dusts
collected from the installation. The dust сап therefore Ье returned to the material
flow, with the further advantage that pipes ог ducts from the loading units to а
central filter аге dispensed with. The air extraction rate associated with the filling of
bulk carrier vehicles ranges from 1000 to 3000 mЗ/hоur.
As the actualloading operation starts and proceeds fully automatically as soon as
the nozzle of the loading spout has Ьееп fitted to the inlet of the vehicle, the scope Fig. 18: Bulk loading unit

498 499
 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement Bulk loading: loading installations [1
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 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement
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Fig. 20: loading unit with integrated dust filter
for further rationalization of bulk loading operations is somewhat limited. There аге
still possibilities in further developing the "self-service" operation of the loading
equipment Ьу the vehicle drivers, together with the issuing of vehicle identification
badges to achieve time-saving automation of the despatch documentation and all
other records required in connection with the commercial transaction.
2.2 Weighing systems
Various weighing systems аге used in conjunction with the bulk despatch of
materials.
With net weighing the loading spout is preceded Ьу а calibratabIe weigh hopper in
which а predetermined quantity of cement is held in readiness for discharge into
the vehicle. The tare weight of the vehicle is therefore irrelevant. Alternatively, а
predetermined quantity of cement сап Ье discharged, as required, from а weigh
hopper which is constantly kept filled. А cut-off switch оп the loading spout
prevents overfilling.
With gross weighing the vehicle stands оп а calibratabIe weighbridge during the
loading operation. First the tare weight of the empty vehicle is determined. Filling
502
Loading of clinker and crushed stone - "Big bag" despatch
then commences, and when а certain predetermined fill quantity has Ьееп reached,
the material supply is cut off and the gross weight of the vehicle plus its load is
measured. The net weight is then obtained as the difference between gross and
tare. А cut-off switch in the loading spout prevents overfilling.
In ап alternative method the tare weight of the empty vehicle is determined оп а
calibratabIe weighbridge, and the vehicle is then filled from а поп-саliЬгаtаbIе
weigh hopper preceding the loading spout. Finally, the gross weight of the loaded
vehicle is measured оп а calibratabIe weighbridge.
з loading of clinker and crushed stone
The equipment for the bulk loading of cement, as already described, is generally
suitabIe for dealing with pulverized materials possessing good flow properties. For
the despatch in bulk of coarsely granular or lump materials such as clinker, crushed
stone, lump lime and other comparabIe products, loading installations as shown in
Fig.21 are used. The installation in question comprises а telescopic tube, а dust
arresting dome, bellows-type tubes for dust removal, and the suspension system
for the loading unit. During the loading operation it must Ье ensured that the outer
rubber аргоп is kept constantly in contact with the conical pile of material, to
prevent escape of dust. А level monitoring device in the dome emits signals which
cause the loading unit to Ье progressively raised as the pile grows higher.
The loading unit for tanker-type bulk carrier vehicles сап Ье fitted with а dust
arresting dome to make itsuitabIe for the loading of ореп vehicles (Fig. 22) It thus
becomes а dual-purpose system suitabIe for either type of vehicle. The dome is
connected Ьу means of quick-action clip-on devices to the lower end of the unit.
Ву means of а special catch the cut-off valve in the spout is held ореп during the
loading of ореп vehicles. This form of construction of the loading unit is often also
used for ship ог barge loading.
4 "Big bag" despatch
This method of cement despatch from the plant has Ьееп made possibIe Ьу the
development of extremely strong and durabIe packaging material and the use of
appliances that сап handle loads weighing 1 ton and more. Thanks to these
arrangements, very large sacks (called "bjg bags") сап Ье used for transporting the
cement to its destination.
More particularly, two systems are to Ье distinguished in connection with the "big
bag" despatch of cement one-trip (disposabIe) sacks and ге-usаbIе sacks. .
The disposabIe packaging consists of а large square-bottom sack made of а plastlc
ribbon fabric, lined with plastic sheet. During the filling operation the mouth of the
sack is held wide ореп. ОП completion of this operation the sack is closed Ьу
503
Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement Loading of clinker and crushed stone

Fig. 21 : Loading of clinker 01' crushed stone

Fig. 22: Dual-purpose loading unit for tanker-type and for ореп vehicles

504 505
 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement
Fig. 23: "Big bag"
filling terminal
means of а self-closing triangular device, which сап serve also as а lifting attach-
ment for transporting the filled sack over limited distances.
The ге-usаbIе sack likewise consists of plastic ribbon fabric with plastic sheet
lining. It has ап inlet and ап outlet opening, enabIing limited quantities of cement
to Ье discharged to suit requirements. For transport and emptying, the sack сап Ье
suspended Ьу means of straps. Though somewhat тоге expensive than the опе­
way sack, this type of 'Ъig bag" has the advantage that it сап Ье used over and over
again before becoming unserviceabIe.
Fig.23 shows а "big bag" filling terminal.
5 Shrink wrapping
Especially in connection with shipments for export it is essential to protect cement
pa~ked in sacks, more particularly in the form of palletized unit loads, against
mOlsture and also to ensure that these loads аге well secured and stabIe so that the
506
Shrink wrapping
sacks will not slip ог topple down during handling and in transit. То achieve this,
shrink-wrapping ог stretch-wrapping of the whole unit load (the stack of sacks)
including the pallet аге techniques that have Ьееп applied for а number of years
now. They suffer from some disadvantages, however, which аге associated with
the pallets themselves. Besides, the unit loads formed in this way аге not
completely protected against the weather оп all sides, so that outdoor storage is
possibIe only under suitabIe weather conditions.
А more recent development has Ьееп the "palletless" shrink-wrapping of stacks of
sacks, thus eliminating the drawbacks of having to use pallets. The installations for
this method of packaging produce large unit loads wrapped in shrunk-on
thermoplastic film which аге watertight, stackabIe and strong enough to withstand
the buffeting they receive during handling and transport. As а rule, polyethylene
film is used, which has the advantage of possessing considerabIe toughness and
ductility, low water absorption, high resistance to chemical attack, good work-
ability and lower price than other сотрагаЫе types of film. For special purposes,
polyethylene films containing so-called stabilizers аге availabIe, enabIing them to
withstand short-wave radiation, heat and other climatic influences.
Besides forming strong and conveniently storabIe and stackabIe unit loads,
palletless shrink-wrapping has the advantage that the cement сап Ье packed in
ordinary two-ply рарег sacks, whereas otherwise cement intended for shipment
overseas usually has to Ье packed in five- ог six-ply sacks.
The principle of this packaging method is as follows. First. the sacks аге stacked in
layers of five, with their pattern alternating from 'ауег to 'ауег so as to obtain
interlocking. However, the last (top) 'ауег consists of only three (ог sometimes
four) sacks which аге so placed as to form а recess ог ledge along each side of
the stack. Later, when the stack has Ьееп shrink-wrapped and turned upside down
for transport, the prongs of а fork-lift truck сап Ье inserted into these recesses,
which аге now оп the underside of the load. For the actual packaging operation
there аге several methods availabIe, differing in details from опе another. The
individuallayers of shrink-wrapping plastic film consist of flat sheets ог of hoods
formed from tubular film which envelop the stack and аге heat-shrunk and bonded
together. 'П this way the stack is finally enclosed in а strong, watertight, tough but
elastic wrapping which is completely weatherproof and сап withstand frequent
handling operations Ьу fork-lift trucks ог cranes and the other forces to which it
тау Ье subjected during transport.
Figs 24а and Ь show shrink-wrapping lines using hoods of plastic film which аге
drawn down over the stack in opposite directions, after reversal of the stack. In the
system shown in Fig. 24с the stack is first enclosed in а hood, reversed, and then
covered with а top sheet which hangs down оп all sides and is shrunk and bonded
to the hood. The shrinking of the plastic film wrappings is accomplished Ьу passing
the wrapped stack through а shrink tunnel (continuous oven).
The first machine in апу such shrink-wrap packaging line is ап automatic palletizer
which, for this purpose, must Ье аЫе to complete the stack - composed of five-
sack layers - with а final layer containing only three (ог four) sacks.
507
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Ф Deckfoliengeber
Ф Folienhaubanautomat
Ф Schrumpffolienerhitzer
Ф l<antenformer
Ф Wendavorrichtung
Ф Deckfoliangeber
Ф Schrumpffolienhaubenofen
Ф Fбrdегапlagеп
o Palletlzlng automet Paletpac8
Ф Соуег Film Placer
Ф Film НОod Automat
Ф Shrink Film Оуап
Ф Gusset Former
Ф Stack Tuming Devica
Ф Cover Alm Р1асег
Ф ShrtnkOven
® Conveyor
o Automate de palettisetion Paletpac8 o AutOmata de paletizaciOn PaletP8c8
Ф Distrtbuteur de feuille de couverture Ф Distribuidor de lйmiпа envasadora
Ф Appareil automatique de розе de la housse Ф Equipo automatico de COlOC8ciOn de епуазе
Ф Four de r6trection Ф Ното раге contracciOn de lйmiпа
Ф Formeur des coins Ф Modelador
Ф Dispositif da retoumement Ф Dispositivo volteador
Ф Distributeur de feuille de couverture Ф Distribuidor de lйmiпа recubridora
Ф Housseuse ® Ногпо раге 'а r6trecclon de fundas de pla8lico
® Transporteurs ® Transporlвdores

Fig. 24а: Automatic shrink-wrapping lines for forming palletless unit loads composed of stacked sacks:
konterpac process

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 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement
Shrink wrapping

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shrink film for the remaining surfaces material costs will Ье reduced

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The inner hood covers the package entirely - this is the basic requirement for the
mechanical stability of the palletless despatch unit and results, at the same time, in
complete water-tight cover. Upon completion of the first shrinking process of base
and inner hood the whole package is turned 1800

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stability of different packages material savings аге possibIe Ьу infinitely variabIe
adjustment of reverse hood (short and complete hood). During final shrinking
process same is laminated to inner hood thus forming hermetically sealed
watertight envelope

Fig. 24с: Automatic shrink wrapping

510
511
 Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement
6 Automation of despatch procedures
'П recent years cement producers and manufacturers of cement plants have Ьееп
striving to develop and introduce methods, systems and forms of organization with
the aid of which complex computer-controlled despatch facilities сап co-ordinate
and сотЫпе the movements of аН products leaving the plant and also the arrival
of certain materials coming into the plant (additives for cement production, апу
products returned from customers). This automation concept comprises а сот­
puter system for data acquisition, data storage, despatch operations control and
despatch data ouput. The vehicle weighbridges and loading installations аге also
linked to the computer. Оп arrival at the cement works each vehicle driver is issued
ап identification badge. Не inserts this into а badge reader and states his
requirements. Не is automatically instructed to proceed to а particular loading Ьау,
where he himself carries out the loading operation, оп completion of which he
is automatically issued а delivery note. The despatch data for customer invoicing,
financial accounting, etc. аге fed into the commercial electronic data processing
system of the cement plant [11 а].
References
1. Behm, Н.: Pack- und Verladesysteme fur Ventilsacke. - ZKG 23/1970/
549-553.
2. Beumer jr., В.: Erfahrungen und Neuentwicklung bei der Verladung von
Sacken. - ZKG 27/1974/290- 293.
3. Beumer jr., В.: Neuentwicklungen auf dem Gebiet der automatischen Sack-
verladung i.md Palettiertechnik. - ZKG 31/1978/146-150.
4. Beumer, В.: Neue Wege im Versand und in der Lagerung von abgesackten
Produkten. - ZKG 32/1979/477 -484.
5. Birkenfeld, А.: Einsatzkriterien fur Einzelsackverladung und Palettenumschlag.
ZKG 23/1970/554- 560.
6. Birkenfeld, А.: Zementversand - Optimierung durch palettenlose Umschlag-
einheiten. - ZKG 32/1979/471 -476.
7. Bomke, Е.: Verladen von losem Zement im Zementwerk. Bomke & Bleckmann.
ZKG 27/1974/295-297.
8. Bunse, S.: Abfullmaschine mit elektronischer Waage. - ZKG 31/1978/
189-190.
9. Dressler, W.: Verladen von losem Zement bei Heidelberger-Zement. - ZKG
27 /1974/297 - 300.
10. Dressler, W.: Rationalisierung im Packereibetrieb von Zementwerken durch in
Lagerhallen aufgestellte Palettierautomaten - ZKG 31/1978/143 -145.
11. Drumm, J. C./Brady, Р. A./Nolan, J. В.: Versandanlage fur palettierten
Sackzement. - ZKG 31/1978/186 -188.
11 а. Hilbig, W .. POLDIS - ein modernes System zur Versandautomatisation,
Krupp Polysius AG, Beckum.
11 Ь. Kaldewey, F. Lose-Verladesysteme fur Schuttguter in LKW, Eisenbahn-
wagen und Schiffe. - ZKG 30/1977/299-306.
512
Е. Packing and loading for despatch 11. Despatch of cement
12. Klein-Albenhausen, Н.: Оег integrierte Zementterminal. Eine neuartige Ver-
sandanlage fur Zement. - ZKG 32/1979/480-493.
13. KrauB, W.: Planung zeitgemaBer Lose-Verlade-Anlagen in Zement- und
Kalkwerken. - ZKG 23/1970/563-566.
14. Lassig, Н.: Palettieren in Zementwerken. - ZKG 27/1974/286-287.
15. Lassig, Н.: Neue Wege im Zementversand. - ZKG 29/1976/398.
16. Lange, Н.: Sackpalettierung mit dem Gabelautomaten. - ZKG 27/1974/
287-299.
17. Niemeyer, Е. А.: Vollautomatisierte Sack- und Loseverladung fur 3 Mio t/a im
Zementwerk Lagersdorf. - ZKG 31/1978/137 -142.
18. Planitz, К.: Verladen von losem Zement bei Dyckerhoff-Zement. - ZKG
27/1974/301-302.
19. Radewald, Н.: Planung der Verladeanlage fur losen Zement im Marker
Zementwerk Harburg/Schwaben. - ZKG 27/1974/303-304.
20. Reitemeyer, О.· Die Schrumpfpaketierung in neues Verfahren zur Bildung
palettenloser Sackzement-Umschlag-Einheiten. - ZKG 30/1977/206-211.
21. Reitemeyer, О. /Thun, W.: Wirtschaftlichere Sackzement-Verladung durch
Palettierung, Direktverladung und Schrumpfpaketierung, ein Methodenver-
gleich. - ZKG 32/1979/56-65.
22. Remmert, J.: Automatisierte Sackverladung mit dem Autopac 11. - ZKG
29/1976/56.
22а. Schater, G.: Anlagen zur automatischen Palettierung und LKW-Verladung
von Sacken. - ZKG 34/1981/306 - 308.
22b.Schater, G. Palettenlose Schrumpffolienverpackung von Sackstapeln. -
ZKG 35/1982/178-187
23. Schwake, Р.: Vollautomatische Sackabfullung. - ZKG 27/1974/283-285.
24. Schwake, Р.: Erste vollautomatische Zement- Packerei der Welt. - ZKG
30/1977 /372-374.
25. Schwake, Р.: Eine neue Аега der Absacktechnik - Neue Chancen fur den
Papiersack in der Zementindustrie. - ZKG 31/1978/155-156.
26. Steinert, Н. Е.' Hahn, Р., und Schrbder, Н., beide Erlangen. Automatische
Lose-Verladung im Zementwerk Lagerdorf. - ZKG 32/1979/119-123.
27. Teutenberg, J.: Versand-Automation im Zementwerk. - ZKG 26/1973/
157 -165.
28. Thormuhlen, Р.: Moderne Versand-Konzeption fur losen und abgepackten
Zement. - ZKG 31/1978/183 -185.
29. Thormuhlen, Р.: Rundpacker mit Turbinenrad. - ZKG 31/1978/575- 578.
30. Thun, W.: Die automatische Anlage fur die Lose-Zement- Verladung im
Portland-Zementwerk Bomke & Bleckmann. - ZKG 26/1973/170-175.
31. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke е. V., Dusseldorf: Verladung von losem
Zement. - MerkbIatt МТ 25.
32. Wendte, Е. / Spindler, А.: Einsatz speicherprogrammierbarer Steuerungsgerate
fur die Automatisierung der neuen Sackzement-Verladung im Werk Lagerdorf.
ZKG 32/1979/124-127.
33. West, Н.: Modernisierung und Ausbau einer danischen Zementpackerei.
ZKG 33/1980/425-428
513
References
F. Handling and feeding systems

34. Wichmann, W.: Palettierautomat in der Sackpackerei des Zement-Werkes

Kiefersfelden. - ZKG 27/1974/S. 294-295. F. Handling and feeding systems
35. Referat: Schrumpffolienverpacken von Sackstapeln mit und ohne Paletten-
einsatz. - ZKG 30/1977/241.
Continuous conveyors
36. Referat: Automatische Sackverladung auf LKW durch Caricamat-Verladean-
lagen. - ZKG 30/1977/343 - 344.
Ву F. Mechtold
37. Referat: Neuer Sackverlade-Automat fur LKW-Direktbeladung. - ZKG 30/
1977/346.
1. General introduction 515
38. Referat: Das neue Palpack-System. - ZKG 30/1977/347.
11. Belt and band conveyors 516
39. Referat: Doubrava-Sack- Fбгdег- und Ver/adeanlagen. - ZKG 30/1977/
1 Belt conveyors. . . . 516
347-348.
2 Steel band conveyors . 523
40. Referat: Hochleistungspalettiertechnik und automatische Direktbeladung von
111. Bucket elevators . . 523
Fahrzeugen im Einsatz. - ZKG 30/1977/349.
1 General explanation. . 523
2 Belt bucket elevators . 525
3 Chain bucket elevators 529
Acknowledgements for iIIustrations
4 Swing bucket elevators 535
Figs. 1 -12 and 23 Haver and Boecker, Oelde/Westf., W. Germany IV. Chain conveyors . . . 539
Figs. 13,14, 15а, 16-24а, 24d Beumer Maschinenfabrik KG, Beckum/Westf., 1 Flight conveyors . . . 539
W. Germany 2 Continous-flow conveyors. 541
Figs. 15Ь and 24Ь, с: M6Ilers, Beckum/Westf., W. Germany 3 Apron conveyors . . 543
V. Vibratory conveyors. . 550
VI. Screw conveyors . . . 556
VII. Pneumatic conveyors . 559
VIII. Feeders . 570
IX. Weighing equipment 578
References. . . . . . . . 582

1. General introduction
As employed here, the term relates to material handling devices which run
continuously. The material itself тау Ье carried along in а continuous flow (е. g.,
оп а belt conveyor) ог in individual receptacles which тау Ье very closely spaced
(e.g., оп а bucket conveyor) ог farther apart (e.g., оп а bucket elevator) ог indeed
some considerabIe distance apart and possibIy detachabIe (e.g., оп aerial
ropeways ог tramways).
In practice an optimum handling system in any given case тау require а
combination of two ог тоге types of continuous conveyor, as is exemplified Ьу the
clinker handling system shown in Fig. 1. The arrangement illustrated here сап Ье
varied Ьу using swing bucket elevators in lieu of the handling devices 5, 6 and 7, in
which case the second bucket elevator 6 for lime and gypsum will also Ье omitted,
because а swing bucket system сап handle two ог тоге different materials
simultaneously and yet separately from one another. Further information оп these
various types of conveyor and elevator is given in the relevant sections of this
chapter.
514
515
 F. Handling and feeding systems 11. Belt and band conveyors Belt conveyors

ТаЫе 1 : Notation used in formulas

тт width of conveyor
тт height of side walls of trough ог casing
тт height of transverse wall of casing
m conveying height (ascending: positive; descending: negative)
t/h mass flow
mЗ/h volume flow
reduction factor to allow for inclination of conveyor
m distance between centres
kW power consumed in raising the material
kW power consumed in overcoming special frictional resistances
kW motor power rating
тт chain pitch
m/s conveying speed ( = circumferential velocity in screw
Fig.1: Diagram of clinker handling system at а cement works conveyor)
1 drag-chain or short-plate аргоп conveyor; 2 bucket conveyor ог short-pan ~ angle of repose of material being handled
аргоп conveyor; 3 drag-plate аргоп conveyor for material distribution; 4 short- 8 angle of inclination of conveyor
plate аргоп conveyor for extraction from hoppers; 5 short- рап аргоп conveyor for ~ coefficient of friction between material and wall ог base
collecting; 6 bucket elevator; 7 drag-plate аргоп conveyor; 8 weigh belt feeder; Q bulk density of material being handled
9 belt conveyor q> loading factor
л tгoughing angle of belt conveyor
D m external diameter of screw conveyor
'П these the reader will find tabIes and/or diagrams giving essential information оп d m shaft diameter of screw conveyor
handling capacities, drive power requirements, limiting values for conveying
s m pitch of screw conveyor
length, height, etc. These data аге geared to practical needs, so that the desired
n Г.р.т. speed of rotation
information сап Ье found quickly, without having to perform lengthy calculations.
Obviously, it is not possibIe to give anything like ап exhaustive treatment of the
subject within the scope of this book. For further details the reader should consult
specialized literature and the relevant standard specifications. developed rubber mixes for the belt covers provide better wear resistance and,
The notation and units employed here аге as listed in ТаЫе 1. within certain limits, temperature resistance. 'П ambient temperatures above 500 С
it is necessary to use special high-temperature belting, the best grades of which
сап, under short-term loading conditions, withstand temperatures up to 1800-

11. Belt and band conveyors
1 Belt conveyors
Belt conveyors have Ьееп used for а great тапу years as handling devices for bulk
materials and also for unit loads. They аге the most widely used continuous
conveyors because they аге adaptabIe, versatile, reliabIe and economical. There
has Ьееп much progress in the development of new and better types of belt in
recent years, including the widespread use of synthetic fibre instead of cotton
fabric for the carcass of the belt. The need for ever higher handling capacities has
thus resulted in conveyor belts made with all-synthetic polyester ог polyamide
fabrics which аге characterized Ьу substantially higher tensile and impact strength
and superior deformability in respect of stretch and troughing of the belt. Newly
516
2000 С. А general drawback of belt operation at elevated temperatures is the
accelerated ageing of the rubber. Thus, at 1200 С the service life of the belt is
halved. For this reason, various types of аргоп conveyor have largely superseded
"rubber" belt conveyors for the handling of hot materials.
The best protection for the belt carcass, which is the actual pull-transmitting
"structural" element of the belt, is pгovided Ьу suitabIy thick covers, particularly оп
the upper ог carrying face of the belt, their function being to pгotect it from damage
Ьу lumps of material falling onto it (cushioning effect), which might otherwise
puncture ог tear the fabric carcass, and fгom wear Ьу abrasive action. The thickness
of the cover should Ье at least 2 тт оп the upper and at least 1 тт оп the lower
face. ТаЫе 2 gives appгoximate values for extra cover thickness (in addition to the
2 тт minimum requirement) оп the upper face of belts for handling various types
of material and for various types of loading onto the belt at the feed point.
517
 F. Handling and feeding systems 11. Belt and band conveyors Belt conveyors

The required minimum belt width depends оп the following factors: Narrow belts, especially if they contain а high proportion of steel wire or other
(а) the required handling rate; reinforcement, are more difficult to form into а transversely troughed shape than
(Ь) the maximum particle size of the material to Ье handled; wide ones. 'П such circumstances the narrow belt will rest only with its edges оп
(с) the properties of the belt. the side idler rollers and not Ье properly true-running. Although this probIem сап
Ье eased Ьу the use of very flexibIe belting fabric with specially supple weft
threads, troughing angles of 30 degrees or more should Ье used only with fairly
ТаЫе 2: Extra thicknesses for belt covers wide belts. The relation between minimum width and the particle size of the
material to Ье handled is indicated in ТаЫе 3, where the belt widths standardized in
properties PARTICLE SIZE Germany are given. Obviously there are certain economic limiting belt speeds,
of the depending оп the nature of the material to Ье handled Ьу the conveyor. These are
material fine medium given in ТаЫе4. There are standardized belt speeds: 0.84, 1.05, 1.31,1.68,2.09,
coarse
being 2.62 m/second.
handled DENSITY Certain relationships between belt width and idler roller diameter and idler spacing
should Ье conformed to in order to avoid subjecting the material being handled to а
light medium "rough ride" and especially also to keep the drive power input as low as reasonabIy
heavy
possibIe. These data are indicated in TabIes 5 and 6. The volume flow rates J v (in
abrasiveness m 3 /hour) attainabIe with various belt widths and troughing angles of the belt, for а
belt speed of 1 m/second, are given in ТаЫе 7, while reductions in handling rate
feed point low medium due to upward slope of the belt are taken into account Ьу means of the factors k in
severe
Q)
ТаЫе 8.
~
.... The angle of inclination 8 should not exceed 15-18" if ordinary (plain) belting is
(о

:; с:
Q) used. The normal troughing angle is л = 20". The theoretical values given in
о
:::) 3-6 6-10 10-15 ТаЫе 5 are, because of irregularfeed of material to the belt, often exceeded Ьу upto
(J) > >- о-

Z ~
с:
U
Z
~ 50% in actual practice, so that а loading factor <р = 0.7 to take account of this
о should Ье applied.
i= ~ ш
::J The mass flow J M (t/hour) сап then Ье calculated as follows'
ё5 d Е
z Е ш J M (t/h) = J v (m 3 /h)'v (m/s)' р (t/m 3 ) '<р.
:::)
а: .~ 1-3
О :о LL -а 3- 6 6~10 The required drive power of а belt сап Ье approximately calculated with the aid of
u Q) Q)
ТаЫе 9 and the following equation:
~ Е ~ Е
z z Pmotor(kW) = P,'v + P2 'J M ± Р Н + Ps .
1- I

ё5 О
.... The power term Р, for v = 1 m/second for various belt lengths is indicated in
<t:
Q)
:Q
<t: с:
ТаЫе 9 and has to Ье multiplied Ьу the actual speed v at which the belt is running.
о Q)
о (о
...J :::)
...J :; о- 0-1 1- 3 3- 6 Similarly, the value Р 2 must Ье multiplied Ьу the mass flow rate (t/hour). The term
о
> ~ Р Н taking account of the belt inclination has the positive sign if the belt slopes
~ .!:: upward in the conveying direction, and the negative sign if it slopes downward:
Р Н = J M . Н/367.
The last term Ps represents the power losses due to ancillary equipment such as
feeders, trippers, ploughs (scrapers), etc. For each additional device of this kind
ТаЫе З: Relation between width of belt and particle size of the material with which the belt conveyor is equipped, the following values should Ье added
to Ье conveyed to the power consumption: 1 kW up to 650 mm belt width, 2 kW up to 1250 mm,
3 - 4 kW for larger widths. These values relate to а belt speed of 1 m/second. They
maximum edge length should therefore Ье multiplied Ьу the actual speed in m/second. If there are skirt
graded material mm 100 150 200 300 400 500 600 plates to confine the material to the belt, ап additional 0.1 kW power consumption
ungraded material mm 60 90 130 190 260 330 390 per metre length of the conveyor should Ье allowed.
minimum belt width mm 400 500 650 800 1000 1200 1400 Where the conveyor has its transition from ап upward inclined to а horizontal
portion а convex curve occurs, which constitutes а kind of hump, as opposed to
518
519
 F. Handling and feeding systems 11. Belt а nd Ьа nd conveyors Belt conveyors

О ТаЫе 5: Diameter of idlers as а function of belt width

О
N .......... 00 r--L!) с")

MMN мм ..t belt width тт 400 500 650 800 1200 1600
О
О
а>г--ф L!)C")
light-duty type тт 76 89 108 108 133 159
О
NNN мм ..t heavy-duty type тт 108 108 133 133 159 193.7

cv?
CV?~
I ТаЫе 6: Average idler spacings
О I I L!)
фL!)-.::t
О NO r-- qCV? 00
00 NNN мм м о
belt bulk density of material (t/m 3 )
Е О width
-.::t-.::t ..... фL!) N
Е L!)

е
ф NNN NN м тт 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
~ О
О 0000 00 L!)
-15 L!) NN"': NN N 400 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.35 1.35 1.2
.~
650 1.5 1.35 1.3 1.2 11 1.1
О
ф О ~~C"? ~~
800 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0
.D -.::t N 1200 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9
1600 1.2 1.0 1,0 1.0 0.9 0.9

"О
о)

о>
"0"0 ТаЫе 7: Volume flow rates J v in m 3 /hour
о) о)
'о>
е-"О belt handling rate in m 3 /h for v = 1 m/sec.
со о)
~ ,
"О (f) е- width
е со
-o~ тт л=оо л=20
0

л=зо
о

л=35
0

А=40
0
1, =450
о (о
(J
Q)
о)
Е с: ~ Е
fII S .~ ~ ~ .~ ~ 400 23 44 52 55 57 58
"00)0)
Е
"О о)
ф о) > > о) > 500 38 75 86 92 96 98
Е о) о)
r:
.D (f) (f) Е ~ 650 69 133 156 164 172 176
fII 800 108 210 244 260 270 280
"'о
Q) 1000 173 335 394 415 435 445
Q)
Q. 1200 255 495 578 610 635 650
fII
1400 351 680 798 840 875 900
о>
r: Е 1600 464 900 1050 111 О 1160 1190
'';; Е
ai с") 1800 592 1150 1345 1420 1480 1520
~ "О
о)

>-
0)-
N
'сп
о)
I
с")
ai
~ ~
е
о) 2000 735 1420 1670 1760 1840 1890
(J о) N
'сп "О .g] S
'Е > о)

е о) о) N (f) о)

о о -"О iU-g 'сп :::J

.:Б
r: (.)
.!:! ~ Q. ... о)
"О со ТаЫе 8: Reduction factors k for various gradients
О to> .: "О
(J
о)
.D со е Е g> Е с:- (f)
0)-
о)

ш Q.:::J :::J :::J "О

iU "О :::J angle of inclination {) 20 60 80 100 140 180 200 220
2 Е о
Е ... Q. е .!:
o;:t 'х О 1:>- Е reduction factor k 1.0 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.85 0.81 0.76
.~ :::J
-а 0»
:::J
Q)
ф Е] со "О
:.= со фЕ
:о 'х "О
Е о)
"О
о)

"О - о) - о angle of inclination {) 240 250 280 300

10 ':ti со со
~ ~ со
O)~ ~(.)
Е Е5>
е reduction factor k 0.71 0.68 0.61 0.56
1- 00> о> ;.:: :Е

520
521
 111. Bucket elevators
F. Handling and feeding systems 11. Belt and band conveyors

ТаЫе 9: Drive power requirements for belt conveyors

~5 8 10 12.5 16

power term Р 1 for v = 1 m/sec. as а function of belt width and length

20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 320

0.85 1.15 1.29 1.65 1.91 2.43 2.87

500 0.2 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.50 0.56 0.65 0.75
1.35 1.55 1.96 2.35 2.94 3.40 4.26
650 0.28 0.35 0.38 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.81 0.94 1.07
1.65 2.04 2.43 3.06 3.60 4.41 5.22
800 0.35 0.43 0.47 0.51 0.62 0.67 0.76 0.88 0.99 1.16 1.41
2.55 3.09 3.64 4.59 5.35 6.54 7.72
1000 0.54 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.93 1.04 1.18 1.35 1.57 1.78 2.17
3.22 3.68 4.57 5.48 6.73 7.87 9.70
1200 0.64 0.87 0.88 0.97 1.12 1.25 1.41 1.69 1.86 2.23 2.57
3.88 4.45 5.51 6.62 8.09 9.49 11.76
1400 0.77 0.95 1.05 1.18 1.35 1.49 1.70 1.96 2.24 2.74 3.14

power term Р2 as а function of belt length

0.013 0.014 0.0163 0.0196 0.023 0.0265 0.0316
~ 0.0027 0.0033 0.005 0.0041 0.0064 0.0052 0.0059 0.0068 0.0079 0.009 0.012

According to information pubIished in the literature, ordinary belt conveyors сап

the concave curve at а transition from horizontal to an upward inclined portion. At
а convex c~rv~ the edge zones of а troughed belt tend to Ье overstretched, whereas
the Opposlte, 1. е., overstretching at the centre of the belt, will occur at concave
cu.rves. As а rule а stretch of up to about 0.8% сап Ье al\owed. In connection with
thlS, the angular deviation (in the vertical direction) from опе idler to the next
sh~ul~ not e~ceed а certain value, depending оп the troughing angle of the belt,
as IПdlсаtеd ,п ТаЫе 10. Where necessary, these permissibIe angles сап Ье соп­
formed to .?У closer spacing of the idlers. ТаЫе 11 gives limiting minimum values
for the radll of belt curvature at concave and convex vertical curves. Further details
оп these matters аге given in German Standard DIN 221 01.
ТаЫе 1 О: PermissibIe angles of deviation at each idler set
troughing angle in о 20 25 30 35
max. deviation angle in о 3 2.5 2 2
Ье installed in horizontal\y curved alignments if the radius is not less than 1000 m
There аге as yet, however, very few examples of such installations actually built.
2 Steel band conveyors
This type of "bel(' conveyor is equipped with а cold-rolled hardened steel band in
lieu of а "rubber" belt and is used for special purposes. l"hethlckness of the Ьапа is
usually in the range of 1.0 to 1.5 mm. Because of the flat and smooth surface of the
band, the material сап very suitabIy Ье discharged Ьу means of ploughs (ог
scrapers). Such conveyors аге not very suitabIe for the handling of hot materials
unless the band acquires а uniform temperature across its whole width; otherwise
buckling is liabIe to occur in consequence of differential thermal expansion,
causing serious troubIe in the operation of the conveyor.
40 45
1.5 1.5

ш. Bucket elevators
ТаЫе 11: Minimum transition radii as а function of belt width
1 General explanation
belt width mm 500 650 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 This chapter will deal only with vertical elevators. Handling devices of comparabIe
type for inclined conveying are included in the section оп аргоп conveyors.
л=20 Slow-speed bucket elevators (up to 0.7 m/second) discharge the material Ьу
0

Rconvex 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.5 17.0 19.0

л=25 gravity, i.e., it is simplytipped out ofthe buckets atthe head sprocket ог pulley. At
0

= R crest 7.5 10.0 12.0 15.0 18.0 21.0 24.0

л=зо higher speeds the centrifugal force plays а more significant part, and at speeds
о
9.0 12.0 14.5 18.0 21.5 25.0 29.0
above 1.5 m/second it alone determines the discharge behaviour, i.e., the material
Rconcave is flung out of the buckets instead of merely falling out. See Fig. 2а. For efficient
= Rvalley m 60.0 75.0 90.0 120 150 170 190 and complete emptying of the buckets, their shape, the design of the elevator head
523
522
 F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators
assembIy and the running speed must Ье correctly interadjusted. See Fig. 2Ь. The
standard types of bucket elevator аге indicated in DIN 151251, whiie bucket
shapes аге standardized in DIN 15231 -37. Slow-speed bucket elevators with
"inter~al" discharge аге used тоге particu larly for slightly sticky ог caking
materlals, such as wet potash salts, ог for friabIe materials which have to Ье
handled "gently".
Fig. 2а: Centrifugal discharge of а high-speed belt bucket elevator
а Ь с d е
Fig.2b: Various forms of bucket elevator
а high-speed elevator with centrifugal discharge; Ь low-speed bucket elevator
with angled head and gravity discharge; с low-speed bucket elevator with
snubb~d retur~ гип; d low-speed elevator with continuously mounted buckets,
each d/sсhагglПg over the preceding bucket; е low-speed bucket elevator with
internal discharge
524
Belt bucket elevators
2 Belt bucket elevators
Cotton fabric belts as traction elements used to Ье employed for bucket elevators of
the self-Ioading type - which scooped ир the material Ьу the digging action of the
buckets - for the handling of light fine-grained materials (below 60 тт particle
size). The desire to achieve greater elevating heights and to operate at higher
temperatures led to the development of belts incorporating polyester and steel
саЫе reinforcing elements. This has resulted in а general change in high-capacity
bucket elevator engineering. Whereas chain bucket elevators аге normally built for
elevating heights of not тоге than 50 - 60 т, with steel саЫе belts it is possibIe to
attain heights of ир to 100 т. The limiting factor is now not so much the strength of
the belt itself as that of the belt connectors for splicing the ends of the belt. А good
deal of research оп this aspect is still in progress. Figure 3а shows а commonly
used belt connecting system. It has Ьееп found in practice that, under high tensile
loading and with aging of the гиЬЬег covers to the belt, the steel wire cabIes аге
liabIe to Ье pulled out of the splice, resulting in parting of the ends of the belt. Steel
саЫе belts provided with transverse reinforcement display тоге favourabIe
behaviour in this respect. As ап extra safeguard, however, the chain connecting
device shown in Fig.3a has Ьееп deve/oped.
Fig. За: Clamped belt connection with safety chain
525
It is а well known fact that the rubber covers of the belts Ьесоте brittle under the
action of temperature in course of time. The fabric belts formerly employed,
however, suffered from the particular disadvantage that elevated temperature
(60-80 С) caused the carcass to age тоге rapidly than the covers. It was
0
Steel саЫе belts аге also better аЫе to withstand the action of foreign bodies.
Damage to а single саЫе in the belt is not so critical as the punching ог tearing of а
hole in а fabric belt.
The buckets should Ье spaced as close together as possibIe оп the belt in order to

therefore extremely difficultto assess the internal condition of а belt. With the steel
саЫе belt the situation is quite different. Неге the action of elevated temperature
will indeed cause embrittlement of the rubber covers, but will hardly affect the
reinforcing cabIes. It is therefore possibIe, simply Ьу visual inspection, to assess the
condition of the belt and estimate its unexpired service liefe. As а rule, therefore, а
steel саЫе belt will not fail suddenly; there is always enough time to ргосше а new
replacement belt. This means, too, that the cost of keeping spares in stock is
reduced. The relation between the service life of ап elevator belt and the
temperature of the material handled is shown in the accompanying diagram.
Material temperature in ос
100
780
760
achieve satisfactory filling. Апу material spilling out of the buckets has to Ье
scooped up again, with the attendant disadvantages of extra power consumption,
wear of the bucket edges, and heavier strain оп the bucket attachments to the belt.
The condition of the attachments and the belt itself should receive particular
attention anyway. The reinforcing elements (cabIes) should Ье undamaged,
otherwise they cannot safely Ье reckoned as transmitting the full design loads.
Elevator belting has Ьееп developed in which there аге certain longitudal zones in
which по cabIes аге present and in which the bucket fixing bolts сап suitabIy Ье
located. Fixing the buckets to the belt Ьу simple bolting is normally confined to
small installations with buckets up to 400 тт in width. То attain longer service life
а layer of compressibIe material should Ье interposed between bucket and belt so
as to ensure full-area contact at all times. This will prevent апу fragments of hard
material getting in between and becoming jammed there when the bucket passes
round the end pulleys.
For the handling of material of up to 30 тт particle size the so-cal\ed segment
fastening has proved very suitabIe (Fig. 3Ь), while the system shown in Fig. 3с is
to Ье recommended for material with particles up to 60 тт in size. In this latter

7'0 " .... .....

710 'r-... ..... , steel саЫе belt i --~
"- ............ v -1

700
" ........
г'...... ...........
/
.....
'-
.....-
............. ~bric belt
1'.....
-1--
~~ 2
г--

i
2 J 77, 72 5 6 ., 8 9 70 ~
400
Lifetime (years)
Relation between belt service life and temperature of the material 450
handled

Iп general, therefore, elevated temperatures will shorten the service life of belts, 1 = bucket 3 = intermediate ply of soft rubber
especially fabric belts. Their effect оп steel саЫе belts is less severe, which is а 2 = belt 5 = segment strips
significant advantage because in material handling practice it is not always
possibIe to keep within the design temperature limit. Fig. ЗЬ: Segment fastening system for buckets

526 527
F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators
1 = bucket 2 = belt 3 = flexibIe mountings
Fig. Зс: Buckets fastened Ьу means of flexibIe mountings
system each bucket is secured Ьу bolting to two flexibIe special-profile rubber
гтюuпtiпgs which in шгn аге bonded to the belt. This method of bucket attachment
is, however, suitabIe only for service at temperatures not exceeding 80 С.
0 switches which stop the elevator if the buckets соте into contact with the elevator
Up to power ratings of 15 kW the usual method of belt bucket elevator drive is Ьу
means of gear-motors. For higher ratings the familiar drive systems - comprising
the motor, starting clutch, reduction gear with non-reverse stop as individual units
- аге employed. Ап additionally fitted сгеер drive with оvепuппiпg clutch is
convenient when the belt has to Ье inspected ог repairs have to Ье сапiеd out. The
drive pulley of drum should preferabIy Ье provided with а 1 О тт thick rubber
surfacing to ensure good grip and power transmission. This surfacing should Ье
"crowned" i.e., Ье convexly shaped in cross-section, for better belt guidance.
Rubberizing the drive pulley in this way used to Ье very expensive, but has since
Ьееп made simpler and cheaper Ьу the use of rubber segments.
Ап accurately mounted - absolutely horizontal - tension take-up pulley helps to
achieve correct running of the belt. The development of ап automatically acting
parallel guidance system calls for mention. It is suitabIe also for high-capacity
chain bucket elevators and prevents the occurrence of slip between the chains and
the non-toothed take-up wheels. In the case of belt bucket elevators the take-up
pulleys аге usually of the self-cleaning cage type with material-deflecting conical
hugs, as shown in Fig.4.
Further safety devices include: material level indicators in the loading hopper (at
the foot of the elevator), а switch mounted оп the tension shaft and responding to
528
Fig. 4: Cage-type pulley with conical hub
belt siip, а true-run switch which responds to off-iine гuппirlg of Нlе belt, and
casing at апу point.
The belt bucket elevator is unsuitabIe for handling fairly hot materials - its main
disadvantage. But it offers substantial advantages too: low wear, low drive power
consumption, high mechanical efficiency, hardly and dynamic loading of the belt,
and high handling capacity. The handling rates that сап Ье attained аге listed in
ТаЫе 12а in the section marked "У". AII the figures given there, including those
within the dotted lines, аге applicabIe to belt bucket elevators. Information оп
permissibIe bucket loading percentages is contained in ТаЫе 12Ь.
з Chain bucket elevators
This is the only type of bucket elevator that сап Ье used for the handling of hot
materials. Besides bushed chains, round-link chains аге also extensively used, their
advantage being the smaller chain pitch giving quieter running оп passing round
the sprockets ог chain wheels. For high-capacity bucket elevators it is necessary to
use suitabIy heat-treated (quenched and tempered) steel chains of the round-link
type in order to keep the amount of wear at the points of articulation within
529
 Chain bucket e\evators
F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators

acceptabIe limits. Another advantage of this ореп type of chain, especially for the
handling of dry material consisting of angular particles, is that these will not attach
themselves to the round articulation surfaces of the links and thus cause heavy
wear. Ап elevator manufacturer has recently introduced а new round-link chain
with larger articulation surfaces, so that the contact pressures аге reduced. 'П this
chain the individual round steellinks аге not interlinked in the usual way, but are
mounted parallel side Ьу side оп pins with integral guide rollers. Outside the chain
links these pins are provided with so-called drive rings with which the drive
sprocket teeth engage (Fig. 5а).
These chains are particularly suitabIe for heavy loads, so that bucket elevators with
large centre-to-centre distances and high handling rates with closely spaced
buckets сап Ье constructed with them. Similar results аге, however, obtainabIe
with bucket elevators having а central bushed chain. The original somewhat
primitive pintle chains and bushed chains have, over the years, evolved into the
heavy-duty long-Iasting flat link chains based оп German Standard DIN 8175
and having chain pitches of 160 ог 180 тт (Fig. 5Ь). Fig. 5Ь: Construction of а heavy-duty flat link chain
The attainabIe handling rates depend оп the chain running speed and оп the
bucket spacing. Closely spaced buckets also make for easier loading, thus reducing
the scooping action involving heavy wear and power consumption. The material The section "V" relates to buckets of the normal type. As already stated, all the
should Ье fed to the elevator at а uniform rate, and the discharge end of the feed figures in this section аге valid for belt bucket elevators, butth~se within ~~e ~?tted
chute should Ье substantially narrower than the buckets, while the chute should lines аге not applicabIe to chain bucket elevators. The dеSlgпаt.юпs VV and
moreover not Ье steeply inclined. Forfurther stepping upthe handling capacity the "WW" relate to doubIe bucket elevators comprising two погтаl SlПglе strands of
so-called "W" bucket has Ьееп introduced, which encloses the chain оп three buckets mounted side Ьу side оп the same drive shaft (Fig. 6).
sides and has а larger capacity. The attainabIe rates are listed in ТаЫе 12. The drive chain wheel at the head of the elevator is of three-piece segmental
construction and has по teeth, force transmission being effected solely through
friction. The great weight of the chain and buckets ensures that high frictional

Fig. 5а: Round-link chain for high-capacity bucket elevators (special

style of construction) Fig. 6: Two single-strand bucket assembIes оп а common drive shaft

531
530
 ел
w :-n
N
::r:
Q)
:::)
О.

ТаЫе 12а: Capacity data for vertical bucket elevators

:;'
СС
Q)
:::)
buckets theoretical handling capacity m /hour З О.

Ф
Ф
shape weight over- bucket bucket conveying speed m/sec. О.

hang spacing
:;'
capaclty , _ СС

dm
З (f)
тт тт тт 1.05 1.16 1.29 1.42 1.58 11.73 1.95 2.16 -<
~
v 250 200 320 4.6 54 60 67
Ф
3
(f)
280 200 5,1 60 66 74
315 200 5.6 66 73 81
:-
355 250 9.6 113 125 139
154 171 [х1
400 250 10.8 128 141 157
173 192 с:
(")
450 250 12.1 143 158 175
194 216
500 250 13.5 160 176 196
216 240
"
~
Ф
560 250 15.1 178 197 219
242 269 Ф
630 250 17.0 200 222 246 <
272 303 Q)

71 О 250 19.2 227 251 278

307 342 о
сп
800 250 21.6 255 282 313
346 385
900 250 24.6 290 317 352
389 433
----------------------------
-iоо-6--------2В-Б----------з2сг-------зЁПг--------------------------
605 682
1250 320 55~ 963 1086 1203
1400 320 62.4 107912161347
1600 320 71.3 1233 1390 1540
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------- . ---------------------------------------------------

:::-==O(")-I-Iz
O~"OO:Т:ТO
З фФ :::)ФФ .....
-~§.g'g-g ~
:т :::) :;' с: "о ....
VV 355 280 360 12.2 128 142 158 174 193 ~ :тсс g Q) ~
Q) Ф О. (f) ~. -
400 280 13.8 145 160 178 196 218 а- ~ Q) ~~. g.
Фg,Qj~ffiФ
450 280 15.5 163 180 200 220 245
500 280 17.2 181 200 222 245 272
~ ~ ~ ?-:;' §:
:т:;' О ~ 9: ф
560 280 19.3 203 224 249 274 305 фссS'с:gф
630
710
280
280
21.7
24.5
228
257
252
284
280
316
308 343 g- §: s· i& [ б.
348 387 ~!P ~:;' Q) ~
800 280 27.6 290 320 356 392 436 Q.-It:Г:ТФ~
900 280 31.0 326 360 400 441 490 ~ ~~ -<~ :т:;'
;:j: Q; - Ф О.
W 400 355 360 13.0 185 205 ~сР~<Q~
450 355 15.2 216 240 :-:;' :;'~ g. [
500 355 17.5 248 276 :Т~~~~==
Ф:тОФ :::)
560
630
710
800
355
355
355
355
20.2
23.3
26.8
30.8
287
331
380
438
319
369
423
487
*:.
зg;::-g~ffi
~
~. (f) о" ~ (f) ~
~g.Q)Ф-==
_ ..... 0.0.00.
$, ~ cn'

900 355 35.4 503 560 О ~. :;' ~ .... О

t:Г :::) СС Q) t:Г :::)
2V 450 250 320 24.2 350 388 432 Ф~~~~~
500 27.0 ~t:ГC:;~~0
250 392 432 480
~~~9:~~
(')
:т
560 250 30.2 438 485 535 фс:Qj[;j::!:~
Q)
:;'
630 250 34.0 493 544 605 ?-~~ ~фt:Г t:Г
~(f)Q)Q.c:
710 250 38.4 557 614 684 с:
~.~C~~ (")
800 250 43.2 627 690 768 :::) :: Ф с: Ф
900 250 49.2 670 785 875
СС == (f) (f) .....
..... :::). :т Ф ".....
Ф

:ТСС:::рQ)ф Ф
Ф .... Q) :::) < ф
<~(")Q.C!) <
Q)
ел
w
~ о' g. _ Q о
w Ф~~Q!'" сп
F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators Swing bucket elevators

ТаЫе 12Ь: PermissibIe loading percentages

Ф

c'.i 90 to 100% рег cent for pulverized ог predominantly pulverized materials

such as cement, raw meal and classifier tailings
60 to 90% рег cent for limestone, gypsum, coke, cement clinker, gravel
and other materials up to 30 тт particle size
50 to 60% рег cent for aerated materials and materials of low specific
gravity

OMOU")'<tNO NOOOOCOo:::tCl
0')'<t ..... 001'-1'-00 U")MMo:::t ...... N
'<tu")ФФI'-ООО')
...
U")Ф ...... ООО') ... forces сап develop. With this system there is uniform wear of the wheel rim all
round its circumference. The foot sprocket, with chain tensioning system for
adjustment as the chain stretches ог wears, is provided with coarse teeth for force
t.i
Q)
transmission because here the dead weight of the chain and buckets is not
1/1 availabIe for developing high friction. The casing which encloses the elevator is
Е usually made of steel plate and is а self-supporting structure. Alternatively, а
"'о
Q) concrete casing is sometimes used, which is constructed along with other parts of
Q)
Q. the building in which the elevator is installed. The internal width of the casing
ел

о)
should Ье 300 тт тоге than the bucket width, while its dimension in the other
с::
':;"
direction will generally Ье 1600 ог 1700 тт, depending оп the chain wheel
1/1 Q) diameter.
....О
са
>
с::
О
DIN 22200 gives guidance оп calculating the drive power requirements for bucket
> (,)
elevators. Неге only а simplified method will Ье indicated, based оп the fact that
ф

ф the term Р н representing the actuallifting power input is Ьу far the dominant term
....
ф о'<tФ'<tОNО о'<tФФФОО
in the equation (for comparison, see the equation for the inclined belt conveyor
..=:: "':-.tоо""aiuiC'.i uiоф""",:о given earlier оп), whilethe proportion required for overcoming frictionallosses сап
CJ МММ'<t'<tu")Ф М'<t'<tu")ФI'-
;:, Ье taken into account Ьу means of а coefficient w:
..CI
Рmotor = w' Р н = w· J M • Н/367 (kW).
The following values тау Ье adopted for the resistance coefficient w:
О О
Ф Ф
м м
w = 1.2 for elevators whose buckets аге fed, i. е., have по scooping ог
digging action to perform,
w = 1.7 for materials with low scooping resistance, е. g., cement,
... о)
w = 1.85 for materials with moderate scooping resistance, е. g., sand,
Q) С:: Е 0000000 U")U")U")U")U")U") w = 2.1 for materials with high scooping resistance, е. g., crushed stone,
00000000000000 U")U")U")U")U")U")
б~ Е NNNNNNN ММММММ
cement clinker.
The probIems associated with scooping resistance and material discharge соп­
Е ditions of bucket elevators have Ьееп the subject of research at the Technological
о) 0000000 000000
'0) Е U")ОФМ ..... ОО ОФМ ..... ОО University of Hanover, the results of which have Ьееп pubIished in the literature.
'<tU")u")ФI'-ООО') U")U")ФI'-ООО')
$ Е

4 Swing bucket elevators

Q)
> The swing bucket elevator is especially advantageous in reducing environmental
Q.
со
..с.
ел
>
N
s
N
nuisance because it сап convey materials both vertically and horizontally without
necessitating transfer from опе type of handling device to another, so that dust and
534
535
F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators Swing bucket elevators

ТаЫе 13: Capacity data for swing bucket elevators

buckets theoretical handling capacity mЗ/hоur

over- width bucket conveying speed m/sec.

hang capacity dm З
тт тт 0.1 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

770 600 135 49 122 146 170 194 219

800 180 65 162 194 227 259 292
1000 225 81 203 243 284 324 365
1200 270 97 243 292 340 389 437

870 800 235 85 212 254 296 338 381

1000 295 106 266 319 372 425 478
1200 355 128 320 383 447 511 575
1400 415 149 374 448 523 598 672
1600 475 171 428 513 599 684 770

Fig. 7: Construction features of а modern swing bucket elevator Preferred values in bold type. The handling capacity figures are based оп water
filling of the buckets. The actual maximum handling capacity should Ье reckoned
as 70-80% of the theoretical capacity.
noise emission are keptto а minimum. Bythe use ofwear-resistant materialsforthe
bushed chains and running rollers it is possibIe to attain long service life, as is
required in the cement industry. The large chain pitches (and bucket spacings) of
500, 750 or 1000 тт, as formerly employed, caused unquiet running (polygon
effect of the chaln wheels) and moreover required inconveniently large chain
wheel assembIies. Nowadays, swing bucket elevators with а chain pitch of
250 тт are built, i.e., using standardized components of the same kind as those
ТаЫе 14: Maximum elevating height as а function or bulk density
used for apron conveyors. See Fig.7. The advantages associated with this
development have resulted in revived interest in this type of elevator: quiet
buckets тах. elevating height in m
running, lower power consumption, interachangeability of standard parts with
other material handling devices, continuous handling without material transfer
points, possibility of simultaneously handling two or more different materials, length width bulk density in t/m З
discharge at various points, unlimited elevating height Ьу installing intermediate а BW
тт тт 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
drives.
The attainabIe handling rates in m З /hour are indicated in ТаЫе 13. The rates in
770 600 90 83 77 72 68
t/hour are obtained Ьу multiplying these values Ьу the bulk density of the
800 76 70 65 60 56
material.
1000 66 60 55 51 48
The elevating heights which сап Ье attained without having to use intermediate
1200 59 53 48 44 41
drives depend mainly оп the bulk density of the material to Ье handled and are
given in ТаЫе 14. 870 800 72 66 61 56 53
'П terms of space requirements for the installation it is to Ье noted that the 1000 62 56 52 48 45
construction depth (height) of the chain and buckets is 2550 тт, while the overall 1200 54 50 45 42 39
width is determined Ьу the effective bucket width plus 1080 тт. In connection 1400 49 44 40 37 34
with requirements imposed Ьу the filling and emptying operations the speed of the 1600 44 40 36 33 31
swing bucket elevator is restricted to а maximum of 0.45 m/second.

536 537
F. Handling and feeding systems 111. Bucket elevators IV. Chain conveyors

Antriebsstation Umlenkstation IV. Chain conveyors

drive pulley return pulley
~~~~~~~~ffi 1 Flight conveyors
The simplest type of chain conveyor for bulk materials is the flight ог scraper
conveyor, which moves the material Ьу pushing ог scraping it along (Fig. 9). The
scraper elements (flights) аге attached to ап endless chain, generally а bushed
Anlieferung chain, which slides оп а guide rail. 'П some cases there аге twin chains with the
delivery flights mounted between them. 'П the simplest form of construction the material is
conveyed in а trough without а bottom, this arrangement being тоге particularly
LKW Waggon
used for filling long storage hoppers because it distributes the material very
truck waggon
conveniently without requiring апу special attention. Despite the drawback of
heavy power consumption this тау Ье the preferred type of conveyor for short
distances. If the material is moved along in а steel trough with а bottom plate, the
power demand is about 30% less. The material сап Ье discharged at апу
intermediate point through bottom openings closabIe with slide gates.
The conveying speed varies, according to the type of material handled, from
0.2 m/second for coarse lumps to 0.8 m/second for finely granular material. Since
the chains move in the material, wear at the articulations is inevitabIe. The contact
Fi.iIlstationen pressure of the link connecting pins at these points within the chain should in
feed points general not exceed 4000 N/cm 2 . Chains operating in highly abrasive materials
Fig.8: Swing bucket elevator for the simultaneous handling of several should Ье so designed that this pressure is only about 1500-2000 N/cm 2 .
materials

Fiiiing {пе buckets requires particuiar attention so as to avoid spillage, slnce thelr
edges do not overlap with опе another. Various feed devices аге availabIe for the
purpose, such as drum feeders, hopper chain feeders and reciprocating tabIe
feeders (Fig. 8). Alternatively, the buckets тау Ье filled оп ап ascending inclined
length of elevator, where they overlap with опе another, as seen in vertical
projection, so that апу material spilled over the edge of а bucket will Ье caught
in the next bucket. Emptying the buckets is done оп special tipping devices
comprising inclined rails forming ramps which аге encountered Ьу projections оп
the buckets. Such bucket emptying devices сап Ье interposed into the conveying
path and retracted Ьу remote control.
For estimating the drive power consumption it is necessary to proceed step Ьу step.
For the vertical sections of the handling path the simplified calculation already
presented for vertical bucket elevators should Ье applied, but now putting w = 1.0,
as there is по scooping action at all. Оп the other hand, some appropriate
allowance should Ье made for frictional losses at the feed and discharge devices
if these аге operated with drive power direct from the elevator itself. For the
horizontal sections of the handling path the power consumption сап Ье estimated
in the same way as for ап аргоп conveyor. Ап approximate value for the overall
drive power, depending of course оп the size of the swing bucket elevator
concerned, is: 5-20kW/100m + J M ' Н/367 (kW). The empty weight of the
moving parts ranges between 120 and 350 kg/m. Fig. 9: А flight conveyor of robust construction

538 539
F. Handling and feeding systems IV. Chain conveyors Continuous-flow conveyors

The handling capacity of а flight conveyor is determined Ьу its width, the height (ог conveyor handling unscreened material the width should Ье 3 to 4 times, and for
depth) of the flights, their spacing, the loading (filling ratio) and the speed of the screened material it should Ье 2 to 2.5 times, the maximum particle size. 'П the case
chain. The loading will depend оп the internal friction of the material, which of а single chain flight conveyorthe corresponding values аге 5 to 7 times, and 3 to
сопеsропdsapproximately to its angle of repose. The larger this angle, the higher is
3.5 times, respectively. They аге less favourabIe in this system because the single
the column of material that will Ье сапiеd along Ьу the chain and flights. If the chain runs along the middle of the trough, so that the feed and discharge
conveyor is heaped up higher with feed material, it will merely extract and сапу conditions аге тоге difficult than in the twin chain system.
away а 'ауег of а certain depth from underneath. Thus there is по risk of overfilling,
as in the case of а screw conveyor, for example. Forthis reason flight conveyors сап
extract materials directly from bins and hoppers. Theoretically attainabIe handling 2 Continuous-flow conveyors
rates аге indicated in ТаЫе 15. Actual values will generally Ье in the range of 80 to Because of its rather роог filling ratio, the handling capacity of а flight conveyor
90% of these.
rapidly diminishes оп upward slopes. Thus, for ап inclination of 1 :1О the capacity
The height of а flight is normally between 3 and 6 timestheflightspacing. Itswidth will decrease Ьу about 25%. This drawback is substantially obviated in the
will depend оп the particle size of the material to Ье handled. With а twin chain continuous-flow conveyor, in which the bulk material moves along within а
ТаЫе 15: Capacity data for flight conveyors
completely filled duct as а continuous соге. It is а sophisticated form of flight
conveyor with specially designed flights that move along entirely embedded
trough shift within the material. Such machines сап convey the material in апу direction,
theoretical hand ling capacity m З /hour
height including the vertical. There is, it is true, а certain amount of relative movement
between the chain and the material it is сапуiпg along with it, depending оп the
width height type of material, but as а rule this "slip" is under 15 рег cent. Оп account of its
conveying speed m/sec.
Ь h method of moving the material, this system is sometimes геfепеd to as ап "еп
тт 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 masse" conveyor. Опе of the earliest and most familiar examples of the type is the
тт 0.60 0.70 0.80
Redler conveyor.
- single-strand - Like the swing bucket elevator, the continuous-flow conveyor сап therefore move
the material vertically as well as horizontally. The swing bucket elevator is
200 200 14 27 41 55 68 82 96 109 expensive in initial cost and takes up а considerabIe amount of space, but has the
250 200 17 35 52 69 86 104 121 138 advantages of low wear and little maintenance. Also, it сап handle coarse lumps of
250 22 44 66 88 11 О 132 154 176 material. Оп the other hand, the continuous-flow conveyor is used only for
pulverized, fine-grained ог flaky materials, which аге сапiеd along in а totally
315 200 22 44 66 88 11 О 132 154 176 enclosed duct, so that there is по dust nuisance. It is to Ье noted that these
300 33 67 100 134 167 201 234 268 conveyors аге quite unsuitabIe for dealing with sticky, corrosive ог ungraded
400 300 42 84 126 168 211 253 295 337 materials with hard constituents.
400 57 113 170 226 283 339 396 452 The conveying speed is between 0.1 and 0.4 m/second. Handling rates in m З /hour
should Ье taken from ТаЫе 15. Rates in t/hour аге obtained Ьу multiplying these
500 300 53 105 158 21 О 263 315 368 420 values Ьу the bulk density of the material concerned.
400 71 141 212 282 353 423 494 564 The height Н listed in ТаЫе 15 refers to the height (ог depth) of the flights in the
500 89 177 266 354 443 531 620 708 flight conveyor and tothat ofthe duct of the continuous-flow conveyor. As already
630 300 67 133 200 266 333 400 466 533 indicated, the duct is completely filled, the material movement as а continuous
400 89 179 268 357 446 536 625 714 "соге" being based оп the fact that the resistance developed Ьу the specially
500 11 2 224 336 448 560 672 784 896 shaped flights attached transversely to the chain is greater than the frictional
resistance developed between the material and the walls of the duct. The material
- doubIe-stгапd - сап Ье discharged at апу desired point through а suitabIy positioned outlet
800 500 141 283 424 566 707 849 990 1132 opening provided with а gate ог valve. PossibIe types and апапgеmепts of such
1000 500 conveyors аге illustrated in Fig. 10.
177 355 532 71 О 887 1065 1242 1420
The power consumption ofthe chain conveyors (flight conveyors and continuous-
1250 500 222 444 666 888 1111 1333 1555 1777 flow conveyors) described here is dependent оп тапу тоге factors than those
which govern the power consumption of conveyors which сапу the material, as
540
541
 F. Handling and feeding systems IV. Chain conveyors Apron conveyors

Fig.10: Various types of continuous-flow conveyor
opposed to pushing or scraping it along. Some approximate values for the power
requirement per metre of conveying path, for various materials, are given in graph
form in Fig, 11 . The solid curve "а" relates to pulverized dry lignite (brown coal)
with а bulk density of 0,5 t/m 3 , curve "Ь" to coal (0.8 t/m 3 ), curve "с" to raw meal
(1.25 t/m 3 ) and curve "d" to cement (1.4 t/m 3 ), The values in terms of kWIlinear
metre obtained from this diagram must Ье multiplied Ьу the length of the conveyor,
Besides, if the conveying operation involves raising the material to а certain height
besides moving it horizonta"y, ап additional power amount Р н = J M ' H/367 must
Ье taken into account. The dotted lines in the diagram indicate the maximum
practicabIe centre-to-centre distances for the соттопIy employed chain sizes. For
а material whose bulk density is intermediate between the values оп which the
curves in Fig.11 are based it is permissibIe to interpolate between the curves or

i Fbrderlange
т conveying length
kW/lfd. m
kW/lin. m r
indeed use the curve corresponding most nearly to the bulk density in question.
Continuous-flow conveyors are suitabIe for the handling of materials at tempera-
tures ranging up to 2000 С, Although the all-steel construction of such conveyors
makes them fairly resistant to elevated temperatures, it is advisabIe to avoid higher
Jг---+--+---+--+----I-+----I 1,1 ones, because the rate of wear оп moving parts becomes much heavier, while
distortion of the duct is liabIe to occur in consequence of local heat concentra-
гг--т---t---+-----!---1f-----.'ц 1.0 tions,

г-~t+_-___+--+---++~~------I 0.9
з Аргоп conveyors
г---'<-+-''<----t------,f---+-н~__+_~-I 0,8
Apron conveyors of various kinds have соте into widespread use in the cement
and lime manufacturing industry, more particularly for the handling of hot and
abrasive materials, Long service life arld very пюdеst mаiпtепапсе requirements
are the principal advantages. The same basic components in combination with
different attachments for handling the material сап Ье used for dealing with а
variety of materials and circumstances, The drive and take-up assembIies, as well
50 as the actual conveying path with its supporting frames and thetwo bushed chains
with their carrying rollers (the spacing of which depends оп the magnitude of the
40 load per linear metre to Ье handled), are identical in the several apron conveyor
types shown in Fig. 13. The actual material carrying elements ("aprons") bolted to
30 the chain system тау Ье short overlapping steel plates for normal material handling
0,3
horizonta"y and оп sloping paths of up to 18 degrees, buckle plates with convex
20 upper surfaces for the extraction of sticky materials from hoppers and bunkers,
0,2
d" short overlapping "trays" or "pans" for conveying оп ascending slopes of up to
10
28 degrees, and 'Ъuсkеts" (deep pans) about 0.5 m in length for slopes of up to
0,1
60 degrees.
The size and strength of the chains conforming to ОI N 8175 are determined with
reference to the magnitude of the tensile force to Ье transmitted, while the spacing
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 mm of the rollers depends оп the weight of the conveyor and its load of material.
Kettenbreite То ensure reliabIe operation even under very dusty conditions, the chain carrying
chain width rollers. of case-hardened drop-forged steel, mounted оп ball bearings, сап Ье fitted
Fig.11: PossibIe conveying lengths and drive power requirements of with dust-tight covers. The chain pitch is usually 160 тт for conveyors up to
continuous-flow conveyors 1400 тт in width, and 250 тт for widths of up to 3000 тт.

542 543
F. Handling and feeding systems IV. Chain conveyors Аргоп conveyors

Fig. 12: Demonstration arrangement for various types of аргоп

conveyor Fig.14: Short аргоп conveyor for steep upward conveying

not exceed а slope of 45 degrees. Besides, it is then also more conveniently

GЫblЦ~ЦШJ ~!
possibIe to апапgе stairways beside the conveyor for access to сапу out inspection
ог maintenance.
In recent years it has emerged that the handling rates attainabIe with а bucket
~/
Buckelplattenband conveyor сап in many instances also Ье attained with а short-pan conveyor, if the
Kurzplattenband buckle-plate аргоп conveyor latter is provided with partitions (transverse diaphragms) spaced at intervals of
shOrti-РI~te ~pron ~опуеуо~
~ ~\~
\ .• .. about 500 mm. This is а less expensive form of handling device, so that the short-
рап conveyor сап with some justification claim to Ье the universal conveyor of the
future (Fig. 14). The handling rates that сап Ье attained аге indicated in ТаЫе 16.
These values аге applicabIe to conveying оп ascending slopes of up to 28 degrees.
Kurzzellenband I
The rate in t/hour is obtained Ьу multiplying the values from the tabIe Ьу the bulk
density of the material to Ье handled.
short-pan аргоп conveyor Becherzellenband
For steeper slopes (30 to 45 degrees) it is necessary to allow for reduced filling of
bucket conveyor
the pans, as indicated Ьу the factors given in ТаЫе 17. Ргеfепеd values for the side
Fig. 1 З: Various аргоп conveyor types
plate height аге printed in heavy type in ТаЫе 16.
Bucket conveyors and short-pan аргоп conveyors have Ьееп in use for а good
With regard to the short-plate аргоп conveyor it is necessary, because of the close many years and have given ample evidence of their reliability and efficiency. They
overlap of the plates, to have а minimum radius of 20m оп vertical curves in the include conveyors with capacities of 300- 500 t/hour and used for the raising of
conveying path. The "buckle-plate" (convex-plate) аргоп conveyor is similar in materials to heights of about 70 m.
construction. It is especially suitabIe for sticky materials because its plates dispose For preliminary design purposes some further information оп structural dimensions
themselves in а circular агс оп passing round the chain wheel, enabIing the will now Ье given. Depending оп chain wheel diameter, the overall height
adhering material to Ье scraped off easily. requirement is 11 00-1400 mm for а short-pan conveyor and 1400-1800 mm for
Bucket conveyors сап to some extent Ье regarded as inclined bucket elevators for а bucket conveyor. The width occupied Ьу the supporting frames is about 500 mm
slopes of ир to 60 degrees. However, at such steep angles the filling ratio of the more than the net width of the aprons in all types of аргоп conveyor. Оп horizontal
buckets is greatly reduced, so that for reasons of economy it is generally preferabIe conveying paths it is possibIe to operate such conveyors of up to 1000 m length

544 545
F. Handling and feeding systems IV. Chain conveyors Аргоп conveyors

ТаЫе 16: Capacity for short-pan apron conveyors ТаЫе 16 (continued)

аргоп 250 Q theoretical handling capacity m З /hour аргоп 250 Q theoretical handling capacity mЗ/hоur

width height conveying speed m/sec. width height conveying speed m/sec.
Ь h Ь h
тт тт 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 тт тт 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

400 250 24 36 48 60 73 85 97 2000 250 121 181 242 302 363 423 483
300 31 47 63 78 94 11 О 125 300 156 235 313 391 469 548 626
350 38 58 77 96 115 134 154 350 192 288 384 480 576 672 769
400 46 68 91 114 137 159 182 400 288 342 456 569 683 797 911
600 250 36 54 73 91 109 127 145 2200 250 133 199 266 332 399 465 532
300 47 70 94 117 141 164 188 300 172 258 344 430 516 602 689
350 58 86 115 144 173 202 231 350 211 317 423 528 634 740 845
400 68 102 137 171 205 239 273 400 251 376 501 626 752 877 1002
800 250 48 73 97 121 145 169 193 2400 250 145 218 290 363 435 508 580
300 63 94 125 156 188 219 250 300 188 282 376 469 563 657 751
350 77 115 154 192 231 269 307 350 231 346 461 576 692 807 922
400 91 137 182 288 273 319 364 400 273 410 547 683 820 957 1093
1000 250 60 91 121 151 181 211 242 2600 250 157 236 314 393 471 550 628
300 78 117 156 196 235 274 313 300 203 305 407 509 610 712 814
350 96 144 192 240 288 336 384 350 250 375 500 624 749 874 999
400 114 171 228 285 342 399 456 400 296 444 592 740 888 1036 1184
1200 250 73 109 145 181 218 254 290 2800 250 169 254 338 423 508 592 677
300 94 141 188 235 282 329 376 300 219 329 438 548 657 767 876
350 115 173 231 288 346 403 461 350 269 403 538 672 807 941 1076
400 137 205 273 342 410 478 547 400 319 478 638 797 957 1116 1276
1400 250 85 127 169 211 254 296 338 3000 250 181 272 363 453 544 634 725
300 11 О 164 219 274 329 383 438 300 235 352 469 587 704 822 939
350 134 202 269 336 403 471 538 350 288 432 576 720 865 1009 1153
400 159 239 319 399 478 558 638 400 342 512 683 854 1025 1196 1367
1600 250 97 145 193 242 290 338 387
300 125 188 250 313 376 438 501 ТаЫе 17: Loading factor for upward angle о аЬоуе 280
350 154 231 307 384 461 538 615
400 182 273 364 456 547 638 729 side plate height
1800 250 109 тт 300 350 400 450
163 218 272 326 381 435
300 141 211 282 352 423 493 563
350 173 259 346 432 519 605 692 250 0.95 0.82 0.69 0.56
400 205 307 410 512 615 717 820 300 0.96 0.86 0.76 0.66
350 0.97 0.89 0.81 0.73
400 0.97 0.91 0.84 0.77

546 547
F. Handling and feeding systems IV. Chain conveyors Аргоп conveyors

from а single drive station. The power requirement рег 100 m length ranges from 4
to 15 kW, depending оп the width of aprons. For ascending portions of the path it
is of course necessary to make ап appropriate allowance Р н = J M . Н/367 (kW).
Normally, аргоп conveyors discharge the material оп\у over the end, i. е., оп
passing round the head chain wheels, but there is а special system - the so-called
drag-plate аргоп conveyor - which enabIes discharge of material to take place at
апу intermediate point along the conveying path. These conveyors аге used more
particularly for the handling of hot bulk materials. The length of each аргоп plate is
equal to eight times the chain pitch, so that material consisting of lumps up to
500 mm in size сап Ье handled. As shown in Fig. 15, the plates аге pivotabIy
mounted between the chains. The pivot is located somewhat off-centre in relation
to the plate, опе end of which rests оп а roller. At а material discharge point the
guide rails оп which the rollers run аге locally sloped down, so that the plates аге
д'L.
tilted over and allow the material to slide off. This discharging operation сап Ье ®
remote-controlled Ьу actuation of а swivelling section of rail. Alternatively,
intermediate discharge сап Ье achieved Ьу means of throw-off carriages with
which the material сап Ье continuously deposited into longitudinal hoppers ог
onto longitudina\ stockpiles and Ье suitabIy distributed. Good homogenization of
the material is achieved at the same time.

Fig. 15: Drag-plate аргоn conveyor

With the drag-plate аргоп conveyor the plates сап Ье turned over at the head and
tail ends of the conveyor, so that material сап Ье carried оп the return run of the
chain as well. Various possibilities аге thus availabIe, as shown in Fig. 16. If the
conveyor is used primarily as а means of cooling the material, the availability of the
return run is advantageous in that it doubIes the availabIe distance travelled Ьу the
material while cooling. Апу desired conveying distance сап Ье attained Ьу the use
of intermediate drives. There аге по probIems in installing the conveyor, since the
chains аге outside the lateral edges of the plates and reliabIe engagement of the
chain drive wheels with the chains is ensured Ьу means of counter-rollers.
The drag-plate аргоп conveyor is usually equipped with side plates 150 mm ог
200 mm in height. Recommended speeds аге between 0.1 and 0.3 m/second. The
attainabIe handling rates сап Ье taken from ТаЫе 16 simply Ьу halving the values
for the side plate heights of 300 mm and 400 mm respectively, except that if
decidedly coarse material is to Ье handled (300- 500 mm particle size), а much
smaller reduction need Ье applied: about 20%. For preliminary planning purposes Fig. 16: Possibilities for using the drag-plate аргоn conveyor
ап overall height of 2200 mm and а width equal t0800 mm morethan the netwidth Н = stockpiling; В = bunker feeding; А = material feed

548 549
F. Handling and feeding systems V. Vibratory conveyors
of the plates тау Ье assumed. As with all conveyors of this genera\ type, the drive
power consumption depends оп the width of the conveyor and, in this case, also
оп whether the return run will Ье used for conveying. Having regard to these
considerations, the power consumption ranges between 5 and 25 kW /100 m
conveying distance, plus ап appropriate allowance for raising the material if there
аге inclined portions in the conveying path, as already indicated forthe othertypes
of conveyor.
V. Vibratory conveyors
The general term "vibratory (ог vibrating) conveyors comprises all material
handling devices based оп oscillating action which imparts so much acceleration
to the material оп the forward stгoke that it continues to move forward Ьу inertia
forces and is not carried back Ьу the return stroke. А general distinction is to Ье
drawn between shaker conveyors (also known as jigging conveyors) and vibratory
trough conveyors. What they have in соттоп is that the conveyor oscillates, i.e.,
moves to and fro in the conveying direction. The difference is that the shaker
conveyor operates at relatively low frequency and large amplitude, whereas the
reverse is true of the vibratory trough conveyor. А тоге relevant distinction,
however, lies in the fact that in the case of the vibratory trough there is, in addition
to the horizontal motion, а vertical upward motional component with ап
acceleration exceeding that due to gravity; оп the other hand, with the shaker
conveyor there тау likewise Ье а vertical component, but this is always smaller (in
absolute value) than the gravitational acceleration.
The vibratory trough accelerates the material to such ап extent that, when the
forward mоvеmепt от the trough is greatly retarded just before the end of the
stroke, the material "becomes airborne" and travels in а parabolic trajectory until it
falls onto the bottom of the trough, when it receives а fresh impulse, and so оп. 'П
this way it hops along, as it were. ОП the other hand, оп the shaker conveyor the
material is not thrown up into the air, but merely slides along, because оп the return
stroke of the conveyor trough the static friction between it and the material is
temporarily cancelled.
Vibratory trough conveyors аге used for handling granular and lumpy bulk
materials in the horizontal ог in а slightly inclined (ascending or descending)
direction. They сап Ье fed at апу point along the conveying path, and material
discharge сап Ье effected at the end ог at апу intermediate point through closabIe
bottom openings. Temperatures ofthe material to Ье handled ranging upto 7000 С
and particle sizes up to 600 тт по longer present апу probJems, the only limits
being imposed Ьу excessive moisture content ог too high а degree of fineness of
the material.
Ореп vibratory trough conveyors аге used for all kinds of materials to Ье extracted
from а Ып ог hopper, provided that they are not too fine-grained ог liabJe to cause
dust nuisance. The volumetric rate of discharge from а hopper is calculated as the
product of three factors: width of the trough, depth of material in it, and conveying
speed. The depth of the layer of material is determined Ьу the shape of the hopper
outlet and тау Ье anything up to 600 тт (Fig. 17)
550
Ореп vibratory trough conveyors
Fig.17: Ореп vibrating trough conveyor with unbalanced-weight drive
For materials tending to form dust the trough is provided with а fitted-on cover
which participates in the vibratory motion ог, alternatively, the trough тау Ье
enclosed in а поп -vibrating outer casing. With these arrangements virtually the fu 11
cross-section of the trough сап Ье utilized for conveying. If а closed duct (up to
500 тт diameter) instead of ап ореп (covered or uncovered) trough is used, the
loading must Ье reduced to only about 50% in order to avoid choking.
Shaker conveyors аге usually driven Ьу some form of crank mechanism.
Unbalanced-weight drives ог electromagnetic vibrators аге used for vibratory
troughs. А disadvantage of the crank mechanism and also of the unbalanced-
weight drive is that there is а fairly long run-out time after switching off, so that the
flow of material delivered Ьу the conveyor does not stop at опсе. If rapid cut-off of
the flow is required, е. g., for feeding а belt weigher ог similar device, it will Ье
necessary to apply соuпtег-сuпепt braking. The electromagnetic vibrator is free
from this drawback: it stops instantly when the сuпепt its switched off.
With crank drives the conveying speed сап Ье varied Ьу means of vагiаbIе-sрееd
gearboxes, variabIe-sрееd motors ог induction couplings. With unbalanced-
weight drives it is indeed possibIe to control the speed in large increments Ьу using
pole-changing motors ог Ьу applying frequency conversion control, which is very
expensive, however. The simplest system for electromagnetic drives is thyristor
phase-angle control, making this type of drive very suitabIe for extraction of
materials from hoppers and bins under circumstances requiring changes in material
handling rate while the conveyor is running.
As appears from what has so far Ьееп said about vibratory conveyors, the type of
drive and its method of control constitute the most significant distinctive features
of each system. The mode of operation of each type is тоге particularly determined
551
01
01
ТаЫе 18: Comparison of the principal data and characteristics of vibratory conveyors with crank, :-n
N unbalanced-weight and electromagnetic drives ::I:
Q)
:;)

system conveyor with crank c!rive conveyor with unbalanced- conveyor with electro- s!:
5'
weight drive magnetic drive со
Q)
:;)

1t!::::::::1 1,.E.-l -
а.

ф
ф
а.
5'
со
(J)

frequency Hz 5-15-(25) 10-25- (50) 50; 100 -<

~
amplitude тт 6-30 1-10 0,1-2 ф

3(J)
actuation angle degrees 25-35 20-30 20-30
downward slope degrees 0-5 0-15 0-25
maximum upward slope :<
degrees 5-10 10-12 12-14 <
cr=
conveying speed m/s 0.3-0.7 0.05-0.4 0.01-0.15 D3
length of trough m 2-20 0.5-10 0.1-5 <;
special types: <50т special types: 30-50т special types: < 1 О m -<
о
О
:::J
material handled granular material, granular, material pulverized granular material unit <
Ф
pulverized material, material (conditionally), loads -<
о
slightly caking material slightly caking material (i!

(conditionally) , (conditionally), unit loads

(conditionally)
purpose conveying conveying, extracting conveying, extracting
from bins, etc., feeding from bins, etc., feeding
proportioning

trough wear (рег kg of extremely little very little little

material handled)
gentleness of handling little moderate good

drive Crank ог eccentric drive One unbalance motor with Electromagnetic vibrator
through vee-belts ог vari- undirected centrifugal force. comprising an armature
аЫе speed gears Ьу static One unbalance motor with fixed to the trough and а
motor with constant ог directed centrifugal force. spring-mounted mass
variabIe speed. Two synchronously counter- (supported оп preloaded
rotating unbalance motors leaf ог coil springs). The
with directed resultant electromagnet is normally
centrifugal force. Static motor energized through а half-
with constant ог variabIe wave rectifier for produc-
speed and vee-belt ог flexibIe ing an operating fre-
shafts driving an unbalanced quency of 50 Hz.
pulley ог two synchronously
counter-rotating unbalanced
pulleys geared together.
~
drive power in kW for 1 О m 0.6 kW 0.8kW 0.7kW 5'
о

length and 1О t/hour capacity '6'

Q)

а.
~
Q)
Q)
:::J
а.
о
:::r
Q)

D3
sl
~
~.

01 о'
01 (J)
W
 F. Handling and feeding systems V. Vibratory conveyors Principal data and characteristics

Ьу the working frequency employed. То assist the works planner in selecting the
most suitabIe vibratory conveyor for а given set of duties, Professor К. Н. Wehmeier
g
u
has prepared а systematic classification of the various types of vibratory conveyor
and their properties (ТаЫе 18).
Q)
ф With downward inclined conveying paths the capacity of vibratory trough
.t::. Q) conveyors сап Ье considerabIy increased, namely, Ьу 3 - 6% per degree of slope in
-
.~ ~
>
short, and Ьу 2-3% per degree of slope in long conveyors. It should Ье borne in
>-
О
u
.- mind, however, that trough wear increases too. Непсе it is preferabIe not to exceed
>-
Q)Q) ап angle of 10-15 degrees.
> с:
с: о) Conversely, оп ап ascending path the capacity of the vibratory trough conveyor
О са
u Е decreases Ьу 2-3% per degree of slope. Under such circumstances, more
particularly if the material to Ье handled has low permeability to air, voids are liabIe
to Ье formed within the material and between it and the bottom of the trough. The
Q) air trapped in these voids adversely affects conveying efficiency, though consider-
.~
,-5 аЫе improvement сап Ье achieved Ьу appropriately interaqjusting the amplitude
С:_
::::I.t::.
and frequency and Ьу reducing the depth of the layer of material in the trough.
.t::..Q) 'П general, the unbalanced-weight conveyor represents the simplest form of
.t: Q)
vibratory conveyor. Апу subsequent changes in the oscillating mass dueto wear or
s: s:
>-.=,
о Q)
accretions of material or indeed due to the addition of wearing plates in the
>с.> conveying trough have по effect оп operating behaviour (Fig. 18).
Q) с:
~.!!!
о са
u.o
Q)
>
~
~
с:
са

t5
-s
.~

<5
>
Q)
> Fig.18: Section through ап unbalanced-weight motor
с:
О
u

1 auxiliary mass
2 main oscillating mass
3 magnetic unit
Е М, oscillating mass
~
(J) М 2 driven equipment
>
(J)
Fig.19: Electromagnetic vibrator
554 555

F. Handling and feeding systems VI. Screw conveyors
The electromagnetically actuated vibratory trough conveyor is considerabIy тоге
sensitive to changes in the oscillating mass, but is nevertheless the preferred type in
cases where control of the handling rate duгing operation is required. See Fig. 19.
Because of its relatively low conveying speed, this type of conveyor is wider and
heavier. Whereas small electromagnetic vibratory trough conveyors (цр to about
60 m З /houг capacity) are generally cheaper than comparabIe unbalanced-weight
trough conveyors, with higher capacities and тоге robustly constructed types the
cost situation is reversed. Crank-actuated shaker conveyors сап, in terms of cost,
compete with the other types of vibratory conveyor only where very high handling
capacities are required.
VI. Screw conveyors
Screw conveyors (also known as spiral or worm conveyors) are used for the
handling of granular or powdered bulk materials оп horizontal or slightly inclined
(ascending or descending) conveying paths. They are among the oldest types of
mechanical handling appliances. The material is pushed along in а trough, so that
in this respect the conveying action is similar to that of а flight conveyor. Because
of the simUltaneous relative motion of the conveying element, i.e., the helix or
screw (also referred to as the spiral or flight), there is not only the friction of the
materia I aga inst the sides of the troug h to Ье overcome, but а Iso the frict ion aga inst
the helix itself. Непсе the power consumption is higher than that of а flight
conveyor of equal capacity. The direction of conveying is determined Ьу the
d irection of rotation of the shaft (clockwise or anti-clockwise) and/ ог the d irection
of the helix itself (rigrlt-hand or left-hand). For а given direction of rotation of the
shaft it is possibIe to make different sections of the same conveyor move the
material in opposite directions Ьу providing such sections with а right-hand and а
left-hand helix respectively. 'П this way, materials fed in attwo different points сап
Ье brought together or, alternatively, material fed in at ап intermediate point сап Ье
moved towards thetwo ends ofthe conveyor. 'П general, а screw conveyor сап Ье
fed with material at апу point, and discharge сап take place at the ореп end of the
trough and/or опе or more intermediate outlets, which тау Ье provided with gates
to ореп and close them as required. То avoid bIockages, the outlet openings
should Ье of the same cross-sectional area as the screw itself.
The handling capacity of the screw conveyor is determined Ьу the diameter of the
helix, its pitch, its rotational speed, the loading (filling ratio) and the natuгe of the
material to Ье handled. This last-mentioned parameter is very important and
constitutes а basis of subdivision into three classes:
(а) Light, non··abrasive and free-flowing materials such as flouг, grain, dry
pulverized coal. With these materials it is possibIe to operate at high conveying
speeds and а loading of up to 45%.
(Ь) Fine-grained or small-sized materials which are not qu ite free-flowing, such as
coal, coarse salt, etc. For these а loading q> = 30% must Ье assumed.
(с) Heavily abrasive, tough materials containing hard lumps and with poor flow
properties, such as ash, sand, clinker and cement. For these: q> = 15%.
556
Screw conveyors
The advantage of screw conveyors is their coтpac~ form of ~onstruc~ion. AI.so,
they are very suitabIe for the handling of dusty, tOXlC, exploslve ог eVII-smеlllПg
materials because the trough or duct сап Ье made dust-tight or gas-tight and
resistant to internal or external pressure. The constructional features аге simple,
lengths of up to 40 m аге possibIe with а single conveyor, and ascending paths
(usually up to 45 degrees) present по рroЫет, whi.le spe~ial forms .of scr~w
elevator сап Ье used for vertical transport of bulk materlals. Drlve power IS applled
at опе end or at both ends of the screw shaft.
Disadvantages are the large frictional losses and heavy ~ear,. with high power
requirement. Also, screw conveyors are unsuitabIe for.dеаllПg ~Ith hard and tough
materials which are likely to cause jamming. Intermedlate ЬеаrlПgs for the shaft are
especially unfavouгabIe from this point of view. As а general principle, such
bearings should always Ье suspended, i.e., attached to the cover of the conveyor
trough. . ' .
Screw conveyors are very versatile and сап Ье used for fееdlПg and рroроrtIOПIП~,
emptying of bins or hoppers, mixing, etc. If the conveyor is heated ?г coole~, It
сап Ье used for carrying out chemical processes dUГlПg the materlal handllng
operation. As а protection against attack Ьу aggressive chemic~1 agents the
conveyor and its internal parts тау Ье rubber-lined or b~ made?f stаlПlеss steel?r
plastic. Special typesof screw conveyor includethosewlth а h~llxth~tdecreasesI.n
pitch or tapers in the conveying direction, so that .the .materlal belng handled IS
compacted, and those with а helix that increases ,п pltch ~nd thus lo~sens the
material. Besides the normal helix, various other forms of fllght are avallabIe. for
particular duties: ribbon helix, paddle flights, ~tc. Als?, there аге dou~le-fllght
conveyors which achieve smoother flow than SlПglе-fllght types. See Flg. 20.
.-
Fig. 20: Various forms of screw conveyor flights
Data оп power consumption, handling capacity and dimensions of normal screw
conveyors are given in ТаЫе 19.
Rotational speeds for the screw shaft range from 16 to 140 r.p.m., but are normally
within the range of 50 to 100 r.p.m. The trend is towards lower speeds and larger
diameters in order to reduce frictional losses.
557
 F. Handling and feeding systems VI.

Pitch of helix: s = 0.5-0.8 О.

О 1"'-0 М O<:t<:t L!') ........ Shaft diameter: d = 0.3 D for small, 0.15 D for large helices.
NO)oo 0)000 <:tMM
О ~~N ML!'i", "':L!'io Spacing of intermediate bearings: 2.5-3.0m.
м ........ N PermissibIe loading (filling ratio): q> = 0.15 to 0.45 .
circumferential velocity v = 1.0 -1.5 m/s.
I"'-oL!')N ФО)I"'-O
01"'-oL!') <:t<:t0)
0)0)00
.... Ф ....
The outside diameter of the helix сап Ье calculated from:
CII
L!')
N
~~N m--t<О омсх) V
D = 2 . J v/1t . S . n . 60 . q> . k,
(5 where k is а factor depending оп the length of the helix and decreasing almost
>
ф Е MN .... NOI"'-o .... NN linearly from а value of 1.0 for very short conveyors to 0.82 for а length of 40 m; J v
> O)L!')N 00)0 0)0)00
с 'о о O"':N мм<О cxj"':L!'i is the volume flow rate (m 3 /hour).
о N
(.,) ..с:
The permissibIe inclination of the screw conveyor is limited Ьу the pitch of the helix
s: 5 с and the cohesiveness of the material to Ье handled. Normally, а maximum of 15
O)O)L!')
~ ~
I"'-oNоо
L!')ON
L!')M ....
.... ООФ
L!')OM
degrees is to Ье regarded as the economic limit. Handling capacity decreases Ьу
(.,)
CII 5
Q)
L!') o~~ NML!'i ",ом about 2% for each degree of slope.
са
.... u
(J)
The power required to drive screw conveyors depends оп the length of the
с ro conveying path, the handling rate (throughput), the bulk density of the material,
О
the pitch of the helix, and the resistances due to the nature of the material to Ье
.Е
ML!') .... ООООФ ООI"'-oФ

'§'" О ФОL!')
o~~
ОФ ....
NN--t
0
<Оооо
.... 00
handled. The values listed in ТаЫе 19 аге based оп а pitch s = 0.75 О, loading
.r::. ~ q> = 0.2, bu Ik density /) = 1.5 t/m 3 and circumferential velocity of the helix
....
о
.::,t.

.S v = 1.0 m/second. The figures under Рmotor indicate the power consumption for
CII
ф .s various horizontal conveying distances of up to 30 m.
ФО)М ФNМ ooo<:t
'+:1 ~ <:tl"'-o .... L!')O .... ФООN А variant of the conventional screw conveyor is the type which consists of ап
'(3 а.. L!') 00"': "':NM ~<Оcxj axially rotating tube with helical flights attached to the inside, so that there аге по
са
а.
са
independently moving parts in the tube, which is supported оп rollers and driven
(.,) <:t<:tM .... 1"'-oL!') 001"'-00 from the outside. With this system the frictional losses and therefore the power
<:tNФ NMI"'-o NФО
tJ)
С --t"':cxj "':L!'i", consumption аге less than in the conventional system, and there is also less risk of
,- CII ..с: "'N'"
:::- NM<:t 1"'-o00N bIockage ог obstruction. ОП the other hand, the material is tumbIed around in the
~E tube, so that friabIe particles аге more liabIe to disintegrate. Another drawback is
car"
.r::. that the tubular screw conveyor сап Ье charged and discharged only at the ends;
11
't'
> ..с:
ФФL!')
0) .... 1"'-0
<:t .... o
.... O)L!')
Nool"'-o intermediate outlets аге not practicabIe.
с ........ L!')I"'-oФ
са ~.
"'Е --tcxj"': <OON "'M--t
.... NM <:tФОО
Е
....CII ........
с
ф""
E~
000L!')
фr"

,: 11
L!')ooN
MOL!')
ФОI"'-o
OL!')O
L!')NO VII. Pneumatic conveyors
........ N NMM <:tL!')Ф
::100 (J) 000 000 000 The conveying of solids in а gaseous carrying medium, usually air, has acquired
...g"N, considerabIe importance in industry in the last fifty years and is still gaining
... 0
ф ground. А special advantage of pneumatic handling and conveying is that, in
о
s: 11
е-
L!')I"'-o<:t
conjunction with the actual conveying operation, various chemical and physical
D.. L!')oooo NI"'-o<:t
.. 1:)
о.
с o)l"'-oФ L!')<:tM MNN processes involving the interaction of the gas and the material may advantageously
0)' Ье performed (catalytic processes, bIending, drying, classifying, etc.). Other
r"~ L!')L!')O OL!')O
OOL!') advantages аге constructional simplicity, good adaptability, the complete absence
ф
-о
о
L!')L!')Ф
........................
ФI"'-oО)
........................
............
O .... N
........................ of moving parts along the conveying path, freedom from pollution ог dust
~ 11 't' 000 000 000 nuisance, very modest maintenance requirements, weather resistance and, not
1- CII о- OL!')O
NNM
L!')OO
M<:tL!')
000
ФI"'-oОО
least important, the suitability for automated operation.
558
559
F. Handling and feeding systems VII. Pneumatic conveyors
А d isadvantage of pneumatic conveying in general is the high power consumption
and, with certain materials, the heavy abrasive wear ofthe conveying pipeline and
of the material itself. With finely pulverized combustibIe materials there тау
moreover Ье explosion hazards under certain circumstances. Also, with certain
materials there is а risk of bIockage of the pipeline, especially at bends.
'П а pneumatic conveying system the material to Ье conveyed is introduced into а
stream of air Ьу means of а feed device. The particles of material аге carried along in
the air through а pipeline. Depending оп the mode of action, а distinction is drawn
between pressure systems and suction systems. The lattertype is preferred in cases
where conveying has to take place from several feed points to опе discharge point
ог where the feed point has to Ье mobile. However, such suction installations аге
confined to relatively short conveying distances and low loading densities of the
air with the material to Ье handled, as the maximum possibIe conveying pressure is
limited to the atmospheric pressure.
Pressure systems аге employed where materials have to Ье conveyed over longer
distances and with higher loading densities of the air, especially if the material has
to Ье delivered from опе stationary feed point to several discharge points.
Combined installations аге also used, in which the ease of material intake of the
suction system is availabIe in conjunction with the advantages of the pressure
system (Fig. 21).
1 suction nozzle;
2 conveying pipline;
3 separator;
4 fan,
5 rotary valve;
6 hopper
Fig.21 : Comblned suction and pressure system
'П pressure systems the mode of flow that estabIishes itself in the pipeline тау vary
greatly, depending оп а number of factors: gas velocity, settling rate of the material
particles, loading, properties of the material, its frictional behaviour, alignment of
the conveying pipeline (horizontal, vertical, presence of bends). Different types of
installation аге used, depending оп the nature of the material to Ье handled, the
conveying distance and the purpose of the conveying operation.
The loading (solids-to-gas ratio) 1.1 denotes the ratio between the weight of solid
matter to the weight of air and constitutes а criterion with which pneumatic
conveying сап Ье subdivided into three main ranges:
(1) low-density conveying for 1.1 < 30;
(2) high-density conveying for 1.1 > 30;
(3) fluidized ог plug flow conveying with maximum attainabIe loadings.
With low-density conveying, the individual material particles аге freely suspended
in the conveying air, with few particle-to-particle collisions. This form of
560
Forms of flow
pneumatic conveying has long Ьееп applied and is also most readily атепаЫе to
theoretical and experimental treatment. Granular materials аге easier to handle in
this range of flow than finely pulverized ones.
It has Ьееп found in practice that pneumatic conveying is тоге economical in
proportion as the loading is higher. Although the mode of flow which characterizes
high-density conveying is difficult to analyse theoretically, most pneumatic
conveyors operate in this range. It extends from steady-state flow of particles fully
suspended in the air stream through various intermediate modes, including
unsteady ones, to steady-state fluidized flow and plug flow. With the latter,
loadings of 250 and upwards аге sometimes attainabIe. These various modes аге
indicated schematically in Fig.22. With higher loading the conveying velocity
decreases, while they conveying pressure increases. Finely pulverized materials
which сап readily befluidized аге тоге particularly suited for fluidized conveying,
in which casethe mixture of air and solids behaves in the таппег of а fluid. ОП the
other hand, granular materials which аге difficult to fluidize аге тоге suitabIe for
plug flow in the sense of the material being pushed along as а quasi-solid "plug" of
closely packed particles which do not move in relation to опе another.
Fig. 22' forms of flow
Another, and somewhat arbitrary, subdivision distinguishes low-pressure,
medium-pressure and high-pressure conveying. Various pneumatic handling
systems аге reviewed in ТаЫе 20. 'П the column "conveying speed" the settling
rate of material particles is denoted Ьу Wf·
The feed devices for introducing the material into the conveying air stream, and the
separators for removing it from the air stream, аге important parts of the equipment.
Feed arrangements аге simplest in suction ог vacuum systems, as illustrated in
Fig. 23. Some of the conveying air flows through the bulk material into the suction
nozzle, while part of the air is drawn directly into the nozzle through adjustabIe
apertures Ьу means which the loading (solids-to-air) ratio сап Ье varied. With
pressure systems the feed-in of the material presents тоге probIems. For relatively
low pressures (above atmospheric) in the pipeline it is possibIe to use injectors as
feeding devices, operating оп the principle of the jet pump (Fig.24).
With these devices it is not possibIe to attain substantial throughput rates, as only
the kinetic energy of the air jet is availabIe for overcoming the back-pressure in the
conveying pipeline. However, despite low handling capacity, this type of
equipment has its uses for the removal of collected dust from filters and of cement
spillage from sack packing machines, i.e., applications involving relatively small
quantities and short conveying distances.
561
 ТаЫе 20: Survey of pneumatic handling systems

designation loading pressure р тах. conveying energy handling nature of remarks

(-) (mmw.g.) conveying speed demand rate material
distance v (m/s) (kWh/t) (t/h) (тт)
(т)

ф
suction systems 0-10 0-2000 up to 300 coarse steady-state
~ о) vertical 0.8-6 normal
and fine conveying in
Ф
(J) С::
.-
1.2-1.5wf , 3 to 50
~ >- combined suction 10-30 2000 300 horizontal тах. 500 0.5-50
Q.ф suspension
, > and pressure
$ С:: to 5000 to 600 2-2.5wf ,
-
о о
u
systems ~20-32
for fine-
pressure 10-30 grained 0.5-50
systems 20-50 material 5-20011
ф
up to
:;
(J)
(J)
7xwf ,
ф
and тоге
- 0..0)
, С::

Е '>, pressure > 30 > 5000 to 2000 coarse unsteady-state

:::J Ф
.- > systems to 3 Ьаг ог fine conveying pos-
"о С::
Ф О sibIe formation
Е u
of streamers,
balling and
plugging

fluidized up to 250 3 to 7 Ьаг up to 1500 5-20 ~0.8 upto 150 fine steady -state
conveying 1-2011 conveying;
intermittent
(batchwise)
plug flow up to 1000 high 20 0.5-5 high up to 50 coarse conveying only
conveying and тоге pressure also moist for short
distances
(avoud bends!)

562 563
 F. Hand/ing and feeding systems VII. Pneumatic conveyors
zur Vakuumkammer
to vacuum chamber
zyl. Regelschieber
cylindrical control valve
Fig. 23: Suctions intake nozzle
Fig.24: Feed-in of material into а low pressure pneumatic conveying
system
For higher pressures (up to 1.4 Ьаг) so-called rotaгy gate (ог rotary valve) feeders
тау Ье employed (Fig. 25), which function as air-Iocks. Similar devices тау Ье
used also for the discharge of the material from the pneumatic handling system. А
special form of such feeders is intended for dealing with sticky materials which
tend to remain adhering in the compartments ог pockets of the rotor and is
equipped with air jets that dislodge the material Ьу bIasts of air.
For even higher pressures, feed screws тау Ье used for introducing the material
into the conveying air (Fig. 26). Against their advantage of providing а continuous
564
Pneumatic conveyors
Fig. 25: Principle of а rotary gate feeder, enclosed type
Fordergut
rnaterial to ье conveyed
Ruckschlagklappe
non-return valve
Fig. 26: Fuller pump for feed-in of materials into а high-pressure
feed must Ье set their high power requirement and heavy wear. The feed screw
generally runs at high speed (750 -1500 г.р.т.), the air sealing action being
achieved Ьу the screw and the material itself. The non-return valve at the end ofthe
screw seals off the outlet when the screw is not feeding and is useful тоге
particularly when bIowing out the pipeline with compressed air. .
Ап example of а screw-fed pneumatic conveying system is the Fuller pump, whlch
сап attain throughputs of about 200 m /hour and conveying distances normally
З
ranging from about 40 to 200 т, though there аге instances of as much as 1000 т.
The loading is generally between 30 and 40%, but тау Ье 80% in special cases.
The compressed air is as а rule supplied Ьу rotary compressors delivering air at
between 1.0 and 2.5 atm (gauge pressure). Power consumption is in the range of
0.8 to 1.5 kWh/tonne рег 100 m and is thus in excess of the requirements of
mechanical handling systems of equivalent capacity.
The type of material handled Ьу the screw feeder evidently plays а major part with
regard to rates of wear. 'П finely powdered materials such as cement raw теаl the
amount of wear сап Ье reduced Ьу using higher screw speeds, this being made
possibIe Ьу the better sealing action of such materials. However, since wear cannot
Ье obviated complete/y, the screw feeder should Ье so designed that а" wearing
parts аге easily accessibIe and сап Ье replaced Ьу new ones in the shortest possibIe
time.
565
 Pneumatic conveyors

Forderleitung Luftforderrinne
The pitch of the screw is generally constant along the entire length. Sometimes,
conveying (Materialaufgabe)
however, for dealing with readily compressibIe materials and widely varying input
~pneumatic trough
rates, а compressing screw is used, i.e., with decreasing pitch in the direction of
conveying.
pipeline
lConvevo, (mate,;.1 feedJ
Where fine-grained and powdered materials have to Ье conveyed in а substantially
vertical direction the feed-in arrangements тау alternatively take the form of а
vertically mounted vessel into which the material is introduced Ьу а pneumatic НuЬsепdегgеfiШ
trough conveyor. At the same time, air is bIown into the vessel from underneath conveyor vessel
and serves to keep the material in а fluidized condition. In addition, conveying air is
introduced through а central nozzle at the bottom. The column of material itself
forms the air seal. Ап advantage ofthis vertical handling system in comparison with
а bucket elevator is the /ower initial cost, the absence of moving mechanical parts
and the practically unlimited conveying height attainabIe. Also, it is adaptabIe to
varying throughput rates and сап Ье built to high capacity ratings (several hundred
t/hour). The drawback is that for, say, 80 m conveying height the power
consumption of about 0.8 kWh/t is something like 60% higher than that of ап Forderrohr
equivalent bucket elevator. Even so, there тау Ье economic advantages in this discharge рёре
method pneumatic handling if capital and maintenance costs of the installation аге Auflockerungsboden
duly taken into account. Conveyors of this type аге availabIe from тапу major aerated bottom
Di.ise
engineering manufacturers, e.g., the "Peters Airlift" (Fig. 27). lJPi_iiIiIiiI__ Luftzufi.ihrung
nozzle
The pressure vessel pneumatic conveying system must also Ье mentioned. А -zum Auflockern
special vessel (bIow tank) is partly filled with the material to Ье conveyed, the feed aerating air inlet
inlet is closed, and compressed air is then introduced into the vessel, causing the
Luftzufi.ihrung
mixture of material and air to Ье discharged through а bottom outlet into the
Luft zum Fбгdегп
conveying pipeline. High loadings (up to 200) and long conveying distances аге
air - - conveying air inlet
attainabIe Ьу this method. Power consumption is 0.5-1.0 kWh/t рег 100 т. The 1&---+--......
operation is batchwise, i. е., intermittent, with intervals for refilling the vessels in
Fig. 27: Feed-in into vertical pneumatic conveyor
parallel, опе being filled while the other is discharging its contents into the
pipeline. With fairly coarse-grained materials, simple settling hoppers ог receivers
are used for separating them from the air stream at the discharge point оп the
conveying pipeline. For finer materials it is preferabIe to use cyclone separators. I
Cyclones тау moreover Ье installed as secondary collectors or dust arresters Gut-Luft-Gemisch
downstream of primary separators. The functioning principle of the cyclone is very material and air mixture
simple: the air-and-solids mixture enters it tangentially and follows а spiral path in
which the particles аге flung outward (Ьу centrifugal force) against the wall of the
cyclone and fall Ьу gravity to the collecting hopper at the bottom (Fig.28).
Pneumatic trough conveyors (fluidizing conveyors, "airslides") are used for
conveying finely divided materials over relatively short distances in slightly
downward inclined paths, e.g., from а Ып to а feeder. The operating principle of
fluidization consists in aerating the materia!, as а result of which each particle
becomes enveloped in а film of air which acts as а lubricant, as it were, so that the
particles Ьесоте almost frictionless in relation to опе another and the material as а
whole temporarily acquires "fluid" characteristics. Моге particularly, it сап flow
Fig. 28: Discharge cyclone for separating
like water down ап inclined surface.
the conveyed material from
The trough ог duct of а fluidizing conveyor is generally of rectangular cross-section
the conveying medium
and is separated into ап upper and а lower compartment Ьу а longitudina\ partition
567
566
F. Handling and feeding systems VII. Pneumatic conveyors Pneumatic trough conveyors

регтеаЫе to air. Compressed air is introduced into the lower compartment, which
occupies about one-third of the overall cross-section of the trough, and flows о о о
through the partition into the upper compartment where it fluidizes the material. ~ ~ ~
The latter should contain а sufficient proportion of fine particles in order to develop I 1 I I
о о о L!') l'
ап adequate fluidizing action. The trough and its longitudinal partition have to Ье о L!') N q-
L!') М О
so designed that а substantially uniform air pressure is maintained along the entire
length of the lower compartment. Very moderate air pressures, supplied Ьу ап
ordinary fan, suffice for operating а pneumatic trough conveyor. о
о
о
L!')
о
00 о g
The handling rates attainabIe Ьу these conveyors will depend оп the width and the q- cri q-
I I I I I I
angle of inclination of the trough. As а rule, the angleis between 4 and 6 degrees, о о о о
м
о L!') ф
with а possibIe maximum of 1 О degrees. With troughs ranging up to 1000 тт in о о 00 о)
ф ~ о
q- м
width it is possibIe to attain throughputs of up to 2000 m З jhour. These conveyors
сап, if necessary, Ье laid to curved alignments. $pecial slide gates and diverter
о
switches сап also Ье installed. With such devices the material сап Ье transferred о о о)
м о о
from опе pneumatic trough conveyor to another ог Ье discharged sideways м 00 о
directly into а Ып ог hopper (Fig.29). I I I I
о о о q-
The bellows-type mobile loading spout for discharging fine-grained materials into о ф l'
о
N
bulk container vehicles (Fig. 30) is fed Ьу а pneumatic trough conveyor. The spout
сап Ье raised and lowered and comprises а doubIe bellows arrangement through о
00
which the material is passed in the inner bellows tube, while air is extracted о
L!') о
о
ф
g о
N Ф L!')
I
I I 1 I L!')
о о о L!') о о м
q- q-
о
N
00
м ~ о

о
q-
о
о о
N I
I о
о о L!') о м
u) о о N
о
о
>
Q)
>
с:
о с:: (J)
(J
.l: ~ ~
cn Е Е
~
Е Е Е
е
+-'
(J
'.jj
со
Е
~
Q)
с:
о.

....
N
CtI
Q) с::

Fig. 29: Side discharge device or diverter switch for pneumatic trough :i5 ф

.~
со
conveyor 1-

568 569
 F. Handling and feeding systems VIII. Feeders Feeders

with various types of closing and discharge device - slide gates, pivoted gates,
rotary gates, etc. - for controlling the outflow of the materials stored in them. With
special arrangements the rate of discharge сап Ье quantitative!y controlled to
dispense sufficiently precise quantities as and when required. These devices are
especially appropriate for loading bulk materials into vehicles, suspension rail
skips, etc. Оп the other hand, if continuous discharge at а controlled rate, е. g., for
•Mate~:i"~~~i~lauf· feeding а continuous conveyor, is required, the Ып ог silo outlet is equipped with а
power-driven dispensing (flow regulating) device, so as to ensure that the
• rnaterial inlet •
conveyor will not Ье overfilled and thus function less efficient/y ог even suffer
Faltenbalg- damage. Similarly, suitabIy regulated flow rates аге essential for feeding material
Beladegarn itur to screening systems, as the screens will not perform efficiently if they аге
doubIe-Ьеllоws overloaded.
loading spout Feeders for bulk materials in industry mostly have to function under rough service
conditions. The materials themselves present а wide range in terms of particle size,
moisture content and temperature (from -З5 С to + 700 С). Моге particularly,
0 0

Fig. 30: Bellows-type mobl 'е loadi ng spout with dust control
through the annular space between the inner and outer bellows, so that dust
nuisance to the environment is obviated. The tapered nozzle of the spout fits into
the filling inlet ofthe vehicle and is provided with а valve for dust-free cut-off of the
flow оп completion of the loading operation. The whole spout assembIy is
mounted in ап overhead carriage which сап travel longitudinally а distance of
15 m. so that it сап Ье moved to successive filling inlets оп а long vehicle without
having to move the vehicle itself. Loading rates of up to 250t/hour аге
attainabIe.
VШ. Feeders
Cement manufactuгe is а continuous process reqUlГlng the regulated and
proportioned supply of raw materials and uninterrupted discharge and removal of
the products. Storage vessels such as hoppers, bins, bunkers and silos аге provided
570
they тау consist of fine ог coarse particles, possess good flow properties ог Ье
dust-like with unpredictabIe flow behaviour ог Ье of sticky consistency, etc. For
dealing with such а wide range of materials it is of course necessary to have а
corresponding variety of feeding and discharging devices, duly suited to the
properties of the material that each type has to соре with.
Practical experience has shown that а substantial proportion of faults arising with
continuous conveying systems must Ье attrubuted to shortcomings in the design
of the feeders used in conjunction with them. These devices and their correct
installation should therefore always Ье given due attention. ТаЫе 22 сап facilitate
the сопесt choice of such equipment for dealing with specific materials. Since
most iпеgulагitiеs in the rate of flow of the material to Ье handled arlse from
'Ъгidgiпg" ог "arching" in discharging and feeding, а classification into ten grades
of "awkwardness", i.e., difficulty in terms of flow and handling behaviour, has
Ьееп proposed for bulk materials Ьу Taubmann, the rating "1 О" being given to the
class of materials with the most difficult properties.
Although most feeding devices аге specifically designed for their function, тапу of
them operate in accordance with the general principles applicabIe to continuous
conveyors - chain, belt, screw and vibratory conveyors in their various forms -
since feeders аге, as а rule, specialized conveyors in their own right, except that
they аге often of тоге robust construction to resist the forces exerted Ьу the
column of material in the feed hopper from which they extract the material. Belt
conveyors for this purpose аге generally confined to fairly light materials fed at
comparatively low rates. They аге, however, frequently employed in the form of
belt weigh feeders which аге of vагiаbIе-sрееddesign to give controlled flow rates
as required ог which otherwise are designed to switch off automatically after а
certain (weighed) quantity of material has Ьееп dispensed. Feeders of this type
usually operate in combination with а vibratory conveyor into which the material is
primarily discharged from the hopper ог Ып.
Continuous-flow conveyors, screw conveyors ог аргоп conveyors аге much тоге
extensively used as hand ling devices for the extraction materials from bins, etc. The
various forms of construction of these devices have already Ьееп discussed in the
571
u1
-....1 ТаЫе 22: Bulk materials and appropriate feeders :-n
N ::I:
Q)
::J
ф о..
ф 5 ф "о
(J)
о
Q.
~
Ф
"о ф
О
;:;::
u,
::J
ф
"о
"о

2
ф

-ro
Ф
Ф

ф
ф
"о
ф
OJ
С
.~
3"
со
Q)

-
QJ QJ "о ::J
О >- QJ Ф о..
а 2 "о
ф ::J
...
Ф
О OJ 2 2 Е
Ф
ф

о>
с
о
2 с
"-
-c-g QJ 5QJ ro >-
ф
с
"ёQ
QJ
::J
(,) Ф
~ :Е ~ о..
с
со
а.
со
ф
..а
о
(,)-
ф u
(J) ";; ё .J::
(,) .s '6 3'
со

40-600 ~
'"
-<
ash (dry) х х х х х 2-3 ф

ash (wet) 45-600 х х 5-7 3

barite 30-450 х х х х 2-5 '"
dolomite 30-450 х х х х х 2-5 :::;
iron sulphate 30-450 х х 6
ores (heavy) 40-500 х х х х 4 "тl
Ф
ores (Iight) 40-500 х х х 4-5 ф
о..
fly-ash (dry) 200 х х х 7-8 ф

ёn
gypsum 30-450 х х х 2-5
Ыаstfшпасе slag 30-450 х х х 1,5-3
lime (slaked) 350 х х х х 6
hydrated lime 50/60' х 8-10
limestone 30-450 х х х х х 2-4
gravel 30-450 х х х 1,5-2,5
соа' (normal) 35-45' х х х х х х 3
соаl (very abrasive) 35-450 х х х х 4
соаl slurry х х х х х 5-6

х 6
pulverized соаl 30-600 х
4-5
х
coke 30-450 х х

х х х 3
magnesite 30-450 х х
6-8
х х
raw meal (cement) 30-450 х
7-9
х х х
soot 15-30' х 2-4
х
salt (Iumps) 30-450 х х

х х 3
salt (соттоп) 30-450 х

х х 2
sand (dry) 30-450 х
3-6
х
х
sand (moist) 45-600 х
2-5
х х х
х
fireclay 30-450 х
2-4
х х х

talcum (crushed) 30-450 х х

4-6
х х х
talcum (powder) 30-450 х х
7,5-10
х х

clay (Ioam) 45-600 х х

6-8
х
cement
50/600 х х

х
х 2-3
cement clinker 30-450 х х
6-8
х х
zinc white 30-600 3-5,5
х х oj
hot materials 30-450 х
5-9 с:
х
х ;;;:
hygroscopic materials 6-8,5
х х 3
sticky materials х х 1-3 Q)
х
granular materials
х х
5-8,5 Щ
х х
Qi"
dust (jj
Q)
::J
о..
Q)
"о
"о
а
~
~"
ф

.....
ф
ф
о..
Ф
u1 ёn
-....1
t.V
F. Handling and feeding systems VIII. Feeders ТаЫе feeder - Chain feeder

have proved especially suitabIe for difficult materials. The tumbIing motion of the
balls keeps the rotor in а state of vibration which assists the material to fall out of
the compartments.
А well-known type of feeder which has the advantages of good feed rate control,
versatility and high operational reliability is the tabIe feeder (ог disc feeder), as
shown in Fig. 32. It consists essentially of а rotating disc which is mounted under
the ЫП ог hopper outlet. The material flowing from the outlet onto the disc forms а
heap whose size сап Ье varied Ьу raising ог lowering ап outer collar ог sleeve оп the
outlet spout. The disc carries along material from underneath the heap and, Ьу the
action of а scraper оп the disc, discharges it into а chute. Besides flow control Ьу
means of the collar and Ьу means of the scraper (which сап Ье extended farther
into the heap ог retracted, as required) there is а third possibility Ьу varying .the
rotational speed of the disc. These feeding devices аге of robust сопstгuсtюп,
which makes them heavy, so that their power consumption is relatively high.

а rotary tabIe;
Ь hopper outlet;
с scraper;
d collar (сап Ье raised and lowered)

Fig.31: Buckle-plate conveyors as loading hopper bottoms

Fig. 32: ТаЫе feeder

preceding sections of this chapter. As а rule, the extracting conveyor is installed
under а discharge hopper (Fig. 31 ) and directly withdraws part of the column of
material resting оп the conveyor. 'П the case of flight conveyors (scraper
conveyors) and аргоп conveyors it is possibIe to vary the rate of discharge Ьу
changing the speed and/or the height of the bed of material deposited оп the
conveyor. If the discharge of material has to Ье temporarily stopped for mainte-
папсе ог repairs to the extraction device, the column of material сап Ье arrested Ьу
means of rods inserted through holes (оп опе ог both sides of the outlet opening)
so as to form а temporary grid. Fig.33: Chain feeder
А different principie is embodied in the rotary gate (ог rotary vane) feeder, also
known as the star feeder, which сап perform ап extracting and d ispensing function
and сап moreover Ье sealed to serve as ап air-Iock gate in conjunction with Bulk materials with very coarse and abrasive particles have to Ье discharged and
pneumatic handling systems (Fig.25). The flow rate through the feeder сап Ье fed Ьу devices of а different kind. Forexample, Fig. 33 show~ а chai~ feeder, which
controlled Ьу varying the speed of rotation These devices аге of various designs consists of а number of round-link chains mounted loosely slde Ьу slde, suspended
and forms of construction suited to the flow behaviour and other properties of curtain-wise from а rotating drum which сап move them. The chains should Ье so
materia 1to Ье hand led. With поп -sticky materia Is there is genera Ily по probIem, but heavy that they prevent апу material from flowing out of the hopper when they аге
if the materials аге sticky ог tend to cake, the rotary gate must Ье designed with at rest. The chain curtain should moreover Ье of sufficient width so that some ofthe
special саге, particularly as regards the shape of its rotating compartments. Thus, chains also rest against the sides of the bed of material and thus arrest its flow. То
these may Ье semi-circular and of а depth suited to the material behaviouг. discharge the material, the drum is rotated, allowing а certain quantity to slip
Relatively thin-walled rotors, of welded construction and containing steel balls through under the chains.

574 575
F. Handling and feeding systems VIII. Feeders Mobile discharging screw - Coal mixing installation

If coarse bulk material has to Ье preclassified, it is possibIe to use а combination of

chain feeder and travelling grate functioning as а screen (Fig.34). The finer
particles that fall through the grate аге collected in а hopper and discharged
through а separate chute. The grate bars аге self-cleaning оп passing round the
end pulleys. Preclassification in conjunction with material discharge сап alter-
natively Ье achieved with а roller-bar grate (Fig. 35). The rollers аге provided with
cam-like projections which produce а heaving motion in the overlying material,
which is thus prevented from choking the grate and moreover undergoes а certain
amount of bIending. Devices ofthis type аге especially desirabIe forfeeding heavily
contaminated materials (ог with excessive proportions of undersized particles) to
crushing plants. Fig.36: Slot bunker Fig.37: Mobile discharging screw
with discharge carriage

other types of conveyor Ьу matting ог felting. In such cases the bunker is provided
with virtually vertical side walls, while the extractor screws extend fully across the
bottom discharge opening (Fig.37).
Feeding methods for swing bucket elevators include devices for dispensing
predetermined quantities of material to the individual buckets. Feeders for
pneumatic conveyors have already Ьееп described in the relevant sections of this
chapter.
Fig. 34: Preclassifying feeder: combination of chain feeder and travel-
Finally, mention must Ье made of а discharge system which simultaneously bIends
ling grate
the materials extracted from several bunkers, bins, etc. disposed опе behind
another. Ап аргоп conveyor installed under the row of outlets extracts а 'ауег of

~o
material from each, the desired proportions of the mix components being regu lated
Ьу vагуiпg the deptll of the layer disc~larged from each outlet. М ixing ог bIending is
done Ьу а paddle shaft at the discharge point of the аргоп conveyor. This system is
тоге particularly suitabIe for the bIending of various grades of coal. If very

i\w "\i~. ~;,.: Fig.35: Travelling grate

intensive mixing is required, а twin-shaft mixer сап Ье installed in addition to the
paddle shaft (Fig.38).

Schichtregler
The discharge openings of long bunkers сап most suitabIy take the shape of а material bed controller
continuous slot. А longitudinally mobile discharge carriage (Fig.36) equipped
with а horizontally rotating set of scraper bIades removes the material from а shelf
under the outlet slot and deposits it onto а belt conveyor mounted under the edge
of the shelf. Devices of this general type аге suitabIe for almost апу bulk material
which will remain Iying at its natural angle of repose оп the shelf, i.e., not Ье so
"fluid" as to spill continuously out of the slot, but they аге тоге particularly
su itabIe for fairly sticky materia Is wh ich аге difficult to d ischarge Ьу other methods.
The drawback is that such installations аге expensive in construction and
operation.
Like continuous-flow conveyors, screw conveyors сап likewise Ье installed
directly under а bunker ог Ып and тау Ье provided with several inlet and outlet
openings. Since screw conveyors develop а kind of cutting and shredding action
within the material, they аге suitabIe also for difficult materials which tend to choke Fig. 38: Соаl mixing installation

576 577
F. Handling and feeding systems IX. Weighing equipment
Alternatively, paddle shafts сап Ье installed at the head end of а discharge
conveyor for sticky materials such as loam ог chalk. With this arrangement the
material is, as it wещ chopped ог sliced off as it emerges from the hopper outlet
and is then fed in а uniform 'ауег to the conveyor (Fig.39).
Fig. 39: Paddle shafts for the discharge of sticky material from а bunker
IX. Weighing equipment
From the description of the various feeding devices in the preceding section it
appears that тапу of these аге сараЫе of extracting material at а uniform rate from
а Ып, bunker ог hopper and thus provide the basis for at least а volumetrically
controlled and measured flow. In automated industrial processes, however, тоге
exacting requirements as to the ассшасу of flow measurement аге often applied -
beyond the capability of those devices. Моге particularly, precise weighing of
quantities is required. For тапу years the only practicabIe method of doing this
was to transfer the materials from continuous conveyors into automatically
functioning weigh hoppers. This not only involved additional handling, but these
578
8elt weigher - Weigh belt feeder
manipulations were also liabIe have ап adverse effect оп friabIe materials. 8esides,
the weigh hoppers were bulky pieces of equipment and therefore often difficult to
accommodate in the conveying path.
The рroЫет was solved Ьу the development of suitabIe belt conveyor type
continuous weighing devices (belt weighers) which сап Ье mounted in the
supporting frame of а normal belt conveyor and form ап integral part thereof The
actual weighing unit is connected Ьу а lever system to а special roller set which
functions as а "weigh- bridge" for the material passing over it оп the belt. The lever
is directly attached to а temperature-compensated load cell which measures the
weight continuously and is protected from damage Ьу overloading. The weighing
unit сап Ье separately calibrated under static ог dynamic conditions. The load оп
the measuring roller is transmitted to а weigh-beam which actuates а totalizing
device. The weighing operation involves по vertical travel of the roller, i. е., the
latter remains at а constant height. The totalizer is driven Ьу the bottom strand
(return run) of the belt via а friction roller, so that correct measurement is obtained
even with varying belt speeds. The system сап give а direct indication of the
conveying rate (in t/hours) at апу given time as well as recording the total quantity
conveyed оп the belt in а certain length of time. 8elt weighers of this type attain
± 1 рег cent ассшасу of measurement.
Whereas the belt weigher measures the rate of flow as it happens to Ье, it тау in
other cases Ье necessary to supply the material at ап accurately weight-controlled
rate, i. е., а specified weight рег unit of time. This is done Ьу the weigh belt feeder,
also known Ьу such names as belt weigh feeder ог conveyor belt scale. (The
designation "proportion ing belt feeder" is, strictly speaking, appropriate оп Iy if the
machine, possibIy in combination with others of the same type, dispenses опе of
the components of а mixture at а specified ra1e).
The feeder consists basically of а belt weigher with electric speed control. The
value of such mach ines for producing mixtures correctly proportioned Ьу weight in
various industrial processes is obvious (Fig. 40).
Weigh belt feeders сап Ье installed as extractor belts under the outlets of bins,
hoppers, etc. Such а belt тау Ье driven at а constant speed. In order to achieve а
constant rate of discharge (in terms of weight рег unit of time) the arithmetical
product of the belt speed (v) and belt loading (q) must Ье kept constant. The
simplest arrangement consists in utilizing the weight-measuring roller under the
belt as the control element for adjusting the device which regulates the depth of
material discharged onto the belt at the Ып outlet. Unfortunately, this method is
often too inaccurate to meet the feed control requirements in some processes,
because the material depth adjusting devices аге too insensitive ог, if the material
contains oversize particles and small depths аге required, tend to Ьесоте partly
choked, so that irregular functioning occurs.
This snag сап Ье overcome Ьу giving the outlet opening the largest possibIe cross-
sectional dimensions and varying the speed of the belt (Fig. 41). With this method
the accuracy of feeding depends only оп the ассшасу with which the weight-
measuring roller operates. This in turn, however, depends оп the flexibility of the
belt and оп the tensile force acting in it. А drawback is that the resistance
encountered Ьу the material оп discharge cannot Ье controlled, while the changes
579
F. Handling and feeding systems IX. Weighing equipment
Fig.40: Combination of а belt weigher with а weigh belt feeder
а swivelling weigh and extraction belt of the feeder; Ь pivot; с vагiаbIе-sрееddrive
motor; d potentiometer pick-off for bulk density compensation (у control);
е weigh belt feeder power indication; f amplifier; 9 potentiometer for adjusting the
weight ratio; h belt conveyor; i belt weigher; k potentiometer pick-off for fine
adjustment of weigh belt feeder; I transmission lever; m belt conveyor power
indication
Fig.41: Weigh belt feeder. single-section type
а weighing unit; Ь measuring bridge; с controller; d vагiаbIе-sрееd motor;
е tacho-generator; f intermediate storage for measured values; 9 product
computing device
580
Weigh belt feeder - Feeding system
Fig. 42: Weigh belt feeder. two-section type
а weighing unit; Ь measuring bridge; с controller; d vагiаbIе-sрееd motor;
е synchronous motor
in belt flexibility due to ageing of the belt also constitute ап uncertainty. То
compensateforthese probIems, rather sophisticated and expensive measuring and
control equipment has to Ье used, as appears from Fig.41.
ОП the other hand, the system illustrated in Fig.42 is much simpler, involving
merely а weighing unit and а controlled feeder completely separate from it. Апу of
the familiar types of Ып or hopper discharge devices сап Ье used in conjunction
with this equipment.
Fig. 43: Feeding system with rotor-type measuring device and соп­
trolled vibratory сопуеуог
а weighing unit; Ь measuring bridge; с controller; d vагiаbIе-sрееd motor
581
F. Handling and feeding systems References
Continuous weighing equipment incorporating а rubber belt mounted оп measur-
ing rollers is not suitabIe for dealing with materials with irregular flow behaviour
and а tendency to "flushing". Nor сап it Ье used for very hot materials. For the
latter, similar weighers, but incorporating steel аргоп conveyors instead of belts,
have Ьееп successfully introduced. Alternatively, а so-called rotor weighing unit
has Ьееп developed for such materials (Fig. 43). Instead of а belt conveyor there is
а rotor somewhat resembIing а water-wheel with compartments into which the
material to Ье weighed is admitted. The flow rate is controlled Ьу the speed of the
rotor driven Ьу а synchronous electric motor. The rotor is mounted оп the weighing
unit, so that in this respect its operating principle is по different from that of the belt
weigher with its measuring roller. The material from the bin ог hopper is fed to the
weigher through апу suitabIe type of gate ог other discharge device.
References
Aumund/Mechtold, F.: НеЬе- und Forderanlagen, 5.Aufl. - Berlin: Springer-
Verlag 1969.
DIN - Deutsches Institut fur Normung е. V., BurggrafenstraBe 4, 1000 Berlin
30.
2. DIN 8175 Laschenketten fur Stahlgliederbljnder, Мау 1961.
3. DIN 15201, Teil1 : Stetigforderer; Benennungen, Bildbeispiele, Bildzeichen,
April 1977, Entwurf Teil 2. Stetigforderer, Zubehorgerate, Nennungen,
Bildbeispiele, February 1978.
4. DIN 15231 Stetige Forderer; Becherwerke, Flache Becher aus Blech, June
1951, Епtwшf Stetigforderer, Becherwerke, Flache Becher, September 1978.
5. DIN 15232 Stetige Forderer; Becherwerke, Flachrunde Becher aus Blech,
June 1951 ; Entwurf Stetigforderer; Becherwerke, Flachrunde Becher, Sep-
tember 1978.
6. DIN 15233 Stetige Forderer, Becherwerke, М itteltiefe Becher aus Blech,
June 1951, Entwurf Stetigforderer, Becherwerke, Mitteltiefe Becher, Sep-
tember 1978.
7. DIN 15234 Stetige Forderer, Becherwerke, Tiefe Becher aus Blech, mit
еЬепег Ruckwand, June 1951; Entwurf Stetigforderer, Becherwerke, Tiefe
Becher mit еЬепег Ruckwand, September 1978.
8. DIN 15235 Stetige Forderer, Becherwerke, Tiefe Becher aus Blech, mit
gekrummter Ruckwand, Juni 1951; Entwurf Stetigforderer, Becherwerke,
Tiefe Becher mit gekrummter Ruckwand, September 1978.
9. DIN 15236, Teil 1: Stetige Forderer, Becherwerke, Becherbefestigung ап
Gurten, Juli 1952, Entwurf Stetigforderer; Becherwerke, Becherbefestigung
ап Gurten, September 1978. Teil 4: Stetige Forderer; Becherwerke, Becher-
befestigung ап Rundgliederketten, July 1952; Entwurf Stetigforderer;
Becherwerke, Becherbefestigung ап Rundstahlketten, September 1978. Teil
5: Stetige Forderer; Becherwerke, Becherbefestigung ап Buchsenketten, July
1952; Entwurf Stetigforderer, Becherwerke, Becherbefestigung ап В uchsen-
forderketten, September 1978.
582
References
10. DIN 15251 Stetige Forderer; Becherwerke, Schwere Bauart, mit Rundglie-
derketten, October 1952.
11 DIN 22101 Gurtforderer, February 1942.
12. DIN 22200 Gliederforderer, March 1938; Entwurf Stetigforderer; Glieder-
bandforderer, Berechnungsgrundsatze, March 1976.
13. Labahn, O./Kaminsky, W. А.' Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure, 5. Aufl. -
Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1974.
14. Wehmeier, К. Н.: Beitrag zur Berechnung von Hochleistungsbecherwerken.
- In: fordern und heben 9/1964/670ff.
15. Beumer, B./Wehmeier, К. Н. Zur Frage des Schopfwiderstandes und der
Auswurfverhaltnisse bei Becherwerken, Teill u. 11. - 'п: fordern und heben
11 /1960/803ff. u. 1/1961.
16. Grimmer, K.-J./Beumer, В .. Auslegung und Betrieb kurvengangiger Forder-
bander mit normalen Fordergurten. - 'п. fordern und heben 4/1972.
Acknowledgements for illustrations
AUMUND-Fordererbau GmbH: Figs. 2,4, 5Ь, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 31,39
Aumund/Mechtold' НеЬе- und Forderanlagen, 5th ed. - Berlin: Springer-Verlag
1969: Figs.3, 10, 11, 18,20,22,23,24,25,26,28,32,33,34,35,36,37,38
AEG: Fig.19
Claudius Peters: Figs. 27,29,30
Н Goebbels: Figs.40, 41, 42, 43
Beumer: Figs.3a-c
MOIlers: Figs.4, 5а
Acknowledgements for tabIes
Aumund/Mechtold: НеЬе- und Forderanlagen, 5th ed. - Berlin Springer-Verlag
1969: TabIes 3 to 6,10 and 11, 18
Fa. Trelleborg, Hamburg: TabIes 7 and 8
Fa. AUMUND-Fordererbau, Rheinberg' TabIes 12 to 17
Labahn/Kaminsky: Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure, 5th ed. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1974' TabIes 19 and 21
Zeitschrift Aufbereitungstechnik 10/1967/551 : ТаЫе 20
Zeitschrift Maschinenmarkt 66/1972/1504. ТаЫе 22
583
 G. Process engineering and automation

G. Process engineering and automation

Ву G. Schmiedgen

1. General . 585
11. Measurement and process control 586
1 Measurement...... 587
2 Closed loop control. . . 591
'11. ProgrammabIe controllers 596
IV Monitoring and operation 600
V. Process computers . . . 605
1 Development and use of process computers . 605
2 Computerized process monitoring. 608
3 Hardware and software 612
4 М icroprocessors . . 613
VI. Process control system 614
References. . . . 614

1. General
Modeгn cement works аге controlled and monitored from control stations which
тау Ье decentralized ог centralized. The trend is towards, the central control гоот
ог control centre, from where опе ог тоге production lines сап Ье operated with
the minimum of personnel.
With this technology the control roот personnel usually have по direct contact
with the process to Ье monitored. They have to rely оп suitabIe means of
communication with the individual machines and other units of process equip-
ment. Such means аге collectively categorized as process engineering and
automation. 'П this context the term "process control system" is used.
What does this term signify?
It comprises the following fu nctions:
measuring
interlocking
monitoring
operating
closed loop controlling
computing.
The electrical manufacturing industry supplies suitabIe equipment and systems for
performing these functions. The necessary engineering тау Ье undertaken Ьу the

585
 G. Process engineering and automation
customers themselves, Ьу independent consultants, Ьу the suppliers of the process
machinery ог Ьу the suppliers of the process control system.
As а result ofthe impetuous developments in semiconductor technology, there аге
now efficient and inexpensive electronic components and modules availabIe with
which it is becoming increasingly possibIe to shift the duties of process control and
monitoring from human attendants to the process control system. At the same time,
however, there аге limits of есопоту and effectiveness to Ье considered in
pursuing this trend.
А process control system must primarily ensure that the production process is
safeguarded and maintained. 'П addition, it must reliabIy provide the means of
operator/process communication and make possibIe the connection of higher-
order system components for optimization duties.
Communication of the human operator with the process he has to control is very
important. То provide automatic responses to each and every demand made Ьу the
process would Ье economically impracticabIe and also undesirabIe from the point
of view of reliability of the system. Human intervention remains necessary, subject
to the condition that it does not impose too heavy а strain оп the operating
personnel involved. The control system must meaningfully select, ргераге and
present the requisite information from the process, so that even in critical phases of
operation по wrong interventions due to overburdening of human judgment and
response capacity will оссш.
Reliability of the process control system and efficiency of its design and
construction аге of major influence upon operational dependability and есопоту
in cement manufacture. It should Ье Ьогпе in mind that we аге here concerned with
а chain of functions ог units of equipment. This chain begins at the sensor ог limit
switch. It comprises adaptation, transmission, monitoring and processing of the
signals from the industrial process, and it ends at the valve, variabIe drive ог other
final control element. It also includes the machines and other associated units of
equipment. This chain is only as reliabIe as its weakest link. The designer of modern
process control systems for the cement industry has to take due account of these
matters in selecting the equipment and determining the duties it has to perform.
These general considerations concerning а complete process control system also
apply to the individual functional groups for measuring, controlling ог
monitoring.
The information given in this chapter lays по claim to Ье ап exhaustive account _
which would Ье outside the scope of this book anyway. Its object is, rather, to
provide the cement specialist with ап outline the principles and review the present
"state of the аг!" in this field of technology.
11. Measurement and process control
This s~?tion is concerned only with the actual process variabIes. Purelyelectrical
quantltles (current, voltage, power, cos <р) аге not dealt with, as these do not
directly impinge оп the cement engineer's sphere of duties.
586
Measurement and process control
1 Measurement
Ву "measurement" in the present context is understood the quantitative detection
of characteristic technological values, their conversion into analog electric signals,
their transmission and their evaluation. In cement manufacture the probIems of
measured data collecting аге centred mainly оп choosing the suitabIe measuring
points and most reliabIe measuring methods. With the large rotating units of plant
involved, it is mostly possibIe only to perform indirect measurements of the internal
processes and then only at а limited number of points. For example, the physical
and chemical reactions taking place inside а rotary kiln сап Ье monitored and
assessed only in terms of auxiliary variabIes (temperature, pressure, gas analysis)
which аге accessibIe for measurement at the inlet and the outlet end. Under these
conditions, electrical engineering and instrument technology must co-operate
closely with the practical experience of the "теп оп the job" in order to assess just
how representative and reproducibIe certain changes in а measured variabIe аге, so
as to justify technological inferences drawn from them. Complicating factors аге
the large quantities of dust swept along in the gases, the high temperatures, the
abrasive action and the chemical aggressiveness of the material being processed.
'П view of these circumstances, it is inevitabIe that practically по measuring point
- i.e., а point where а sensor ог detector for monitoring the process is installed -
will continue to function impeccabIy for апу great length of time.
Оп the contrary, measuring points require regular maintenance, for only in this way
сап they go оп giving reliabIe information оп the technological relationships over
reasonabIy long periods. Accordingly, in trying to judge the merits of а measuring
system, it is necessary to take account of its convenience of maintenance, the
service life of the sensor, its adjustability (mаПllэl ог ЭlJtоmаtiс) and the possibility
of supervising its functioning. ProgrammabIe systems (computers, motor control
and process control systems), which will Ье discussed тоге fully further оп in this
chapter, оНег considerabIe scope for the automatic monitoring (and calibration, if
necessary) of measuring points while the plant is in operation, but such
arrangements cannot епаЫе the services of instrument maintenance personnel
in the cement works to Ье dispensed with.
The analog signals picked up Ьу the sensor аге usually very low-powered
(millivolts, microamps) and therefore highly sensitive to disturbing influences. In
practice, а suitabIe technique consists in converting these weak signals into
impressed direct-current signals in the immediate vicinity of the sensor, so that the
transmission of the measured variabIes (telemetering) сап Ье effected through
cabIes, free from probIems arising from disturbing influences. The two types of
signal in соттоп present-day use аге the so-called "dead zero" (О - 20 тА) ог
"Iive zero" (4- 20 тА) The dead zero signal facilitates computing operations in
analog technology, which аге important especially in multi-Ioop control systems
without а process computer. With the live zero signal it is possibIe to employ two-
wire cabIes to the transducer and easier monitoring of the transducer and signal
transmission circuit. А measured value below 4 тА indicates а fault. 'П principle, it
makes по d ifference which of these two alteгnativesignal types is adopted, but it is
important to ensure that consistent signals аге employed throughout а cement
works. This eases the ргоЫет of spares inventory simplifies the work of the
587
G. Process engineering and automation
maintenance gang and enabIes different system components to Ье interconnected
without complications. А recent trend has Ьееп to convert the direct-current signal
in the control гоот (after transmission from the plant) into а voltage signal (e.g.,
0-1 ОУ), which makes it easier to distribute the measured variabIe among several
analysing ог indicating instruments.
Instruments for the detection of temperature аге thermocouples, resistance
thermometers and radiation pyrometers. With the first two types of instrument
the sensor comes into direct contact with the medium whose temperature is to Ье
measured, so that this part of the instrument is liabIe to suffer wear ог damage. Оп
the other hand, the radiation pyrometer picks up thermal radiation emitted from the
surface of а body, i. е., the instrument does not соте into direct contact with the
medium, but it must nevertheless Ье protected from excessive heat, which might
harm its electronic equipment, ог from dust deposits forming оп its lens. It is
obviously important that the pyrometer should really receive the radiation that is
representative of the temperature to Ье measured. The optimum direction of
sighting the instrument must Ье adjusted at the outset.
Depending оп the range of measurement, the purpose for which the results аге
required, etc., there аге various methods of measuring pressure, whether as
absolute pressure, gauge pressure (above atmospheric), vacuum pressure
ог differential pressure. With correct choice and suitabIe mounting of the
instruments, they will operate reliabIy. Measurements in heavily dust-Iaden
atmospheres аге liabIe to cause probIems with choking of the tubes leading to the
instruments. In designing and installing the latter it is therefore necessary to ensure
that there аге ргорег access openings ог devices for the regular cleaning of the
pressure measuring equipment. Automatically operating devices for cleaning Ьу
compressed air jets have generally proved effective.
For repairs ог replacement of faulty pressure transducers, adequate shut-off
devices (valves, etc.) must Ье provided, which should of course Ье readily
accessibIe to maintenance personnel.
Differential pressure measurement is employed also for the detection of possibIe
bIockage of gas flow passages, for monitoring the loading of tube mills, and (in
conjunction with various types of equipment) for measuring the flow of gases.
Gas flow measurement is of major importance, being required for stabilizing the
conditions in the rotary kiln, the grate cooler ог the air separator. 'П certain cases it
тау necessitate extra constructional cost. With the large dimensions of gas ducts
in present-day use, the classic pressure differential rate-of-flow measurement with
а venturi tube orflow nozzle involves building very substantial structures. Besides,
adequate lengths of duct in which steady flow conditions сап develop will have to
Ье provided upstream and downstream of the venturi ог nozzle. Attempts to
measure dust-Iaden gas flow Ьу means of static pressure tubes have hitherto
proved unsuccessful. ОП the other hand, interesting possibilities аге offered Ьу
new methods of calculating the rate of flow with the aid of а computer using
auxiliary measured variabIes and the characteristic curve of the fan. But here, too,
the dust content of the gas, and changes in the fan characteristic due to wear ог
build-up of deposits, сап cause probIems.
For measuring the flow of solids (particulate bulk materials) various types of
588
Measurement
continuous measuring equipment ог belt weighers аге used, depending оп the
required accuracy. Weigh belt feeders serve also as flow regulating devices,
dispensing the material to а process at а specified rate ог proportioning the
components of а mixture. For these applications the equipment must comprise, in
addition to the actual weighing system, а finely adjustabIe dispensing device
suited to the flow properties of the materials.
For the flow of liquids there аге various kinds of metering equipment, while
inductive methods сап also successfully Ье used for suitabIe liquids (conductivity
not less than 0.5 ~S/cm).
Statutory requirements for the prevention of environmental pollution аге making it
,increasingly necessary to install instruments for monitoring the emission of
pollutants. Smoke density measuring instruments аге based оп the absorption of
light Ьу the smoke. А light source directs а Ьеат of light across the flue onto а
photoelectric cell which generates а measuring voltage, the value of which
depends оп the degree of light absorption and thus provides а measure of the dust
concentration. 'П modern systems such monitoring devices аге themselves
monitored Ьу checking units which integrate the pol!utant emission levels over
successive periods.
Rapid and reliabIe analysis of the kiln exit gases is very important. The
measuring points of particular interest аге:
СО content of the exit gases before the electrostatic precipitator: for this check
for protecting the precipitator the important thing is to obtain the measured
result quickly.
С0 2 content before and after the preheater: these measurements give
information оп the degree of decarbonation (calcination) of the raw meal
being fed to the kiln.
02 content at the kiln inlet: this analysis enabIes the air excess in the
combustion process to Ье kept within acceptabIe limits from the point of view
of firing efficiency.
Unfortunately, попе of these measurements аге free from probIems, so that they
сап only tentatively - and with а sufficiently wide margin of uncertainty with
regard to the theoretically optimum value - Ье utilized for process monitoring and
control. The probIems begin with the extraction of gas for analysis. The object is to
obtain а properly representative sample from the gas flow in the kiln, which in large
plants will Ье in the region of 800000 m З /hour.
Besides, the sampling system should Ье so arranged that the effect of inleaking air
upon the results of the measurements is kept down to а minimum. ProbIems in this
respect аге liabIe to occur especially in the feed end housing that forms the
transition from the preheater to the kiln.
As а rule, the instruments аге accommodated in а steel cabinet which also contains
the gas cooler, condensate trap, filter, diaphragm pump, etc. and is installed as
close to the sampling point as possibIe. 'П this way, controlled preparatory
processing of the gas for analysis is achieved and, what is even тоге important,
short gas flow paths, thus helping to obtain rapid analysis results. These aspects
must Ье given particular attention at the initial design stage.
Х-гау analysis is especially significant in connection with cement manufacture,
589
G. Process engineering and automation
because it enabIes rapid analysis of the raw materials and of the finished product to
Ье carried out under plant operating conditions, thus providing the basis for
reliabIe quality control. In the main, Х-гау fluorescence analysis (Х-гау spectro-
metry) is used, а method in which the sample to Ье analysed is irradiated with Х­
rays and is thereby made to emit its own characteristic radiation, the wavelengths
of which give information оп the nature of the chemical elements in the sample,
while the intensity of the radiation gives ап indication of the proportions in which
these elements аге present.
There аге several types of Х-гау spectrometer equipment·
multichannel spectrometer in which several (in cement works usually from five
to eight) elements аге measured simultaneously,
sequential spectrometer with а radiation detection channel which сап Ье
moved through ап angular range to certain measuring positions, thus enabIing
different elements to Ье measured successively;
continuous spectrometer, through which the material for analysis flows in а
stream which is continuously analysed; this instrumentation сап Ье used only
in а fixed location and for а specific purpose, whereas the other two types of
Х-гау spectrometer аге universal instruments.
In connection with cement manufacture, Х-гау diffraction analysis (Х-гау diffrac-
tometry) is used for the determination of free lime in cement clinker.
Correct preparation of the samples for analysis is important, as this is of major
influence of the ассшасу of the results.
Various techniques аге used for monitoring and measuring the levels of
materials in bins, hoppers and silos. For responding to predetermined fixed limits
(fu 11, half full, empty) devices such as d iaphragm switches, probes of various kinds.
ог sensors for radiation from radioactive emitters аге employed. Most of these
devices suffer to а greater ог lesser extent from probIems due to wear and/or to
caking ог clogging with moist ог sticky materials, while the use of radioisotopes
requires due compliance with the relevant safety regulations.
Suspended probes which аге lowered automatically from the roof of а silo ог Ып
and which respond Ьу automatically switching off оп coming into contact with the
material аге suitabIe devices for measuring the level at апу given time. The actual
contents of the silo сап Ье estimated from the distance travelled Ьу the ргоЬе,
making due allowance for the angle of repose of the material.
Alternatively, with modern techniques, the entire contents of а Ып сап Ье weighed
Ьу means of load cells. These devices should Ье installed as permanent features in
the construction of new bins.
Because of the comparatively elaborate equipment required in relation to the
technological benefits achieved, the automated monitoring and measurement
of moisture content has hitherto Ьееп applied only оп а limited scale in the
cement industry. Mostly, estimates of moisture content аге based оп the
measurement of auxiliary variabIes, e.g., temperature of exit gas.
Automatic fineness measuring instruments have hitherto also found only
limited application. The determination of fineness, optimum granulometric com-
position (particle size distribution) and bulk density (of clinker) Ьу suitabIe
automatic means offers scope for future development of instrument technology.
590
Closed 'оор control
2 Closed 'оор control
The purpose of process control is to adjust the actual value of а process variabIe so
as to make it, and keep it, equal to а given desired value (ог set point). In modern
industrial processes the automatic closed-Ioop control (ог feedback control)
principle is extensively applied: апу deviation from the desired value is fed back
into the control system and acts in such а way as to reduce the deviation of the
controlled quantity from the standard value.
Contro\ler
Set point Regeleinrichtung
Fij hru ngsgrbrJe
(Soll)---4O--~
Controlled
variabIe Correcting
variabIe
RegelgrorIe (1st)
StellgrbrJe
Controlled system Controlling
(Process) element
Regelstrecke Stellglied
Fig. 1 : Closed loop control principle
Basically, а control 'оор сап Ье conceived as comprising а measuring element
(detecting element, sensor) which measures the actual value of the controlled
variabIe and transmits а signal (for example, in the form of ап electric current) to а
controller. The latter сап Ье defined as а device which holds the controlled system
(the process) at а desired level ог state Ьу comparing the actual value with the
desired value; it transmits ап actuating signal which causes а final control element
(ог correcting element) to take corrective action to restore the controlled variabIe
to the desired value.
In principle, the controller functions like а human process operator who watches
the dial of ап instrument indicating the actual value of а process variabIe, е. g., а
rate of flow. When the pointer moves away from the desired value, the operator
corrects this Ьу adjusting а valve (the correcting element) so as to restore the flow
rate to its desired value. In modern industгy the control functions аге automated,
using electronic equipment. Pneumatic control systems, which were used to some
extent in the cement industry in the past, аге now virtually obsolete.
Controllers with switching-action and with continuous output signals
The distinction is based оп the nature of the output signal from the controller.ln the
Ешореап cement industry the "switching-action" principle is mostly applied. For
motor-actuated correcting elements (е. g., control valves) it offers the least
591
G. Process engineering and automation Closed 'оор control

expensive solution because it acts directly upon the power contactors of the servo-
motors ог actuators. The controller giving а continuous output signal will require
the interposition of а storage unit and additional position controller.

Compact controllers and controller modules

Another distinction is based оп the form of construction of the controller' the
"сотрасС controller as opposed to the controller of modular design, i.e.,
composed of individual "building bIocks" (modules).
The "сотрасС type of controller сап Ье installed directly in а control desk ог
switchboard (Fig.2). Besides elements for performing the actual controller
function it comprises the associated monitoring and operating equipment such as
the set-point adjuster, manual оvепidе, and indicators for the controlled variabIe,
the сопесtiпg element setting and the control deviation (the deviation of the actual
value from the desired value). The advantage is the compactness of the unit, but
this is attended Ьу the disadvantage of limited adaptability of the circuitry.
Complex multi-Ioop control systems, as well as direct control interventions (e.g.,
in connection with starting and stopping sequences), cannot su itabIy Ье ach ieved.
In such cases the modular controller is to Ье ргеfепеd. The individual modules
(Fig.3), forming self-contained assembIies, аге combined with опе another
according to the control ргоЫет that has to Ье solved and аге mounted and wired
Fig. З: Controller module (Siemens)

together in а mounting frame. Automatic closed-Ioop control, computing, motor

(sequence апа interlock) controi and monitoring functions сап Ье cornbil1ed. Тlle
controller equipment сап Ье installed at апу desired point, not necessarily in the
immediate vicinity of the control desk ог indeed of the control гоот. Only the
actual operating switches, keys, pushbuttons, etc. and indicating instruments аге
mounted оп the desk.
These conventional controllers аге subject to limitations in terms of circuit
technology. А wider range of possibilities is offered Ьу programmabIe control
systems. With the introduction of а process computer it becomes possibIe to
employ ООС control (direct digital control). 'П that case the controller function (ог
the control algorithm) is по longer performed Ьу electric circuitry and switching
actions, but is stored as а mathematical program in the computer. With these
апапgеmепts it is possibIe to сапу out elaborate calculations for the control
deviation ог for the adjustment of the manipulated variabIe and also, for
complicated controlled systems, to program the computer to perform the functions
of two ог тоге controllers which аге brought into operation to suit the varying
requirements of the process at апу given time.
The following types of control аге to Ье distinguished:
Pure ООС control: 'П this method, control is аопе entirely Ьу computer. If
the computer develops а fault, the control system fails. It is ап economical
Fig.2: method which is especially suitabIe for slow control adjustments (е. g.,
Compact controller (Siemens) temperature control), because these сап Ье stabilized Ьу manual intervention

592 593
G. Process engineering and automation Closed loop control

in the event of computer troubIe. ООС systems are now successfully used for
rotary kilns equipped with planetary coolers.
ООС back-up control offers the same advantages as pure ООС, but а
conventional controller connected in parallel and automatically kept in step
with the ООС system сап smoothly take over the duties of the latter in the event
of computer troubIe.
Set-point control or supervision: The computer determines the set point
(desired value) for а subordinated controller which is in continuous
operation.
When the process computer was introduced in the mid-1960s, the above methods
were - mostly for reasons of есопоту - applied in the form of digital multiple
control: опе computer served а number of controllers. However, developments in
electronics technology have in recent years resulted in increasingly advanced I
----------------------j
miniaturization of the components, attended with very substantial reductions in
cost. The microprocessor constitutes what is at present the final stage in this
~~~ :
А Aulomalic press I
evolution, opening up new possibilities for the application of programmabIe G Finish grinding I
systems. I
Р Pneumalic dispatch I
It is now possibIe, at acceptabIe cost, to use several decentralized computers for С Component
control duties. ProgrammabIe control systems as well as discrete individual
controllers embodying microprocessors are availabIe for the purpose. The prob-
D Dosing device
S Sampler
--0-0-0
lems associated with this technology lie not so much in the comparatively
inexpensive and versatile hardware it employs. The cost associated with designing,
programming, incorporating and adapting the software to ach ieve а reliabIe system
of control for economical cement manufacture is the major consideration. The Fig.4: Raw material mixing and bIending control system (Siemens)
significance of these often uпdепаtеd probIems will Ье considered somewhat
more fully later оп.
In cement manufacture the raw mix control and throughput optimization of the raw
mills occupy а special position. AcceptabIe solutions to both these probIems chemical composition of the raw materials, it will have to Ье decided in апу given
Ьесате availabIe only with the advent of the process computer, as these control case whether and to what extent this three-stage quality control is necessary and
functions involve elaborate mathematical calculations. Besides, both these соп­ economically advantageous. Automatic bIending control at the raw mill, however,
trolled systems are characterized - for technical reasons - Ьу long running times. is now part of the estabIished state of the art and will only exceptionally Ье
The principle of sampled-data control operated Ьу the computer сап advan- dispensed with in new installations.
tageously Ье applied in these cases, i. е., the control system intervenes only Various mathematical procedures are availabIe for optimization of the raw mill
cyclically in the process and, after output of new weigher settings, allows the throughput. They are nearly always based оп the cascade control principle, in
grinding plant to adjust to the altered conditions before another сопесtiоп is which the subordinate controller stabilizes the feed rate, while the master
applied. controller strives to achieve optimization Ьу analysing the signals it receives and
Automatic safeguarding of the quality of the raw material сап Ье achieved in three seeking the most favourabIe operating point for the mill to соре with varying
stages: grindability of the raw material. The respective methods differ in the choice of the
controlling the stockpiling of the material components in the bIending bed; measured variabIes they employ, their processing and the mathematical algorithms
- bIending control at the raw mill; applied.
- controlling and balancing the homogenizing plant. The plant engineer should bear in mind that the control system comprises, besides
For performing these duties, small representative samples (about 100 9 each) have the detecting element and the controller, also the final control element, which is
to Ье taken cyclically from the overall flow of crushed stone upstream of the generally а feature of the electrical andjor mechanical engineering equipment of
bIending bed andjor from the flow of raw meal downstream of the grinding plant, the plant. It is this equipment that is of major importance in deciding the efficiency
with rapid chemical analysis Ьу X-ray spectrometer or neutron activation, in of а control method. Thus, if it lacks the necessary reserve capacity, accuracy or
conjunction with remote-controlled weigh belt feeders. Depending оп the reliability, the value of the control system as а whole will Ье impaired.

594 595
G. Process engineering and automation ProgrammabIe controllers

Ш. ProgrammabIe controllers
'П а cement works the sequence and interlock control of the numerous motors and
associated machinery is of major importance. As distinct from automatic process
control, these plant motor control functions аге basically performed оп the ореп­
'оор principle and play ап important part in ensuring reliabIe and economic
operation of the production lines.
'П а purely quantitative sense, too, motor control technology is а major feature in
modeгn cement manufacture. For estabIishing and performing the sequencing,
p.ositioning and interlocking functions something like five to six thousand Ыпагу
s~gnals (acknowledgement and status signals, warning and alarm signals, position Program
slgnals) have to Ье handled and processed. Inteгventions in the motor control тетогу

system involve 1000-1500 commands (Ыпагу outputs).

Electronic motor (sequence and interlock) control systems have соте into
widespread use in the cement industry in recent years. The геаl breakthrough сате
with the introduction of programmabIe controllers. The systems now employed аге
robust, reliabIe and easy to handle. 'П contrast with relay technology, there аге по
moving parts that suffer wear.
How does а programmabIe controller function and what аге its advantages?
Such а controller is what is known а bit processor, functioning in principle in the
same таппег as а computer, but differing from it in some important respects.
The information is processed only as individual bits (as distinct from the
computer, which performs word ог byte processing). *) Fig. 5: Block diagram of programmabIe controller
The controller does not require ап operating system.
The number of instructions ог commands that сап Ье сапiеd out is smaller. The programs аге "read in" with the aid of а programming apparatus and retained
The fewer instructions аге, however, тоге effectively geared to the special in the program store. Modifications ог additions to the program сап Ье effected in
control duty to Ье performed. the same way. Fig. 6 shows а simple interlock control system based оп the use of
The hardware of the controller is simpler. relays, оп wired electronic units and оп programmabIe control respectively. The
The programming of the controller is simple and easy to 'еагп. three methods are identical as regards the functions they perform. 'П the program
store of the programmabIe control each control instruction occupies опе тетогу
The basic features of а programmabIe controller аге represented in Fig.5.
cell. Only the middle of the program list is contained in the store.
The program store contains the control program, i. е., the programmed control
The figures in the left-hand part of the list denote the addresses of the individual
sequence and interlock conditions. The control unit cyclically reads the contents of
cells; the letters оп the right facilitate identification of the signals. The notation for
the individual cells of the program store and processes the stored control
the instructions is easy to understand; for example: UE 5 means "and input 5",
instructions. 'П this way signals аге monitored and linked, time steps аге initiated
ОЕ 21 means "or input 21 ", SA 1 О means "set output 1 О", etc. (these symbols аге
and evaluated, and drive motors аге switched оп and off. The control unit operates
abbreviations of the German "Und, Eingang, Ausgang")
very rapidly, taking only 2-4 microseconds for processing ап instruction.
The flexibility of this programmabIe control system is illustrated in Fig. 7. Suppose
The time steps perform the same functions as do programmabIe time-Iag relays in
that а change is to Ье introduced in that, for the signal О, ап opening contact is to
тоге conventional technology. The marker stores аге used for the storage of
Ье applied instead of а closing contact. With relay control ог with wired electronic
information arising from the process activities. The signal input and output serve to
control equipment it will, to сапу out this modification, Ье necessary to alter the
connect the controller to the plant which is to Ье controlled.
wired connections and possibIy to install опе ог тоге additional components. ОП
the other hand, with the programmabIe controller it is merely necessary to change
the contents of тетогу cell1 03. То do this, the instruction OEN 21 meaning (in
*) "Bit" is ап abbreviation of "Ыпагу digit", conceived as а unit of infoгmation equal to опе
German) "ог input not 21" simply has to Ье typed in through the programming
Ыпагу decision involving the two digits (О and 1) in Ыпагу notation. "Byte" is а set of Ыпагу unit. This change сап Ье effected in а matter of minutes, even while the control
digits conceived as а unit and forming а subdivision of а "woгd" system is in operation.

596 597
G. Process engineering and automation ProgrammabIe controllers

For the read-in of the whole program or for carrying out more extensive changes,
Contactors Electronic ProgrammabIe controller the programming units are equipped with cassette recorders.
modules The programming envisaged here is done with so-called mnemonic notation.
However, controllers are availabIe which alternatively епаЫе the programming to

~
3 Аве
Ы2 b20d18
Signal
symbol
Ье done in graphic form Ьу means of а video screen in а functional diagram or

~~:
d1 А ladder diagram representation. The processing of the program in the controller, as
В113.3 & well as the advantageous flexibility in making changes, are based оп the same
23 principles as those applicabIe to mnemonic notation, however. With а program-
d15 81 с10
D 24 z8 А
14
в
ming unit directly associated with the controller it is thus possibIe to make changes
23
D conveniently and quickly, thus avoiding time-consuming detours via а computing
С
d7.2 е centre for introducing program changes.
D
Q The advantages offered Ьу programmabIe controllers сап Ье summarized as
follows:
Substantially more complex control logic сап Ье built up.
The signals from the plant сап easily Ье processed to provide the operating
Q personnel with conveniently presented information.
Circuit diagram The whole control system сап Ье built up with greater clarity of layout.
Circuit diagram Statement list
Aids for fault locating and servicing, which are supplied along with efficient
controllers, make it easier to track down the causes of troubIe and thus shorten
Fig.6: Comparison between hard-wired control systems and pro- plant downtime.
grammed systems

Verdrahtete Steuerung Hord-wired control system

Contactors Electronic ProgrammabIe controller

Steuerung in modules Speicherprogrammierbare
Relaistechnik verdrahtete Elektronik Elektronik

I
13
Memory Control Signal
address statements symbol
I FunktionsprUfung
Funktionsplane
d1 14.\ Speicher- Steuer - Signal- Function test
.!14 I
В113.3
zelle Anweisungen Bezeichnung Function diagrams

d15 8113 D\o23 ~o Programmierte

Steuerung
•
Man ufacture Assem
14 ~24 22 А
Programmed
23 I в control system
d7.2 е С
D
Q

Circuit diagram Circuit diagram Statement list

Stromlaufplan Stromlaufplan Anlo'lll!isungsliste diagrams

Fig.8: Schedule charts for hard-wired control systems and program-

Fig. 7: Carrying out а change med control systems

598 599
 The whole sequence of activities for introducing а control system, from the
design stage to the commissioning of the equipment and process machinery,
сап Ье accomplished much faster and with fewer errors when programmabIe
controllers are used. See Fig.8.
This diagram shows the familiar procedure associated with setting up а control
system based оп hard-wired technology. Design, manufacture, functional testing
(checkout), assembIy and commissioning are operations which are carried out
consecutively. The activities cannot begin until the functional diagrams are
availabIe. Errors affecting апу stage in the sequence of activities will affect and
delay the subsequent stages.
With programmabIe technology the procedure is very different. Hardware and
software сап Ье produced simultaneously. After the necessary inputs and outputs
have Ьееп decided, the equipment сап Ье mass-produced, tested, assembIed and
commissioned. At the same time the process engineering and technological design
сап proceed. Programming commences much later, so that the amount of errors
and changes is greatly reduced. Moreover, the commissioning of the control
system together with the plant is accomplished much more speedily, since
adaptive adjustments are effected through the programming unit.

Fig. 9а: Control рапеl with mosaic mimic diagram

IV. Monitoring and operation
As already stated, it is not possibIe to do without the human operator and his
decisions in апу process control system. То епаЫе him to intervene effectively, the
тап at the control desk requires reliabIe and readily intelligibIe information that
will епаЫе the situation to Ье quickly analysed at апу given time. This information
arrives in the form of binary or analog signals from the process. It has to Ье suitabIy
processed and converted for presentation in а meaningful form and for possibIe
automatic evaluation. This data processing is done at the control centre, where all
the signals converge from the various parts of the plant. For the sake of reliabIe
monitoring it is important to ensure that equivalent items of information receive
uniform and consistent treatment.
The necessary indicating and operating equipment is assembIed оп or in desks,
wall panels, cabinets or combinations of such units. Although the central control
room is often the showpiece of the cement works, efficiency of layout should
always Ье the prime consideration. Mostly the indicating and the operating
elements are incorporated as integral features of а flow chart of the whole plant. 'П
this way а visual interrelation between the information and its source within the
plant is estabIished, thus making for greater clarity of presentation. Besides
inexpensive sheet-metal units for accommodating the equipment, there are other
forms of construction embodying flexibIe grid layouts comprising mosaic elements
of plastic (e.g., 25 тт х 25 тт) (Figs. 9, 1 О) or prefabricated sheet-metal ele-
ments (e.g., 24 тт х 48 тт). Grid technology is characterized in that the front of
the wall mimic diagram or control рапеl is composed of individual elements which
are equipped with operating pushbuttons and indicator lamps and сап Ье provided fig. 9Ь: Mosaic mimic diagram fig. 9с: Mosaic mimic diagram
with printed-on flow chart symbols. With their aid а very compact and convenient (reverse side) (detail)

601
600
G. Process engineering and automation Monitoring and operation

Fig.10: Control рапеl with mosaic mimic diagram

layout of the control гоот сап Ье obtained, as in Figs. 11 а and Ь. Апу changes in
the instrumentation ог plant flow chart сап easily Ье made Ьу changing the
appropriate grid elements without adversely affecting the overall arrangement.
Measuring instruments and recording devices сап likewise Ье conveniently
accommodated within the flow chart.
Moving-coil measuring units аге increasingly used for indicating and for recording
instruments, the advantages being easier adjustment and simpler spares inven-
tory.
The introduction of programmabIe systems has resulted in major changes in the
arrangements used in the control гоот. Information is now presented through
monitor display units consecutively, not simultaneously as in earlier systems.
Further details оп this technology аге given in Section V.2 under "Computerized
control centre".
Ап important condition for the reliabIe and economical supervision of а cement
works and thus for its profitabIe operation is the operating and signalling logic
design employed. It should Ье uniformly and consistently applied to all parts of the Fig.11 а and Ь: Central control room with compact control desk
plant and Ье properly suited to the working methods of the control гоот staff and (Siemens)

602 603
 G. Process engineering and automation
the repair and maintenance personnel. 'П planning the control system there is often
а tendency to cut corners in this respect for the sake of а cheaper solution. This is
liabIe to result in wrong decisions made in critical operating situations and in тоге
time spent оп fault-Iocating, repairs and restarting - with the attendant reduction
in plant utilization time.
Anthropotechnical investigations concerning the stresses to which control гоот
staff аге subjected have shown that too much information offered simultaneously
cannot Ье properly grasped and is liabIe to overburden the persons involved, with
the risk that they will make wrong decisions. The most favourabIe solution is
provided Ьу а system which offers the process information in а form and таппег
conducive to correct decision-making.
During погта' plant operation, the monitoring and operating functions сап Ье
limited to а few systematically selected items of information ог interventions.
Deviations which point to incipient disturbances orfaults сап then Ье conveniently
identified side Ьу side with the погтаl information data supplied.
Depending оп how important апу particular fault is, the operator in the control
гоот тау then automatically Ье given detailed information ог he тау call up such
information if he requires it. Guided Ьу this detailed information, the operator will
then make the appropriate decision to соре with the situation. The information he
is given corresponds to the various operating conditions, such as starting and
stopping the plant, погта' running, maintenance, fault locating and repairs. Good
design of the signalling system will, in modern installations, епаЫе the operator to
judge whether а mechanic ог ап electrician is needed to remedy the fault brought to
his attention.
А well designed operating and signalling system is backed up Ьу а well conceived
system for the identification of the various machines and other units of the plant, as
well as the measuring points and signals, for the cement works as а whole.
Guidance оп these matters is to Ье found, inter alia, in the relevant 5tandards
(DIN 40719, 5heets2 and 40; DIN 19227, 5heet 1; 150 PubIication 113-2).
Plant documentation is also important for economically running а cement works. It
should likewise Ье uniform and consistent for the plant as а whole, should conform
to the operating and signalling logic applied, comprise the actual state of the plant
at апу 9 iven time, and 9 ive read ily avai.JabIe assistance to person пе' for топ itor;ng,
maintenance and repair. It is now possibIe - and has already Ьееп applied in
cement works - to use а computer for the documentation of the whole process
control system. With this technique it is possibIe to produce from the same input
data а number of different documents appropriate to various working phases
associated with the plant. For example, the documents for erection аге prepared
differently from those for fault locating. The updating of documents after changes
have Ьееп made is also facilitated with this method.
For the sake of completeness it shou Id Ье mentioned that а modern control centre
also comprises telecommunication equipment, such as'
television system for the observation of critical sections of the plant, е. g., the
burning zone and the kiln inlet;
telephone system;
604
- intercommunication system (intercom) to епаЫе the control roот to keep in
touch with the personnel in the plant itself.
Besides these various communication facilities the control centre comprises
equipment for automatic back-up duties and for data conversion.
Normal'y, analog measured values аге - depending оп their importance -
indicated оп individual instruments ог selectively (Ьу means of а selector switch)
оп а shared instrument.
50те of the measured variabIes must add itiona Ily Ье топ itored to ensure that they
remain within permitted limits (e.g., temperatures of machinery bearings, СО
content of exit gas). If the limits аге exceeded, signals will have to Ье initiated and
automatic intervention in the process effected. The signals for these purposes сап
Ье generated Ьу measuring instruments ог recording instruments equipped with
adjustabIe limit contacts. Моге suitabIe, however, аге separate limit monitoring
devices which епаЫе several upper and lower limit values to Ье freely selected and
set. То each analog value that has to Ье monitored is assigned а printed circuit
module which serves also as а transducer and sends out amplified signals (20 тА
ог 1 О V) for further utilization at the control centre. Ву means of test and setting
modules the respective limit values сап Ье set individually without the associated
measuring element having to Ье in actual operation.
The limit monitoring messages and fault messages from the plant аге fed to ап
electronic processing system which receives and stores the information and
provides acoustic and visual signalling (alarm, indicating lamps, etc.) to bring
incoming messages of faults ог other off-normal conditions to the operator's
attention. Also, it is possibIe subsequently to distinguish between the first signal
arising from the source of troubIe and subsequent signals arising as а consequence
thereof.
Ап electronic counting system тау Ье provided as ап extra feature, for the logging
and summing of production values (е. g., quantities of clinker produced, Ып levels,
etc.) and of consumption values (е. g., oil ог electric energy consumed).
If programmabIe systems аге used, the functions of the limiting monitoring,
message processing and/or counting systems сап Ье performed Ьу the program-
таЫе equipment.
v. Process computers
1 Development and use of process computers
'п the cement industry the first process computers were installed in the 1960s and
were nearly always assigned thetask of raw mix control. 'П this way it was possibIe,
under objectively monitored conditions, to ensure unvarying quality of the raw
теа' and thus to maintain definite input conditions for the subsequent production
stages. As а result, тапу technological probIems affecting the units of plant further
along in the process were obviated ог at least eased. Nowadays аll process
computers used in cement works have at least this mix control duty to perform.
605
G. Process engineering and automation
After this successful start, it was in due course attempted to use computer
technology also for solving other probIems associated with cement manufacture.
It turned out, however, that all efforts to solve these probIems Ьу means of
mathematical models and making full use of the high efficiency of modern
computers were doomed to failure, caused Ьу the awkward practical conditions in
the cement works. Only when it was realized that а stepwise adaptive procedure
could lead to better solutions properly geared to practical reality was the
breakthrough achieved which made possibIe the effective use of the computer for
duties besides mix control. The modern approach тоге particularly takes advanta-
ge of the objectivity and flexibility of the process computer. Supported Ьу а
suitabIe software system, this method of solution enabIes plant operating
experience to Ье optimally utilized and reproducibIe results to Ье obtained.
The various duties for which process computers have hitherto Ьееп used in cement
manufacture аге described below. This is simply ап enumeration of solutions,
without attempting апу evaluation of priorities, which differ from опе case to
another. AII these solutions have Ьееп actually applied in practice, but not - so far
as the present author is aware - all in iпtепеlаtеd conjunction with опе another in
опе and the same cement works. In general, success is achieved Ьу meaningful
restraint in making use of the possibilities and in stepwise realization of the
computerized control schemes.
Control of activities in the quапу with а view to calculating short, medium and
long-term economic utilization of the availabIe raw materials.
Controlling the crusher for maximum throughput, taking due account of the
operational requirements of low mechanical wear and minimum downtime.
Controlling the stockpiling of materials in the bIending bed, so as to ensure that
the raw grinding plant always has suitabIe prehomogenized material in
sufficient quantity at its disposal. The effectiveness of this control is to а great
extent dependent оп the choice of mechanical equipment for the bIending bed
and also оп whether ог not а crushed stone sampling system (ап expensive
feature) is installed.
Raw mill control, in accordance with the following priorities:
chemical composition of the raw meal;
- residual moisture content of the raw meal;
stabilization of the mill loading (filling ratio);
optimization of the throughput.
Controlling the homogenizing and/or raw meal silos and keeping quantity
records (embodied in Ьаlапсе reports) for these installations. These duties
must, in control engineering terms, Ье viewed in connection with the control of
the chemical composition of the raw meal.
Сопtгоlliпg the rotary kiln. This is ап especially interesting field of duties, since
the complex features of kiln running cannot Ье properly stabilized iп all
operating phases Ьу means of conventional analog measuring and control
equipment. Digital control methods based оп the process computer offer
advantageous possibilities, buttheir successful application in practice involves
some expenditure оп regular attention and maintenance of the relevant
measuring elements and сопесtiпg elements.
606
Development and use of process computers
Quantity records and balance reports of the clinker store.
Controlling the finish grinding mill:
cooling the mill product;
fineness;
input of mix proportions for interground constituents;
stabilization of the mill loading (filling ratio);
optimization of the throughput;
optimization of the use of additives.
Monitoring and keeping quantity records (with balance reports) of the cement
silos.
Controlling the cement loading апd despatch operations. This range of duties
isgaining in importance, becausesmooth and troubIe-fгее despatch procedure
is very important in view ofthe ever increasing capacities of cement works. The
process computer сап тоге particularly perform the following functions:
accepting and storing the despatch orders;
directing the vehicles and the despatch operations;
supervising and controlling the loading (tare weight, gross weight, grade
of cement, etc.);
issuing the delivery notes;
producing the invoices ог direct debits;
preparing and transmitting the despatch data for а higher-ranking сот­
mercial data processor;
quantity records and balance reports;
statistics.
For the purpose of back-up and iп order to епhапсе operational reliability.
some of these duties in connection with despatch аге sometimes assigned to
programmabIe controllers that in turn аге linked to the computer, which
undertakes those operations involving much computational work.
Logging and collecting the operating data, such as production quantities,
material and energy consumption, machine running times and downtimes,
time spent оп repair ог maintenance work, and supervising the stores for spare
parts and process materials. Supervision of апivаl and departure of personnel
("clocking in/out") сап also Ье computerized.
Commercial duties, such as customer statistics, bookkeeping and wages
ассоuпtiпg. Normally, separate computer systems аге installed for these two
last-mentioned duties, but it is quite possibIe - and has indeed already
successfully Ьееп done - to assign them to the process computer. Alternative-
Iy this computer тау Ье used merely as а data collecting and data preparation
device, the data thus acquired being then transmitted to а commercial data
processor for treatment.
General process control and mопitогiпg of plant operation. These duties
comprise every section of а cement works and make for clear-cut and rational
works management. Моге particularly, they аге:
acquiring the measured variabIes;
- monitoring the measured variabIes;
607
G. Process engineering and automation Computerized control centre

calculating specific characteristics ог index values;

signalling normal plant functions;
signalling off-normal conditions ог faults,
output of processed information;
logging;
storing values for retrospective reference;
fault analysis.
Ву solving these probIems and performing these duties the process computer
сап complement the conventional instrumentation in the control гоот and
supply the plant operating and managing staff with objective information.
Неге, too, sensibIe restraint is important. If the process computer puts out too
much information, the advantage will soon turn into а disadvantage. The aim
should always Ье to obtain as much clear insight as possibIe into the process
events with the least amount of information compatibIe with achieving that
aim. Comprehensive anthropotechnical investigations and the developments
achieved in semiconductor technology, which have made better and better
equipment availabIe at lower cost, have resulted in the "computerized control
centre".

2 Computerized control centre

With this technology the dialogue between the human operator in the control гоот
and the process events in his charge аге supported and guided Ьу the process
computer (Fig. 12). The necessary safety functions аге automatically performed Ьу
subordinated systems. The тап in charge still makes the operational decisions, but
the computer so prepares the requisite information as to present him with clear-cut
conditions оп which he сап decide and avoid overburdening him with too much
information. In this way he will not Ье put under too heavy а strain, so that he is
unlikely to initiate wrong interventions even in critical phases of plant operation.
In the control гоот this technology entails the change-over from "parallel"
presentation of information (all the items of information displayed ог indicated
simultaneously side Ьу side оп ап аггау of instruments and indicator lights
mounted оп long panels) to "consecutive" presentation in which the necessary
values ог messages аге displayed sequentially оп video units.
The graphical display unit supersedes the flow chart. The whole cement works
is split up into а number of images, each comprising а technological section of the
plant. These images сап Ье called up as and when required. They comprise
superimposed analog measured values which аге continuously updated and
which take the place of conventional indicating instruments in the control гоот
(Fig. 1 З). Thesevideo images сап Ье composed of up to seven colours. Off-normal
conditions in апу part of the process сап Ье clearly displayed Ьу changes of colour
and/or flashing. The images сап Ье built up оп а function-related basis, е. g., ап
image of апу particular plant section тау contain different items of information for
the plant in normal operation and for the starting ог stopping phase (Fig. 14). The
image structure and range of symbols to Ье used сап, for major systems, Ье
selected to suit the customer's specific requirements.
Fig. 12: Computerized control centre with operator's desk (Siemens)
The сигуе display unit (Fig. 15) supersedes the conventional recording instru-
ment. AII the analog measured variabIes connected to the process computer and
the calculated characteristic values сап Ье represented (to various scales) оп this
display unit. Modern units ofthis kind сап simultaneously show upto seven curves
(graphs) in different colours. Besides, several curves сап Ье selected and
assembIed into а combined display. Records of past events сап likewise Ье shown
оп the video screen for "post mortem" verification. The equipment supplied Ьу
some manufacturers moreover enabIes the flow chart sections to Ье shown with
superimposed curves оп опе and the same display unit. While this is certainly ап
interesting technique, саге must Ье taken that the clarity of presentation and
informative value of the images аге not diminished.
The functions of the indicator panel in conventional technology аге performed Ьу
the alphanumeric display unit. The plant operating messages and fault
indications аге represented in clear text with time read-out and flashing light.
Acoustic signal and message acknowledgment procedures аге similar to those in
conventional systems. It is advantageous to employ two display units for а plant

608 609
G. Process engineering and automation
Fig. 1 З: Graphical display unit showing flow diagram with super-
imposed analog values
Fig.14: Graphical display unit showing sequencing scheme
610
Computerized control centre
Fig.15: Display unit showing curves
опе for incoming messages as and when they arise, the other for the retrospective
examination of earlier information awaiting assessment. These various messages
and indications аге sorted ассогdiпg to the respective sесtiопs of рlапt, so that, for
example, the operator iп the сопtгоl гоот сап check all this iпfогmаtiоп iп а
сопvепiепtlу ргеsепtеd form before stаrtiпg а raw gгiпdiпg рlапt. Апу uпгеmеdiеd
faults аге thus detected before the start is Iпitiаtеd апd сап Ье put right.
Iпfогmаtiоп displayed оп the video sсгееп сап, if desired, Ье reproduced iп the
form of а dосumепt Ьу mеапs of а hard-copy device. The items of iпfогmаtiоп
аге stored, with date апd time of day, епаЫiпg critical process situаtiопs апd other
details to Ье retrieved for future апаlуsis.
Printers аге output devices which сопvеrt data iпtо ргiпtеd form. They аге used
for the ргiпtоut of shift, day, mопth, fault апd рlапt орегаtiоп records. Stock
iпvепtогiеs, statistical апаlуsеs апd similar results of mathematical саlсulаtiопs сап
also Ье produced iп ргiпt Ьу such devices.
The various fuпсtiопs of the сопtгоl сепtге сап аdvапtаgеоuslу Ье performed
through dialogue keyboards. The various рlапt sесtiопs (e.g., the raw mill),
fuпсtiопs (e.g., stагtiпg procedure) апd uпits of еquiрmепt (e.g., graphical display
uпit) аге each аssigпеd сегtаiп keys ог рushЬuttопs, so that the operator iп the
сопtгоl гоот сап - for регfогmiпg а specific fuпсtiоп - оЬtаiп the desired
iпfогmаtiоп Ьу ргеssiпg these keys. This does поt require апу special kпоwlеdgе of
computer tесhпоlоgу; the keyboard сап Ье provided with iпsсгiрtiопs iп апу
language ог with appropriate symbols.
611
 G. Process engineering and automation
So-called light pens аге photo-electric devices which сап Ье used for direct
intervention in the above-mentioned control centre functions ог in the process
activities themselves via the display unit. Their function is supplementary to that of
the dialogue keyboard ог they may entirely take the place of the latter. The реп сап
Ье used to activate the computer to change ог modify the images displayed оп the
screen, in accordance with movements made Ьу the operator. Errors of operation
аге prevented Ьу suitabIe interlock precautions in the computer. 'П some systems
the light реп сап actually Ье used to build up images specifically suited tothe user's
requirements directly оп the display unit.
For input of set points ог characteristic values the dialogue keyboard is com-
plemented Ьу ап alphanumeric keyboard. These inputs сап Ье introduced either
directly into the flow chart of а section of the plant ог Ьу means of а special form.
Before these inputs take effect, the computer checks them with regard to
plausibility and reliability, so that erroneous inputs аге substantially eliminated.
з Hardware and software
The functions of а process computer аге performed Ьу the co-operation of
hardware and software.
The term hardware applies to the physical units making up the computer system,
i. е., the apparatus. 'П choosing а computer it is generalJy not too difficult, with the
guidance provided Ьу technical specifications and manufacturers' tenders, to
select the hardware suitabIe for the intended duties. However, under present
conditions, the hardware accounts for less than 50% of the capita/ expenditure оп
а process computer system, and th is cost proportion is likely to decrease sti 11 further
in relation to the cost of the software. The latter comprises the technological
engineering and, especially, the programs that сап Ье used оп the computer system
in question.
For assessing the suitability of а process computer system and its economic effects
it is essential to check the programs and the aids for planning, commissioning and
adapting the software which аге availabIe from the manufacturer of the computer.
Misjudgements in these matters аге liabIe to prove expensive and adversely affect
the efficiency of the process computer.
Software сап Ье produced Ьу the following methods.
Programming in machine-oriented assembIer language: 'П terms of storage
space requirements and run time this method сап result in effective programs.
It does, however, require specialized knowledge of the hardware and of the
programming language employed. Changes and adjustments require рго­
gramming and compiler runs in а computer centre.
Programming in ргоbIеm-огiепtеd compiler language: The programming
languages used for the purpose (e.g., FORTRAN, ALGOL, BASIC COBOL)
have Ьееп developed for handling probIems of certain general types and аге
machine-independent, i.e., they аге used to describe а program without regard
to апу particular machine coding system. Normally ап existing compiler
program (e.g., in FORTRAN), after suitabIe translation in the computer centre,
612
should Ье сараЫе of execution оп апу make of computer. 'П practice, there аге
restrictions, however. This programming requires practically по knowledge of
the computer hardware, and learning the programming language is much
easier than when ап assembIer language is used. ОП the other hand, the
programs аге less favourabIe than assembIer programs as regards storage
space and run time.
Programming with user-oriented system programs: This programming tech-
nique, which allows of planning with technology related concepts, is а
development of recent years. The computer manufacturer supplies а compre-
hensive software system consisting of well-tried software modules (e.g., РЮ
controller, limit monitoring) and а system frame. The modules аге deposited in
the computer опсе and for all, and аге not changed Ьу the user. Producing the
user program consists only in interconnecting these modules and in providing
them with the necessary technological parameters. These actions do not
involve апу inteгventions in the program modules and therefore require по
special programming knowledge ог skill. It is not so much programming as
planning, which is done in а language that the technologist сап directly
understand. The great advantage of this technique is that adjustments and
changes in the user program сап Ье effected on-line while the plant is in
operation.
Characteristic of аll programming methods is that, with increasing comfort of
programming, planning, operation and servicing, the storage space requirements
for the software increase. The associated increase in hardware cost is, however,
more than compensated Ьу the savings effected as а result of flexibIe and simple
handling during commissioning and implementation.
4 Microprocessors
With so-called one-chip processors, modern semiconductor technology offers ап
inexpensive modulewhich сап perform all the functions ofthe central processor of
а process computer. As а result, many new fields of application for computer-
based solutions аге being opened up, and the end of this deve/opment is not in
sight. Непсе the introduction of microprocessors into the control of cement
manufacturing plant obviously suggests itself, and has indeed Ьееп successfully
accomplished for certain special purposes. It should Ье Ьогпе in mind, however,
that with the use of а process computer in а cement works rather less than 10% of
the capital cost is spent оп the central processor, as against more than 50% оп
software and engineering. The actual cost of а microprocessor is therefore only to а
very limited extent determined merely Ьу the hardware cost. Even so, the
microprocessor is assured of а future in cement works, but more particularly as а
powerful component unit of process control systems.
613
 G. Process engineering and automation
VI. Process control system
The components and subsystems described in the foregoing sections co-operate
within the overall framework of а process control system. Ап important condition
for reliabIe combined action and economical operation is to have properly
interadjusted elements which аге readily combinabIe with опе another - also for
subsequent extensions of the control system. Uniform interfacial structure and
consistent signal language аге especially important aspects to consider.
Besides, the following criteria should Ье applied in choosing а process control
system:
The reliability of апу process control system is determined Ьу the quality of the
elements it comprises and Ьу the chosen structure of the system, which should Ье
duly suited to the requirements of the process to Ье controlled and monitored. 'П
the cement works the various sectors ог stages of the process аге "decoupled" from
опе another in а time context Ьу silos, bins and storage buildings, each with а
certain buffering capacity (Fig. 16), so that if they аге of sufficiently ample design,
the individual plant sections - crushing plant, raw mill, kiln, finish grinding mill,
despatch faci/ities - сап Ье operated independently of опе another, within limits,
of course. At the lowest level of safety functions а vertical structuring has proved
Automatic operation + control
Manual + back up operation
IcruSh«1 IRаwmшf гi)i;"1
- Material Ilow
~ computer performs the functions of the automatic level. This layout ha~ the
Fig. 16: Control system for а cement plant
614
Process control system
advantageous for this plant configuration. То each part of the plant is assigned ап
automatic unit which is as self-sufficient as possibIe. If опе such unit develops а
fault, only опе section of the plant will Ье affected in consequence. The other parts
of the process сап continue to function unaffected - for а time, anyway.
This bottom level accommodates all the functions that аге essential to safeguard-
ing the ргорег operation of the plant. The manual inteгventions in the process
events аге effected through this level. ProgrammabIe automation units аге
especially advantageous. Thanks to their flexibility, units which аге alike in design
сап Ье adapted to perform different and wide-ranging duties. Ву thus using
identical units of control apparatus for а" sections of the plant the demands of
spare parts inventory and servicing аге substantially eased. Faults сап Ье detected
and put right more quickly, so that plant downtimes аге reduced. ProgrammabIe
systems аге now availabIe which сап process Ыпагу and analog signals in the same
equipment. It is thus possibIe to use опе automation unit to perform all the
following functions for а given section of the plant: measuring and process control
(adaptation of analog quantities, pulse counting, limit monitoring, ООС con~rol,
calculation of characteristics), motor control and other open-Ioop fuпсtюпs
(interlocking and sequencing, plant operation messages, alarm signal proc~ssing),
and supervisory duties (signalling, logging, video display, fault 10саtlПg). 'П
addition, such а unit carries out the preparation and concentration of process
data for transmission to higher-order levels for plant operation and process
optimization.
The level for manual operation and back-up instrumentation comprises group
control, group signalling and а fe\'V instruments for important process variabIes.
The equipment employed оп this level of functions is intentionally kept to the
essential minimum for stabilized, but not optimized, controlled running of the
plant. . . .
"ComfortabIe" individua/ signalling and process орtimizаtюп аге achleved wlth
the aid of the computer at the next higher level, the level of automatic functions.
These functions require particularly efficient and therefore expensive system
components. They аге not, however, absolutely essential to steady-state орег­
ation. If а fault develops, the subordinate (Iower) level for manual operation and
back-up instrumentation will take over the necessary functions. For reasons of
economy it is therefore possibIe to dispense with vertical structuring ог г~­
dundancy of the optimization level. This approach is supported Ьу developments IП
semiconductor technology, enabIing more and more functions formerly performed
at the optimization level to Ье transferred to the suitabIy strengthened and efficient
bottom safety level.
Two basic forms of electrical interconnection of а process control system аге
possibIe. Fig. 17 shows the layout based оп the radial саЫе principle. The signal
cabIes coming from the plant converge in the control centre, where а process
advantage of clarity, while the cost of cabIing is less than that for а сопvепtюпаl
system, thanks to the combining of the signals in the automation units. А .further
reduction in the cost of cabIing is possibIe Ьу using the bus саЫе layout (Flg. 18),
though it must Ье Ьогпе in mind that the cost of the actual bus system and of the
615
 G. Process engineering and automation

• Groups signalling Printer

• Groups 5tart - stop
•
•
Diagnosis unit
Programming unit
EJ Central Control гоот

• back up Instrumentation

Central
Control гоот

Store SILO
Icrusherl IRaWmi111 Raw fi)i;'1
ICrUSherl Lime- IRaWmi111
- Material flow
stone meal
~
- Material Ilow

Fig. 11: Radial саЫе layout of а process control system Fig.18: Bus саЫе layout of а process control system

co-ordinator which тау Ье needed in conjunction with it тау wipe out the savings
оп cabIes and not really Ье justified Ьу the supposed gain in reliability.
Other considerations with regard to reliability and есопоту arise with regard to
erection, commissioning, maintenance and the сопесtiоп of faults. During the
service life of ап installation it is тоге particularly the two last-mentioned points
that Ьесоте increasing/y important in connection with the operational availability
of the plant as а whole and the cost of keeping it in working order. This aspect is
тоге particularly affected Ьу the choice of system assembIy technology, power
supply, cabIing layout and configuration of the connections within the system, as
well as Ьу considerations of documentation and facilities for fault detection and
fault /ocating. If these viewpoints аге not given due attention in the planning
and design stage, plant operation is bound to suffer seriously in consequence
(downtime, costs). With regard to documentation and fault correction it is im-
portant to гететЬегthat routine maintenance of the system will have to Ье сапiеd
out Ьу ordinary electricians, not highly qualified electronics engineers!
'П this context the training of the cement works' own technical personnel is of
course very important. The works management should also Ье adequately
acquainted with the principles and main features of the process control system.
The suppliers of such equipment offer suitabIe training schemes which сап Ье
tailored to suit individual requirements. Instruction is given in special training
616
centres (e.g. the equipment manufacturer's factory ог training centre) and тау
also Ье organised to tie in with the design, erection and commissioning of the
actual system in the customer's works. Such training costs топеу, and it is
advisabIe to make the necessary апапgеmепts a/ready at the time of signing the
contract for the supply of the control equipment. Depending оп the size and
complexity of the control system, as well as оп the scope of the task' it has to
perform (including possibIe future extension), these training programs and
schemes for familiarizing the works personnel - repair and maintenance теп,
control гоот operators, plant engineers and cement works management - will
have to Ье suitabIy adjusted to the needs ofthe occasion and tothe level oftraining
to Ье given to the different categories of personnel. The choice of the r.ight type ~f
training in апу given instance is а matter of judgment, which сап Ье asslsted Ьу test
programs made availabIe for the purpose Ьу various equipment manufa~turers.
The electric power supply to а process control system must Ье rellabIe and
substantially unaffected Ьу the rest of the power supply system in the cement
works. There аге two reasons for this requirement: for опе thing, in the event of
major faults in the works suppiy system (e.g., powerfailure), the monitoring ofthe
various items of plant must continue to function, in order to ensure properly
controlled stopping and subsequent restarting. 'П addition, electronic equipment
is sensitive to fluctuations in the supply voltage, such as тау оссш due to the
617
G. Process engineering and automation References

direct switching-on of large motors. 'П present-day practice the тоге important References
items of electronic equipment powered from the mains аге connected to standby 1. Ankel, Т. Н./ Pavlik, Е.: RegelungstechnikamWendepunkt. - In' Regelungs-
systems wh ich ensu ге continu ity of power su pply. Моге particu larly, such systems
technik 1978/1. . .
comprise buffer batteries which сап provide current to bridge апу power cuts of 2. HauBler, А.: Process Computer Controls Despatching Орегаtюпs In а Cement
limited duгation (up to about 15 minutes). For reasons of есопоту, such Works. - 'п: Siemens Review 1973/Оес.
arrangements should not Ье relied upon to соре with longer failuгes in the 3. Наттег, Н. J.: ProzeBrechnergeregelte Rohmehlaufbereitung in der Zement-
electricity supply. Under such circumstances it is better to switch to the cement industrie. - In: Regelungstechnik und ProzeBdatenverarbeitung 1972/5.
works' standby generating system, i.e., the whole process control system should 4. Schmiedgen, G.: Present state and development of modern process control
Ье connectabIe to it. systems in cement plants. - In: World Cement Technology 1979/3. .
Taking advantage of the possibilities nowadays offered Ьу electronic equipment, 5. Sedlmeir, W.: Freiprogrammierbare Elektroniksteuerung. Erste Erfahrungen In
there is а tendency to specify high degrees of accuгacy in performance (and der Zementindustrie. - 'п. ZKG 28/1975/151.
correspondingly high complexity of the algorithms employed), which аге hardly 6. Sedlmeir, W.: Verkurzen von Anlagenstillstanden duгch den Einsatz program-
сараЫе of fulfilment in actual plant operating practice. The old principle of the
mierbarer Steuergerate. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/408.
chain is applicabIe here: its strength is по greater than that of its weakest link, and а 7. Verschiedene: VDZ-КопgгеВ '77, Bericht Fachbereich 4: ProzeBsteuerung.
control system cannot Ье тоге accuгate and dependabIe than the interconnection 8. Will, О.: ProzeBsteuerung (Messen, Steuern, Regeln, Leitstande, Zentra\e
of its component parts allows.
Warten, Regelkonzepte). - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/65. .
In the cement industry there аге limits to attainabIe accuгacy imposed Ьу the very 9. Zins, R.: Die Elektrotechnik in der Zementindustrie - Wandel und Entwlck-
natuгe of the materials handling and processing equipment employed, and not
lung. - In: ZKG 30/1977/249. .
even the best process control system сап improve оп such limits. Accordingly, in 10. Schmiedgen, G. Automation in the Cement Works - Iппоvаtюп and
designing the system it is of prime importance to suit the actual accuгacy
practical Sence. - In ZKG 33/1980/161 ..
requirements to the conditions of the process itself and not go for the maximum 11. Dahlhaus, U./Wackerle, Н.' ProzeBleittechnik und Automatlslerung de~
that the makers of the process control equipment аге prepared to claim ог 6000-t/d-Zementwerkes Ain Оаг der Saudi Bahreini Cement Сотр., Saudl
guarantee. In other words, а realistic approach is needed.
АгаЫеп. - In ZKG 35/1982/353
For instance, of what use is а mathematical kiln control model ensuring minimum
energy costs if, to achieve its stated purpose, such а model requires undistuгbed
operation of the whole plant for periods of тоге than 24 houгs?
Апу practical engineer will know that in а cement works this condition is virtually
impossibIe to fulfil.
А process control system designed оп the assumption that unrealistic conditions
сап Ье fulfilled will Ье only of limited viability, and the топеу spent оп it will yield
а роог retuгn.
With the fuгther development of semiconductor technology the technical featuгes
of the process control systems used in cement works аге bound to change and
evolve. Their efficiency and performance capacity will increase and will thus
contribute to the step-by-step solution of other specific probIems associated with
the production of cement. At the same time, however, the assessment criteria for
successful use of such systems, as outlined in this chapter, will continue to Ье
valid.

618 619
 Н. Environmental protection and industrial safety

Н. Environmental protection and

industrial safety
Ву G. Funke

1. Environmental protection . 622

1 Prevention of air pollution 622
1.1 Dust-type emissions. . . 622
1.2 Gaseous emissions. . . . 624
1.3 Exit gas conditions in cement works . 625
1.4 Influences upon the dust loading 628
1.5 Extracting the dust. 629
1.6 Handling the dust 631
1.6.1 Pipelines . 631
1.6.2 Fans . 632
1.7 Measures for the reduction of dust emission 635
1.7.1 Separator systems . . . 635
1.7.1.1 Inertia-force separators. 635
1.7.1.2 Fabric filters. . . . . . 641
1.7.1.3 Granular bed filters . . 651
1.7.1.4 Electrostatic precipitators . 652
1 71.5 Operation and maintenance of separators and precipitators 657
1.7.2 Combating in-plant dust sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

2 Noise control . . . 658

2.1 Technical principles 658
2.1.1 Definitions . . . . 658
2.1.2 Addition of sound levels 661
2.1.3 Averaging of sound pressure levels 664
2.1.4 Extraneous noise. background noise . 666
2.1.5 Sound propagation; obstacles . . 667
2.2 Sources of noise in cement works . 668
2.3 Noise abatement. . . . . . . . . 670
2.3.1 Basic measures . . . . . . . . . 670
2.3.2 Taking account of noise control at the plant design stage 670
2.3.3 Measures and precautions for machinery. 671
2.3.4 Sound-insulated buildings . . . . 674
2.3.5 Ventilation of buildings. . . . . . 676
2.4 Noise in the working environment. 678
2.4.1 Protective measures . . . . . . . 679
2.4.2 Personal protection against noise . 680
2.5 Guarantee conditions for noise control measures 680

621
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Dust-type emissions

3 Ground vibrations due to bIasting . 680

3.1 Origin and properties of ground vibrations . 680
3.2 Measurement and assessment of ground vibrations .
L!')
681 о N L!')
3.3 Prediction of ground vibration intensities. Ф t) ф 00 со N О М О '<i
682 "'" ~
3.4 Ways and means of reducing the vibrations 683
со
(1)
~
"о .9 .9 .9
N
.9 .9 "'.9" .9 .9 .9 .9 N"'.9"
3.4.1 Measures relating to quarrying procedure .J::
u
683 (1) м
3.4.2 Measures relating to bIasting technique Q. L!') L!') о ф
684 $ L!')

....о
3.5 N О О со о г"- о о
Other environmentally objectionabIe emissions from quarrying . 684 2со
ro "'" "'"
References. (.,)
685 ~ 5>
'о Е о L!')
11. Industrial safety (.,) .~ t) N
688 ....1/) ~ N м L!') г"- М О L!') О О о о
1 Accident prevention regulations. N м N N
1.1 Employer's obIigations. . . . .
688 ::1
"tJ
Е
~
"о
U .9 З
"'"
.9 "'.9" .9 .9 З .9 З .9 .9
688
1.2 ObIigations of the employees. . (1) >-
(1)
L!')
689 .s:: ro о L!') L!') L!') о L!')
1.3
1.4
Industrial installations and regulations .
Special accident prevention regulations for cement works .
689
689
..
....
(1)
ё
ф
.D
со о N о м о со о о г"-

2 Promotion of safety in cement works 690

........
со
3 Safety ru les . 692 "tJ
References. с:
693 etI ф М
(1)
со О L!') ~ м
t) со м
u:; N О о о 00
....о
~
(1)
.J::-
(1) с
~
~
"'" "'" м
(1)
..о
... О
Q. ..;:;
"о
u
.9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9
О
(1) со
....
1/)
с .!:::! $ г"- м
L!')
о
L!')
о
L!')
о о ф
1/)
::1
0:=
с::;::; ro ~ N
"tJ
1. Environmental protection с: ~~
.J::O'> о
~
1 Prevention of air pollution ....с: .~.~ t)
N
~
О
L!')
с 00 ф г"- N М N 00
1.1 Dust-tvpe emissions
(1)
(1)
"о "'" "'" о м
Е ~~ u
(1) .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9
The production of 1 tonne of cement involves the comminution of about 2.6 to 2.8
(1)
(.,) .......
>-.J::
О L!') L!') L!') .9
tonnes of raw materials, clinker, gypSUm, bIastfurnace slag, trass and (in coal-fired
....
о
со·-

§~
ф
.D
о м ф
М
о о о ..Q
с
ф
N
systems) coal to dust-like fineness. Between 5 and 10% of these finely pulverized с:
о
materials will Ье agitated and thus suspended as dust in gases and will have to Ье ";;
substantially removed from these before discharge into the atmosphere. "cn
Depending оп plant operating conditions, the quantity of gas ог air to Ье dedusted
о
Q. ~
рег kg of cement production is between 6 and 12 mЗ. Е I
о
The "dust" arising in the various processing units of а cement works varies greatly (.,) +
in composition. In the main, the following types of dust are to Ье distinguished: ia(.,) О
raw material dust (е. g., from limestone, lime marl, clay, iron оге, gypsum, ~
"Е
~
с
bIastfurnace slag); (1) О
.s::
raw meal dust; U о с
'''::;
'ё
cement kiln dust (exit gas dust); f= ~
.Q)
clinker dust; (1)
+ + с

~ ~ q. О
coal dust; :о
N
о
о
О
о
<J)
о о'> I
cement dust. 1-
etI
й5 « (1)
L.L
со
U ~ -2 Z
со
(/)
I
L.L U g
<J)

622
623
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Exit gas conditions in cement works

ТаЫе 2: Proportion (Ьу mass) of particfes under 10 microns in size in amounts of sulphur compounds (502) and nitrogen oxides (NO, N0 2), as well as
dust-Iaden gases сагЬоп monoxide СО and hydrogen sulphide Н 2 5.
Sulphur contained in the raw materials and the fuel is oxidized to sulphur dioxide
percentages 502 at temperatures above 10000 С in the presence of excess air. This compound
Ьу mass reacts with the alkalies that volatilize at the same time and forms alkali sulphates,
which possess low volatility and аге discharged from the kiln with the clinker ог the
crusher for limestone 5-20 dust. The residual 502 in the kiln gas сап, in the presence of oxygen, react with the
rotary dryer for raw material 40-70 СаСО з of the feed material and also with the СаО (formed from this material Ьу
rapid dryer for raw material and соа/ 50-70 heating) to give calcium sulphate Са50 4 . This reaction is promoted more
grindingjdrying plant 40-90 particularly in dryingjgrinding p/ants and in conditioning towers Ьу the grinding
rotary kiln with cyclone preheater 85-99.5 process and the presence of water vapour.
rotary kiln with grate preheater 10-45 If there is ап excess of a/kali, а high proportion (88 to 100%) of the total sulphur
shaft kiln 15-30 introduced into the kiln system is combined in the cement clinker and the kiln dust.
grate cooler 0-15 Only the remaining small proportion (Iess than 12%) is emitted as 502 with the
tube mill (cement, raw meal, coal) 40-80 cleaned gas. 'П the event of sulphur excess, the 502 emission is liabIe to Ье higher
material handling devices, packing machines, silos 10-50 (see Locherj5prungjOpitz, 1971).
Carbon monoxide and hyd rogen su Iphide аге formed оп 'у under cond itions of
incomplete combustion, e.g., in shaft kilns, and even then only in small
With the exception of kiln dust, the above-mentioned dusts аге of the same amounts.
composition as the material from which they initially arise. Кiln dust, i. е., the dust With air excess, nitrogen oxides may form in cement kilns, namely, nitrogen
carried out of the kiln with the exit gas, consists of thermally unchanged raw meal, monoxide NO and nitrogen dioxide N0 2 in the volumetric ratio of about 90% NO
dehydrated clay, decarbonated (calcined) limestone, and newly formed minerals to 10% N0 2. The content of nitrogen oxides in the exit gas is between about 200
corresponding to all stages of processing ир to the clinker minerals; besides, in and 1100 mgjmЗ (corresponding to 150- 800 ppm), reckoned as NO. The values
coal-fired kilns, it will contain ash constituents from the fuel. ТаЫе 1 gives the at the lower end of the range аге more particularly valid for kilns with
chemical composition of the dusts discharged from two types of kiln. The values precalcining.
encountered in the dust before and after the dust collecting equipment, ге­ Gaseous chlorides and fluorides do not occur in the kiln exit gases, since the
spectively, аге listed. The dust constituents аге present mainly as carbonates, very small amounts of chloride and fluoride contained in the raw materials combine
silicates, sulphates and chlorides. Alkali, sulphur and chlorine compounds аге with the alkalies and the calcium in the clinker and dust in the course of the cyclic
found to Ье more particularly concentrated in the cleaned gas dust, these processes in the cement kiln.
compounds having Ьееп volatilized in the burning zone of the kiln. If grinding aids аге used in the grinding of cement clinker, а substantial
About 60 to 70% of the соа' ash is absorbed into the clinker, while the remainder of proportion of these organic compounds is combined in the cement, while the
this ash is discharged as kiln dust. remainder is emitted in vapourform. No precise information оп the actual amounts
ТаЫе 2 gives some guiding values for the percentages Ьу mass (ог weight) in the of such vapour is as yet availabIe, however.
dust particles below 1 О microns size, which аге extracted from the various dust
sources envisaged here and аге precipitated in the dust collecting equipment, in
some cases after having passed through а pre-cleaner. 1.3 Exit gas conditions in cement works
1n the cleaned gas discharged from the collecting equipment the percentage of ТаЫе 3 gives information оп the dust and exit gas conditions of the cement
particles below 1 О microns is between 80 and 90, for dust content values which аге production plants current/y operated in the Federal RepubIic of Germany. These
within the upper limits allowed Ьу the German pollution prevention regulations. details аге necessary for guidance in determining the capacity of dust collection
These аге embodied in "Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft" equipment to Ье installed. The specific exit gas volumes in m з under standard
('Technical directives for clean air"). conditions (00 С, 1013 mbar pressure) comprise the water vapour arising from the
drying process in the plant, the firing unit supplying hot air for drying, and the
1 .2 Gaseous emissions additional water injected for conditioning the exit gases. The exit gas analysis
(С0 2 , 02' СО) is referred to dry gas. The water content of the exit gases сап Ье
The exit gases of cement kilns consist substantially of nitrogen N 2, сагЬоп dioxide calculated from the dew-point. The dust content of the gas (i. е., the dust-Iaden
С0 2 , oxygen 02 and water vapour Н 2 О. 'П addition, they may contain small gas before cleaning) is expressed in 9 рег m з under standard conditions (moist)
624 625
 ф
ТаЫе З: Exit gas conditions of cement production plants
N
ф :r
:-
m
long wet- rotary :;,
rotary shaft grate rotary rapid grindingl <
tube
process kiln with kiln with kiln cooler dryer dryer drying а'
mill :;,
kiln cyclone grate plant 3
preheater preheater ф

(without 3-
~
exit gas "о
utilization)
ф
~
~
feed raw raw pellets pellets clinker raw о'
raw raw raw :;,
sluпу теа' material material, material, material,
соаl соаl clinker, ""'о
gyspum, ф

bIast- < ф

furnace 3-
о'
slag :;,
water соп- 32-40 0.5-1.0 11-22 8-14 2-
2-15 2-15 2-10 0-2
tent of m
:::;.
feed [% Ьу "о
weight] Q..

spec. exit 3.2-4.2

S
1.5-1.8 1.8-2.2 2.0-2.8 0.7-1.8 0.8-2.0 0.5-1.5 0.8-1.5 о'
gas volume 0.2-0.8 :;,
3 1
[m /kg )]
exit gas
analysis
С0 2 [%] 25-18 33-20 29-20 26-10 <4.03) <4.03) <4.03)
02 [%] 4- 8 3- 9 4-10 5-10 21 18-20 18-20 18-20 21
СО [%] <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 4- 1

exit gas 130-180 280-360 90-150 45-125 200-400 70-150 70-150 70-150 60-120
temperature
[ОС]

dew-point 65-75 35-452) 50-65 40-44 <252) 40-70 40-70 40-60 20-60
[О С]

dust content
of gas 2.0-15.0 15-40 1.0-4.0 1.5-5.0 0.7 -10.0 20-60 20-150 30-800 30-400
[g/m 31 )]

dust electr. electr. electr. electr electr. electr. electr. electr. electr.
precip. precip. precip. precip. precip. precip. precip. precip. precip. precip.
fabric fabric fabric fabric fabric m
filter filter filter filter filter ><
;=;:
granular (Q
m
bed filter (J)

n
О
:;,
1) rеfепеd to volume flow rate of gas under standard conditions (moist) а.
;=j:
2) without additional water spraying о'
3) with own air heating unit :;,
(J)

4) obsolete in the Fed. Rep. of Germany 2-

n
ф

3
ф

3-
"о
а
а.
с

~
о'
:;,
"о

ф
m
N
-..J
3-
(J)

Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution
upstream of the dust coliecting equipment. The dust collectors mentioned in the
tabIe are of the types currently employed in Germany.
1.4 Influences ироп the dust loading
The dust content of the dust-Iaden gas depends substantially оп the nature and
fineness of the material and the velocity of the gas flow with which it comes into
contact.
In long ~e~-processkilns the exit gas dust content is affected more particularly
Ьу the flltеrlПg or dust arresting action of the internal fittings (chains, special
ceramic inserts). If the kiln output is increased in conjunction with higher gas flow
rates, changes in the internal fittings and higher exit gas temperatures, the
quantities of dust produced will correspondingly increase.
The dust content of the gas discharged from the preheater of а suspension
preheater kiln is mainly governed Ьу the dust collecting action of the top cyclone
stage, its operational efficiency and the tightness of closure of its discharge
locks.
!he dust c~ntent of the exit gas from kilns with grate preheaters (Lepol kilns)
IS substantlally dependent оп the character and stability of the pellets and оп the
filtering action of the bed of pellets оп the grate in the drying chamber. The dust
collecting action of the intermediate gas cyclones сап reduce the amount of dust
arising in the drying chamber.
The amounts of dust contained in the gases from shaft kilns depend оп the
filtering action of the layer of moist pellets located above the burning zone.
Irregular kiln operation with fire "break-outs", е. g., in consequence of poor
pelletizing and irregular raw теаl and fuel proportioning, will increase the amounts
of dust produced, as will also overloading of the kiln.
The dust content of the exhaust air from grate coolers is affected Ьу the
gr.anulometric composition, the degree of burning and the bulk density of the
сllПkеr and also Ьу the cooling air flow rate employed. А clinker breaker after the
cooler тау increase the dust burden. The dust content is especially high in the
event of underburning and if flushing (sudden rushing) of raw meal occurs.
'П rotary dryers the internal fittings do indeed improve the transfer of heat
betw.een the hot gases and the material being dried, but they also throw up
conslderabIe amounts of dust, especially with friabIe materials. High values of the
dust content in the exhaust gases are liabIe to оссш more particularly with rapid
dryers as а result of the comminuting action of the shaft with flights revolving at
high speed.
The dust content in the exhaust air from grinding mills (roller mills, tube mills,
aerofall mills) is strongly dependent оп the mill system concerned, the feed
material, the size reduction effected (product fineness), the exhaust air flow rate
and especially the air flow velocity in the mill and air exit passages. Air-swept tube
mills and roller mills have а very heavy dust burden in their exhaust air, since all the
finished product of the grinding process is carried along in this air and has to Ье
precipitated from it.
The amounts of dust produced in crushers will depend оп the crusher design
features, the nature of the feed material, its grading and its moisture content. If the
628
Extracting the dust
feed material is very moist (4- 8% water or more), по arrangements for dedusting
theexhaust airwill generally Ье necessary, as littleor по dust isthrown up. Besides,
dust production сап Ье reduced Ьу spraying water into the crusher.
Gentle handling of dry bulk materials оп conveyors, elevators, etc. will always
help to cut down the amounts of dust produced. More particularly, this approach
to the dust probIem in materials handling will include the use of handling devices
which develop little abrasive action and the avoidance of large heights of fall of the
materials. Suggestions to that effect are given, for example, in the VDI 2262 Code
entitled "Combating dust nuisance at the place of work".
'П general, апу operation involving the suction of air through а flow of material
should Ье avoided, if possibIe, because this substantially increases the dust
content of the exhaust air (classifying effect). When materials are deposited onto
ап outdoor stockpile, preliminary removal of the finer particles тау Ье advan-
tageous as а means of curbing dust nuisance.
1.5 Extracting the dust
The dust thrown up in the operation of the various parts of the cement works is
extracted Ьу suction devices and removed from the exhaust gas or air flow in
separators of various kinds.
Dust extraction devices comprise exhaust hoods, pick-up nozzles, etc.
Suggestions for the design of such devices, together with guiding values for the air
flow velocities required, are given in above-mentioned VDI-2262 Code.
Information оп exhaust air or gas flow and dust content from the main items of
cement production plant (kilns, coolers, dryers, mills) is given in ТаЫе З. The dust
content and required air flow rates for dust extraction from other cement works
equipment aregiven in ТаЫе4, based оп information supplied Ьу manufacturers of
dust collecting systems. The flow rates indicated in the tabIe, related to the
operating condition of the gas, depend to а great extent оп the efficiency of the
extractor systems, оп the nature and fineness of the material, and оп the size and
throughput rates of the installations in question. Непсе these values vary within
wide ranges. In general, if а particular unit of machinery or other enquipment is
enclosed in а casing so that cross-flows are reduced as much as possibIe, the
amounts of air to Ье extracted for dedusting are considerabIy reduced.
For crushers the exhaust air flow is roughly 60 m З /min per т of the opening
2
of the feed housing (see Duda, 1978). The exhaust air from screening
installations сап Ье estimated at 15 m З /min per т of screen surface plus
2
30 m З /min per т 2 of outlet and other openings. For blns the extraction air flow is
sometimes put at 75 m З /min per т 2 of Ып cross-section. 'П the case of receiving
hoppers into which dry and fine-grained bulk materials are tipped, а multiple of
the air volume displaced Ьу the tipping or dumping operation must Ье extracted at
suitabIe points, while the receiving opening of the hopper should Ье as small as
possibIe and closed as effectively as possibIe Ьу means of rubber aprons or the
like.
Transfer points of belt conveyors for dry bulk materials containing appreciabIe
amounts of fine particles require air extraction rates estimated at 60 m /min per т
З 2
629
Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Handling the dust

ТаЫе 4: Dust content and flow rates of exhaust air from other cement dust flow rate of exhaust air
works installations content of to Ье dedusted
exhaust air
dust flow rate of exhaust air
content of to Ье dedusted dumping from road 5-20 1800-2000mЗ /h perm 2
exhaust air or rail vehicles of grizzly area, or material quantity in
into hoppers 3600
m З х - - corresponding
roll crushers 0.5-2.0 60-80mЗ /h per t of product 5
hammer crushers 5-15 80 -1 00 m З / h per t of product to volume of air displaced Ьу material
impact mills 10-20 150-200mЗ /h per t of product in 5 sec
screening machines 5-20 500-1200mЗ /h per m 2
bucket elevators 5-30 2000 m З /h per m2 of bucket
< 1 m/s elevator cross-
section
bucket elevators of the ореп intake cross-sectional area of the exhaust hood. Н igher rates may have
> 1 m/s 5-30 2800 m З / per m 2 to Ье adopted for belts running at high speeds.
transfer points of 5-20 The air extraction rate per minute for dust removal from cement blns and similar
belt conveyors vessels associated with bulk cement handling should Ье approximately three times
width the ЫП volume.
600-800mm 1500 - 2400 m З /h for feed and For cement packing machines (sack fillers) with rotary impellers the air
1000-1200 mm 2100-3000 m З /h discharge extraction rate is about 35 m З /min per filling spout. То this should Ье added about
1400-1600 mm 2400-3600 mЗ/h respectively 3 m З /min per spout for the feed Ып over the packing machine.
pneumatic trough 30-50 120 m З /per m 2 of trough area Air extraction rates for cement sack cleaning installations over belt conveyors are
conveyors +20% for cold roughly 500 m З /min.
+30-35% for hot material
pneumatic 1.6 Handling the dust
conveyors 150-200 conveying air volume 1.6.1 Pipelines
airlift +100%
Fuller pump +50% Pipelines and ducts for conveying the dust extracted from the various items of plant
pressure vessel +200-400% should Ье so dimensioned that по dust will Ье deposited from the air in which it is
silo installations 5-15 carried along. Horizontal pipes should Ье avoided as much as possibIe. Where the
feed pneumatic same as for pneumatic conveyors pipeline has to run horizontally, the average gas or air velocity in it should Ье
feed mechanical material quantity in m З /h х 3.5 between 16 and 22m/sec for а dust content of up to about 50g/mЗ . For higher
pneumatic air volume for aeration values of the dust loading it is advisabIe to increase the velocity.
homogenization +30-40% If abrasive dust is to Ье handled, bends and fittings (е. g., branch pieces) should
cement and clinker have thicker walls and/or Ье lined with special wearing plates or with wear-
loading for despatch 10-60 resistant ceramic materials. 'П addition, the pipe/ines should Ье provided with
road vehicle са 3500mЗ /h approx. accord- cleaning openings which should Ье properly accessibIe and tightly closabIe. Also,
railway waggon са. 3500 m З /h ing to type and for each extraction point there should Ье а control valve in the pipeline for
barge or ship 10000mЗ /h size of loading adjustment of the flow rate. If moist gases have to Ье conveyed, the pipelines
attachment should Ье suitabIy insulated and, if necessary, Ье additionally fed with warm dry
air in order to prevent the temperature falling below the dew-point, because the
cement sack packing resulting condensation moisture is liabIe to cause agglomeration of dust particles
machines 5-30 2000mЗ /h per spout and choking of the pipeline.
sack cleaning 2-5 2000-3000mЗ /h Опсе the location of the extraction points and of the dust collecting equipment
machines (precipitator, filter) has Ьееп determined and the air or gas extraction flow rates
630 631
Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Handling the dust

have Ьееп estimated, the system of pipelines or ducts for conveying the dust сап Ье
designed. It is advisabIe not to use very long pipelines for the sake of, for example,
connecting а large number of extraction points to опе and the same central dust
collection unit. Quite often it is more advantageous to install а number of small
where:
individual filters in the vicinity of the actual dust extraction points. This will
л pipe friction coefficient
usually Ье associated with lower power consumption because the pressure drop in
L length of pipeline in m
the shorter pipelines is less. Besides, small filters offer operational and servicing
О diameter of pipeline in m
advantages.
density of the medium in kg/m
З

If а volumeflow rate V(in m З /sec) with average gas or air velocity w (in m/sec) is Q
w flow velocity in m/sec
required, the cross-sectional area of the pipeline F (in т 2 ) will have to Ье:
F = V/w. !L . w 2 = dynamic pressure in N/m 2
2 2
frictional loss in pipeline in N/m .
1.6.2 Fans
For moving the dust-Iaden air or gas through а pipeline it will Ье necessary to
install а suitabIe fan, which will have to develop the required flow rate, while The friction coefficient л is dependent оп the Reynolds number and the absolute
maintaining the pressure difference at the extraction points and in the pipeline roughness of the pipe wall. Fig.1 shows л as а function of the volumetric flow rate
system as well as in the dust collection equipment itself and in апу further pipes or Vfor various roughness values.
ducts downstream thereof. The total pressure difference l1p is the sum of the static
and dynamic pressure differences and is often called the overall pressure rise
developed Ьу the fan. 0О4..--------:--,----,-------т---I-I----,
The power р (in kW) that а fan must develop is, in the range of small relative
pressure rises, proportional to the overall pressure rise l1p (in N/m 2 ) and to the
volumetric flow rate V(in m З /sec):
0.03 1---~.b_-+___:"~__:_f__--+_---+_-__t----1
Р= V'l1pl1 000.
The actual power consumption of the fan at the shaft is:
Р w = V'l1p/1 000· 11,
where 11 is the ef1iciency of the fan: it depends оп the internal mechanicallosses
and is defined as the ratio of the fan power rating Р to the power input at the drive
shaft Рw' 'П practice, the fan efficiency generally has а value in the range between 0.02 1----+---~...___1L---~d_--...::..!Io".ot_:_-T---1
0.65 and 0.8.
The performance of а fan is characterized Ьу its characteristic curve and
represents the relation between the overall pressure rise and the inlet volume flow
rate for а certain speed of the fan. It is known also as the pressure-volume curve. -<
с

The appropriate characteristic chart showing these curves for various speeds, as :~ 0.013
well as the power consumption and the efficiency as functions of the flow rate,
should Ье availabIe with every fan.
The pipeline characteristic (resistance characteristic) is the relation between
the vo!ume flow rate and the pressure drop in the pipeline system. The intersection
of the fan characteristic and the resistance characteristic is the operating point of
the fan, which is automatically achieved Ьу the fan in service. The resistance 0.01 3
characteristic сап Ье varied Ьу closing or opening а control valve. 102 10
The pressure drop in the pipeline system is caused more particularly Ьу frictional
losses between the moving gas or air and the stationary wall of the pipe. The
~~f:~~c~;f:z vin m3/h
frictional loss l1PR is expressed Ьу: Fig.1 : Coefficient 01 friction л as а 1unction 01 volume flow rate

632 633
Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

ТаЫе 5: Resistance coefficients of pipe fittings Values of the resistance coefficient for various pipe fittings and other features are
given in ТаЫе 5.
type of fitting resistance remark
flow pattern coefficient
1.7 Measures for the reduction of dust emission
round inlet 0.5 1.7.1 Separator systems
square inlet 0.7
The various dust separators used in the cement industry сап Ье broadly subdivided
round inlet
into two categories: separators within the production process (for dust removal
with tapered portion 0.3 to 0.5 according to shape of taper
from the air or gas discharged from grinding plants, preheaters or pneumatic
pipe bend conveyor equipment) and separators for dust removal from the air or gas
R/D = 1.0 0.5 R = radius of curvature discharged into the atmosphere. The dedusting devices of the first category are
R/D = 1.5 0.4 D = pipe diameter mostly inertia-force separators, sometimes electrostatic precipitators. Оп the other
R/D = 2.0 0.27 hand, inertia-force separators are seldom used for the prevention of atmospheric
R/D = 3.0 0.2 pollution; for this purpose the two general types almost exclusively employed
are electrostatic precipitators and filters (fabric filters, granular bed filters). Wet
right-angled
collectors (scrubbers) are hardly used in connection with cement manufacture.
and skew tees
а = 200 0.15 а = angle between centre-lines
а = 300 0.2 of intersecting pipes 1.7.1.1 Inertia-force separators
а = 450 0.3
а = 600
The following types are to Ье distinguished within this general category of
0.5
а = 900
separators (dust collectors) (see VDI 3676)'
1.0
Counter-current gravity separators (dust settling chambers with vertical
gradual widening gas flow): the particles are precipitated Ьу the action of gravity, i. е., they
of cross-section descend in the rising stream of gas, which is thus relieved of its dust burden
а = 200 0.4 а = angle of taper, (Fig.2).
а = 400 0.8 to 0.95 for diameter ratios Cross-current gravity separators (dust settling chambers with horizontal
а = 600 1.0 to 1.2 D2 gas flow) : the particles are precipitated Ьу the action of gravity, here directed
а = 800 1.03 to 1.16 - from 1.5 to 3 transversely to the gas flow direction. This type of separator with gas velocities
а = 1000 1.03 to 1.1 D,
of 0.5-1.5 m/sec used to Ье widely employed as primary dust collectors (pre-
discharge opening (chimney) cleaners) (Fig.3).
deflector 1.2 Inertial separators involving changes of flow direction of the gas stream,
cowl 1.4 which is thus relieved of dust because the particles, due to their inertia, are not
аЫе to follow the gas flow path (Fig. 4). 'П certain types of separator the dust-
laden gas impinges оп baffles or other bodies and, in being deflected around
Besides frictionallosses, other losses in pipelines are caused Ьу resistance due to these, loses its dust particles because of their greater inertia. Such dust
bends, internal features, changes in pipe cross-section, branches, junctions, etc. collectors are more particularly called impingement separators.
The pressure losses due to these various features сап Ье calculated from the Cyclone separators (Fig. 5) : these rely оп the action of centrifugal forces оп
following general expression: the dust particles carried along in the swirling stream of gas. The particles
are thus flung radially outwards to the wall of the cyclone, from where they fall
~p = ~. ~. w2 into the dust hopper. The centrifugal force which determines the collection
2
efficiently is directly proportional to the mass of the particles and to the square
where:
of the circumferential velocity, but inversely proportional to the radius of the
~ = resistance coefficient cyclone:
Q = density of the medium in kg/m З
w = flow velocity in m/sec. centrifuga I force Z = m . u2 /r.

634 635
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

RеlПgоs
Fig. 2: Counter-current gravity separator a)Absetzkammer ohne Einbauten b)Absetzkammer mit Einbauten с) Senkгechter КгОттег
clean gos
(Staubsack) settling chamber wit h inertia trap
settling chamber without internal fittings
,nternal fittrngs (dust trap)

I
I
I
I
I

f
f
I
f
f I
I
I
I
\
\
\
\
! fi
I
I f
I \I "С \
--- '\ '\ \
....... , \ \

!
I I I \

{Т'
I I \ \ \ \
I \ ,\ \
I \ II
I r I \
f I
Ь rr
I
r

,
I
I
I
I
r

1:
(i)t
I I I f
о ~~~~:/~~rt~~c~~
\ I f I
\ I I I
\ I I I
\ \ I I ь Fe,ne Portikeln
\ \ I I flПе partlcles Abgesch,edenes

r\ " :
\ \ f I
\ \ collected dust
I I StгоmJiПlеп des
I / с Tгa.germ~dlums
I I
\ \ I I stгеаmllпеs of
\ \ (пе fluid а Grobe Partikeln
О \ \
coarse particles
Ь Feine Partikeln
f,ne particles
<J= ~I~~~a~as
~
Stromlinien des

Abgeschiedenes / с~t~~~~r~~'~~r ........ ~~~f~~den gas

со lIected d ust the flu,d

fig. 4: Inertal separators

Abgesch,edener Stau Ь
collected dust
Rohgos
dust-Ioden gos Fig. З: Cross-current gravity separator

Rohgos
dust-Ioden gos 'П the cement industry, cyclones аге used mostly as separators within the
production process and as pre-cleaners for high-efficiency dust collectors in
cases where air ог gas with high dust loadings has to Ье treated; they аге used
as dedusting devices onlyfor gaseswith а low content of dust which moreover
consists of relatively coarse particles, е. g., the exhaust air from the clinker
coolers of Lepol kilns.
Various arrangements of cyclones аге to Ье distinguished
о Gгobe Portikeln
individual cyclones: single units of large diameter (above 1500 тт) and
coarse partlcles height) ;
Ь ~~~~:'~i~\~eln multiple cyclones: batteries of cyclones connected in parallel, the gas flow
being distributed as uniformly as possibIe to them; diameters аге in the range of
с ;:;~~~~e;s ~~St:~d~l~i~edlums about 500 to 1500 тт; see Fig. 6;
multi-cyclones. generally below 500 тт diameter, arranged in banks, as
shown in Fig.7, and provided with а соттоп air inlet and dust hopper
Abgeschiedener Stoub
collected dust system.

636 637
Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

в А

!
ф
t::
О
U
>
u
ф

а.
:Е
;:,
~

А ~~~~~fl~e~~~i~\r IПLеt
В Relnluftaustritt
clean arr outlet

С ~:ohr~ui~e~~:~g
о ~~~~~ta~~~s~~~l"t
Е F"instaubauslall
1IП" dust outl"t

fig. 7: Multi-cyclone collector

....<5
~
са
а.
General features of cyclone separators аге as follows:
ф
сп diameter of cylindrical part: D = 200 to 3500mm;
ф overall height of the separator: 3 to 5 О;
t::
О cгoss-sectional rating (resultant flow velocity in the cross-section of the
U cylindrical part): 1 to 3.5 m/sec;
>
u inlet velocity: 10 to 24m/sec;
exit velocity in outlet pipe: 8 to 13.5 m/sec;
pressure drop thгough cyclone: 5 to 15 mbar;
operating temperature: up to 500· С.

638 639
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

The pressure drop ~p (in mbar) is approximately proportional to the square of the practice, however, there are considerabIe disadvantages to Ье set against these
gas velocity (in m/sec) :
advantages:
there is а high risk of bIockage of the small cyclones;
~p = ~ .!! . w 2 . it is difficult to achieve uniform distribution of gas to the individual cyclones;
2
the соттоп dust collecting hopper is liabIe to cause "short-circuit" gas
where Q is the density of the gas (in kg/m З ) and ~ is а pressure loss coefficient (for currents from cyclone to cyclone in the event of pressure differences at their
example, ~ = 0.4). respective outlets;
The overall collection efficiency is affected Ьу the selective separation of the effective sealing of the cyclones between the inlet chamber (into which the
dust according to particle size in accordance with а separation curve. For constant dust-Iaden gas is admitted) and the outlet chamber (which receives the
gas flow rate, the overall collection efficiency increases if the following influencing cleaned gas) is difficult, especially in large installations, so that coarse dust
quantities increase: settling velocity of the dust particles, agglomerating tendency particles are liabIe to get into the cleaned gas.
of the dust, dust content of the gas to Ье dedusted (within limits).
The drawback of gas short-circuit сап Ье reduced Ьу the extraction of gas from the
The proportion of each particle size fraction which is precipitated in а cyclone of
dust collecting hopper.
particular shape and rating is called the fractional dust collection efficiency
Cyclones achievetheir optimum separation or collection efficiency only ifthedust-
and is plotted as а percentage against the particle size diameter (in microns). The
laden gas is admitted to them at the appropriate rate of flow оп which the cyclone
curve thus obtained is called а separation curve. It is ап important criterion for
design was based. If the flow rate falls below this value, so that the cyclone is
comparing different cyclones with опе another. ТаЫе6 indicates, Ьу way of
operated at too low а load, the collection efficiency goes down; оп the other hand,
example, the overall collecting performance of а cyclone for dust with known
if the cyclone is overloaded, the pressure drop and the amount of wear will
particle size distribution.
increase.
Wear-resistant linings тау takethe form of wearing plates or ceramic materials, but
ТаЫе 6: Dust collecting performance of а cyclone for dust of known must not adversely affect the gas flow pattern in the cyclone. Fine-grained dust,
particle size distribution (example) especially if it has а high alkali content, is prone to cause caking and choking.
Insulation тау Ье required in order to preventthetemperature in the cyclone falling
particle dust to Ье fractional dust overall below the dew-point.
size collected collection effi- collection effi
% Ьу weight ciency in % ciency in % 1.7.1 .2 Fabric fi Iters
О to 5 5 60 3.00 Fabric filters are extensively used in cement works for cleaning the exhaust air from
5 to 1О 10 85 8.50 tube mills, roller mills, dryers, crushers, screening installations, material handling
1 О to 20 30 95 28.50 installations, silos, bins and despatch loading plants. 'П conjunction with air
20 to 30 17 98 16.66 coolers for lowering the temperature of the dust-Iaden air admitted to them, such
30 to 40 13 99.5 12.94 filters сап also соре with the exhaust air from grate-type clinker coolers. Оп the
40 to 50 7 99.9 6.99 other hand, fabric filters are not used for dedusting the exit gases of cement kilns, at
> 50 18 100 18.00 least not in the Federal RepubIic of Germany.
Dust precipitation in textile filter media is accomplished Ьу the following
100 94.59 processes:
interception: the fibres of the filter medium act as а sieve or strainer;
inertia: the gas flow is deflected around the fibres, while the dust particles are
For апу particular cyclone of given shape and rating there is а certain particle size of precipitated Ьу virtue of their inertia;
which 50% is precipitated, while the other 50% remains in suspension in the air diffusion and electrical forces: these are significant only for the very smallest
and is сапiеd out of the cyclone. This is called the cut size and likewise constitutes particles.
а criterion of cyclone performance.
It has hitherto not proved possibIe to calculate accurately the collection
Multi-cyclones occupy less space оп plan than multiple cyclones of equal efficiency of а technical filter medium. It is mainly а function of the porosity and
performance. Besides, because of their small diameter the individual cyclones the thickness of the med ium, the fibre diameter and the collection efficiency of the
achieve more powerful centrifugal action and thus attain higher efficiencies. 'П individual fibre.
640
641
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

Among others, the following theoretical equation is given in the literature (see When а dust layer has formed оп the filter medium, this dust too will cause а
VDI 3677):
I-ЕРа 4 L
pressure drop which is therefore additional to that of the medium itself.
--- -
The pressure drop in woven-fabric filters (cloth filters) is between about 8 and
т]оу = 1 -е ЕРа 11 d,
20 mbar. For sizing the fan equipment it is necessary also to take account of the
pressure drop in the pipelines and dust extraction devices (exhaust hoods, etc.), so
where: that the pressure rise to Ье developed Ьу the fans will generally range from 20 to
т]оу overall collection efficiency 50mbar.
Еро porosity in сm З of voids per сm З of filter material Two main types of fabric filter media (fibrous media) аге to Ье distinguished:
L layer thickness in m woven fabrics comprising threads arranged in а rectangular mesh of warp and
df fibre diameter in т. weft, in various weave patterns such as plain weave, twill weave ог satin
weave;
Therefore the collection efficiency increases if: non-woven fabrics, тоге particularly those formed and strengthened Ьу
the pore ratio becomes lower, e.g., in consequence of dust that collects in the mechanical action, е. g., Ьу means of needles (needle felts), or with
voids (plugging of the pores); adhesives.
the layer thickness of the filter medium increases; Felt-fabricfilter media (тоге particularly needle felts) havegained in importance
the fibre diameter decreases. in recent years. 'П the "needling" process the fibres аге intimately matted together
Ьу the action of numerous needles with barbed hooks. These felts аге often
'П selecting а suitabIe filter medium the aim will therefore Ье to have low provided with а woven fabric reinforcement to give additional strength and
permeability to air in combination with а high weight per unit area if high dust dimensional stability to the felt. Thanks to their closely matted fibre texture with
collection performance is to Ье attained. The effect of the dust deposited оп or in approximately uniform роге structure, felts attain higher collection efficiency in
the filter medium, and the periodic removal of part of this dust Ьу cleaning action conjunction with lower pressure drop than woven filter fabrics.
must also Ье considered. ' Important characteristic criteria of woven and non-woven fabric filter media аге
Besides collection efficiency, the pressure drop (corresponding to the flow their weight рег unit агеа, air permeability and thickness (ТаЫе 7).
resistance) is ап important characteristic criterion of а filter medium. It сап Ье Formerly, fabrics for filter media were made chiefly of wool, cotton ог linen, but
expressed as follows: тап made fibres аге now increasingly used for woven-fabric as well as for felt-
tlPF = К . Wo Q v· L, fabric media.
The physical properties of the most important fibrous filter materials used in the
where: cement industry аге listed in ТаЫе 8.
The ranges of application of the various materials аге determined Ьу their
К constant for the filter medium
properties. 'П the cement industry, needle felts of man-made fibres are
Wo flow velocity of gas admitted to filter medium in m/sec
extensively used, тоге particularly polyester for the filtration of dry warm exhaust
Q density of the gas in kg/m З
air, polyacrylonitrile for moist warm exhaust air (е. g., discharged from
v kinematic viscosity of the gas in m 2 /sec
grinding/drying plants), and polyamide (Nylon, Perlon) for cold air carrying
L layer thickness of filter medium in т.
abrasive dust. Cotton, which is relatively inexpensive, is still used for the filtration
of cold air containing dust with low abrasive action. Though wool has excellent
Besides the pressure drop through the filter medium there is the pressuгe drop due filtering properties, it has the drawbacks of absorbing much moistuгe and having
to the filter casing, which is calculated from the following formula (similar to that
for pipelines) : very limited temperature resistance. It is now little used. Nomex is occasionally
used for filters sUbjected to high temperatures, but is relatively expensive. Teflon
and glass fibres аге materials which have hitherto not Ьееп used as filter media in
tlPG = ~F ~. w/ the cement inustry in the Federal RepubIic of Germany.
The filtering properties of fabric filter media сап Ье improved Ьу suitabIe
where:
mechanical, thermal ог chemical treatment ог Ьу special finishes to meet specific
~ resistance coefficient technical ог safety requirements, including the following, for example:
Q density of the gas in kg/m З Thermofixing (heat-setting) to give the materials stability of shape.
w, velocity of entry into filter in m/sec. Impregnation to make them resistant to moisture, catching fire, clogging with
642
643
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution
Measuгes for the reduction of dust emission

ТаЫе 7: Approximate values for characteristic data of fabric fi Iter

media

N о
filter medium weight thickness air permeability L!) L!)

g/m 2 DIN 53855 I I сх) о

L!) '"о
DIN 53887 N О о 1\ N
тт m /m .
З 2
h ф
с::
ф
"
woollen and 300-400 1.5-2.2 2700-2100 , >
..с:: о
ctI .... N
mixed fabrics 400-480 2.2-2.7 2100-1800
... Ф
L!) N
Ф о с:: L!) I
480-550
550-650
2.7-3.3
3.3-4.0
1800-1500 :fo::1
о
О

~
"I
сх) "1\
N
о
о ""о
1500- 900
cotton 100-200 0.5-1.2
а.ч:: f- о о
.-
N

О
1500 о
fabrics 200-300 1.2-1.7 1500- 900 2<J) с:: CtI о
<::t
О
<D
N
<::t
ф.~ N
о"
ф
300-400 1.7-2.5 900- 600 -о > L!) I I

400-500 2.5-3.5 600- 300

>
"о
а. O~
ф
"I
<::t
о
I
м
о
I

N
I
о
L!)
N
о
м
<D
""
о

man-made fibre 180-250 0.3-1.0 2100-1800 L!)

f- L!) м
fabrics (poly- 250-330 0.8-1.5 1800-1500 о
с:: м
ester, poly- 330-400 1.3-2.2 1500- 900
О
I
м N о
о
I ""
о

acrylonitrile) 400-550
ro I
I м
L!)
1.9-3.0 900- 600 с5
L!)
сх) 1\
N

needle felts 250-400 3600-1800 о

о
(man-made fibres) 300-500 3000-1800 u)
L!)
L!) N
(J <J) N
400-550 2 -3.5 I I
2400- 900 ';: ф

.Q L!)
I L!) о
500-650 1200- 360 .CI
Lri
о
N
(j)

....
са ч:: N о

...
Q)
ф

"'о
са
L!) о

~ Е
L!) L!) 00
dust ог attack Ьу insects. Such treatment тау, however, unfavouгabIy affect ч:::
с::
0.2
с::
<D
<::t
~ сх)

the filter properties. ... с::

са >0; I L!)
I
о
I о
L!) L!)
I

Admixtuгe of steel fibres and electrically conductive textile fibres, antistatic ....
о Е za.. <::t N N

impregnation ог earthing of filter bags, Ьу means of sewn-on metal strands ог

u) "
sewn-in metal wires, to prevent efectrostatic charging. Antistatic filter media
...
Q)

.CI
ф
<J)
о L!)
.2 с::
о сх) о сх)
'"
should, depending оп the type of fibre, have а specific electric resistance of ч:::
~
О N (j) о
о

5.0 х 108 to 1.0 х 10'8аст. ....

о <J)
ф
u
;u I I I о
I N
1\
I
L!)

сх)
"
ф
L!)

Finishing of glass fabric with silicone, graphite ог PTFE (polytetrafluoro- u) "

Q) .Q
ethylene) to improve the mechanical properties and fabric cleaning behaviouг 't ч::
L!) L!) о о
L!)
(removal of the deposited dust). Q) м о
""
"I
(j)
Q. "о I I I м
I о" о

The filter media аге formed into units shaped like tubular bags ог flat envelopes. ...
О
Q.
о
s
L!)
N
L!)
N
о о
L!) 1\
о
сх)
о

Dimensional accuгacy, careful selection of the material and good execution of the
seams аге important practical requirements.
iii
(J

Fabric filters used in the cement industry аге either bag filters (Fig. 8) ог screen
(ог envelope) filters (Fig. 9). Single ог multiple filters, used individually ог
'i
J: ф
<J)
'сп ....
с::
Q. CtI
interconnected in series, аге used. Casings аге circular ог rectangular. The term .Q .D '0
а.
"baghouse" is sometimes applied to large filters containing а number of tubular
OQ ч::
rou OJ
Q) а с::
bags mounted in а usually rectangular casing. Asa rule, the dust-Iaden air isdrawn jS ф 'Е
ф
.~

ф
through them Ьу suction. Forced draught is seldom employed. ~
а.
..с::
~ u Е

644
645
Н. 1. Environmental protection Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

Reingasklappe
clean gas damper
Кlopfung
гаРРlПg gear

Г=;=~,J!;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;г ;~~ 1~~CS~~~fs~~~gUng

\Fil terschlauche
filter bags

Sch!auchboden
ЬоНот plate

\ I
]! m-!
~Staubaustrag Staubaustrag
dust d,scharge dust discharge

Fig.8: Bag filter

Cleaning methods for the filter media:

Mechanical cleaning Ьу rapping, shaking ог vibration, usually in conjunction
with reverse air ог gas flow.
Pneumatic cleaning with low-pressure air (reverse flow cleaning of bag
filters with cleaned air ог gas supplied Ьу а purging air fan), medium-pressure
air (supplied in а pulsating flow) and high-pressure air (pulsed compressed
air: jet cleaning system).
Filters with compressed air cleaning (jet filters: Fig.10) have come into
increasingly widespread use in recent years. These аге essentially bag filters in
which the bagsortubesare mounted оп wire retainers (cages), thedust-Iaden gas
being admitted to the outside of the bags and the clean gas extracted from the
inside. For cleaning the bags, а compressed air jet releases а short pulse of air (of
0.1 -0.2 sec duration) into the top of each bag and entrains а quantity of cleaned
air back into the bag, in the reverse direction, i. е., from the inside outwards. These
air pulses аге applied at regular intervals, adjustabIe from 1 to 10 minutes. Моге
particularly, the following actions оссш in this cleaning method'
646
1 clean gas chamber
2 clean gas outlet
3 traversing medium pressure impulse
4 cleaning
5 scavenging air
the normal flow of air through the filter is briefly interrupted and reversed Ьу the
pulse of purging air; .' .
the bag, which in normal operation is collapsed onto ItS wlre cage, IS suddenly
inflated to its full circular shape (Fig. 11), causing the caked dust to fall off;
the purging air flows through the filter medium (the wall of the bag) in the
reverse direction to the normal flow of dust-Iaden gas.
647
 Betriebsphase
0'' 0\;0, ,ho", Abreinlgungsphase
Measures for the reduction of dust emission
cleaning phase
I Besides being effective, compressed air cleaning of the filter medium has the

I
Steckschieber je
advantage of quickness, so that the proportion of time during which the medium is
~ _.~ ~~~;fa~l~g~~~per not availabIe for dust collecting is very small indeed. Besides, it requires less
""'-т-т-r-т~--т--М plate рег compartment
maintenance than other systems. It is especially suitabIe for use with filter bags
Relngasraum
clean gas cnamber made of medium to heavy-grade needle felts with high filtration efficiency.
Ап important design criterion for filters is the filter area rating, Ьу which is
understood the volumetric flow rate of the dust-Iaden gas ог air that сап Ье
effectively treated рег unit агеа of filter surface, for example: 100 mЗ/hоur рег т 2 .
This ratio corresponds to the flow velocity of the gas admitted to the filter
medium.
Filters subdivided into compartments and designed for mechanical cleaning аге
cleaned опе compartment at а time. The compartment to Ье cleaned is temporarily
disconnected from the flow of dust-Iaden gas, and therefore the агеа as well as the
агеа rating must Ье calculated with due allowance for опе compartment less than
the total number provided, i.e., the net filter агеа is the gross (overall) filter агеа
minus the filter агеа of опе compartment.
The purging (ог scavenging) air which is admitted to the compartment to Ье
Fig.10: Bag filter with compressed air cleaning (jet filter) cleaned is subsequently dissipated to the adjacent compartments and must Ье
added to the incoming (dust-Iaden) gas flow rate for calculating the net filter агеа
rating.
АЬгеl nIgungsvorgang
In the case of а filter with compressed air cleaning, however, the net filter агеа is
Fil tra t iOnsvorgang
cleanlng filteгlng virtually equal to the gross filter агеа.
Criteria for selecting а suitabIe filter medium and rating аге:
temperature and moisture content of the dust-Iaden gas to Ье cleaned;
nature and properties of the dust to Ье removed,
type of filter fabric (woven, non-woven);
form in which the filter medium is used (bag, envelope);
таппег of gas admission (internal, external);
dust loading of the gas, pre-cleaning and dust distribution in the filter;
type and from of construction of cleaning system for dislodging deposited dust
from the filter medium;
availabIe amount of space for installing the filter.

The above-mentioned factors тоге particu larly affect:

the dust content remaining in the cleaned gas;
the pressure drop through the filter;
the service life of the filter fabric employed;
the amount of maintenance required.
Although а low rating and dust loading will require а relatively large filter and
therefore higher initial cost, the operating and maintenance costs of such а filter
will Ье correspondingly lower and the filter medium will last longer.
ТаЫе 9 gives filter ratings, subdivided according to the method of cleaning, for
various filter applications in connection with cement manufacture. Approximate
calculation methods аге to Ье found in the relevant literature (see Bergmann,
Fig. 11 : Filtering and cleaning phases of а jet filter 1976).
648 649
Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution

1.7.1.3 Granular bed filters

Granular-bed filters (see VDI Code 3677) consist of compartments packed with а
bed of quartz granules of about 2 to 5 тт size, Iying оп fine wire mesh in а casing
u О О О О О 00 О О
generally of circular shape. In the cement industry such filters are used more
.~ g' О q- 00 q- q- q-N q- 00 particularly for dedusting the exhaust air discharged from grate coolers, as they are
N
Е .-
.r::. ::::J С:: I I I I I I I I I resistant to abrasive dust and to high temperatures (up to about 4500 С) .
Ф со О О О О О 00 О О
c::J!1 00 N L{) N N NO N L{) The granular bed has to Ье cleaned at regular intervals, this being done
Q.u
compartment Ьу compartment Ьу means of air in reverse flow, in conjunction with
agitation of the granules Ьу rotating agitator arms.
In the granular bed filter with integral cyclone each filter bed is operated with а pre-
rou cleaning cyclone which removes coarse dust particles and also dedusts the air used
.- о)
О
N
О
00
О О
00
О
О
00
000
О
О
О
for cleaning the bed. The combination of the filter bed and the pre-cleaner into а
§.S single unit has the disadvantage that, because the compartments are out of action
.r::. С:: I I I I I I I I I
uф со
ф
О О О О О 00 О О one Ьу one for cleaning the bed, the volume flow rate of dust-Iaden air admitted to
О <о о'> <о 00 00<0 00 о'>
Ес::; the cyclone tends to Ье irregular, thus preventing optimum operation (see
BerzjMaus, 1977).
In а later development of this type of filter the dust-Iaden air or gas is pre-cleaned
in а separate cyclone (Fig. 12). This air is then distributed to the individual

О
('t)
.
О
О
compartments and passed through the granular bed. The finally cleaned air is
extracted Ьу а fan and discharged into the atmosphere.
О О q- О
I О О
('t) I L{) ,...... О ,...... L{)
О ,......
v ,...... v V v v v
Rohgos Filterkommer Relngas

~
dust-Io?en gos
со
О
u
--"Q
со ф
ф .~
Е ф ё ё ё
ф ф ф

3:~ Е Е Е
со ::::J ф ф ф
.... Q. u u u
Spulluft
scovenging alf
Vorabscheider (Zyklon)
рге- cleaner (cyclone)
.r::.
u
со
-О) Q.
С:: о) <л
ф
О со
.~ О "а­
::::J_ .::,(, С::
С:: <л - Ф
ф ::::J Е
'Е о) о) ..Q Ф
со
Е .S "Q U
о
u
С::
ф
З
<л
С::

соЕ
....

-ф
"Q сЕ
с:: lЧЫ §:., .!2со
О ф
_О)
- о)с::
Q.a.
.~

.~
со
Е:.=
С::
,§Е 0)0)
.S .-
С::
"Q ф
а.
"Q .::,(,
Fig. 12: Diagram illustration the operating principle of the CS granular
Q.
3:со
С::
со
С::
со_
U u"Q
со со
со .... .r::. .r::. О Q..2 bed filter

651
650
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

Betrlebsphase Reinlgungsphase
operating phase cleaning phase
Glattstreichermotor
smoothing motor

Ruhrarm
stirгing arms Fil tergehiiuse
Rohgasraum _ filter casing
dust-laden gas Filterschi",-ch,-,--t--"-,.,, св ..,
chamber filter bed
Siebrost Siebboden
grate screen bottom screen
RеlПgаsrаum I---_ _---J-Zentralrohr Rohgas
clean gas chamber central рlре
du~ gas

Dreiwegeklappe ,
three-way valve I
Rohgaskanal - - ' - - - -
dust-laden gas duct !
Reingas
clean gas

Spulluftkanal
scavenging air duct

Fig.1З: Operating and cleaning phases of а CS granular bed filter

Fig.14: Hori:zontal electrostatic precipitator

Forthe compartmentwise cleaning of the filter the air admission duct is closed Ьу а
valve. Next, cleaned air is drawn in reverse flow through the granular bed, which is
loosened up at the same time Ьу the rotating agitator. The dust dislodged Ьу the
purging (or scavenging) air is precipitated in а special cyclone; the dedusted
purging air is then fed back into the incoming air upstream of the pre-cleaner.
Fig. 13 shows the operating and the cleaning phase of а granular bed filter of this
type.
The pre-cleaning cyclones сап Ье provided with wear-resistant linings. The
admission duct for the incoming dust-Iaden air is so designed that the air flow rate
is constant all along its length and that the fiJter compartments receive equal
quantities of air.
Опе advantage of the granular bed filter is that it сап accept high rates of
overloading (up to 150%), though this does result in а sharp rise in the overall
pressure drop, which under normal operating conditions is 15- 20 mbar.
1.7.1.4 Electrostatic precipitators
Electrostatic (or electrical) precipitators (see V013678) are used in cement works
more particularly for the removal of dust from the exit gases of cement kilns and
from the exhaust air discharged Ьу dryers, combined grinding and drying plants,
finishing mills and raw mills with water injection.
652
'П the electrostatic precipitator the dust-Iaden gas is made to flow through а
chamber, usually in the horizontal direction, in which it passes through опе or more
high-voltage electric fields formed Ьу alternate discharge electrodes and plate-
type collecting (or receiving) electrodes (Fig. 14). Whereas the latter are earthed,
the discharge electrodes are maintained at а high direct (ОС) voltage of about 50
to 11 О kV, provided Ьу various types of high-tension rectifier equipment.
Under the action of the electric field the dust particles, which have Ьесоте
electrically charged Ьу negative gas ions which are formed at the discharge
electrodes and attach themselves to the particles, fly to the collecting electrodes
and are deposited there. The dust is dislodged from these electrodes Ьу rapping
and thus falls into the receiving hoppers at the base of the precipitator casing.
The electric charges acquired Ьу the dust particles depend substantially оп their
specific electric resistance. 'П the lower range of operating temperature the specific
resistance increases with rising temperature as а result of diminishing surface
conductivity. 'П the upper temperature range (above about 2500 С) the specific
resistance decreases, however, as а result of the thermal excitation of conduction
electrons, as most dusts have semiconductor properties. Most favourabIe for
precipitation is а specific resistance in the range of about 107 to 1 О" ohm . ст.
653
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

The collection efficiency of ап electrostatic precipitator сап Ье approximately The casing ог housing of the precipitator is constructed of steel plate ог reinforced
expressed in terms of the well-known Deutsch formula: concrete and is, as а rule, provided with 50-150 тт thick thermal insulation.
Uniform gas distribution over the full inlet cross-section is ensured Ьу means of
ТJ = 1 _e-(w'f) = 1-е (~ w) = 1 -е -(-~.~} suitabIe internal fittings (е. g., perforated baffles). The dust receiving hoppers аге
provided with devices for the prevention of flow phenomena within them.
where: Depending оп the desired discharge behaviour, the discharge electrodes аге
given various shapes. straight ог helical round wire, specially profiled wire of
ТJ efficiency square ог star-shaped cross-section, wire ог strip with saw-tooth pattern ог spiky
w particle migration velocity (ог drift velocity) in m/sec projections, ог tubes with pointed projections. These electrodes аге mounted in
f A/V = specific collecting surface агеа in sec/m rigid supporting frames ог аге freely suspended; in the latter case the lower end of
А collecting surface агеа in т 2 each discharge electrode is fastened to а tautening weight.
V volumetric gas flow rate in m З /sec The collecting electrodes (receiving electrodes) generally consist of metal
а distance between discharge electrodes and collecting electrodes: equal to plates, which тау Ье plain ог Ье specially profiled to give maximum surface агеа,
approximately half the collecting electrode spacing (duct width) reduce dust re-entrainment and permit effective rapping.
t L/V = retention time of the gas in the electric fields, in sec.
The distances between the discharge and collecting electrodes аге usually in the
L sum of the lengths of the collecting electrodes in the gas flow direction,
in metres range of 125 to 150 тт, exceptionally much larger (250 тт and тоге). The
material most commonly used for the electrodes is steel. 'П certain cases, however,
v теап gas flow velocity between the electrodes, in m/sec.
various special materials аге used, е. g., aluminium alloys ог highly corrosion-
The particle migration velocity (drift velocity) is а reference quantity comprising resistant steel.
all the influences оп the dust collecting performance, е. g., specific resistance of The duration and intensity of rapping the electrodes will Ье adapted to the
the dust, electric field intensity, соroпа discharge current, dust particle size, properties and quantities of the dust concerned. Individual rapping for the
viscosity of the gas, design features of the electrodes, design of the precipitator, respective electric fields is preferabIe.
etc. The migration velocity must therefore Ье estimated оп the basis of experience The precipitator is energized Ьу а system comprising а step-up transformer (to
gained with сотрагаЫе other installations Ьу expert engineers. provide the required high voltagefrom the погтаl АС power supply) and а rectifier,
Typical gas and migration velocities in electrostatic precipitators as used in the which аге accommodated in опе cubicle either in the high-voltage equipment
cement industry аге listed in ТаЫе 1 О. Thesefigures аге based оп а dust content of roот ог оп top of the precipitator itself. Various types of rectifier аге availabIe, but
less than about 0.1 g/Nm З (dry) in the cleaned gas. the type most extensively used for the present purpose is the static rectifier using
silicon diodes. А switch cubicle is also provided. The high-voltage energizing
system is equipped with transductor ог thyristor-controlled voltage regulation and
ТаЫе 10: Gas velocity and particle migration velocity in electrostatic
operated а little below the flashover voltage (Fig. 15). This close voltage control is
precipitators for cement works
necessary because the collection efficiency is governed to а great extent Ьу the
voltage applied. The criterion for the flashover limit is the flashover itself ог the
type of plant теап gas velocity migration velocity frequency of flashover discharges. With single-phase АС supply the arcing is тоге
m/s m/s readily extinguished than with three-phase.
wet-process rotary kiln 0.9-1.3 The number of energizing units to Ье provided will depend оп the need for
0.1 -0.13
rotary kiln with grate preheater 0.8-1.2 achieving optimum dust collecting performance and the availability of adequate
0.08-0.12
rotary kiln with cyclone preheater 0.8-1.2 standby capacity.
0.08-0.12
and conditioning tower The insulators at the high-voltage entries тау Ьесоте faulty as а result of dirt
rotary kiln with cyclone preheater 0.6-1.0 0.06-0.1 О deposits forming оп them, resulting in leakage currents. То counteract these
and exit gas utilization troubIes, the insulators тау Ье heated, screened and/or swept with gas ог air.
shart kiln 0.6-1.0 0.06-0.1 О The dust receiving hoppers тау Ье of the tapered ог the trough type and аге
grate cooler 0.5-0.8 0.04-0.08 equipped with discharge devices such as rotary gates, screw conveyors ог
dryer, grinding/drying plant 0.6-1.2 0.06-0.12 continuous-flow conveyors with dust locks. If necessary, the dust hoppers and
tube mill with water injection 0.6-1.0 0.06-0.1 О discharge devices сап also Ье thermally insulated and moreover Ье electrically
heated
654 655
 H.I Н. 1. Environmental protection 1 Prevention of air pollution Measures for the reduction of dust emission

Thf As а precaution qgainst explosion ог fire hazard the precipitator casing тау Ье of
ex~
explosion-resistant construction, with venting panels оп its roof and sides.
Duгch bruchspannung
breakdown voltage А conditioning unit (water spray tower) installed upstream of the precipitator
сап serve to lower the temperature of the incoming gas to 1300 -1500 С and a/so
11=
raise the dew-point of the gas, so as to епаЫе better dust precipitation to Ье

t
wh achieved. At the same time, the gas entering the conditioning unit should still have
а sufficiently high entry temperature, uniform distribution and sufficiently long
11 residence time to епаЫе all the sprayed water to Ье completely evaporated
w (Fig.16).
f Geregelte Spannung
controlled voltage The conditioning of the gas requires about 0.5 9 of water рег Nm 3 and рег degree.
А
As а rule, the water is injected through return-flow nozzles arranged in а ring at the
V top of the tower-type unit, so that the droplets travel in parallel flow with the
а Filterspannung
precipitator voltage downward stream of gas. The rate of water discharge from these nozzles (normally
within а 1 :1 О range) is controlled with reference to the temperature of the gas at
t the outlet of the conditioning unit, but in some cases additiona/ly with reference to
L
the volumetric flow rate of the gas. Despite good servicing and contro/, moisture
may cause dust agglomerations (Iumps) in the conditioning unit. 'П order to
v
prevent possibIe choking, the dust discharge devices shou Id therefore Ье designed
The Fig.15: Example of automatically controlled precipitator voltage to sufficiently large cross-sectional dimensions.
all t The pressure drop through electrostatic precipitators is between about 1 and
the 3 mbar, depending оп the type of internal fittings. The conditioning unit
visc additionally has а pressure drop of about 5 mbar. Forfairly high dust loadings in the
etc. gas (above about 100 g/Nm 3 ) а mechanical separator is generally installed as а
gair pre-cleaner upstream of the electrostatic precipitator ог incorporated within it
Тур (ahead of the first electric field).
сеп" Eiectrostatic precipitators of the vertical-flow type mау аltегпаtivеlу Ье used for
less dedusting the exhaust air from соаl grinding/drying plants. 'П the event of
deflagration ог explosion, the pressure wave generated Ьу such phenomena сап Ье
effectively dissipated upwards. Besides, in precipitators of this type, the risk of
Tat potentially dangerous dust deposits forming in the interior is small. However, in
рге comparison with horizontal-flow precipitators, the gas velocity will as а rule have
Verdampfu ngskuhler
conditioning tower to Ье lower. Another drawback of the vertical-flow precipitator is that it is not
typf possibIe to provide separate electric fields with separate rapping arrangements.

1.7 1.5 Qperation and maintenance of separators and precipitators

wet
rota Еуегу dust collection plant with its ancillary equipment must Ье properly operated
rota and serviced so as to епаЫе it to perform its duties at all times. The manufacturers
а of such plant should accordingly, when erecting and commissioning it, supply the
rota user with the following documents:
а description of the plant with drawings showing the construction, arrangement
shar and functioning of its parts and of the measuring and control in-
grat strumentation,
drYE operating instructions for starting and stopping, погта' running, and the
tubf detection and elimination of faults;
Fig.16: Electrostatic precipitator with conditioning tower instructions for the servicing and lubrication of the various pats of the plant;
654 656 657
 Technical principles
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control

- maintenance and repair manual with а list of instructions for the fitting of
spares and renewabIe parts.
General guidelines for the operation and maintenance of such plant аге given in
VDI Code 2264. Special instructions for individual types аге contained in the
following VDI Codes:
VDI 3676 Inertia-force separators
VDI 3677 Filters
VDI 3678 Electrostatic precipitators.
Instructions for the erection and operation of electrostatic preclpltators аге
moreover given in VDE 0146 and 0105 (Part 8). With regard to the prevention of
dust explosions and fire outbreaks and to pressure relief (venting) arrangements
for dust explosions VDI2263 and 3673 should Ье consulted.
1.7.2 Combating in-plant dust sources
Major sources of dust arising within the cement works аге the silos, the indoor
ог outdoor stockpiles for bulk materials containing fine particles, the despatch
loading installations of clinker and cement, the unloading installations for bulk
materials containing fine particles, and the roads оп the cement works site.
Ways and means of preventing dust formation at such sources and of abating the
Octave: The interval between two frequencies which аге in the ratio of two to one,
i.e., two frequencies f, and f 2 such that f 2 = 2 f,.
Third: One-third of an octave, i. е., two frequencies f, and f 2 such that
f2 =r f, = 1.26 f,.
Топе: Sound with sinusoidal pattern of its vibration amplitude and with а
frequency within the range of audibility (hearing range).
Timbre: Denotes the quality of sound composed of а number of tones whose
frequencies аге whole multiples of а fundamental frequency.
Noise: Sound composed of many tones of random frequency.
Noise' Any kind of sound that is objectionabIe ог harmful to human beings.
Sound pressure (р): The additional pressure (superimposed upon the normal
atmospheric pressure) due to the compression of the air associated with the
propagation of sound. At the threshold of human audibility at 1000 Hz the
sound pressure is:
po=2x10- 5 N/m 2.
Sound pressure level (t..,) ог simply "sound level": 20 times the logarithm (to
the base 1 о) of the ratio of the pressure Рп of the sound to the reference
pressure Ро:
Рп )
t..,=2010g- (dB.
Ро

resulting environmental nuisance аге suggested in VD12094. Other guidelines аге Decibel (dB): Unit of sound level using а logarithmic scale.
given in the "Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft" C'Technical Sound power (W) . The acoustic power emitted Ьу а source of sound ог noise. It
directives for clean air") (1974). cannot Ье directly measured, but is calculated from the sound pressure р (in
mbar) and the measuring surface агеа F (in m 2): W = 0.025 р2. F (in mW).
Sound intensity (J) А measure of the sound power рег uni{ агеа perpendicular to
the direction of propagation; for а free sound field:
2 Noise control J = p2/Q. С = 2.45х 10-3 р2 = W С (in W/m ).
2
2.1 Technical principles
where:
2
2.1 1 Definitions (see Schmidt, 1976) р = sound pressure in N/m
Q с = wave impedance = 41 О Ns/m 3 under normal conditions in air
Sound. Mechanical vibrations in an elastic medium. 3
Airborne sound: Sound which is propagated in the form of sound waves in air w = sound energy density in Ws/m
these being produced Ьу variations in air pressure. ' с = sound velocity in m/s.
The sound intensity is proportional to the square of the sound pressure
Velocity of sound in air at 20·С: 343m/s (metres рег second).
Solid-borne sound (structure-borne sound, impact sound). Sound which is J/J o = р2/ ро ·
Sound power level (L w ): 1 О times the \ogarithm (to the base 1 о) of the ratio of the
propagated in а solid medium, ог at the surface thereof, with frequencies of
more than about 15 Hz, produced Ьу vibrations of the medium. In the case of sound power W radiated Ьу а source to а reference power Wo'
lower frequencies these phenomena аге referred to as vibrations ог oscilla- W
Lw = 10 log - (dB),
tions. Wo
Frequency (f): The The number of cycles (complete vibrations) рег second. The where W o = 10-,2 watts.
hearing range of the human еаг is between about 16 Hz and 18000 Hz (in The sound power level is not а directly measurabIe quantity. It is calculated
young people) and 12000Hz (in older people). А range of about 350 to from the sound pressure leve\ Lp and the measuring surface ratio Ls of the
1500 ~z is sometimes called the medium frequency range, with low frequency
and hlgh frequency below and above these limits respectively The unit of sound-emitting source:
frequency is the Hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle рег second. Lw = Lp + Ls (dB)
659
658
 Н. 1. Environmental protection

J
50und intensity level (LJ ): LJ = 1 О log - (dB),
Jo
where: J o = 10-'2W/m2 (watts рег т 2 ).
Measuring surface ratio (L,.) : 1 О times the logarithm (to the base 1 О) ofthe ratio of
the measuring surface 5 (in т 2 ) enveloping а sound-emitting source to the
reference surface агеа 50 (= 1 т 2 ) :
5
Ls = 10 log - (dB).
50
Equivalent continuous sound level (Lm ): Меап value of measured sound pressure
levels (according to DIN 45641), corresponding to the acoustic effect of
fluctuating noise over the period of time of the measurements.
Effective level: Меап value of the maximum sound pressure levels over а certain
period of time, as defined 'п the noise control code "ТА Larm" (1968).
Assessment level: Effective level relating to particular times (day, night): ассог­
ding to "ТА Larm", it is subject to ап addition (of up to 5dB) to allow for
individual tones and to а reduction (3dB) in respect of uncertainty in the
measurements.
Impulse noise: Noise comprising rapid increases (of at least 5 to 1OdB) of short
duration in the sound level. The impulse sound level LJ сап Ье measured with
appropriate equipment. If ап ordinary sound level meter (not ап impulse sound
level meter) is used for determining the equivalent continuous level Lm , the
measured value should Ье increased Ьу 6 dB.
Individual tопе. Апу objectionabIe roпе ог note distJПсtlу emerging from the noise
emitted Ьу а source.
50und insulation: Prevention ог reduction of the transmission of sound through а
partition (wall, ceiling, etc.). Most of the sound is reflected from the
partition.
50und reduction index (transmission loss): А logarithmic criterion for the sound
insulation of а partition'
W,
R = 1010g ~ (dB).
W2
where W, is the sound power incident оп the partition, and W 2 the sound
power transmitted through it.
Approximately (5chmidt, 1976). R = - 25 + 18 log 9 + 12 log f where 9 is
the weight рег unit агеа of the partition (g/m 2 ) and f is the frequency (Hz).
А теап sound reduction index R,n is often indicated which (for sound
incidence from all directions) is obtained as the arithmetical теап in the
practical range of 100 to 3200 Hz adopted in architectural acoustics. As а rule,
it corresponds to insulation at а frequency of 500 Hz. According to DIN 5221 О,
5heet 4, the adjusted value Rw should preferabIy Ьу used as а single-figure
rating to indicatethe sound reduction. For "single-Ieaf" partitions, approxima-
tely: Rw = Rm - 2.
660
50und absorption: The attenuation of sound waves оп impingement upon sound-
absorbing interfaces, due to friction and conversion into heat.
50und absorption coefficient: А measure of the absorption of sound Ьу structural
components and rooms.
Insertion loss (D e ): The reduction of sound level Ьу the introd~cti?n of а control
device, е. g., а sound attenuator. Measured Ьу the suЬstltutюп method of
testing, i. е., sound measurement performed with and without the control
device inserted.
Weighting: The application of standard specified corrections ог adj~stm~nts. to
measured values in order to take account of the human еаг s dlffеГlПg
responses to frequencies, intensities and duration of acoustic stimuli. Непсе
the purpose of weighting networks оп measuring instruments is to make the
readings correspond as closely as possibIe to the perceived noise level..
Weighting for duration: The adjustment is made Ьу speed settings of the measurlng
instruments: "slow", "fast", "impulse".
Frequency weighting: Weighting for loudness and type of sou~d Ьу means of
variousweighting networksfitted in thesound level meter; mаlПlуthеsеагеthе
А, В, С and D weightings (weighting curves аге given in DIN.45633).
For the characterization of noise the A-weighted sound level (LA ) IS now almost
exclusively employed (values in A-weighted decibels: dB~), i.e., the А­
weighting is now specified for the rating of sounds irrespectlve of loudness
level and is по longer restricted to low-Ievel sounds.
Loudness is а subjective characteristic of а sound. The unit of loudness level is the
phon. The loudness level (in phons) of а sound is nu~eric~lIy equal to the
pressure level (in decibels) of а 1000 Hz рше tone whlch IS Judged Ьу the
average observer to Ье equally loud.
The frequency of 1000 Hz is thus the reference for allloudness me~surements,
and all contours of equalloudness (in phons) havethesame numerlcal value as
the sound pressure level at 1000 Hz. For example, а 50dB tone at 1000 Hz has
the same loudness level (50 phons) as а 73 dB tone at 50 Hz ог а 42 dB tone at
4000 Hz.
2.1.2 Addition of sound levels
5ince the sound pressure level (= sound level ог noise level) is а logarithmic ratio,
the resulting sound level from two ог тоге sources loca~ed c,I,ose t~ опе another
cannot Ье obtained Ьу straight addition. Thus, the геsultlПg ( total ) sound level
from n sources of equa/ intensity J, will Ье:
L = 1 О log n ~ = 1 О log ~ + 1 О log n = L + 1 О log n (dB).
j
Jo Jo
For two sources of sound (п = 2) we thus have:
L = L, + 1О log 2 = L j + 1 О х 0.3 = L; +3 (dB).
Therefore: new sound level = old sound level + 3dB.
661
 Technical principles
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control

DoubIin9 the number of (equal) sources increases the sound ог noise level Ьу 1:9=37.7
3dB. correspo ndin 9 value of AL from ТаЫе 12 = 16 dB (арргох.).
For n equal sources, each havin9 the same sound pressure level L;, distributed
within а 9iven space the теап level L in that space is approximately: Непсе: 40tal = Lo + AL = 80 + 16 = 96 dBA.
L = L + 5 109
j п.

The total sound level Ln of n equal sound sources located at equal distances from
the point of measurement is obtained as the sound level Lo of опе source plus а ТаЫе 12: Relationship between sound level difference AL and intensity
value AL: ratio (rating factor g)

9 AL(dB) 9 AL(dB) 9
AL(dB) 9 AL(dB)

10 10 20 100 30 1000
ТаЫе 11 9ives values for AL. О 1.0
13 21 130 31 1300
1 1.3 11
16 22 160 32 1600
2 1.6 12
ТаЫе 11: Additional term AL depending оп the number n of sound 23 200 33 2000
3 2.0 13 20
sources 25 24 250 34 2500
4 2.5 14
15 32 25 320 35 3200
n 2 3 4 6 8 10 5 3.2
16 40 26 400 36 4000
6 4.0
50 27 500 37 5000
AL 3 3.8 6 7.8 9 10 7 5.0 17
18 63 28 630 38 6300
8 6.3
19 80 29 800 39 8000
9 8.0
Determinin9 the total sound level of several sources not of equal intensity, ог the
total sound level from the octave ог third levels, сап Ье done with the aid of the
intensity ratio 9 = J,/J 2 (ratin9 factor), as listed in ТаЫе 12, which 9ives values of
9 for different values of ЛL, i. е., the difference in level between the individual
sound levels L, and the reference level La. As а rule the lowest of the sound levels If the number of sources is small, the addition procedure for arrivi n 9 at а total soun.d
under consideration is taken as the reference level. Thus: level сап Ье simplified Ьу usin9 а пот09га~ (Fi9.1!). The h i 9 her sound levells
increased Ьу ап amount dependin9 оп the dlfference I~ level: If there аге тоге than
40иl = 1 О 109 1: 100.1 L, (dB) = 1 О 109 1: 9; (dB) . two levels, the procedure is done step Ьу step. It IS advl.sabIe to perform the
1=1 ,=1 addition with values of опе decimal place and round the flПаl result to а whole
number of dB.
Worked example:
Reference level Lo = 80 d ВА

Korreklu rwert lIL. der zum groneren Wert von L1.LZ zu addJeren 1st
correction value lIL (о Ье added 10 lhe hlgher value 01 L,.LZ
Individual levels L; 9 from ТаЫе 12 3
1 ~O г ~O
85 dBA 5 dB 3.2
80 dBA О dB 1.0
87 dBA 7 dB 5.0
90 dBA 10 dB 10.0
92 dBA 12 dB 16.0 8015 108 В 7 8
84 dBA 4 dB 2.5

Fig.11: I\lomogram for the logarithmic addition of sound levels

663
662
 Technical principles

The significance of the difference in level ilL between two noise levels L1 and L2 is
shown Ьу the following figures: Lm = ~9 (1
0.3
log -
Т
In t;'1 00.3
;=1
L,/q ) in (dBA)

ilL = L2 - L1 Significance where:

q = halving parameter, indicating that increase in sound level which, if the
1 dBA duration of the sound is halved, is perceived as equally loud ог objec-
Just perceptibIe difference in loudness between the two noises
tionabIe; according to VDI2058 and 'ТА Larm" (1968): q = 3dB
3 dBA Halving ог doubIing of the sound level (two sound sources of
equal intensity)
6 dBA Four sources of equal intensity Т = I ·t;
i=1
7 dBA Five sources of equal intensity
10 dBA Т = total measurement time (reference period of time)
Теп sources of equal intensity: halving ог doubIing of the
(subjective) loudness perception t = interval times.
For the energy-related averaging procedure which is predominantly applied, using
q = 3, the above expression becomes:

2.1.3 Averaging of sound pressure levels Lm=10109(~ i t;.100.1 ' L ,) (dBA)

Т;=1
If а number of measured values of equivalent ассшасу аге availabIe, the
determination of the average ог теап сап Ье done arithmetically, so long as the Averaging сап Ье done with the aid of the rating factors 9 if the measured values
sound levels do not differ Ьу тоге than 1 О dB. If the differences аге larger, have Ьееп obtained Ьу successive readings оп а hand-held sound level meter:
quadratic (i. е., energy-related) averaging will have to Ье applied. The rules of
sound level addition сап Ье adopted for the purpose; the average is given Ьу' 1 n
L m = Lo + 1О 109 g, where 9 = - I 9;' t; (dBA)
Т;=1
1
't = 1 О log - I 10 0 . Н , = Ltota, -1 О log n (dB) Quite often, integrating measuring instruments аге used in combination with
n ;= 1
sound level meters, ог the necessary averaging calculations тау Ье performed Ьу
ап electronic computer.
First, all the me~sured sound levels L; should Ье added with the aid of the factors 9 In the random test procedure the sound level is measured at certain points of time
(ТаЫе 12) to glve the totallevel Ltota, . From this result must then Ье subtracted the - e.g., at intervals of 0.1,0.3,1 ог 5 sec, ог even longer intervals appropriate to the
value Ln = 1 О log n (in dB), where n is the number of measured values. circumstances.
In the "maximum level" averaging procedure described in "ТА Larm" (1968) the
Worked example: maximum sound leve\ which occurs in each time interval of duration t (as а rule:
Total sound level: t = 5 sec; but for purposes of audiometry in industry, тоге particularly for
96 dBA
Number of measured values: protecting people at work against noise: t = 3 sec) is used for determining the
п=6
Average sound level: equivalent continuous level. Worked examples illustrating this method аге given in
't = 96-10 log 6
"ТА Larm".
= 96- 7.8 = 88 dBA (rounded).
If а number of time intervals t; with respective sound levels L; аге considered, the
equivalent continuous sound level Lm for the total measurement time Т (е. g., from
For the assessment of greatly fluctuating sound levels, e.g., traffic noise, the
6 а. т. to 1 О р. т. for daytime measurements, ог from 1 О р. т. to 6 а. т. for
equivalent continuous sound level Lm over the measurement period will have to Ье
measurements at night) is calculated from:
determined. It is based оп the principle that there exists а continuous steady noise
level which is "equivalen(' in its objectionabIe effect ог nuisance effect to the
fluctuating noise and whose level is equal to the acoustic energy теап of the Lm = 10 log Ik Т
---'-·100.1 L,
) (dBA).
fluctuating noise: (
;=1 Т

664 665
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control Technical principles

In the exceptional case where а plant ог piece of machinery causes а sound level L total noise level LG is less than 3 dB above L F , the measurement for determining the
over а period t and the equivalent continuous sound level over а period Т has to Ье level of the noise source to Ье measured саппо! Ье evaluated.
calculated from this, the formula to use is: If the difference between LG and L F is а! least 3 dB, i.e., AL = Lg - LF ;;::: 3 dB, the
following сопесtiоп levels should Ье subtracted:
L'm = 10 log (~'100.1'L) = L-10 log ~ (dBA). difference AL: 3 4 to 5 6 to 8 dB
сопесtiоп level: 3 2 1 dB.

If possibIe, sound immission measurements - i.e., measurements for ascertaining

Worked example:
The теап sound level emitted Ьу а building accommodating а clinker grinding
plant is (in this example) 80dBA. The plant operates only during four night
hours:
t 4 hours
Т 8 hours (night-time assessment period envisaged in the "ТА Larm"
regu lations)
L 80dBA.
The timе-сопесtеd equivalent continuous sound level is then:
8 doubIing of the distance from the source.
L'
m
= 80-1 О log -4 = 80-3 = 11 (dBA).
The above-mentioned relationships сап also Ье used in а case where а noise
source which could по! Ье representatively measured during the time of its
оссuпепсе has to Ье additionally allowed for in the calculation of the equivalent
continuous level, for example: traffic noise оп the site of а сетеп! works to Ье
added to the noise emitted Ьу the works itself.
The equivalent continuous sound level сап comprise а measurement period of апу
length. In order to assess the permissibility of а noise, i. е., whether ог по! it сап Ье
tolerated, it must Ье determined over the entire "assessment period". For noise
affecting adjacent residents this period is usually specified а! 16 hours Ьу day and
а! 8 hours Ьу night ('ТА Larm") ог а! 1 hour (VD 12058, Sheet 1). For purposes of
industrial audiometry (exposure of persons to noise in their place of work) the
period is generally 8 hours (VDI2058, Sheet 2).
А relatively constant noise level need по! Ье measured during the whole of this
assessment period, but only for short lengths of time. The timing and duration of
these measurements аге to Ье so chosen that the result is representative of the
whole period they аге intended to cover.
the degree of nuisance experienced а! particular points - should Ье performed а!
times when extraneous noise levels аге low (e.g., а! night).
The lowest extraneous noise level during the measurement time is called the
background level (VDI2058, Sheet 1). The background noise level L go is that level
which is exceeded during 90% of the measurement time; L 95 is similarly defined.
Quite often the background noise level in the neighbourhood of а сетеп! works
сопеsропdsto the uniform level due to the noise emission from the works itself.
2.1.5 Sound propagation; obstacles
In а free field, sound emitted Ьу а point source travels uniformly in all directions,
i.e., the wavefronts аге spherical, while the sound level decreases Ьу 6dB рег
'П general, with ап increase of distance from г, to Г 2 (in т) the sound level
decreases from L, to L2 , as follows:
1О Г,
L2 = L, +а- log - (dB)
3 Г2
where а = 6 dB for spherical wavefronts spreading uniformly in all directions and
а = 3 dB for cylindrical wavefronts spreading in planes perpendicular to а line
source of infinite length. If the line source is of finite length 1, the wavefronts in the
immediate vicinity of it аге quasi-cylindrical, but approximating тоге and тоге
closely to spherical wavefronts with increasing distance, until а! а distance r = '/п
they сап Ье regarded as virtually spherical.
In hall-typefactory buildingsthe value ofthefactor а is only about 2 to 4 dB. For ап
average absorption coefficient а in the building: а = 20а.
If а noise source is of considerabIe size (e.g., а large machine ог the wall of а
building), the sound radiating surface агеа S will have to Ье taken into account in
calcu lating the decrease in sound level with increasing d istance. The sound level L
а! а distance r (in т) from the source, without considering directivity, is then:

2.1.4 Extraneous noise, background noise 5 2· п' г2

L = L - а - log - - - (d В)
Extraneous noise denotes the noise emitted Ьу sources other than those which r s 3 S
have to Ье measured. The extraneous noise level L F is determined while the source
ог sourcesto Ье measured (in general: machinery ог some kind) аге stopped. Ifthe where Ls denotes the sound level directly in front of the surface S (агеа in т 2 ).

666 667
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control Sources of noise in cement works

The approximate calculation of sound propagation from plane sources (industrial ТаЫе 13: Pressure levels of sound sources in cement works
areas, factory sites) is explained in DIN 18005, Part 1; see also Funke, 1978.
Thedetailed calculation of sound propagation from machinery, plant and buildings sound source measuring sound pressure
сап Ье carried out in accordance with VD12571 and 2714. distance level
Noise attenuation сап Ье achieved with the aid of acoustic screens such as m dBA
walls, buildings, earth embankments, hillocks, etc.
The effectiveness of а screen or barrier wall depends оп its effective screening percussion drilling machines (pneumatic) 1 100-115
height Н, its distance from the noise source and from the point of immission, and rotary drilling machines (pneumatic) 1 90-100
the frequency composition of the noise. The screening effect is greater according rope-operated excavators (diesel) 7 85- 95
as the difference in length between the direct line connecting the sound source to rope-operated excavators (electric) 7 75- 90
the point of immission and the detour path around the obstacle is greater. The hydraulic excavators (diesel) 7 90-100
attenuation achieved Ьу screening сап Ье calculated in accordance with wheel loaders, crawler loaders 7 85-105
D 1N 18005, Part 1, and VD 12571 and 2714. bulldozers, rippers 7 85-105
Attenuation values of 15 to 25 dB due to screening сап Ье obtained in the heavy trucks 7 85- 95
immediate vicinity of а noise source. At greater distances, above about 200 m, the
practically attainabIe noise attenuation Ьу screening is approximately 1 О dB. hammer crushers 1 100-110
In regions with "ореп" building development (residential areas, factory sites) ап iniiJact crushers, impact mills 1 85-100
add itional noise level reduction of 5 to 1 О d В per 100 m of such development tube mills 1 100-115
traversed Ьу the sound сап Ье assumed (О 1N 18005, Part 1). For the calcu lation of roller mills 1 90-105
sound attenuation in the downwind direction under conditions of temperature mill drives 1 90-105
inversion, however, the presence of buildings is not taken into account except screening machines 1 95-115
when they оссш in а built-up area exceeding ап arc of 5 km radius. planetary coolers 4 80-105
As а general rule, the low frequencies of а noise are much less effectively screened rotary coolers 1 80- 90
Ьу acoustic obstacles than are the medium and high frequencies. kiln firing systems (kiln hood) 1 90-100
Dense forest or high and dense shrubbery of considerabIe depth сап reduce the rotary kiln drives 1 85- 95
sound level Ьу scattering and absorption. The attenuation due to such vegetation gas pre'ssure reducing plants 1 95-100
сап Ье calculated from: natural gas pipelines 1 85- 95
fans, intake or discharge 1 95-125
AL w = 0.01 vт (dB per m),
fans, casings 1 75-105
where the frequency f is in Hz. The attenuation is here, too, greatly restricted in the rotary piston bIowers 1 100-120
downwind direction if there is appreciabIe wind and temperature inversion (arc of reciprocating piston compressors 1 95-11 О
5 km radius). rotary compressors, screw compressors 1 100-120
Sparsely distributed trees, bushes, hedgerows, etc. have very little sound- water pumps 1 85- 95
attenuating effect. drives of conveyors 1 80- 95
bucket elevators (sheet-steel casings) 1 85- 95
2.2 Sources of noise in cement works rubber-belt conveyors 1 65- 80
ТаЫе 13 lists the principle sources of noise in cement works (VDI2714, Sheet 1 ; vibratory conveyors 1 85-100
Techn. MerkbIatt, Bundesverband der Deutschen Kalkindustrie, 1975) with the chutes for materials 1 85-11 О
sound pressure levels associated with them. The actual values depend more belt conveyor transfer points 1 90-105
particularly оп the nature, size and capacity of the machines and оп the their packing machines 1 75- 85
running speed, pressure rise developed, feed material and other factors signif- automatic palletizers 1 80- 90
icantly affecting noise emission. The figures given in the tabIe comprise the actual bulk carrier vehicles 7 80- 90
machinery noise as well as апу working noise emitted in connection with them. lift trucks (diesel) 7 80- 90
Frequency spectra for individual noise sources are given in the literature (see lift trucks (electric, gas) 7 60- 75
Funke, 1969, 1973, 1977 and 1978).

668 669

2.3.1 Basic measures
Primary noise control comprises measures for dealing with noise at the source:
suppression or modification of causes and reduction of sound emission and
transmission Where such measures are inadequate for the purpose, they must Ье
supplemented Ьу secondary noise control, which strives to prevent or reduce
sound propagation.
The following are some basic points and considerations relating to noise
control:
Choose machinery and methods that emit the least possibIe noise.
Apply appropriate design measures to ensure most favourabIe location of noise
sources in relation to immission points.
Apply the principle of concentration of noise sources.
If possibIe, begin Ьу reducing the noise source that determines the noise level
at the relevant immission point.
Reduce impulse noises, individual tones and high-frequency noise com-
ponents.
Apply secondary noise control measures (e.g., acoustic screening) as close to
the source of noise as possibIe.
Combine noise control measures with measures and precautions to promote
safety, clean air, thermal insulation, vibration insulation, etc.
Avoid carrying out noisy industrial or other activities at night.
At the same time, some obvious plant operational requirements will have to Ье
satisfied Thus noise control measures must not·
present а hazard (explosion, fire, accident);
- impede plant operation, accessibility and maintenance,
- obstruct heat dissipation and gas discharge.
Furthеrmощ in connection with noise control measures it is necessary to take
account of the additional space requirements involved and also of such matters as
strength, durability (е. g., corrosion protection), wear and possibIe choking of
sound attenuating devices, which would thus become ineffective.
The various availabIe measures for reducing noise generation and transmission and
for restricting the noise radiated from machinery and other installations are
reviewed in VD12570. The arrangements which are of most importance in cement
manufacture, and have Ьееп duly put to the test in actual practice, will Ье briefly
described below.
2.3.2 Taking account of noise control at the plant design stage
In addition tothe points indicated in Section 2.3.1, thefollowing aspectsshould Ье
given due consideration in connection with cement works planning:
The significance of the cement works as а possibIe source of noise nuisance
in connection with the planning of adjacent new residential areas and with
regional or 'осаl development plans.
670
rp.~:irtl~n1·!=: as possibIe.
Screening of noise sources Ьу the interposition of buildings (е. g., silo
installations forming а closed continuous barrier).
Installing noisy machines in closed buildings.
Avoiding апу noise sources mounted at considerabIe height above ground
level.
Restricting the number of doors, windows and ventilation openings in the
buildings to the essential minimum; also, the doors, etc. should if possibIe Ье
located оп the side facing away from the adjacent residents, taking due
account of sound reflection from the walls of апу other buildings at the rear.
For the environmental comfort of plant operating personnel, the control rooms
should adequately sound-insulated.
2.3.3 Measures and precautions for machinery
Reduction of structure-borne noise propagation: Separation of machinery from
the foundation of the building Ьу means of joints filled with vibration-isolating
material and sealed against ingress of dirt. Elastic elements such as rubber pads,
rubber seals, sleeves, plastic elements. Avoidance of structural sound bridges
along which noise сап Ье transmitted; resilient mounting of sheet-metal parts.
Spring elements for reducing structure-borne sound transmission in the low range
of frequencies. For other vibration-isolating elements see VD12062, Sheet 2.
Emission of structure-borne noise from surfaces сап Ье suppressed Ьу making
these of flexibIe construction. Using materials with high internal damping.
Applying anti-drumming or sound-absorbing facing layers.
Low-noise design precision manufacture: High ассшасу of machining and
surface finish for machinery parts revolving against опе another, to ensure quiet
running. Rotating masses should Ье properly balanced. Power transmission to Ье
effected through acoustically favourabIe devices such as flexibIe couplings or fluid
couplings. Use of helical gears with low moduli. Choice of gear combinations in
which опе of апу pair of gear wheels consists of material possessing high internal
damping. Quiet-running bearings should Ье used (е. g., plain bearings are
generally quieter than antifriction bearings), with minimal play. Rattling parts
should Ье fixed. Cast-iron housings less noisy than welded ones. Stiffening ribs оп
sheet-metal panels. Good alignment of gear stages. No holes in flywheels and belt
pulleys (such holes are liabIe to cause high-pitched whine).
Electric motors: Motors with low speeds are preferabIe. Big motors to Ье water-
cooled rather than air-cooled. Direct drive Ьу four-pole or variabIe-sрееd motors.
Choose motor types with low noise emission. Fan bIading to have irregular pitch. If
necessary, motor enclosure to Ье provided with special silenced ventilation.
Internal combustion engines (е. g., for driving quarry machinery)' Exhaust noise
сап Ье reduced Ьу using amply dimensioned absorption and reflection silencers.
Enclosure of the engine with ventilation system equipped with inlet and outlet
silencers and ducts lined with sound-absorbing material (see Funke, 1977).
671
 Fans: Small impeller clearances. Speed control. Main frequency сап Ье modified
Ьу favourabIe choice of speed and number of bIades. Acoustic insulation of casing
walls. Enclosure of the whole fan and its drive. Silencers in the intake and exhaust
ducts. Vibration-isolated mounting (see also VD12081).
Compressors, pumps: Vibration-isolated mounting in enclosed soundproofed
rooms. Machines preferabIy separated from опе another Ьу partitions ог with
individual enclosures. Ventilation ог air intake openings of such rooms should have
louvred sound attenuators. Intake and outlet silencers for the compressors.
Pressure pipelines to have sound-damping expansion joints and acoustically
sealed wall inlets. Pressure release pipelines to have silencers. Additional sound
insulation for compressed air pipelines to suppress rushing noises. Sound-
insulated enclosed portabIe compressors represent the current "state of the аг(' for
use in quarrying operations.
Crushers: Installation in enclosed sound-insulated buildings, preferabIy below
floor level. Ореп side of building facing away from adjacent residents, if possibIe.
Receiving hopper for stone tipped from trucks to have rubber lining and,
preferabIy, а "cushioning" layer of material kept permanently in it. Soundproofed
control саЬ for operating personnel.
MiIIs: Acoustic enclosure of the mill shell obstructs heat dissipation and makes
inspection difficult, i. е., is not satisfactory. Boltless liner plates оп rubber backing,
ог rubber liners, do not sufficiently reduce noise emission. А commonly employed
and generally satisfactory solution is as follows: Whole grinding plant with all its
noise sources (mill, drive, air separator, conveyors, elevators, filters, etc.) accom-
modated in а closed sound-insulated building with central control room for
operators and with additional ventilation (see Funke, 1969 and 1973, Techr).
MerkbIatt, Bundesverband der Deutschen Kalkindustrie, 1975).
P/anetary coo/ers Acoustic screening wall with ventilation openings; ог fixed
enclosure with ventilating fans, ог movabIe enclosure around noisiest part of the
cooler, provided (if necessary) with coo/ing fans if по water spraying system for
cooling the tubes is installed. А more radical solution is to accommodate the whole
kiln and planetary cooler in а closed sound-insulated building with air intake fans
and with exhaust air outlets provided with sound attenuators (silencers) (see
Funke, 1973).
Grate coo/ers: Sound insulation of the fan casings. Sound attenuators in the intake
openingsofthecooling airfans.lnstalling thefans belowfloor level and drawing in
the cooling air through openings fitted with louvre-type sound attenuators.
Primary а;' fans: Sound- insu lated enclosure of the fan. Sound attenuators in the air
intakes.
Кi/n hood (flame noise): Hood to Ье sealed as effectively as possibIe. Annular
cover to close gap at outlet end seal. Sound insulation of fans пеаг the kiln outlet
and firing platform, just as for primary air fan.
Fue/ oi/ pumps: Pumps installed in closed sound-insulated room ог in ап acoustic
enclosure with insulated openings for the passage of pipes and controls (see VDI
Code 2711).
672
Gas pressure reducing stations andpipe/ines: Closed sound - insu lated bu ild ings ог
acoustic enclosures. Sound-insulating lagging around pipelines. Sound at-
tenuators in the pipes. Acoustic covers over valves.
Rotary ki/n drives: Acoustic screening walls ог acoustic enclosures with sound-
absorbing linings, thermally insulated against kiln heat (if necessary) and with
additional ventilation.
Materia/ hand/ing devices (conveyors, elevators): Acoustic enclosures for the
drives. Shafts for bucket elevators built of concrete. Slow-running belt bucket
elevators. Enclosure of squeaky chain conveyors ог Redler conveyors. Belt
conveyors: low belt speeds (below 1.5 m/sec); well-balanced rollers and efficient
belt cleaners; low-noise bearings; if necessary, enclosure of entire belt in а closed
duct ог tunnel; rubber pad mountings for idlers in order to intercept structure-
Ьогпе noise; /arge roller diameters; rubber-covered rollers not very effective. Entry
points of belt conveyors into buildings (е. g., mill buildings) to Ье properly sealed
against noise escape. If necessary, acoustic lock consisting of а sheet-metal
tunnel, several metres in length, with sound-absorbing lining.
Screening machines: Screen decks of rubber ог plastic. Flat screens instead of
rotary ones. If necessary, screening machine to Ье completely enclosed, with
access doors and inspection openings.
PortabIe machines: For noise control of internal combustion engines see above.
Hydraulic pumps to Ье enclosed. Drivers' ог operators' cabs to Ье separate, sound-
insulated and оп vibration-isolating mountings; adequate ventilation essential.
Bodies of dump trucks to rubber-lined in order to reduce impact noise caused Ьу
stone ог other material during loading.
Dri//ing machines (rock drills in quarry): Acoustic enclosure of drive units and
hydraulic equipment, as оп compressors used оп construction sites. Noise-
suppression covers and si/encers for exhaust air outlets of hammer drills. Sound-
insulated control cabs (see Funke, 1973).
Avoidance of impact sound emission: Reduction of impact intensity Ьу reducing
the heights of fall of bulk materials. Using construction materials with high internal
damping capacity, е. g., rubber and plastics. Walls to Ье of rigid (non-vibrating)
construction. Avoid vertical impact. Chutes and vertical ducts for solids to Ье
provided with wear-resistant linings, ог linings made of rubber ог plastic in
appropriate cases (по rapping necessary to assist movement). "Cushioning" to Ье
provided Ьу the handled material itself at transfer points, in hoppers, etc.
Reduction ofrushing noise in pipes, etc.: Avoidance of small radii of curvature and
abrupt cross-sectional changes in pipelines and ducts. Low circumferential
velocities of fan impellers and rotors in electric motors. Avoidance of supercritical
expansion ratios, e.g., due to pressure release at control valves.
Exhaust pipes and stacks: Should Ье installed in acoustically screened parts of
buildings, but with due regard to possibIe sound reflection from adjacent wall
surfaces. Installing sound attenuators which аге unaffected Ьу dirt ог сап easily Ье
cleaned (see Funke, 1973). Cowls оп stacks and chimneys to Ье designed as
acoustic deflector cowls, if possibIe.
673
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control Noise abatement

Machinery enclosures: Walls of acoustic enclosures should consist of heavy but

designation of overall weight per sound
flexibIe panels lined internally with sound-absorbing material. Adequate venti-
building component thickness unit area reduction
lation, demountability of the enclosure for repairs, and arrangements for operating
тт kg/m 2 index R dB
and/or observing the machine to Ье provided. If hot gas fans are acoustically
enclosed, the surface of the fan casing should additionally Ье heat-insulated. For
information оп design and performance of enclosures for noise control see pumice concrete hollow bIocks, 17 245 45
VD12711. plastered both sides 25 290 50
pumice concrete solid bIocks, 12 145 14
plastered both sides 12 205 45
2.3.4 Sound-insulated buildings
gas concrete floor slabs 240 160 45
The requisite measures associated with the sound insulation of buildings, more prestressed concrete hollow planks 120 220 49
particularly those for grinding mills, have Ьееп fully described in the literature pumice concrete hollow plans 120 185 49
(see Funke, 1969 and 1973; Techn. MerkbIatt, Bundesverband der Deutschen 1 тт sheet steel (flat) 1 8 25
Kalkindustrie, 1975). ТаЫе 14 gives the average sound reduction indexes (trans- 1 тт sheet steel (trapezoidal section) 45 11 26
mission losses) for the principal construction materials for walls and roofs as а 1 тт sheet steel (doubIe 190 22 35
function of their weight per unit area, for frequencies in the range from 100 to trapezoidal section)
3150 Hz. ТаЫе 15 gives sound reduction indexes for doors and windows. These тт sheet steel (trapezoidal) 120 32
values are applicabIe always оп condition that the wall is completely closed and with mineral fibre boards
free from cracks. The sound insulation of walls with pores сап Ье improved Ьу тт sheet steel (doubIe trapezoidal) 190 41
plastering or rendering. ОП non-porous walls the plaster coating merely соп­ with mineral fibre boarde
tributes to the sound deadening effect Ьу its weight. two 1.5 тт sheet steel panels with 60 40
Walls which, for whatever reason, do not present а fully closed surface often have rigid foam plastic filling
sound reduction indexes of less than 30dB (see VDI2571). roof covering with 2.4 ст wood 3 19 30
Sound levels in rooms сап Ье lowered Ьу up to 10dB Ьу means of sound- particle boards and two layers
absorbing linings. However, such linings applied to walls and ceilings in mill of roofing felt
buildings have only little effect (Iess than 3 dB reduction in ievei). timber roof with bracing members 115 14.5 27
(25 тт thick)
corrugated asbestos cement (6 тт) 55 12.5 19
ТаЫе 14: Average sound reduction indexes for wall and floor соп­ corrugated asbestos cement (6 тт) 330 28
struction materials with mineral wool boards
wood particle boards (chipboards) 36 20 28
designation of overall weight per sound wood particle boards (chipboards) 16 10 24
building component thickness unit area reduction
тт kg/m 2 index R dB

reinforced concrete slabs 4 95 37 glazing

7 170 42 building glass 3.5 9 30
10 230 47 thick sheet glass 6 14 32
12 300 50 laminated safety glass 8 19 35
15 350 52 solar heat rejecting glazing 20 19 35
18 430 54 with two 4 тт panes
solid bricks, plastered both sides 7 170 42 glass building bIocks DIN 18175
12 260 48 size 11 .5 ст х 24 ст 5 80 37
24 480 55 size 24 ст х 24 ст 8 100 39
sand-lime bricks, plastered 12 260 48 size 30 ст х 30 ст 10 125 41
both sides 24 480 55
675
674
Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise control Noise abatement

ТаЫе 15: Average sound reduction indexes for doors and windows Luftaustritt (lаЬуппthагt,g)
air outlet(labyrinth-type) ~

sound reduction index dB

Schnitt А t t
-8

ordinary inner door (timber) 15-22

sесtlOг--!"
(~\
heavy door with rebated jambs (timber) 25-30
r-------,
special sound-attenuating door (timber) 30-40 I I
I I
doubIe-lеаf sheet-steel special door 35-50 ~-----)
----1 г--l Г--l
'--_.../
with rebated jambs I ~---} ~---}
two ordinary timer doors, опе behind the other 35-45
i \'v/ \'v/
I ~----------
ordinary window 20-25 I I
I I
composite window 25-30 ~----------------~
box-type doubIe window 30-40 I
I ,.. ~ II
I
:
-R--------P,-I
L~
ГL_-'JI с=]
~J_J_I~__~

2.3.5 Ventilation of buildings

AII buildings which have to Ье of closed construction for purposes of noise control
will require suitabIe ventilation arrangements more particularly if they ассот­ Fig.18: Natural ventilation of а mill house
modate machinery which gives off heat.
The heat flow to Ье removed from the building with the flow of spent ventilating
air is calculated as the difference between the heat input (е. g., the thermal Luftaustritt uber SchaHdampfer
equivalent of the electric power absorbed Ьу the mill drive motors) and the heat alr outlet through sound attenuator
removed through other media (е. g, heat content of the mill product discharged
from the building). The required cooling air flow rate сап Ье calculated according
to Funke/Keienburg/Sillem (1975).
For buildings of the size nowadays usually employed, ап approximate guiding
value is between 2.8 and 5.5 m З per kW of installed drive power, with between 5
and 15 air changes per hour in order to keep the temperature in the upper part of
г-----,

I
~-----1
I
J\
the building below about 400 С in summer (see Funke, 1973). ' - __ -J
For mill buildings constructed in recent years the following three systems of
cooling have Ьееп found effective:
(1) Natural ventilation with air outlets оп the roof (Fig. 18). For maximum
permissibIe air velocities of 1 - 2 m/sec the cross-sectional areas of the
openings have to Ье quite large. Noise emission from them сап Ье reduced Ьу
20-40dВ Ьу means of labyrinth-type or louvre-type attenuators.
(2) Forced-draught artificial ventilation Ьу fans which force cooling air through
ducts into the mill building. The fans are equipped with air intake sound
attenuators. The heated air rises in the building and escapes into the
atmosphere through outlets which likewise have attenuators (Fig.19).
(3) Induced-draught artificial ventilation Ьу axial-flow fans mounted оп the roof
and fitted with sound attenuators оп their outlets. The air for cooling the
interior of the building enters through openings at the base, these likewise Fig. 19: Forced-draught ventilation of а mШ building: air bIown in Ьу
being provided with attenuators (Fig. 20). fans

676 677
 Н. 1. Environmental protection 2 Noise

r--
i
A
Luftаustпtt uber Schalldi:Impfer
air outlet through sound attenuator
environment. Jf ап assessment level of 85dBA is exceeded, the employer is
required to provide his workers with personal protective devices (e.g., еаг muffs);
for а level of 90dBA ог higher the workers аге obIiged to wear these devices.
Noise zones in which the assessment level of 90dBA (average value рег working
shift) is reached ог exceeded must Ье indicated Ьу means of special symbols
displayed in the factory.
Iп clause 15 of the statutory regulations relating to places of work (Verordnung
----1 Г--j Г--l
иЬег Arbeitsstatten, 1975) the following maximum values for the reference noise
i ~---1 ~---7 level in the working environment аге laid down:
: \у/ \у/
I г----------
(1) for predominantly mental work 55 dBA
J I (2) for simple ог predominantly mechanical office work 70 dBA
~----------------~ and similar activities
I I
1 (3) for other activities 85 dBA.

[] [_~]
I

i
I
~~==~==~==J~! 'П off-duty staff rooms, rest rooms and first-aid rooms the assessment level must
not exceed 55dBA. For calculating the assessment level, апу extraneous noise
from outside the building should in principle Ье taken into account.

Fig. 20: Induced-draught ventilation of а mill building: air extracted Ьу
fans
Air inlet and outlet openings, as well as openings in intermediate floors and
p~rtitions sh~uld Ье so dimensioned and located that thorough ventilation of the
mll! room, drlve machinery room and апу оНlег parts of the building from which
heat has to Ье removed is duly ensured.
!n.determining the dimensions ofthe air intake openings ог the capacity ofthe fans,
~t IS necessary t.o take account also of the amounts of air extracted from the plant Ьу
ItS dust соllесtlПg system and апу cooling air that may additionally Ье required for
the mill drive.
The ~ir inlets and outlets of the building, as well as the intake and discharge
openlngs of the fans, should Ье provided with suitabIe sound attenuators
(silencers) (see Funke, 1973).
Air extractors with wind baffles so designed as to produce additional suction at the
outfet, thus inducing а draught of air, have proved very suitabIe for the removal of
warm air from buildings.
2.4 Noise in the working environment
5ее VGB 121, 1974; VDI 2058, 5heet2.
Prolonged exposure of people to excessively high noise levefs is liabIe to damage
their hearing.
The German regulations for the prevention of noise injury, embodied in the
document known as VGB (1974), make it obIigatory upon industrial undertakings
to take appropriate measures for noise control in their employees' working
678
2.4.1 Protective measures
Besides the basic general rule of only using machines designed and/or acoustically
insulated ог encfosed to as to emit the least possibIe noise, there often exist
opportunities of reducing objectionabIe ог harmful noise levels in а working
environment Ьу organizational modifications in the factory. The primary
object should Ье to keep down to а minimum the number of persons engaged in
duties in very noisy surroundings. The following measures сап help to achieve
this:
Ancillary activities which do not necessarily have to take place in high-noise
areas - е. g., cleaning, maintenance and repair of removabIe components,
packing operations, production preparations, etc. - should Ье carried out in
quieter surroundings.
Noisy machines should Ье accommodated in different rooms from quieter
ones. 5pecial acoustic enclosures for machinery with particularly high noise
emission levels.
Remote control of sound-insulated ог enclosed machinery from а control
centre.
Reduction of exposure time to high noise levels Ьу changes of personnel at
certain intervals. Periods of duty under high-noise conditions to alternate with
periods in quieter surroundings where the assessment level is not above
75dBA.
50 far as process engineering requirements allow, high-noise activities should not
take pface in the evening and night hours. Furthermore, at such times, doors and
windows of buildings containing noisy machinery ог equipment should Ье kept
closed, if possibIe, in order to reduce noise emission. Also, if starting of machinery
temporarily causes high noise ievels, this should Ье avoided at such times.
679
Н. 1. Environmental protection 3 Ground vibrations due to bIasting
2.4.2 Personal protection against noise
See VDI 2560.
Personal protective measures include more particularly:
Acoustic cabins and booths for machine operators or supervisors. Such
enclosures should achieve а sound level reduction of between 20 and 30dB
and Ье adequately ventilated; air conditioning may also Ье necessary. They are
often of demountabIe construction, so that they сап conveniently Ье removed
and reassembIed where and when required. Suppliers of acoustic cabins, etc.
are listed in the pubIication LSI 01 -200 (1977).
Screens or partial enclosures protecting the immediate working environment.
Such measures achieve sound level reductions of less than 15 dB.
Individual ear protectors: sound-absorbing cotton wool, ear plugs, ear muffs,
acoustic helmets, etc. VDI2560 "Personal hearing protection" gives infor-
mation оп аll matters relating to the subject. А review of types, а list of suppliers
and particulars of equipment are given in LSI 01-830 (1978).
2.5 Guarantee conditions for noise control measures
Suggestions for tendering, ordering and guarantee agreements are given in
Appendix D of VD12570 "Noise abatement in factories". Further information оп
these matters is contained in the Technicallnformation Note "Noise abatement in
the works of the lime industry" (Technisches MerkbIatt, Bundesverband der
Deutschen Kalkindustrie, 1975) and the Code SEB 905003-63 (1963).
з Ground vibrations due to bIasting
3.1 Origin and properties of ground vibrations
See Thum (1978).
The energy which is released in bIasting operations сапiеd out in cement works'
quапiеs is consumed more particularly for loosening, dislodging, breaking up and
hurling away the rock. Part of this energy is inevitabIy transmitted to the
suпоuпdiпg rock and is propagated through it in the form of elastic waves which
are experienced as "ground vibrations" or "shocks".
Besides the detonation impact and the pressure developed Ьу the gases formed in
the explosion, other phenomena may play а part, е. g., sudden pressure relief in the
sшrоuпdiпg rock, the initiation of additional stresses in it, and the impact due to tlle
fall of dislodged rock masses.
The velocity of propagation of the waves through the subsoil will depend оп
the elastic properties thereof (ТаЫе 16).
The actual ground motion due to bIasting vibrations lasts for about опе second.
The form and behaviour of the oscillations are governed Ьу the type and size of the
explosive charges, the transmitting and damping properties of the soil, and the
680
Measurement and assessment of ground vibrations
ТаЫе 16: Propagation velocity of elastic waves in the subsoil
propagation
type of soil or rock
velocity
sand, gravel, loam in ground-water 1000-1500
moraine, slate, soft limestone 2000-3000
hard limestone, quartzitic sandstone, 4500-6000
gneiss, granite, diabase
distance from the site of bIasting. It attains its largest value at the surface of the
ground because here the soil particles have the greatest freedom to oscillate.
А distinction is to Ье drawn between "body waves" (а seismological term
comprising pressure waves and shear waves), whic~ are ?f major"importance ov~r
short distances (up to about 100 m) from the ехрlоsюп slte, and surface waves ,
which travel over appreciabIy longer distances before dying away. Depending оп
the soil conditions these respective types of wave may have different amplitudes,
frequencies and p'ropagation velocities, so that they will not necessarily arrive
simultaneously at the point of observation.
The frequencies of the vibrations depend more particularly оп the n.ature of the
subsoil. Compact and solid rock has only а low dаmрlПg capaclty, an~ the
frequencies are relatively high (20 to 60 Hz). Asubsoil which.is less strong or IS ofa
more yielding or plastic nature will develop а greater dаmРlПg effect, so that the
vibration frequencies are lower (5 to 20 Hz).
3.2 Measurement and assessment of ground vibrations
See DIN 4150, Preliminary Standard. . .
The most suitabIe measurabIe quantity for recording the ground VIЬrаtюп
phenomena in а seismogram is the velocity of vibration. The following relation-
ships are valid:
v velocity of vibration (mm/sec) = 2п . f· а
Ь acceleration of vibration (mm/sec 2) = 4п' f2. а,
where f is the frequency (sec- 1 ) and а the amplitude (mm).
According to DIN 4150, Part3, "Vibrations in structural e~ginee~ing", the criterion
for assessing the effect of ground vibrations оп buildi~gs IS provlded Ьу ~he largest
peak value of the resultant vibration velocity occumng at the foundatlOn ~f the
building. More particularly, this is the resultant of the three mutually perpendlcular
velocity components Vx ' v y and Vz :
681
 Ways and means of reducing the vibrations
Н. 1. Environmental protection 3 Ground vibrations due to bIasting

The maximum values of the three velocity components usually do not occur where:
simultaneously. However, as а simplifying approximation, ап "equivalent ге­ v vibration velocity in mm/sec .
sultant" is calculated from the three maximum values: L = explosive charge per firing interv.al In kg .
d = distance from bIasting site to РОlПt of measurement In m
С, = proportionality constant. .
veqR = VA2
V х + vА2у + vА2z.
The following variants of the above formula give тоге accurate results ,п some

This approximation is оп the safe side, as V eQR is always at least equal to, ог larger cases:
than, the actual vibration velocity resultant О А • LЗ/4 L2 / З
For the measurement and assessment of the effects of ground vibrations due to V ~ С .- - or v ~ С З --о
bIasting оп buildings (see DIN 4150, Part3), the vibration pickups (transducers) 2 d2 d
for the three mutually perpendicular velocity components are installed in or оп the . С ( С 0Г С) has Ьееп determined in а given
foundation of the building ог otherwise in the wall as close above ground level as When the proportionallty constant , ог 2 .з t d with several bIasting oper-
possibIe and preferabIy оп the side facing the bIasting site. situation preferabIy from measurements assocla е .'
Measurements for assessing the effects of these vibrations upon human beings ations, H~e vibration velocity .for charges of v~riousdsiz~~ha~~eata~~rl~~st~~st:~~~:
inside buildings (see DIN 4150, Part2) аге usually performed with the vertical from the point of оЬsегvаtюп сап Ье estlmate WI
vibration pickup installed оп the floor in the middle of the roот under in-
vestigation. The horizontal components should Ье measured Ьу pickups installed
~o~~Url:I~;"inary approximate assessments а factor К. is substituted in lieu ~f the
pro:ortionality constant. Some typical values for thls factor аге as follows.
in ог close to the walls of the гоот (е. g., in door or window recesses in these
walls). The largest value measured in the vertical ог the horizontal direction is to Ье factor К
adopted as the significant quantity for the evaluation. The effect of ground type of rock
vibrations оп people is assessed with the so-called "perceived strength", а shell limestone 120
dimensionless value which is calculated from the peak value of the vibration limestone 80
velocity and the frequency of the vibration under assessment. basalt 60
The values calculated in this way are compared with the guide values for the effects та(1 50. ..
of bIasting vibrations оп buildingsand оп peoplegiven in DIN 4150, Parts2 and 3. The magnitude of К decreases with increasing distance, because th~ pr?:ab,II~~~
These guide values аге graded according to the type of building, its structural cracks and fissures in the rock increases. Sometimes, ~o Ье оп the .sa '~I~I :~~I~~ive
condition and the region in which the building is located. of 150 is adopted for К in calculating the maXlmum permlssl
charge.

3.3 Prediction of ground vibration intensities

3.4 Ways and means of reducing the vibrations
Various factors significantly affect the intensity of the vibrations produced Ьу
underground explosions due to bIasting, e.g., the charge fired рег firing interval Some ossibIe measures for reducing the ground vibrations associated with
and the overall charge of explosive, the stemming, the burden and the bIasthole bIastin~ in quarries are listed below. Which of these mea~ur~s. сап and should Ье
spacing, the method of firing, the nature of the surrounding rock, the soil adopted will depend оп the aspects presented Ьу each Indlvldua\ case.
cond itions along the transm ission path of the v ibration waves, the type of bu iId i ng,
its foundations, etc. Although а considerabIe amount of experience has Ьееп
3.4.1 Measures relating to quarrying procedure.
gained and much information relating to these matters has Ьееп collected in recent
years, it is not yet possibIe to make sufficiently accurate predictions of the intensity changing the direction of quarrying advance;
of the vibrations. As а ru 'е, it is necessary to rely оп measurements of the vibrations reducing the height of the faces; . . .., .
that actually оссш. not bIasting below ground-water and not еmрlОУlПg.botto~ Inltl.at~~, .
In the immediate vicinity of quarry bIasting sites (within а radius of а few hundred keeping certain minimum distances between bIastlng ап nelg ourlng
metres) the following approximate relationship has often proved reasonabIy valid: property liabIe to Ье affected; ( ·ы with
instead of bIasting, using rippers to loosen and break up the rock POSSI У
v=c.
,
VC
d' some supplementary bIasti ng).
683
682

Н. 1. Environmental protection 3 Ground vibrations due to bIasting
3.4.2 Measures relating to bIasting technique:
us~ng large-hole bIasting technique;
~Sl~~ electric milli.second delay detonators (20 ог 30 ms);
1~~ltJng the quantl~y 01 ex~losive рег hole and рег bIast;
11rlng .each hole wlth опе 11ring interval;
reduc~ng the number 01 holes ог the amount 01 rock pile рег bIast·
reducl~g the burden and bIasthole spacing; , produced: for example, under free sound propagation conditions, а level of
ch~ngJng. over to smaller bIasthole diameters;
uSlng а. hlgher-~trength explosive in the bottom part 01 the hol .
empl?~I~g speclal bIasting methods with horizontal holes' es,
subdlv~dJng eac.h bI~sthole into several charges separated Ьу intermediate
stemmJng and 11red In succession Ьу delay detonators'
0hnel bIastdhole to ~e gi~en а smaller burden and smaller'charge than the other
о es ап to Ье 11red 1lrst.
The above-~ention~d measures cannot always Ье applied. Also the degree 01
succ~~s achleved wlth them is likely to vary greatly 1гот опе s~t 01 uar in
~~;~~t~onsto another. Other measures аге
described in the literature (s~e T~um~
3.5 Other environmentally objectionabIe emissions from quarrying
See Funke (1977). When ~he explosive charges аге 1ired, dust тау Ье emitted
1roт the bIastholes. Als.o, wlth dry rock а cloud 01 dust will Ье thrown up Ьу heavil
1ragmented гoc~ crashlng down onto the quarry 1100г. у It is important not to саггу out bIasting at night, пог during the daily rest periods in
Dan.ger 1гот 11Ylng fragments ОТ rock тау occur In the 101l0wing circumstances:
- 11 tdhe bur?en is too small ог i1 а borehole "wanders off course" during drilling
~п termlnates too close to the face;
lПаd~еrtепt det?nation of misfired charges (е. g., when toes which have
~emaJned s.ta.ndlng have to Ье removed Ьу secondary drilling and bIastin ).
JnedxPbert ddГllllПg
and charging of secondary holes for the fragmentation of t~e~
ап oul ers.
La~ge b~uld~rs wh.ich cannot Ье directly accepted Ьу the crusher have to Ье
ге uced IП SIZ~. Thls сап Ье done Ьу bIasting ог Ьу mechanical means е Ь
means of speclal hammers ог Ьу the drop-ball method. ' .g., у
Оп~ secondary b~asting method for dealing with boulders is "mud-ca in" in
Whl~h the exploslve ch~r~e
is applied to the sur1ace 01 the boulder. T~~isgn~t а
gO? me~hod because It Involves а higher risk 01 flying rock fragments besides
beJn~ nOlsy. Instead, hol~s should .b~ drilled into the boulder and Ье char~ed with
onl~ J~st enough exploslve to spllt It. А fairly low-strength explosive should Ье
~~~eгe~.Г the purpose, and the detonators and detonating 1use adequately
Hydra~lically powe.red roc.k breakers mounted оп excavators аге often of опl
гa~eг 11~lted.capaclty.Besldes, it has hitherto not proved possibIe satisfactorily t~
ге (uce ~ е ~19h levels 01 noise emitted Ьу these devices with their hammering
ас юп, ut urther development is likely to achieve improvements.
684
Other environmentally objectionabIe emissions from quarrying
Secondary bIasting operations should preferabIy Ье carried out in parts 01 the
quarry which аге acoustically screened from adjacent residential buildings.
Besides, they should Ье confined to certain hours ofthe day, with suitabIe intervals
of quiet between operations.
When the explosive charge in а borehole is detonated, the detonation shock not
only sets up waves in the surrounding rock, but also produces vibrations in the air
which аге emitted as airborne sound. ConsiderabIe sound pressure levels аге
11 О dBA was measured at а distance of about 11 0-120 m from а large-hole bIast.
Even higher levels тау occur with secondary bIasting, especially i1 the mud-
capping method is used. The noise emission from lare-hole bIasting operations сап
Ье reduced тоге particularly Ьу appropriate technical measures, e.g., Ьу bottom
initiation of the holes (with electric detonators), reducing the charge рег hole,
stemming the top part of the holes, etc. With these precautions, the bIast does not
produce а sharp bang, but а dull muffled noise because detonation is achieved
under completely enclosed conditions and the gases evolved Ьу the explosion аге
released into the atmosphere only after dislodgment 01 the rock burden, Ьу which
time they have largely expanded. With toe drilling, the charges аге covered with а
60-80ст thick layer 01 sand, which not only mu1fles the detonation, but also
reduces the danger from flying fragments 01 rock.
With large-hole bIasting, the maximum of the noise emitted is in the low frequency
range, between about 50 and 500 Hz. ОП the other hand, secondary bIasting often
produces а very objectionabIe bang with its maximum in the strongly audibIe
1requency range of between about 500 and 2000 Hz (see Funke, 1978).
the morning, afternoon and evening. As 1аг as possibIe, bIasting should Ье
programmed to take place at certain times 01 the day and the neighbouring
residents Ье in10rmed 01 these. This is desirabIe because sudden unexpected noise
is experienced as especially objectionabIe.
References
1. Batel, W.: Entstaubungstechnik. - Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-
Verlag 1972.
2. Bergmann, L.: Berechnung der spezi1ischen Filter11achenbelastung fur
Schlauch1ilter mit Druckluftabreinigung. - 'п: Verfahrenstechnik 10/
1976/Nr.2.
3. Berz, W. М. / Maus, W.: Entwicklungsstand des Schuttschichtfilters. - 'п:
ZKG 30/1977/4 - 7.
4. Bundesverband der Deutschen Kalkindustrie (Hrsg.): Technisches MerkbIatt
"Gerauschminderung in den Werken der Kalkindustrie", 1975. - Bundesver-
band der Deutschen Kalkindustrie, Annastrar.,e 67 - 71, 5000 КЫП 51.
5. Deutsch, W.: 'п: Апп. Phys. Bd. 68/1922/343.
6. Duda, W. Н.: Cement-Data-Book, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin:
Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
685

Н. 1. Environmental protection
7. Funke,G.: Beispiele zur Larmminderung in Zementwerken. 'п: ZKG
22/1969/505- 512.
8. Funke,G.: Minderung von Arbeitslarm in Zementwerken. In: ZKG
26/1973/441 -447.
9. Funke, G.: Gerausche und ihre Minderung in den Steinbruchen der Zement-
und Kalkindustrie. - 'п: ZKG 30/1977/11 -18.
10. Funke, G.: Aus der Praxis der Gerauschmessungen bei Zement- und Kalk-
werken. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/340-348.
11. Funke, G. / Keienburg, R./ Sillem, Н.: LUftungvon schallgedammten Muhlen-
gebauden. - 'п: ZKG 28/1975/97 -1 04.
12. Hauptverband der gewerbIichen Berufsgenossenschaften е. V. (Hrsg.) : Larm-
schutz-lпfогmаtiопsbIаtt LSI 01-200, Ausgabe 6/1977. - Hauptverband der
gewerbIichen Berufsgenossenschaften е. V., Langwartweg 103,
5300 Вопп 1.
13. H.~uptverband der gewerbIichen Berufsgenossenschaften е. V. (Hrsg.):
Lагmsсhutz-lпfогmаtiопsbIаttLSI 01-830, Ausgabe 3/1978.
14. Locher, F. W. / Sprung, S. / Opitz, О.: Reaktionen im Bereich der Ofenabgase.
- In: ZKG 25/1972/1-11.
15. Schmidt, Н.: Schalltechnisches Taschenbuch, 2. Auflage. - Dusseldorf:
VDI-Verlag 1976.
16. SEB- Richtlinie 905003-63 - Gewahrleistungsbedingungen fur larmarme
Maschinen und Anlagen. - Dusseldorf' Verlag Stahleisen тЬН 1963.
17. Technische Anle.itu~.g zum Schutz gegen Larm (TALarm): Allgemeine Ver-
waltungsvorschrlft uber genehmigungsbedLirftige Anlagen nach § 16 der
Gewerbeordnung vom 16. 7 1968 (Beilage zum Bundesanzeiger Nr 137).
18. Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft (TALuft): Erste Allgemeine
Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz v 28.8.1974.
Gemeins. MinisterialbIatt Nr. 24 v 4.9.1974, S.425/52.
19. Technische Vereinigung d. GroBkraftwerksbetreiber (Hrsg.): VGB 121 Un-
fallverhutungsvorschrift "Larm" - 1974.
20. Thum, W.: Sprengtechnik im Steinbruch und Baubetrieb. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
21. Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker е. V. (Hrsg.): VDE 0105, Т.8. Bestim-
mun.g Юг den Betri~b von Starkstromanlagen; Sonderbestimmung fur den
Betrleb von Elektrofllteranlagen, Juli 1977.
22. Verban.d Deutscher Elektrotechniker е. V. (Hrsg.) : VDE 0146, Bestimmung fur
das Emchten von Elektrofilteranlagen, Juli 1977. - VDE, Stresemannallee 21,
6000 Frankfurt/M. 70.
23. Verordnung иЬег Arbeitsstatten. - Arbstatt Vvom 20. Marz 1975 (Bundesge-
setzbIatt I S.729) § 15 Schutz gegen Larm.
DIN - Deutsches Institut fLir Normung е. V., BurggrafenstraBe 4-1 О,
1000 Berlin 30: DIN-ТаsсhепbUсhег. - Berlin und Кбlп' Beuth Verlag
GmbH.
24. Vornorm DIN 4150 Erschutterungen im Bauwesen, September 1975. Teil1 :
Grundsatze, Vorermittlung und Messung von SchwingungsgroBen; Teil2:
686
References
Einwirkungen auf Menschen in Gebдuden; Teil 3: Einwirkungen auf bauliche
Anlagen.
25. Entwurf DIN 18005, Teil1 (ApriI1976): Schallschutz im Stadtebau; Berech-
nungs- und Bewertungsgrundlagen.
26. DIN 18175 Glasbausteine; Anforderungen, PrUfung, Mai 1977.
27. DIN 45633 Prazisionsschallpegelmesser. Teil1 (Marz 1970): Allgemeine
Anforderungen; Teil2 (November 1969): Sonderanforderungen fur die
Anwendung auf kurzdauernde und impulshaltige Vorgange.
28. DIN45641 Mittelungspegel und Beurteilungspegel zeitlich schwankender
Schallvorgange, Juni 1976.
VDI-Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Gгаf-Rесkе-StгаВе 84, 4000 Dusseldorf 1.
29. DIN 52210 Bauakustische Prufungen, Teil 4 (Juli 1975): Luft- und Tritt-
schalldammung, Ermittlung von Einzahl-Angaben.
30. DIN 53855 PrUfung von Textilien. Teil 1 (August 1968): Bestimmung der
Dicke textiler Flachengebilde (auBer FuBbodenbelage) mit einer Rohdichte
иЬег 0,1 g/cm 3 und der aus der Dicke abgeleiteten Kennwerte (E,S); Teil
(August 1968): Bestimmung der Dicke texti\er Flдchengebilde (auBer
3
FuBbodenbelage) mit einer Rohdichte bis 0,1 g/cm und der aus der Dicke
abgeleiteten Kennwerte (E,S); Teil 3 (Januar 1969): Bestimmung der Dicke
textiler Flachengebilde, FuBbodenbelдge.
31. DIN 53887 PrUfung von Textilien; Bestimmung der Luftdurchlassigkeit von
textilen Flachengebilden, Juni 1977.
32. Richtlinie VDI 2058, Blatt 1: Beuгteilung von Arbeitslarm in der Nachbar-
schaft; Juni 1973. Blatt 2: Beurteilung von Arbeitslarm ат Arbeitsplatz
hinsichtlich Gehorschaden; Oktober 1970.
33. Richtlinie VD12062, Blatt 2: Schwingungsisolierung. Isolierelemente;
Januar 1976.
34. Richtlinie VD12081: Larmminderung bei IUftungstechnischen Anlagen; Ent-
wurf November 1971 .
35. Richtlinie VDI 2094: Staubauswurfbegrenzung Zementwerke.
36. Richtlinie VDI 2262. Staubbekampfung ат Arbeitsplatz.
37. Richtlinie VDI 2263: Verhutung von Staubbranden und Staubexplosionen.
38. Richtlinie VDI 2264: Betrieb und Wartung von Abscheideanlagen.
39. Richtlinie VDI 2560: Personlicher Schallschutz; November 1974.
40. Richtlinie VDI 2570: Larmminderung in Betrieben. Allgemeine Grundlagen;
Entwuгf September 1978.
41. Richtlinie VDI2571: Schallabstrahlung von Industriebauten; August
1976.
42. Richtlinie VDI 2714: Schallausbreitung im Freien; Dez. 1976.
43. Richtlinie VDI 2711 : Schallschutz durch Kapselung, Juni 1978.
44. Richtlinie VDI2712, Blatt 1: Gerausche in Betrieben der Steine u. Erden-
Industrie und MaBnahmen zu ihrer Minderung; Mai 1971.
45. Richtlinie VDI 3673: Druckentlastung von Staubexplosionen.
• 46. Richtlinie VDI 3676: Massenkraftabscheider.
47. Richtlinie VDI 3677: Filternde Abscheider.
48. Richtlinie VDI 3678: Elektrische Abscheider
687
 Н. 11. Industrial safety 1 Accident prevention regulations
11. Industrial safety
1 Accident prevention regulations
'п the Federal RepubIic of Germany the responsibility for drawing up accident
prevention regulations for the protection of people at work has Ьееп entrusted to
the so-called Berufsgenossenschaften (employers' liability insurance asso-
ciations). These regulations are embodied in Codes (designated as UVV) and have
statutory status: compliance with them is compulsory.
1.1 Employer's obIigations
Under Section I of UVV 1.1 "General regulations", the employer is required to fulfil
the following obIigations for the prevention of accidents:
Make arrangements and take precautions conforming to the requires of the
UVV Codes and of other generally acknowledged rules of safety engineering
and occupational medicine.
Stop апу installations in which а defect has developed which constitutes ап
otherwise поп-рrеvепtаbIе hazard to the employees.
Make availabIe personal protective equipment if, because of technical oper-
ations, it cannot Ье ruled out that the employees will Ье exposed to accident or
health hazards. Such equipment is to Ье kept in proper working order.
When having work carried out under contract: inform the contractor in writing
of his obIigation to comply with the general regulations for the prevention of
accidents to people at work.
When having work carried out under contract: appointing а person to со­
ord inate the activities. This person must Ье given authority to issue instructions
to the contractor and the latter's employees.
Display the text of the relevant UVV Codes in а suitabIy accessibIe place.
Instruct and inform the employees as to the dangers associated with their work
and as to the measures for the prevention thereof. This should Ье done before
they start the job and afterwards at appropriate intervals, but at least опсе а
year.
Issue copies of the accident prevention regulations to the persons entrusted
with their enforcement within their appointed spheres of duty.
Encourage the employees to participate in accident prevention (e.g., Ьу
attendance of training courses оп industrial safety).
Appoint safety officers as envisaged in RVO, clause 719, and give them
adequate opportunity to carry out their duties.
Оп request, give factory inspection officials facilities to inspect the works.
Inform the Berufsgenossenschaft (employers' liability insurance association)
that the required safety measures have Ьееп complied with.
Provide аll information required in connection with accident prevention
arrangements.
Give ;mmediate notice in writing of апу accident prevention obIigations
transferred Ьу the employer to others.
688
Special accident prevention regulations for cement works
Clearly define the spheres of responsibility of the supervisory personnel
appointed. . . . .
See to it that the obIigations as to accldent рrеvепtюп and со-оrdlпаtюп of
activities are duly fulfilled.
1.2 ObIigations of the employees
Under Section 11 of UVV 1.1, the employees must fulfil the following
obIigations:
Support аll measures for the promotion of i~dustr.ial safety.. .
Follow instructions issued Ьу the emp/oyer wlth а vlew to accldent рrеvепtюп,
except under circumstances where they are evidently unnecessary.
Use the protective equipment made availabIe.
Not carry out instructions at variance with safety requirem~nts.
Use installations and appliances only for the purposes Intended Ьу the
emp/oyer. . .
Correct апу faults presenting а safety hazard, or report them to therr suреrюrs,
without delay. . .
Use installations, appliances and materials, and enter Iпstаllаtюпs, only when
authorized to do so.
1.3 Industrial installations and regulations
Section 111 of UVV1.1 lays down requirements concerning the place ?f work in
buildings, in the ореп air and оп traffic routes. as well as conc~rnlng doors,
gateways, escape routes, emergency exits, escalators and '~adlng ?ays. /п
addition, it contains regulations for protection of per~onnel. agalnst falllng from
dangerous heights, for protection against injury Ьу fаlllПg obJects, for storage and
stacking arrangements, for the wearing of clothing and ornaments, and for the
carrying of tools and other objects. . .. .
Of great importance are the sections оп ha~ardous a~tlvltles, admlttan~e to
dangerous areas, consumption of alcohoJ, testlng of eqUlpment and machlnery,
and precautions against fire and explosions. .
Iп Section IV the UVV 1.1 Code deals with medical рrесаutюпs and the necessary
medical checks and examinations.
1.4 Special accident prevention regulations for cement works
Iп ап Information Note (MerkbIatt) MuU1 issued Ьу the Verein De~ts~her
Zementwerke (German Cement Works' Association), Janu.ary 1978, t~е'рrIПСlраl
UVV Codes relating to cement works are set forth with а vlew to ~rОVld.lПg.those
responsibIe for industrial safety with ап aid to the fulfilment ~f thelr dutles. rhese
texts are subdivided according to the various sections of the Industry, such as the
quarry, the crushing and grinding plants, the ~iln plan.t, the packing pl?nt, the
fitters' and motor vehicle repair shop, the electrlcal repalr shop, carpenter s shop,
689
 Promotion of safety in cement works
Н. 11. Industrial safety

construction department, laboratory, etc. They comprise the principal relevant Motivation (о safety-consciousness
UVV Codes, together with other directives and information notes, for distribution Positive motivation Ьу encouragement and persuasion is preferabIe to negative
to the foremen and gangers. In addition, the Appendix contains а model text of ап
motivation Ьу scaring. . ff t" е
agreement for the transfer of obIigations to third parties and also а model text of ап Special posters encouraging safe~y-cons~ious Ьеhаvюur аге more е ес IV
agreement of acceptance of obIigations Ьу suppliers of technical equipment and than general posters warning agalnst accldents. . .
services. Ке ersonnel сап give а good example Ьу sаfеtу-еопsеюus behavlO.ur.
со~~ап! reminders that preserving one's hea~th IS the greatest beneflt. m-
Positive response to safety-consciousness dlsplayed Ьу employees (со
mendation, thanks). . Ь d' t n the
2 Promotion of safety in cement works Personal conversations between key personnel and thelr su ог Ina es о
meaning and purpose of safety measures. .
Fulfilment of the obIigations enumerated in Sections 1.1 and 1.2, above, оп the Safety-consciousness of senior personnel: estabIishing the rlght balance
part of the employer and of the employees does not automatically ensure safety-
between safety and productivity. d h
conscious working in the factories and other industrial installations concerned. То Co-operation between the safety officers, the senior works personnel ап t е
achieve this it is necessary additionally to provide information, motivation and
management.
other inducements. Some examples will now Ье given:
Bonus systems, competitions and other material incentives
Information and instruction
Displaying information оп accidents that have occurred in the various sections
Individual bonuses 1 incentive rewards and penalty
Collective bonuses (to teams, gangs, etc.) deductions
of the works and in the works as а whole.
Displaying information (tabIes, graphs) showing the number of aecident-free Special bonuses .'
days sinee the last notifiabIe accident. Safety competitions WlthlП the works
Displaying posters stating "dos and don'ts", showing how accidents occur, S f m etitions between different cement works .
etc. These should cover по! only accidents in the works itself, but also road
s:v~~g~~u~ to reduetions оп industrial accident insurance premlums may Ье
acciderlts Ctheme of the month"). distributed among the works' employees. .
Displaying safety information notes issued Ьу the German Cement Works' Information оп bonus systems is given in I~fo.rmation Note (MerkbIatt) MIB2
Association showing typical accidents; ог similar information оп accidents issued Ьу the German Cement Works' АSSОСlаtюп.
that have actually oceurred in the works.
Instructing the employees, especially those newly recruited, as to the dangers Other measures (examples).
associated with their work and the safety rules they should оЬеу.
Safety "stiekers" оп safety helmets, motor vehicles, etc:
Circulars оп industrial safety matters to the employees and their families. Issuing plastic wallets, key rings with tabs, etc. wlth safety-promoting
Information оп accidents should Ье reported а! works meetings, possibIy
backed up Ьу the showing of films ог slides with spoken commentary. inscriptions. ., f \ s' motor cars
Free testing of the lights and exhaust gas tOXIClty о emp ?уее 11 Ь t" оп ~ith
Special instruction of employees when commissioning and starting up new Safety checks оп cars and motor cycles of а" employees, In со а ога I
installations.
Instruction оп the hazards due to non-use of personal protective equipment the police. . l ' th lists should Ье
Check lists for instructing newly арРОlПtеd em~ ~ye~s. es~ d Ье filed
(e.g., wearing of safety helmets, safety footwear, еаг protectors, etc.). signed both Ьу those receiving and Ьу those glvlng IПstгuсtюп ап
Instruction оп the probIem of safeguarding installations under repair against
unauthorized ог inadvertent switching-on. with each employee's documents. .., f h'
Safety cheek lists for regular insp~ction of speclflC ltems о mae ,пегу ог
Discussion of themes relating to industrial safety, analysing the causes
of aecidents, а! section engineers', foremen's and works management
е uipment (е. g. оп а monthly basls).
A~cident statisti~s to Ье compiled in the individual works and Ьу the German
meetings.
Cement Works' Association for the industry as а whole.
Collaboration with the planning department and the supplying firms (suppliers
of machinery, etc.) with а viewto achieving optimum safety conditions both in
the normal running and in the maintenance and repair of plant.
691
690
Н. 11. Industrial safety

3 Safety rules (18) 00 not allow unauthorized persons to travel as passengers in road vehicles,
locomotives or goods waggons. . .
Safety rules which are drawn up for use in individual works - supplementary to (19) Never ride оп conveyor belts or оп loads handled Ьу cranes or other Ilftlng
the UVV Codes already mentioned - should Ье concise and written in simple appliances.
language (which foreign workers, if апу, сап also understand). Where possibIe, (20) Avoid consuming alcohol before and during work.
they should contain drawings and diagrams illustrating the significance of the (21 ) Immediately report апу accident. Giving aid to victims of accidents is your
principal accident prevention measures. The message they convey should Ье obvious human duty. Have апу injuries, even minor ones, immediately
aimed at all personnel: safety officers, foremen, operatives engaged оп duties in attended to.
the various parts of the works, and апу employees of outside firms whom it may
concern.
Some examples of generally applicabIe safety ru les which should Ье complied with
Ьу all works personnel will now Ье given:
References
1. Steinbruchs- Berufsgenossenschaft (Н rsg.): Unfallverhutungsvorschriften
(1) Wear protective clothing as and when required (safety helmets, footwear, (UVV) - Кбlп: Carl Heymanns-Verlag KG. ." .
2. Verein Oeutscher Zementwerke е. V. (Hrsg.): MerkbIatt MIB2, Pramlen zur
gloves, goggles, masks).
Verbesserung der Arbeitssicherheit, Оес. 1969. - Verein Ot. Zementwerke
(2) Кеер your place of work and your tools neat and tidy. 00 not use апу
damaged or defective tools, instruments or other equipment. e.V., TannenstraBe 2, 4000 Ousseldorf 30.
3. Verein Oeutscher Zementwerke е. V. (Hrsg.): MerkbIatt MuU1, MerkbIatt zur
(3) Take proper care when dealing with flammabIe or caustic substances.
Anwendung von Unfallverhutungsvorschriften der Steinbruchs-Berufsge-
(4) 00 not remove or detach апу protective devices or safety appliances unless
nossenschaft, Jan. 1978. - Verein Ot. Zementwerke е. V., TannenstraBe 2,
authorized to do so. Кеер them in good working order. 00 not start апу
machines оп which guards, screens or other protective devices are 4000 Ousseldorf 30.
missing.
(5) 00 not start а machine until you have satisfied yourself that it is in proper
working order and that there is по danger to апу person.
(6) Never carry out repairs оп а machine while it is running.
(7) When carrying out repairs, make sure that the machine or equipment cannot
Ье started or switched оп inadvertently. This сап Ье ensured Ьу switching off
the current and displaying а notice saying "00 not switch оп! Repairs in
progress!" or Ьу locking the switch so that it cannot Ье operated.
(8) Clean and lubricate moving parts of machinery only if suitabIe protective
devices are provided.
(9) Report апу damage to machinery, including machinery of which you are not
in charge yourself.
(1 О) Take care when handling burning and soldering equipment; immediately
repair ог replace апу defective parts of such equipment.
(11) Н ands off electrical machines and appliances! 00 not try to carry out repairs
to them yourself: leave that to electricians.
(12) Place ladders, scaffolding and working platforms securely in position so that
they will not fall or collapse.
(13) When carrying out erection, building or demolition work, prevent access Ьу
unauthorized persons.
(14) Make sure that pits, trenches, etc. are properly safe.
(15) Secure yourself and апу loose objects against falling from heights.
(16) 00 not stand under loads being lifted Ьу cranes, etc.
(17) Take care when crossing motor vehicle traffic routes or railway lines. Only
use the pubIic railway crossings.
693
692
 J. Maintenance and wear

J. Maintenance and wear

Ву В. Kohlhaas

1. Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . 695
1 General . 695
2 Spares and renewabIe parts planning . 696
3 Determining the cost of maintenance . 697
References. . . . . . 704
11. ProbIems of wear 705
References. . . . . . 705

1. Maintenance
1 General
The maintenance and servicing of industrial installations is of major importance if
serious production losses аге to Ье avoided and the cost of manufacture is to Ье
kept as low as possibIe. It is therefore essential that plant and equipment preserve
their efficiency. From this point of view, maintenance is in the interests not only of
the individual manufacturer, but of the есопоту as а whole.
А high level of operational availabi/ity of machinery and other facilities must Ье
ensured in order to епаЫе the planned output of the production process always to
Ье attained at lowest cost. Unscheduled shutdowns should Ье prevented as far as
possibIe. Maintenance should Ье organized with reference to three guiding
principles:
(1) Deciding what is to Ье inspected and at what intervals of time. Ап interesting
computer-controlled system has Ьееп devised for the purpose and is described
in the Appendix to this section (Kunze, 1978).
(2) Careful planning and execution of the maintenance work Ьу the works
department responsibIe for these duties.
(3) Preventive maintenance (see Weislehner, 1976, and Hochdahl, 1976)
The basis for maintenance work should of course Ье provided Ьу the operating and
servicing instructions issued Ьу the suppliers of the various items of plant and
equipment.
Three schemes should Ье drawn up.
The first scheme should indicate, in а convenient and clearly visualizabIe
таппег, what mach ines ог appliances have to Ье inspected at regular intervals.

695
 J Maintenance and wear
Damage ог faults сап thus Ье detected in good time and measures for
effectively remedying them Ье initiated.
In the ~econd scheme it should Ье stated how the necessary repairs, servicing
орегаtюпs, etc. аге to Ье сапiеd out, i. е., what materials, tools, spare parts, etc.
аге required and which personnel (number and technical skills) аге needed for
doing the job.
In this way it is ensured that the right теп for the job аге availabIe at the
appropriate time and that the special spares аге ready to hand (spare parts
planning !).
If ~ossibIe, the estimated lengths of time required for сапуiпg out this
mаlПtепапсе work should Ье included in the scheme, so that the loss of
production likely to оссш in the event of а shutdown period of the plant ог
parts thereof сап Ье gauged in advance.
The third scheme should indicate what work should Ье сапiеd out during
scheduled ог unscheduled shutdown periods, e.g., lining brickwork construc-
tion, changing the liner plates in grinding mills, changing the grinding media
charge, etc.
Obviou~ly, по~ all possibIe details of plant maintenance сап Ье comprised in а
preventlve mаlПtепапсе scheme. А carefully considered choice must therefore Ье
made as to what сап and what cannot Ье included.
It is of course necessary, after execution of the work, to keep accurate records of
repairs and replacements, with precise details of what parts were affected and how
much time was spent оп putting the troubIe right. The information obtained in this
way is not only useful as а basis for future planning, but also provides reliabIe
guidance in calculating the cost of maintenance.
'П the day-to-day running of апу major plant it is not possibIe to rule out the
sudden and unexpected оссшгепсе of technical faults. These have to Ье remedied
at опсе in order to keep downtime and loss of production to а minimum. Апу such
event must of course Ье carefully recorded.
2 Spares and renewabIe parts planning
In order to ensure efficient execution of repairs it is necessary to pursue а forward-
looking policy of spare parts inventory and procurement of wearing parts which
have to Ье renewed from time to time.
Prolonged shutdowns of production facilities ог other vital installations must Ье
avoided as much as possibIe. For this it is essential to have the requisite parts and
components ava~l~bIe in sufficient quantity and quality as and when they аге
needed .. The dеСISЮП as to what parts, and in what quantities, аге to Ье kept in
stock wlll have to Ье based оп recommendations from the suppliers of the relevant
mach.inery and equipment and оп the works management's own experience.
In th,s connection а distinction should Ье drawn between "spare parts" and
"renewabIe parts".
696
"Spare parts" comprise а" those parts which тау fracture ог Ьесоте faulty in some
other way as а result of long service during погтаl operation of the plant (e.g.,
springs, bolts, seals, ball bearings, other machinery components, etc.).
The term "renewabIe parts" ог "wearing parts" relates to those parts which, in
consequence of intimate contact with the production materials ог auxiliary
materials, аге subject to natural wear (е. g., grinding media, liner plates, refractory
materials, linings of chutes, etc.).
А distinction is also to Ье drawn between commercially availabIe standard parts
and special parts which сап best Ье procured from the manufacturers of the
machinery concerned.
AII spare parts and renewabIe parts should Ье kept in а properly equipped store and
Ье carefully catalogued and controlled.
з Determining the cost of maintenance
The expenditure in respect of wages and materials for repairs and maintenance
work executed should Ье carefully recorded, as it constitutes а significant item of
production costing. The works management should at all times have а general view
of such expenditure, so as to Ье аЫе to take appropriate measures if it shows signs
of getting out of hand. The expenses incurred should not, however, Ье recorded in
а general overall way, but should Ье itemized in detail according to the various
production departments concerned and Ье split up into wage costs and material
costs respectively.
This approach will епаЫе the тап in charge of maintenance to detect апу unusual
trends, to look for the causes of these and, if necessary, to take remedia! action
Although the probIems of costing - of whatever kind - belong to the sphere of
industrial management, it is nevertheless important that the plant engineer should
Ье alive to the cost aspect, because the two aspects of plant operation - the
technical and the economic - must always Ье sensibIy geared to each other.
Appendix
WARTAS - а computerized system of plant inspection and
maintenance control
In connection with the ordering of new plants, ог parts thereof, it has Ьесоте
соттоп practice to require а schedule of all maintenance and servicing work
required. The reasons for this аге as follows'
With the introduction of new technology, the relative cost of mechanical and
electrical engineering is steadily rising and often exceeds 50% of the overall
capital cost of the factory ог plant.
The maintenance instructions embodied in manuals, etc. vary from опе
machinery manufacturer to another and, in тапу cases, relate to machines and
appliances occurring in тапу different parts of the plant.
697
 J. Maintenance and wear Computerized system of plant inspection and maintenance control

For example, the complete operating documentation of а cement works with а This technique offers the following facilities and advantages:
clinker output of more than 3000 t/day comprises some 25 standard lever-arch
Complete and appropriately timed output of information оп all maintenance
ог Ьох files. Preparing the maintenance programs from this mass of machine
work to Ье performed.
manufactuгers' literatuгe requires the services of five experienced maintenance
Кеу personnel largely relieved of routine duties, thanks to the timing and
experts and organization experts.
information system employed.
'П order to соре with these requirements, as well as with others likely to arise later, а Ву spreading and equalizing the work load of the maintenance personnel the
futuгe-oriented organization technique for industrial plants has Ьееп developed: system increases their productivity.
the computerized maintenance system called WARTAS (Fig.1). The manufactuгers' experience сап Ье advantageously utilized in the ргерага­
tion of the master data. Specialist engineers сап ргераге the data for the
particular plant concerned, in readiness for their application in practice.
The system yields daily updated information and reports.
А computer-controlled analysis of potential troubIe spots is associated with
the monitoring of important operations.
Leitstelle-I nstandhaltung The optimization system for timing the proposed shutdowns for maintenance
maintenance control centre is specially geared to the needs of industrial plants.
The personnel in charge of allocating the tasks and duties in connection with
maintenance аге provided with а ready-made organization for dealing with
out-of-the-ordinary оссuпепсеs.
Special aspects of the new organization technique will now Ье briefly conside-
red:
Wartungsauftrage Auftragsuber-
mai ntenance wachung
instructions instructions (1) Organization of maintenance:
Terminplanung WARTAS
monitoring The important featuгe of the organization scheme is the maintenance control
Rechner
time scheduling Spontanorganisation centre (Flg. 2) with the foilowing range of activities
Datenpflege computer
fur Stбгuпgеп Allocation and monitoring of the inspection and maintenance jobs put out for
data supervision spontaneous organi- the next working shift Ьу the electronic data processing system.
and updating zation for faults Acting ироп the suggestions ог instructions issued Ьу the electronic process-
ing system in the event of а fault ог breakdown.
Auftragspapiere Information service, with video screen backing, forthe maintenancegangs and
instructions in works management.
writing Evaluation of the troubIe spot analysis and modification of maintenance
instructions and servicing intervals оп the basis thereof.
Ruckstandliste
The system does not require апу major changes in the existing organization of
arrears list
foremen's duties, but aims rather at relieving key personnel of mere routine work.

(2) Timing procedure:

А number of methods, depending оп the customer's preference and requirements,
аге availabIe for the time scheduling of the maintenance operations (Fig. 3):
The degree of freedom in timing the operations will depend оп plant operating
conditions (e.g., waiting for shutdown).
Fig.1: WARTAS automated maintenance time scheduling system (КНО The frequency with which апу particular servicing job is сапiеd out will
Humboldt Wedag AG) depend оп its natuгe and demands.
698 699
 J. Maintenance and wear
Computerized system of plant inspection and maintenance control

WARTAS
Arbeitsu nterlagen Auski.infte Datenpflege time scheduling operating condition execution of work job monitoring
working documents ;nformation data supervision
and updating - according to - job is of such - regularly - acknowledgment
Elektrik Schmierdienst Mechanik Kombinierte calender days importance as to of completion
,Arbeits-

V
electrical lubrication mechanical Arbeiten justify shutdown required
b'erichte
work work combined work reports
operations - according to - job сап ье - one-off - по

/~ru
Leiter der plant operating carried out at acknowledgment
/\
~
Instandhaltung signal to
11 hours next shutdown - one-off, followed
I maintenance
manager
- -
Ьу subsequent computer

~)
at next job сап ье VlЮгk at regular required
Bearbeitung,
shutdown carried out while intervals (опе
Bericht, Stбгuпg usw.
dealing with fault plant is running oil change, - limiting level
reports, etc. special servicing, for permissibIe
Wartungsleitstelle
maintenance control сеntге servicing after number of
~ ап inspection) arrears

4
Zuordnung Verteilung Oberwachung
allocation distribution monitoring
Elektrotechnische Schmier- Mechanische
Arbeiten arbeiten Arbeiten
Fig. 3: Procedure for control of maintenance jobs (КНО Humboldt Wedag
electrical work lubrication mechanical work AG)
Auski.infte

~
information

U U Betri еЬsstбгu nge n

fault reporting
Meister fi.ir
Elektrik
electricians'
foreman
Meister fi.ir
Schmiertechnik
foreman for
lubrication

t
Meister fi.ir
Mechanik
mechanical
fitters' foreman ----
---

----
LQJ The timing of operations distinguishes between "periodic" and "dynamic"
ones.
The closeness of monitoring characterizes the importance of maintenance
work.

•
Elektriker
electricans
Schmiertechn.
Personal
•
Werkstatt-
personal
The time scheduling system has Ьееп developed with the object of appreciabIy
lowering the cost due to downtime (caused Ьу breakdown ог fаilше of machinery
ог equipment) of industrial installations. It is based оп the principle of grouping
Iu Ь·
ГlсаtlПg workshop
personnel personnel maintenance operations together as much as possibIe (Fig.4).
I I I
(3) Structure of а reporting and information system:
/g
Material- 'Nerkzeug- Thanks to а new approach to the storage of master data (Fig. 5), а sound basis for
Werks- Bauabteilung
ausgabe ausgabe transport construction the detailed reporting and the dialogue oriented information system is obtained.
material tools in-plant The storage technology envisaged in Fig. 5, embodying the modular principle, is
department
issuing issuing transport Ausmauerung used also for linking the maintenance operations with the units of plant.
lining brickwork For example, with this system, in the event of ап unscheduled shoutdown,
appropriate maintenance jobs сап immediately Ье suggested which сап Ье
Fig. 2: Maintenance information flow diagram (КН D Humboldt Wedag properly carried out within this shutdown period.
AG)

(4) What the system comprises:

'П its standard form the WARTAS system comprises the following:
А tested program package in а high level programming language, e.g.,
COBOL.
700
701
J. Maintenance and

Aggregat
unit of equipment Anlagen-
Rohmaterial
огmachinery
Brech- und gruppen
Transportanlage Verfahrens-
Wartungstexte
maintenance v raw material
crushing and
teile
plant sections, Ausgewiihlte
instruction texts Bis zu 20000 Spontan-
handling installation process units Wartungsauftriige organisation Auftriige
verwalten bei Storungen uberwachen
up to 20000 spontaneous monitoring
servicing job organization to of selected
Rohmaterial - instuctions сап соре with faults maintenance
Anlagen-
Vorbrech· ье managed jobs
anlage teile
plant
raw material
primary sub-sections
crushing plant

Kalksteinauf- Wartungs- Dialogabfrage mehrere

Bau-
gabe - Platten- gruppen statistik statt aufwendiger Terminierungs-
band assembIies maintenance Karteiaufbereitung verfahren
limestone statistics conversational several time
аргоп feeder interrogation instead schedufing
of elaborate card methods
indexing

Aggregate -
Bauteile
components

Т, Wartungs-
Schmier- arbeiten
und Коп­ maintenance
troll- Olwechsel operations
Intervall oil change
lubгication
and inspection
interval

Fig. 5: Time scheduling targets (KHD Humboldt Wedag AG)

Fig. 4: Example of the storage of data for part of а plant, with
maintenance operations to Ье carried out (KHD Humboldt Wedag AG)
А computer suitabIe for conversational operation (dialogue), with video units,
discs, inputjoutput cards, high-speed printer, and data safeguarding tape. The
disc storage capacity is at least 20 million bytes and the working storage
capacity at least 64 million bytes.
On-the-spot commissioning, training of customer's personnel, documenta-
tion. The customer is moreover given the option of а package deal offering
"turnkey" ready-to-use master data prepared Ьу specialist engineers in cement
manufacturing technology and plant maintenance.
702
703
 J. Maintenance and wear
The following advantages сап Ье claimed for computerized maintenance control
as provided Ьу the system outlined here:
The cost arising from unplanned shutdown is reduced thanks to а time
scheduling system specially designed to cut downtime.
The value of the plant is preserved and protected Ьу full information оп the
required maintenance work, issued in good time.
Skilled personnel аге relieved of routine duties.
The combination of personal and machine-based organization enhances the
~esponsiveness of the maintenance system to апу contingencies that may arise.
rhe more evenly spread load makes for higher capacity and effectiveness of
~anpower in this sphere of activities which still offers such scope for rationaliza-
tюп.
References
1. Hochdahl, О.: Vorbeugende Instandhaltung - ein System zur Minimierung
der Unterhaltskosten. - In: ZKG 29/1976/447 -451.
2. ~unze, О.: WARTAS - das rechnergesteuerte Ausgabesystem der Inspek-
tюпs- und Wartungstermine. - In: ZKG 31/1978/134-136.
3. Магх, H.-J.: Instandhaltung als volkswirtschaftliche Aufgabe. - 'п: VDI-
Nachrichten 31/1979/2.
4. Weislehner, G.: Vorbeugende Instandhaltung im Zementwerk Dotternhausen.
- In: ZKG 29/1976/443 -451.
5. Richtlinie VDI: Instandhaltung; Begriffe, - Dezember 1974. - VDI-Verein
Deutscher Ingenieure, Gгаf-Rесkе-StгаВе 84, 400 Dusseldorf.
6. Werksschrift FLS-Newsfront 11/76. - F. L. Smidth & Со. AS, 77 Vigerslev
Alle, ОК-2500 Kopenhagen-Valby.
704
ProbIems of wear
11. ProbIems of wear
The section "Maintenance" cannot Ье considered in isolation from the probIems of
wear in cement works engineering. These probIems belong to the science of
tribology - а comprehensive term denoting the study of friction, wear and
lubrication, and in general the behaviour of interacting surfaces in relative
motion.
Wear in engineering components is caused Ьу friction, impact, percussion, heat
and/or chemical action. There is hard Iy апу section in а cement 'works where some
kind of wear does not occur. The large dimensions of the machinery and the high
rates of material throughput in all stages of the process аге associated with
considerabIe wear of the parts involved, causing the progressive loss of а variety of
materials which therefore have to Ье replaced from time to time: many different
grades of steel, refractories, other ceramic materials, rubber, etc.
This being so, cement works operators have, in collaboration with the manufactu-
rers of their machinery and with the suppliers of the materials involved, made every
effort to bring wear under control. As а result, considerabIe success has Ьееп
achieved, as the following example will serve to show:
About twenty years ago the specific rate of grinding media wear in finishing mills
(clinker grinding) was in the range of 800 to 1000 9 рег t of cement, whereas the
corresponding figure is now only about 50 to 120 g/t.
The probIems associated with wear аге obviously very varied and sometimes quite
complex. То attempt anything like а detailed treatment of subject would therefore
Ье outside the scope of this book. The reader wishing to obtain further information
should consult the relevant literature. а selection of which is listed in the appended
bibIiography.
References
1. Bellwinkel, А.: Verringerter MahlplattenverschleiB ап Rohrmuhlen durch
neuartige Mahlplatten. - In: ZKG 6/1953/439-444.
2. Bernutat, Р.: VerschleiB von Маhlkбгрегп und Mantelplatten. - In: ZKG
17/1964/397 - 400.
3. DIN 50321 VerschleiB; МеВgгБВеп fur den VerschleiBbetrag. - Berlin und
Кбlп: Beuth Verlag GmbH 1961.
4. Dixon, R. Н. Т.: VerschleiBverhalten von NI-Hard-Mahlkugeln. - 'п: Aufbe-
reitungs-Technik 2/1961/250-252.
5. Drosihn, U.: Die VerschleiBprobIeme der Rohrmuhlen. - In: ZKG
14/1961/325- 338.
6. Drosihn, U.: VerschleiB in Rohrmuhlen. - In: ZKG 25/1972/571 - 574.
7. Fischer, Н.: Оег Arbeitsvorgang in Kugelmuhlen, insbesondere in Rohrmuh-
len. - 'п: VDI-Zeitschrift 48/1904/437 -441.
705
J. Maintenance and wear References

8. Fleck, К.: Standzeiten von Ofenauslaufsegmenten. - In: ZKG 25/1972/530-532. 32. Peter, Н .. Pri.ifung verschleiBfester Werkstoffe fi.ir Zementrohrmi.ihlen. - \п.
9. Hoffmann, К.: HochverschleiBfeste Маhlkбгрег; (mit umfangreichem Schrift- ZKG 19/1966/354- 360.
tumnachweis). - In: ZKG 25/1972/575-572. 33. Quittkat, G.: Erkenntnisse bei der Feinmahlung. - In: Erzmetallll/1949.
10. Kaminsky, F.: Neue Erkenntnisse im Bau von Drehofenlagerungen. - In: 34. Schildknecht, W.: Betriebserfahrungen mit groBen Walzmi.ihlen. - In: ZKG
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik 25/1953/181. 31/1978/1-2.
11. Kaminsky, F.: MaBnahmen zur VerschleiBbekampfung ап Drehofenanlagen. 35. Slegten, J .. Betrachtungen иЬег Маhlkбгрег und Panzerungen. - 'п' ZKG
- In: ZKG 6/1953/271-278. 17/1964/503 - 51 о.
12. Kayatz, К.: Eine Theorie zum Nachfi.illen von Rohrmi.ihlen. - In: ZKG 36. Slegten, J./Slegten, Р.: Кugеlmi.ihlеп-РгоbIеmе.- In: ZKG 7/1954/241-
17/1964/498- 502. 249 und 316.
13. Kayser, W.: МаhlkбгрегvегsсhlеiВ. - In: ZKG 17/1964/495-497. 37. Wellinger, К. / Uetz, Н.' VerschleiB dшсh kбгпigе und mineralische Stoffe
14. Kos, В. / МауегЬбсk, G.: Wege zur Standzeitverbesserung von Rohrmi.ihlen- unter Beri.icksichtigung des MahlverschleiBes in Kugelmi.ihlen; (mit um-
auskleidungen. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/5-7. fangreichem Schrifttumnachweis). - In: ZKG 18/1965/52-63.
15. Krainer, Е. / Kos, В. / Kunstovny, F.: VerschleiB in Zerkleinerungsanlagen. - In: 38. Willmann, К.: Ersatzteilstatistik im Dienste der Maschinen-Instandhaltung. -
ZKG 29/1976/15-24. 'п: ZKG 18/1965/411-414.
16. Kraus, F.: Verbesserte Mi.ihlenpanzerung. - In: ZKG 5/1952/320- 321. 39. Willmann, К.: Maschinen-Instandhaltung dшсh gezielte VerschleiBbekamp-
17. Marheineke, Н. О.: Kleinserienuntersuchungen des МаhlkбгрегvегsсhlеiВеs fung. - In:ZKG 20/1967/20-23.
durch Radionuklide als Markierungselemente. - 'п: ZKG 24/1971/243 - 244. 40. Zapp, F.: ОЬег den Mahlvorgang in Kugelmi.ihlen. - In: Keramische Rund-
18. Matouschek, F.: VerschleiB von Mantelplatten in Rohrmi.ihlen; (mit um- schau 40/1963/409-416.
fangreichem Schrifttumnachweis). - I п: ZKG 13/1960/394 - 409. 41. Zeisel, H.-G.: Vепiпgегuпg des Мi.ihlепdшсhsаtzеs durch VerschleiB von
19. Matouschek, F.: VerschleiB von Mahlplatten in Rohrmi.ihlen. - In: ZKG Panzerplatten. - 'п: ZKG 13/1960/118-121.
15/1962/213 - 214.
20. Mauritz, W.: АЬгаsiv-VегsсhlеiВргоbIеmеbeim Fбгdегп und Lagern. - In:
ZKG 31/1978/180-182.
21. Mittag, С.: Einbau von Raupenplatten in Grob-Rohrmi.ihlen. - In: ZKG
8/1955/447 -450.
22. Mittag, С.: Einbau von Mi.ihlhauser-Sortlerplatten in Verbund- und Feinrohr-
mi.ihlen. - In: ZKG 9/1956/228- 331.
23. Mi.ink, R.: Diestatistische Erfassung des Verbrauchsan Drehofenausmauerun-
gen. - In: ZKG 8/1955/439.
24. MuBgnug, G.: VerschleiB von Manganhartstahlplatten in Zementmi.ihlen. -
In: ZKG 11/1958/481-488.
25. Nickel, О.: Оег verschleiBfeste Werkstoff Ni-Hard in der Hartzerkleinerung. -
In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 1/1960/371-384.
26. Nillson,J. L.: Umwelt- uпdVегsсhlеiВsсhutzdшсhGummi imZementwerk.-
In: ZKG 31/1978/325 - 326.
27. Norquist, О. W. / Moeller, J. Е.: Relative wear rates of various diameter
grinding balls in production mills. - In: Mining Engineering, June
1950/712-714.
28.0pitz, О.: VerschleiB feuerfester Drehofenausmauerungen. - In: ZKG
22/1969/262- 264.
29. Palmgren, Н.: Gummi als VerschleiBschutz in der Steine-und-Erden-Industrie.
- In: ZKG 27/1974/344-358.
30. Persson, В.: Gummi als Schutz gegen VerschleiB, Staub und Larm. - In: LHD
8/1975/331 -336.
31. Peter, Н.: Ein Beitrag zum VerschleiBprobIem in der Zementindustrie; (mit
umfangreichem Schrifttumnachweis). - In ZKG 18/1965/344 - 350.

706 707
 spare

Ву В. Kohlhaas

Every cement works should Ье equipped with facilities for carrying out routine
repairs in its own workshops. The advantages аге, among others, that the
personnel entrusted with this work аге familiar with the machines and appliances
requiring their services and that often there is а substantial saving in time and cost if
repairs сап Ье executed "оп the premises".
Obviously, this requires the avai/ability of efficient workshops with equipment
properly suited to the needs of the works. This is especially important in that
cement works аге often located far from other industrial plants, so that it тау not Ье
conveniently possibIe to get outside help.
In this section an outline proposal for the equipment of the workshops for а fairly
large cement works is presented. Of course, depending оп 'осаl factors and
circumstances, changes сап Ье made in the range of equipment and in the size ог
capacity of the recommended machine tools.
А store containing the spare parts in regular demand must back up the workshop
faciiities. Large and heavy parts such as, for example, kiln tyres, supporting rollers.
girth gear sections, etc., which not only take up а considerabIe amount of storage
space but also require powerfullifting and handling appliances fortheir manipula-
tion, should Ье stored as close as possibIe to the actual machinery to which they
will have to Ье fitted.
The accompanying drawing shows а suggested layout for workshops and ancillary
facilities, together with а spare parts store. Good accessibility and suitabIe
equipment, with adequate lifting appliances, аге essential to effective utilization of
these installations.
The workshop and ancillary equipment will Ье considered under the ten following
headings:
1.00 Machine shop
2.00 Fitters' shop
3.00 Welders' shop
4.00 Smiths' shop
5.00 Electrical repair shop
6.00 Erection equipment
7.00 Joiners' shop
8.00 Toolmakers' shop
9.00 Painters' shop
10.00 Central compressed air supply unit.

709
К. Workshops and spare parts store Machine shop

I I 1.00 Machine shop

"t:I
"1 1" со 1.01 power hacksaw for round material ир to 200 тт diameter and square

"L -
t)
material ир to 200 тт х 200 тт
>-
~~ 1" о
1.02 universal shearing machine for cutting, punching and perforating of
ё
ф

> flat and sectional material:

~ с: 150ттх 16тт
flat steel bars ир to
I plates ир to
13тт

~I
42тт
round steel bars ир to
38тт
~ square steel bars ир to
perforates ир о 25 тт diameter in 16 тт material at арргох. 50 t
~I I pressure rating and 27 тт stroke
i
1.03 engine lathe/sliding lathe
~ I height of centres
250тт
Н' distance between centres 2000тт

I I 1.04 ditto with gap bed

maximum machining diameter over bed 660тт

~I I largest machining diameter over gap

d ista псе between centres
860тт
4000тт

~T
1- l
I
I
1.05 radial drilling machine
for drilling in steel ир to
for drilling in cast iron ир to
50тт
63тт

transportabIe universal radial drilling machine

dl УI
1.06
50тт
for drilling in steel ир to
,I 1.07 upright drilling machine
~I I for drilling capacity (diameter drilled) ир to 32тт
200тт

Н\
I drilling depth ир to
shaping machine for maximum
LI I 1.08
machinabIe length
710тт

Ц-.!
ii I 1.09 universal column milling machine
work mounting агеа 450 тт х 2000 тт
~
I I Q.
1.1 О single-spindle threading machine for metric die heads 10-52тт

н 1
О
ос
8.S. pipethread and Whitworth thread '/2"-4"
I (J)

~'I I 1.11 hydraulic single-column straightening press

pressure rating
100t

i Ii
N
L,i 1
i . 1 ..... NМ'<tL!)ф,.....ООО')
·1 1-

710 711
 К. Workshops and spare parts store Smiths' shop . Electrical repair shop

2.00 Fitters' shop 3.04 1 welding edge preparation machine

2.01 1 doubIe wheel stand for 3.05 3 or more complete sets of electric welders' equipment, including
grinding wheel diameter 150mm 2 welding work tabIes (approx. 1000 mm х 800 mm х 800 mm)
grinding wheel width 20mm 3.06 sets of equipment for several oxyacetylene welders, including high-
2.02 2 doubIe wheel stands for pressure acetylene gas generators, welding and cutting torch sets,
grinding wheel diameter 300mm pressure reducing valves, gas and oxygen hoses, cylinder trolley
grinding wheel width 40mm
2.03 4 work benches
2.04 2 assorted vices 4.0 Smiths' shop
pipe vices for lugs up to 3" 4.01 1 doubIe-hеаrth forge fire
opening 90mm plate dimensions 2000 mm х 1250 mm, including integral electric
12 parallel-jaw vices bIower, air intake pipeline, draught damper, chimney
jaw width 125mm
opening 4.02 anvil, 200 kg, with base, horn. forging tools and 1 set of swages 10-
175mm
depth 25mm
145mm
2.05 2 drilling frames with pneumatic drills 4.03 swage bIock 500 mm х 500 mm
drilling capacity (diameter drilled) straightening bIock 1500 mm х 1000 mm х 40 mm high
32 and 50mm
height bIacksmith's vice
640 and 770 mm
travel 240 and 305 mm 4.04 powered spring hammer
max. feed pressure 800 and 1100 kg weight of head approx. 60 kg, for the forging of 90 mm square, 90 mm
2.06 hand lever shearing machine for dia. round, and 50 mm х 160 mm flat bars
flat bars up to 60mm х 5mm
round bars up to 13mm dia.
2.07 mandrel press with pillar 5.0 Electrical repair shop
spind le with flywheel
5.01 1 engine lathe/sliding lathe
3.00 Welders' shop height of centres 800mm
3.01 2 single-housing arc welding machines оп travelling carriage, соппес­ d istance between centres
ted load 15 kW at 100% duty cycle 5.02 light bench drilling machine
control. ran~e 40 - 600 amps drilling capacity (dia.) 6mm
ореп-сlrсUlt voltage 60-100 volts drilling depth 60mm
with remote control, connecting саЫе, welding саЫе, electrode 5.03 4 electric two-speed drilling and percussion drilling machines
holder, etc. speeds 2
3.02 oxygen cutting machine drilling capacity in steel (dia.) 10/6 mm
cutting range 3-100mm 5.04 2 angle drilling machines
3.03 СО 2 arc automatic welding machine drilling capacity in steel (dia.) 6mm
max. welding current at 100% duty cycle 400А
welding voltage 5.05 lever shearing machine for
15-34V 5mm
rated power plates up to
17.5kW 60mmx6mm
cooling water pumping system flat bars up to
round bars up to 13тт dia.
spot welding and tack welding machine
welding guns, СО 2 preheaters 5.06 3 steel work-benches, dimensions 1500 тт х 700 mm

712 713
К. Workshops and spare parts store Joiners' shop . Toolmakers' shop

5.07 various measuring instruments: 2 jacks 200t

2Wheatstone bridges for the measurement of ohmic resistances 4 jacks 100t
1multi-range instrument for 4 jacks 50t
0.03-600 тА and up to 1.5А 2 force pumps (water), effective capacity 132
0.45 - 600 V for d.c. 0.3 - 300 тА and 1.5 - 6 А 1 force pump (water), effective capacity 5.52
6- 600 V for а.С. 1 force pump (water), effective capacity 2.52
for resistances О -1 О К ohm various pipelines and fittings
0-10М ohm 100 m of each of the following wire горе diameters: 14 тт, 17 тт,
2 straight-through current transformers for measuring ranges 0-150 А 19тт
and 600А welding and lighting set, 45 kVA, portabIe
slide-wire bridge for
0.04 ohm - 6.4 megohm in eight ranges and two voltage ranges 1 О V
and 100У
7.00 Joiners' shop
1 insulation tester 0- 500 megohm and 0-1000 megohm
2 clip-on wattmeters with 7.01 band saw
four measuring ranges 1 0-50-250-500А for а.С. and two measur- mortising machine
ing ranges 250-500У for а.С. circular saw
recording multi-range instrument planing machine
for d.c. 0-600тА column drilling machine
О.О12-600У pendulum saw
fora.c. 3-600тА band saw butt-welding machine
6-600У saw sharpening machine
including carrying case planer knife sharpening machine
1 voltage tester with case
7.02 various hand tools
8 continuity testers 300hm
2 wattmeters for connection in series 150 kW 7.10 plumbers' tools: 3 complete tool kits
5.08 tools for electricians 7.20 pipe fitters' tools: 4 complete tool kits for gas pipe fitting, threaded pipe
2 small sets of tools (for electricians оп shift work) fitting, lead pipe fitting, соррег pipe fitting, with 1 set of welding and
general tools (it is advisabIe to provide several complete tool kits) cutting torches and 1 cylinder trolley

6.00 Erection equipment 8.00 Toolmakers' shop

8.01 1 marking-off and surface plate 2500 тт х 1250 тт
6.01 electric hoist for 5000 kg lifting capacity горе speed 11 -18 m/min,
1 pair of tailstocks with spring spindles
горе length 20 m
1 pair of рагаllе\ bIocks 90 тт х 200 тт х 170 тт
6.02 various items of erection/assembIy equipment 2 pairs of parallel bIocks 60 тт х 30 тт х 260 тт
2 pulley bIocks 10t 2 pairs of parallel bIocks 80 тт х 40 тт х 320 тт
4 pulley bIocks 7.5t 1 pair of prisms 250 тт long
4 pulley bIocks 5t 1 scribing bIock, 750 тт scribing height
16 snatch bIocks 1 measuring stand with adjustabIe column, 750 тт height
6 ratchet hoists 4.5t, 1.5 m lifting height 1 parallel Ьох 300 тт х 150 тт х 500 тт
6 ratchet hoists 6.0 t, 1.5 m lifting height 1 marking-off and angle plate,
6 lifting-clamp hoists 1.5 t horizontal surface/height 300 тт х 180 тт х 630 тт
6 lifting-clamp hoists 3.0 t measuring j ig for 40 тт х 8 тт х 1000 тт bar gauge
2 chain hoists 10.0 t, 6.0 m lifting height Ьаг gauge 40 тт х 8 тт х 1000 тт

714 715
 К. Workshops and spare parts store L. Water supply, compressed air

1 case of slip gauges, 46 pieces

1 case of auxiliary tools for slip gauges, range 0-200 тт l. Water supply, compressed air
2 cabinets for storage of tools
8.02 1 universal tool grinding machine Ву В. Kohlhaas
8.03 electric doubIe wheel stand with grinding attachment for twist drills
I Water supply for cement works. .717
8.04 general equipment for а tool crib, with the requisite measuring tools, 1 Estimated quantities required . .717
tools for all the tradesmen employed in the cement works, lifting and 2 Raw water . .719
handling appliances, hand drilling machines, hand grinding machines, 2.1 Condition of raw water . .719
etc. 2.2 Water winning . . . . . .720
2.3 Preparation of the water . .720
3 Supply system, cooling water circuit, water storage. .720
9.00 Painters' shop 4 Waste water disposal . .722
9.01 11. Compressed air supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
3 complete sets of tools such as stopping knives, scrapers, putty knives,
glass cutters, abrasive bIocks, etc.
9.02 3 complete sets of paperhangers' equipment such as pasting tabIes, 1. Water supply for cement works
rollers, etc.
9.03 3 complete sets of brushes of various types and shapes 1 Estimated quantities required
9.04 3 sets of flat brushes, paint rollers The water demand of а cement works depends very much оп the production
method and the machinery used. It also depends, though to а less extent, оп the
9.05 3 paint spray guns inc/uding 3 breathing masks, bIow-оut guns
actual size of the works. The main consumer items are the production installations
9.06 various receptacles, buckets, etc. with their ancillaries, the laboratory, the personnel facilities, offices and residential
accommodation.
9.1 О portabIe compressor, single-stage up to 8.8 bar тах.
The water supply arrangements should Ье qualitatively and quantitatively suited to
the requirements. 'П тапу countries there are statutory regulations to Ье satisfied
as regards fresh water supply and waste water disposal. The capital and operating
10.00 Central compressed air supply unit
costs to Ье borne Ьу the cement works operator сап Ье very substantial. Careful
for su.pplying the various workshops with compressed air for driving and planning is therefore essential and should cover all aspects: supply, preparation
cleanlng purposes, equipped with а compressor delivering about and waste discharge for the production, administrative and residential sectors. For
11 m /min at ап operating pressure of 7.0 bar, including cooler, air
З
major cement works developments and/or in difficult water supply situations it is
receiver, piping, electric drive and switchgear for automatic control. advisabIe to enlist the aid of а specialized consultants' firm in order to achieve
optimum technical and economic optimization. In situations where water is in
short supply it is usually necessary to operate with closed-circuit systems as far as
possibIe.
For planning а water supply system the first step will normally consist in estimating
the quantity of water needed. It comprises:
(а) service water, i. е., поп-роtаbIе water for industrial use, more particularly for
cooling, which is recooled and re-used over and over again;
(Ь) drinking water (potabIe water);
(с) water which is lost Ьу evaporation or leakage and therefore has to Ье
replaced.
Depending оп local conditions (е. g., climate) and the production method, the
quantity of water required will vary. For the dry process of cement manufacture,
716 717
 considerabIy from the guide values given in the above tabIe.

ТаЫе 1 : Approximate values for water requirements

2 Raw water
(1) Service water (cooling water)
2.1 Condition of raw water
plant output t clinker/day 800 1000 2000 3000 No standard requirements have yet Ьееп laid down for the condition of the water
used in the installations of cement manufacturing works. Оп the basis of general
cooling water consumption арргох. m З /h 60 80 100 120 experience, however, the water circulating in the cooling system should have the
10% for leakage loss арргох. m З /h 6 8 10 12
following properties.
sprayed water (Iost Ьу evap.) арргох. m З /h 8 10 20 28
it shou Id Ье of such temperature that effective heat exchange in the
losses to Ье made good installations to Ье cooled is obtained;
with make-up water арргох. m З /h 14 18 30 40 it must not have ап aggressive ог corrosive effect оп metal and concrete parts of
the system;
it must not promote ог sustain the growth of organisms in the system;
(2) Drinking water it must not contain oil ог grease.
Furthermore, it should conform to the following limiting values:
Dri nking water consumption сап Ье put at about 100 m З /day (correspond ing to
roughly 0.5 m З рег employee), with possibIe short-term peak demand of 20-
30m /hОur оп account of shift working. It is therefore advisabIe to have а stored
З
designation unit limiting values
supply of at ieast 25 mЗ, е. g., in а water tower.
А drinking water supply rate of not less than 5 m З /hour is recommended. рН value 7-9
Garbonate hardness оп
4-14
(3) Total water consumption (fresh intake from the supply) mval/I 1.4-5.0
total salt content mg/I 3000
chlorides mg/I 500
plant output t clinker/day 800 1000 2000 3000 500
sulphates mg/I
total content of chlorides and sulphates mg/I 500
service water З
арргох. m /h 14 18 30 40 iron mg/I 1.0
drinking water approx. m З /h 5 5 5 5 mg/I 0.15
manganese
magnesium mg/I 60
total water approx. m З /h 19 23 35 45 mg/I 40
suspended solids арргох. 0.05 тт
daily consumption approx. m З /d 480 652 840 1080 К 303
temperature оп entry to circuit, тах.
СС) (30)
average rise in temperature к 298-303
СС) (25-30)
During the periodic heating and cooling of the water in the closed-circuit cooling
system а proportion is lost as а result of evaporation in the recooling plant (cooling
tower, spray pond) and of leakage. Water sprayed into grinding mills, electrostatic
precipitators, etc. is also lost, as is the water used for cleaning purposes or
А further important criterion for judging the suitability of water is its stability оп
consumed as drinking water.
Additional water must therefore constantly Ье fed into the system to make up for Heating. Water which forms по calcium carbonate deposits оп being heated to
lossesand to ensure that the circulating waterfor cooling will not undergo changes 313- 323 К (400 - 500 С) and cooled to 292 - 303 К (200 - 300 С) is to Ье rated as
in its chemical composition ог physical properties. stabIe. If it fails to meet this requirement, it will have to Ье treated.

719
718
 Supply system, cooling water circuit, water storage
l. 1. Water supply

2.2 Water winning

For obtaining the necessary supply of water, апу sources existing in the
neighbourhood of the cement works - lake, river or stream - should first Ье
investigated. Wells drilled оп or near the works site тау provide ап additional
supply. Only if such sources are unavailabIe or inadequate to meet the needs
should water from the pubIic supply system Ье used.

2.3 Preparation of the water

As mentioned above, the properties of the raw water have to satisfy certain
chemical and physical conditions. Compliance with these requirements should Ье
ensured in the interests of health and for technical reasons of tгоubIе-fгее plant
operation.
It is therefore necessary to examine and analyse the water before building а new
cement works. Subsequent routine tests to check the condition of the water during
operation of the plant should also Ье carried out. If the quality of the water satisfies
the conditions, по special preparatory treatment need Ье provided. However, if
treatment is needed, it тау - in order to keep down the cost - Ье limited to the
following'
reduction of the quantity of suspended solids;
suppression of the tendency to form calcium carbonate deposits
(stabilization) ;
reduction of corrosive properties;
prevention of the growth of organisms in the water system.
The suspended solids quantity сап Ье reduced Ьу sedimentation in settling basins.
This process сап Ье accelerated Ьу the addition of coagulants such as aluminium
sulphate АI 2 (SО4)З in conjunction with СаО or Nа 2 СО з .
Various inorganic compounds - е. g., sodium phosphate, trisodium polyphos-
phate or silicates - сап Ье used for stabilizing the cooling water and at the same
time reducing its corrosiveness. The substance most widely employed in recent
years is sodium silicate.
The growth of undesirabIe organisms in the system сап Ье suppressed Ьу
chlorination (chlorine gas) or the addition of sodium hypochlorite.
If the cement works water supply system is required also to provide drinking water,
more elaborate treatment тау Ье necessary for that purpose. More particu larly, the ",9.,
water will have to Ье subjected to appropriate bacteriological purification.
~~ 4;
.....---I-4;-------,---г,~ §~ ~

з
\: I I E~ I ;] ~~
I~~ \ ~~~;
Supply system, cooling water circuit, water storage
11111
The pumps for delivering the water to the works and those for the in-plant water ~_ _::.:::_u_ _-----.....:..------'~§ ~5
supply and distribution system should have adequate reserve capacity in order to
minimize the risk of breakdown in supply or in cooling water circulation if а
technical fault occurs. The intermediate storage tanks for raw water, treated water
721
720

(drinking water and service water respectively) and the warm water collecting
basin should Ье amply dimensioned.
Fig. 1 schematically shows а cooling water circu it with preparation of the make-up
water. Instead of the settling basin а gravel filter with backwash system тау Ье
used. А large basin ог pond with spray equipment тау Ье substituted for the
relatively expensive cooling tower.
4 Waste water disposal
In тапу countries the discharge of sewage and other effluents from industrial
installations, laboratories, residential premises, etc. is subject to statutory reg-
ulations, which will duly have to Ье considered in connection with the design of
water supply systems.
2 compressors, each with ап effective delivery capacity of about 16 m /minute at
З
normal operating pressure of 7.0 Ьаг
2 recoolers each for cooling the air at а rate of 11 mЗ/miпutе, water requirement
about 0.9 m З /hour, cooling water entry temperature 100 С
compressed air receiver, 8000 litres capacity operating pressure 1 О Ьаг
test pressure 13 Ьаг
operating temperature 1200 С
with attached compressed air distributor system
switch device for controlling the compressors
set of various pipelines in the compressor installation, including fittings.

11. Compressed air supply

А compressed air supply system is а great asset in а cerr.ent works. Compressed air
is used for а wide range of purposes: for example, it is used for driving pneumatic
drills and other tools for repair and maintenance work, for cooling certain
measuring instruments, for cleaning parts of machinery such as bearings, gears,
motors, etc.
А very advantageous arrangement is to provide а central compressor installation
connected to the various consumer sections of the works Ьу а ring main. For
convenience of supervision these compressors should Ье located in immediate
proximity to the workshops, where а separate compressor installation for pneu- Abzweige zu den Verbrauchsstellen. z.B.
branch lines to consumer sectlons,e.g.
matic equipment in workshop use is often provided anyway.
Brecherei Кlinkerlager
Of course, it is alternatively possibIe to adopt а decentralized compressed air crushing plant clinker store
supply system Ьу installing compressors at various strategic points in the cement Klinker-Mahlanloge
Rohmateriallager
works, but it is а тоге expensive alternative in terms of capital cost. row materio\ store finish grinding mill
А third solution for the compressed air supply consists in providing а central Rohmuhle Zementsilos
installation, as described above, but connected to а radiating system of pipes to the raw mlll cement si los
individual consumer sections of the works. Rohmehl-Homogenisier-Silos Pockerei +Veгladeanlage
row meol homogenizing silos pocklng +despotch plont
For example, the following equipment is recommended for а central compres-
sor installation in а cement works with а capacity of 3000 t/day (see Figs.2, W т + КI inkerku hler Drehrohrofen
preheoter+ clinker сооlег
3 and 4).
3 compressors, each with ап effective delivery capacity of about 11 m З /minute at Fig. 2: Central compressor installation with ring main supply system to
normal operating pressure of 7.0 Ьаг or consumer sections
723
722
 L. 11. Compressed air supply
М. Personnel requirements

М. Personnel requirements

Ву В. Kohlhaas

The number and type of personnel required Ьу а modern cementworks will depend
оп geographical location and local conditions. Other determining factors are the
type of machinery in the works and the degree of automation of the manufacturing
process. The method of manufacture (dry or wet process), оп the other hand, is of
little influence оп plant manning levels required. Major differences тау оссш,
however, in the case of cement works in tropical or subtropical countries, where
there is often ап abundance of availabIe labour. 'П such countries the level of
productivity per employee tends to Ье lower than in those with temperate climates
Abzwelgt> zu dt>n Verbrauchsstellen,z.B where natural conditions are more favourabIe in this respect and wage rates are
branch llnt>s to consumer sections.e.g.
usually also higher.
Bгec~eгe; Rohmehl- Homogenisier-Silos Кlinker - Ма hlan lage
crushmg plant raw meal homogenizing silos The data given below are based оп а cement works producing 1000 tonnes per
flnlsh grlndlng mill
Rohmatt'Гiallager WT. Кllnkerkuhler Drehrohrofen
day, using the dry process and assumed to Ье equipped with the most up-to-date
Zementsilos
raw materlOl store preheater. clinker cooler cement silos technology. They сап, of course, Ье по more than very approximate guiding values
Rohm(Jhle Кlinkerlager and will have to Ье scrutinized and, if necessary, corrected to take account of 'осаl
Packerei + Ver ladeanlage
raw mlll clinker store conditions.
packing + despatch plant
Fi9· 3: Central compressor installation with radial supply system to
consumer sections

q,-
о>С
00
ТаЫе 1 : Cement works personnei
~~ ~;
"*Е
Eg'
]~
,-о-
А. Salaried staff
. ~~-g'-o~~~~ (1) General administration
,..- CIJ . О"' ~.~ .~~ ."
~-------i-gj~u;~~~~~f
1 general manager in charge
1 secretary
У' ~ ~~ ~ ~ CL .... 1 office manager
г-------_~ ~ о. с 2 clerical assistants
г------ __ ~ 4; ~ v1 ~ 1 works doctor
-е ~ E.~
г-------_ > CLI U\
с
(f) v1
10'I..c '-
~ 1
1
medical assistant
messenger
;: 8 а; с 41 CLI
'--т,-------_ -0.9
- ~ ~NC: О °uo
с
:J v1 '- ~ ~g q, ф
~~ §}~ Е ~ ~~ (2) Technical administration
'~-5 а. ."§.~ ~..c ~ с.:
~E ~~~; ~~ ~~ .S~ 1 technical manager in charge
<!'n~~EEEEEE:;(~ 1 secretary
~~~~~~~~:.~ 1 production manager (possibIy, chief chemist)
F" 4 I d' "d CIJ u а::: ~ а::: Е а::: Е 3 а. 1 laboratory manager (chemist)
19· " : "" IVI и~1 compressor installations located пеаг main consumer
sectlOns IП varlOus parts of the cement works 1 quarry manager (geologist)
4 shift engineers (mechanical or electrical)
724
725
 М. Personnel requ;rements Cement works personnel

1 engineer for works maintenance and safety (6) Raw grinding and finish grinding plants
1 electrical engineer
4 mill attendants
4 shift foremen
helpers
1 mechanical workshop foreman
1 electrical workshop foreman
2 messengers (7) Rotary kiln plant with preheater, clinker cooler and electrostatic
precipitator
(3) Commercial administration 4 burners (1 оп stand-by)
1 commercial manager in charge 4 preheater and cooler attendants
1 secretary 3 attendants for electrostatic precipitator
1 marketing manager 3 greasers
4 - 6 marketi ng assistants
1 purchasing manager
(8) Clinker and gypsum stores, store for admixtures (if апу)
2 - 3 purchasing assistants
1 stores administrator 3 store attendants
5 accounts clerks 3 helpers
2 wages and salaries clerks
1 pensions clerk
(9) Cement silo installation and packingjdespatch plant
5 -1 О typists (possibIy in а typing pool)
2 messengers 2-3 packing machine operators
2 helpers
3 loaders
В. Wage earners (skilled and semi-skilled) 2 silo attendants
(1) Laboratory 2 helpers in sack store
6 laboratory technicians
3 helpers
(10) Mechanical workshop
(2) Quarry 6 fitters
6 shift mechanics
1 ganger (who тау also Ье the shotfirer for bIasting) 6 helpers
3 drilling machine operators (1 оп stand-by)
3 excavator operators (1 оп stand-by)
1 loading shovel operator (11) Electrical workshop
4 truck drivers (1 оп stand-by) 4 electricians or electronics technicians
1О helpers 4 shift electricians
4 helpers
(3) Limestone crushing and clay preparation plant
1 crusher operator
(12) Building maintenance
1 attendant for clay preparation
2 helpers 1 head bricklayer
2 bricklayers
(4) Raw materials store 4 helpers
3 storeyard attendants
(13) Spare parts store
(5) Raw material silos
2 storemen
4 silo attendants 2 general helpers

726 727
 (14) Auxiliary facilities
(а) Oil, gas and water supply*)
N. Lubricants, storage and consumption
2 attendants
2 helpers Ву В. Kohlhaas

(Ь) Safety and security services 1. General . .729

4 doorkeeper-checkers 11. Types of lubricant. . 730
9 watchmen 111. Storage of lubricants. .730
3 firemen (trained in fire prevention and firefighting) 1 Delivery and handling 730
3 first-aid теп (trained) 2 Storage . .734
2.1 Outdoor storage. . . .734
(с) General duties 2.2 Storage in buildings . .735
6 сгапе drivers 2.2.1 Lubricants store . .735
3 messengers 2.2.2 Location of store .735
2.2.3 Size of store . . .737
2.2.4 Construction . . .737
2.3 Method of storage. .739
2.3.1 Storage of drums . .739
2.3.2 Storage in tanks. . .741
3 Issue of lubricants to consumers .741
3.1 Issuing department .741
3.1 .1 Location.. .741
3.1.2 Size . 741
3.1.3 Construction . . . .742
3.2 Dispensing equipment . .742
4 Distribution of lubricants to the machines .742
IV. Lubricants consumption .743
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .743

1. General

Efficient lubrication with lubricants best suited for the particular purpose is
essential to maintaining operational reliability of machinery and prolonging its
useful life. The lubricants for gears, plain and anti-friction bearings, etc. should
therefore Ье procured and applied in consultation with the suppliers of these
lubricants and in accordance with the suggestions of the machinery manu-
facturers.
*) Note: If solid fuel (e.g., coal) is used instead of oil ог natural gas, the following additional
operatives will Ье needed 'П general, it is important to comply with these recommendations:
1 attendant for coal stockpile and pulverized coal silo always use the right lubricant for апу given purpose;
3 coal mill attendants make sure that lubricants аге correctly stored;
2 helpers
keep а careful check оп lubricant consumption.
728 729
11. Types of lubricant ф
OJ
The following main categories аге to Ье distinguished: ;g
(J)
(1)Oils <..9"0
C"I
N CQ C"I r-- C"I C"I C"I
LL о
hydraulic, bearing and circulating oil
anti-freezing bearing and circulating oil
gear oil ё
'0
bearing and circulating oil for very high temperatures (cylinder oil) Q.
ф со со
running-in oil for gears ::i0 'с:- u """
C"I м """
C"I N
Cl.. Е о I I I I
insulating and transformer oil

(2) Greases ё
·o.s:
water-repellent grease <..9 Q.E
water-resistant grease « ~u о о о о о о
OJ (j) C"I C"I М
C"I
gear grease CQ
"О
.!!1°U
LL U о C"I N C"I C"I C"I
high-temperatuгe bearing grease ф

s:
"О
(J
(3) Special lubricants "о .~ ~

- bituminous lubricant containing solvent

.о
Е
::::1
Е'и;
Ф О
.'!!.. О N
*" Ф Ф со
о
о
о
C"I
о
C"I
- spray-adhesive lubricants ::I: с:ыЕ ...... ф C"I М

О
Q';; E-tI """ """
The principal properties of the various lubricants аге listed in Table 1. ::I:
~

Е
<..9.~
~
Ш. Storage of lubricants
.(J)

с::
CtI
>, (J)
о
O(J(J)
(J)

(J).5!? .!!1
_>С,)
ф

"""
ф

"""
со
ф
о
о
о
C"I
C"I
о
C"I
м

.~
1 Delivery and handling ~ "О (J) 00'0 (J) 00 '0
~ с: Ф
~ OJ
~ OJ
ф

Lubricants in relatively large quantities аге for the most part supplied in metal ....
о
"О
с:
CQ
OJ
>
'';:; .~ .S
>
:~ :~·E
drums, while smaller quantities are packed in tins or cans. As а rule, these (J)
CQ с: OJ'6 OJ '6 10 OJ"O OJ"O CQ
.~ с:"О с:"О- с:"О с:"О
CQ -::::1
containers are delivered to the consumers Ьу rail or road vehicle. Negligence in OJ ._
'ё: ~ ~
Ф .- CQ .- CQ
';; ё .S: Ф с: с: с: (J
handling them in transit or оп unloading at their destination is liable to damage the ф
CQ
(J ~- .о .~ Cl.. .- Cl..'-
;g . (J
'~~ '§~ .~
containers, resulting in losses. It is therefore important to exercise proper care. ф'-
g' '0 ёu..i С:Ш"О ёu..i С:Ш"О
Q.
о ~ .о о
,- OJ О OJ О OJ с: о OJ о OJ с:
Suitable handling appliances for unloading from the delivery vehicles will facilitate ..=! - OJ
~ с: (J с: (J с: CQ (J с: (J с: CQ
о- .~ с:
OJ
~"E
:='';:; OJ :='';:;
~"E
ф
dealing with heavy drums, protect them from damage and help to prevent а
~.~ "';:;
о (J с: О (J с:
..::~
accidents. са CQ.!!1
... ::::1 ..!.. ;::) ... CQ ~ (0._ ... CQ "-
CQ"O
(0.-
...
Q. ф
"О CQ"O CQ"O ci; CQ"O
'ё)
Q. (J
> ... -с: (J
... ф:= ф:= Ф ф:= ф:= ~
The normal drum weighs between 180 and 220 kg.lt should therefore certainly not
.; ~ ::I: 'ё:) « 'ё:) <..9 Е <..9Е.о <..9 Е <..9Е.о
Ье unloaded Ьу dropping it from the transporting vehicle - not even if it is allowed
to fall оп а cushion of old motor tyres or something of that kind. The impact of the n:
fall is liable to cause the seams of the drum to ореп; there is moreover а с:

considerable accident hazard when such crude methods are applied. ф .~ .9 C"I м L!') ф

For transporting the drums within the works, suitable vehicles тау Ье employed,
j5 с:
Ф
10
(J о
. ....J ....J ....J """
....J ....J ....J
CtI О О
1- :2ч=z О О О О
such as electric trucks, platform trucks, drum transporter trucks, etc. 'П тапу
731
730
 -...J
w Z
N Identi- Туре of lubricant ISO-VG Kinematic Flash point Pourpoint FZG г
fication viscosity viscosity СОС min. min. load stage с:
No. class mm 2 /s ос ос g-
о'
±10% Q)

~
OL 7 Gear oil containing !f>
v>
mildacting Е. Р. additives, о
bearing and circulating oil Q;
460 460 230 -15 12 со
CD
OL8 Bearing and circulating oil Q)
:::J
for very high temperatures Q..
о
(Cylinder oil) 1000 1000 280 - 6 8 о
:::J
v>
OL 9 Insulating and transformer с:

oil 8-1 О 130 -51 3

"s
OL10 Running-in oil for gears 220 220 220 -18 о'
12 :::J

Identi- Туре of lubricant Symbol Penetration Огор point Temperature

fication according to worked min. ос range о С
DIN 51502 at 250 С
1/10тт

F1 High-grade, water-
repellent calcium base
grease М 2Ь 265-295 100 -20- + 50
F2 Water resistent, soft
Lithium base grease K-L 2k 265-295 185 -30-+130

F3 Water resistent lithium

base grease of medium
consistency K-L 3k 220-250 185 -30-+130
F4 Fibrous sodium base gear
grease containing Е. Р.-
additives G-ООf 400-430 150 -15-+ 80
F5 High temperature bearing
grease Н 20 265-295 260 -15- +150

Identi- Туре of lubricant Mode of lubrication

fication No.
::р
н 1 Bituminous lubricant with Ву hand 5'
о
solvent content for use in "О.
Q)
ореп gears, chains and
ropes "<3
Н2 Special lubricant for See special а) Autom. spray lubrication "
CD
~
lubrication of gears Lubrication Ь) Circulation oiling ф'
v>
exposed to high external Instructions с) Splash lubrication
temperature (1000 С) d) Ву hand
g,
С
g-
о'
Q)
-...J
W ~
W v>
N. lubricants, storage and consumption
Fig.1: Transporting drums in the works Ьу rolling оп rails
instances, however, the drums are simply rolled along. In that case suitabIe rail
tracks should Ье provided, if possibIe, as these will help to prevent damage and
dirtying of the drums and will make their transport easier (Fig. 1).
large consignments of mineral oil are delivered in bulk, generally in rail tank
waggons, sometimes also in road tank vehicles or in demountabIe tanks carried оп
vehicles. Emptying сап Ье а fairly simple operation if the waggons ог vehicles сап
Ье brought close enough to the storage tanks or to the lubricating system itself, so
that the oii сап flow out Ьу gravity. If the distances to Ье overcome are longer, or If
the tanks to Ье filled are mounted at а higher level, а pump connected to them Ьу
hoses will have to Ье used. If the oil has to Ье pumped over greater distances, it will
Ье advantageous to install а permanent pipeline (1' /2 or 2 inch bore).
2 Storage
The storage facilities should Ье of sufficient capacity to suit the cement works'
needs. For guidance, the following figures represent approximately one year's
supply for а works with an output of 3000t/day'
110000 litres of oil in various grades, in about 690 drums; 32000kg of grease
in various grades, in about 280 drums.
2.1 Outdoor storage
As а general rule, oil and grease should Ье stored in enclosed buildings or rooms
kept at а fairly even temperature. Wind and rain should Ье excluded if only because
they are liabIe to obIiterate the markings and designations оп the drums. Besides,
moisture or frost тау cause deterioration of quality
However. if intermediate storage in the open air cannot Ье avoided, the drums
shou Id at least Ье kept under the protection of а roof structure (Fig. 2)
734
Outdoor storage . Storage in buildings
Fig. 2: Outdoor storage of drums
If even this minimum protection is unavailabIe, it must Ье ensured that the drums
are stored in the reclining position, i. е., not upright. It is advisabIe to place them оп
rails or оп timbers and to cover them with tarpaulins or roofing felt.
If drums are left standing upright and unprotected. there is а risk that water and dirt
will enter through а plug that has not been properly closed. Not so well known is
the fact that substantial amounts of water сап get into а drum even through а
properly closed plug under open-air storage conditions. This is due to the suction
effect associated with the "breathing" of the drum caused Ьу temperature
variations. See Fig.3.
Such ingress of water, which тау amount to several litres in а few days, сап
render the oil useless, particularly in the case of special oils such as, for example
transformer oil ог oil for very low-temperature duty.
2.2 Storage in buildings
2.2.1 lubricants store
А room intended for the storage of lubricants should Ье dry and have as even а
temperature as possibIe ог at least Ье frost-free.
2.2.2 location of store
The location of the lubricants store should primarily depend оп the disposition of
the other buildings, the major consuming machinery, and the in- plant transport
routes. Good access for vehicles delivering the lubricants and adequate handling
facilities (unloading platform, lifting appliances) аге essential to quick and reliabIe
reception of these materials оп delivery. А railway connection is necessary if large
quantities аге involved.
735
N. Lubricants, storage and consumption Method of storage

2.3 Method of storage

Storage facilities and arrangements will Ье geared to the questions: "How much?
Where? How?"

2.3.1 Storage of drums

If а large number of drums has to Ье stored, they should Ье placed оп timber
supports (Fig. 5), оп pallets (Fig. 6) ог оп racks (Fig. 7).

Fig. 5: Drums stored оп timber supports

...
111
1:
са
(J

~
~
....
о

]g
~~
ф
о)
са
~ 'i
...о
UJ
o:t
о)

i.i: Fig. 6: Drums stored оп pallets

738 739
N. Lubricants, storage and consumption Issue of lubricants to consumers

2.3.2 Storage in tanks

Lubricating oil which is used in large quantities сап most efficiently Ье stored in
tanks. The size of these will depend оп the rate of oil consumption in the cement
works and оп the quantities delivered to the works in each consignment (drums,
tank vehicles, etc.). 'П апу case the oil storage tanks should Ье of ample capacity so
that, in the event of some days' delay in replenishment of supplies, по critical
shortagewill occur. Each tankshould as а general principlealways Ье used only for
the same grade of oil.
Tanks installed inside buildings сап Ье of simple welded construction (Fig.8).
Ап important requirement is that the tank should have ап inclined ог а hopper-
shaped bottom, so that moisture and impurities will settle at the lowest point and
сап Ье drained off there. For this reason, too, the tanks should Ье mounted
sufficiently high above floor to allow а drum ог other receptacle to Ье placed under
the outlet.
AII storage tanks should Ье provided with clearly legibIe markings ог inscriptions.
Dipsticks ог other oil level checking devices аге essential.
Outdoor tanks which аге wholly ог partly buried in the ground will have to conform
Fig. 7: Drums stored in racks to the statutory requirements for the prevention of ground-water pollution.

з Issue of lubricants to consumers

Storage in racks is the most suitabIe method from the point of view of using the
lubricants in the order of their delivery to the store, whereas with stacked-up drums Lubricants will Ье аЫе to fulfil all the requirements only if they duly reach the
those deposited at the base of the stack will generally Ье used last. lubricating points in ап uncontaminated condition and not mixed with апу
quantity of some other grade ог type of oil. То ensure this it is essential to have
efficient arrangements for issuing the lubricants from the store. As а general
r-_
I "
principle, по lubricants should Ье issued except оп production of а requisition note
stating the quantity and brand of lubricant and the machine for which it is required.
I '\ 'П the interests of есопоту, ргорег records of such data should Ье kept.
I \
I \
I I 3.1 Issuing department
3.1 1 Location
'П most cases it will Ье advantageous to issue the lubricants from the store itself.
However, in fairly large cement works it тау, under certain circumstances, Ье тоге
appropriate to have several issuing points advantageously located in relation to the
(jlzapfhahn main consuming machinery. As а general rule, the lubricants must, оп their way
, oil outlet cock from the store to the machinery, Ье protected as much as possibIe from
contamination with dust and dirt.
-- - -- р-----------,
--- 3.1.2 Size
SchlammabIaB The size of the lubricants issuing гооm will depend оп the quantities and the
sludge drain number of grades ог types of lubricant in regular use. Adequate space for installing
and operating the dispensing equipment, the drilling oil mixers, the sinks and
Fig.8: Lubricant oil tank tabIes for washing and setting down oil cans, etc. should Ье provided. If necessary,

740 741
N. Lubricants, storage and consumption Lubricants consumption

ргорег access for plant servicing trolleys and electrically powered trucks will have
IV. Lubricants consumption
to Ье availabIe.
The consumption of lubricants will depend to а great extent оп whether the cement
3.1 .3 Construction works is relatively old, with aging machinery, ог is а modern опе with up-to-date
equipment. Whereas ореп gear systems аге still found in some older works,
What has Ьееп said оп the subject of building construction in the section
modern practice is to use enclosed gear units, while kiln and mill drives аге of
"Storage" is applicabIe also to the lubricants issuing and dispensing facilities. In
almost completely encased design.
cases where combustibIe liquids of category А, hazard class 1-111, have to Ье
The following approximate figures for guidance relate to а modern 3000t/day
handled, it is strongly advisabIe to accommodate these facilities in а separate гоот
cement works:
of appropriate design, so as notto Ье obIiged to use flame-proof (explosion-proof)
enclosure for all the pump motors, switchgear, etc.
consumption рег t of cement
3.2 Dispensing equipment
first уеаг subsequent years
As а rule, the lubricants аге dispensed Ьу means of pumps which extract them from
the original drums ог through permanent pipelines from the storage tanks. Опе
oils of all grades 11 О g/t 85 g/t
important object of these arrangements is to avoid as far as possibIe апу
transferring of lubricants from опе receptabIe to another with the attendant risk of greases of а" grades 35 g/t 30 g/t
contamination. Depending оп the requirements of the cement works and оп the
availabIe facilities, опе ог тоге of the following possibIe methods of dispensing
А notabIe development that has Ьееп introduced into cement manufacturing
lubricants тау Ье employed
machinery lubrication in recent years, тоге particularly for large drive units (kilns,
(а) with manual equipment· mills, etc.), is the spray lubrication technique (Blanke, 1975; Wollhofen, 1975).
oil from the original drums,
- oil from tanks;
- issue of grease: References
(Ь) with electric equipment·
1. Blanke, H.-J.: Spruhhaftschmlertechnlk In der Praxis. 'п: ZKG
oil from the original drums,
28/1975/392 - 397.
oil from drums in dispensing cubicle;
2. Wollhofen, G. Р.· Spruhhaftschmierstoffe zur Antriebsschmierung in der
oil from dispensing cubicle, separate from pump with drum ог tank;
Zementindustrie. - In: ZKG 28/1975/432 -440.
issue of grease.

4 Distribution of lubricants to the machines

Essential to economical lubrication management is that the distribution of
lubricants to the various machines and installations must Ье linked to properly
planned systematic maintenance. Indeed, the all-important rule of lubricants
есопоту is that these operations must Ье correctly organized.
Maintenance of machinery comprises, in addition to cleaning, the servicing and
lubrication of all the lubricating points, oil changing (including purging the system
of used oil ог filtering the oil for re-use), and remedial treatment of апу faults that
have begun to show up.
Planned maintenance moreover includes the scheduling of lubricating, oil
changing and oil filtering intervals, with due regard to the plant operating
conditions and requirements, as well as including preventive maintenance.
The success of these arrangements will depend to а great extent оп the correct form
of organization and the use of efficient maintenance equipment.

742 743
О. Firefighting equipment о. Firefighting equipment

О. Firefighting equipment Hand extinguishers (portabIe extinguishers)

Ву В. Kohlhaas
Cement raw materials, clinker, cement and some auxiliary materials used in the
manufacturing process аге incombustibIe. AII the same, outbreaks of fire in а
cement works сап Ьу по means Ье ruled out. Office buildings, housing ассот­
modation, laboratories and the lubricants store аге subject to the погтаl fire
hazards, while potentially disastrous major fires сап occur in fuel stores and their
ancillary installations. Besides, fires тау start in electrical switchgear, cabIes,
transformers, process control systems and measuring equipment.
Different methods and equipment аге needed for dealing with different types of
outbreak. For example, whereas some fires сап Ье extinguished simply with water
(fire classA), those occurring in fuel stores (coal, oil, gas) must Ье tackled only
with special powder ог сагЬоп dioxide extinguishing agents (fire classes В and С).
The same applies to outbreaks in electrical installations.
Fig.1 а: Auto extinguisher with Fig.1 Ь: Powder extinguisher.
Another important distinction is whether the fire is in the ореп air (е. g., а coal
pressure gauge. fШеd with 2 kg permanently charged with
stockpile) ог inside а building.
of dry powder extinguishing nitrogen for expelling the
А complete and effective firefighting system should therefore Ье obtained from,
agent. for fire classes А. В and С powder. 6 ог 12 kg powder filling.
and In consultation with, ап experienced specialist firm. It should also Ье checked
for fire classes А. В and С
whether, in the event of а serious fire, help from the pubIic fire brigade сап readily
Ье obtained.
Since апу major outbreak of fire is liabIe to cause loss of valuabIe materials and
installations, it is essential to have adequate firefighting facilities in а cement
works.
There is а wide range of firefighting equipment - from the simple hand
extinguisher to sophisticated fire-engine type vehicles. Also, а distinction сап Ье
drawn between mobile and fixed apparatus.
For dealing with fires which сап permissibIy Ье extinguished with water it is
generally sufficient to provide hydrants connected to а pipeline system fed Ьу а
pump delivering water under pressure. The hydrants, usually installed above floor
level and equipped with hoses of sufficient length, аге located at strategic points
and аге connected to the supply system, preferabIy comprising а ring main. Where
cicumstances require this, the water for firefighting тау Ье obtained from rivers ог
lakes in the vicinity ог from ponds ог basins constructed for the purpose.
AII equipment should Ье regularly serviced and tested so as to Ье sure that it will
function properly in ап emergency. It is furthermore advisabIe to set up а works fire Fig.1 с: Powder extinguisher.
brigade, to train members of the personnel in firefighting and to organize fire drill at 6 kg powder fШiпg. internal gas
regular intervals. cylinder for powder expulsion.
Examples of various firefighting appliances аге illustrated in Figs.1 to 6. for fire classes А. В and С

744 745
 О. Firefighting equipment
О. Firefighting equipment

Mobile extinguishers Vehicle-mounted apparatus

Fig.4: Powder extinguisher vehicles of various types. with fillings

ranging from 250 to 6000 kg

Fig.~a: Powder extinguisher. 50kg powder filling (foam compatibIe).

for flre classes В and С. ог 50 kg powder filling. for fire classes А. В and С
Fig. 2Ь: Powder extinguisher. mounted оп trailer for towing Ьу motor
vehicle. 300 kg powder filling. for fire classes В and С. ог 225 kg powder
filling. for fire classes А. В and С

Fixed apparatus

Fig. 5а: Water (gas pressure) extinguisher. with 10 litres water filling
discharged Ьу compressed nitrogen. for fire class А
Fig. 5Ь: Carbon dioxide extinguisher. filled with 2 kg of СО 2 • with fog
nozzle for fire class В ог with gas discharge nozzle for classes В and С

Fig. 3: Powder extinguishers for the protection of objects and premises. Acknowledgements for illustrations
with fillings ranging from 50 to 15000kg ТОТAL- Foerstner & Со., LadenburgjCologne
747
746
 О. Firefighting equipment
Р. Laboratory equipment

Р. Laboratoryequipment
Ву В. Kohlhaas

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
11. Proposed outline specification for equipment of individual rooms 752
111. Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring
instruments . . . . . . . . 761
IV. General laboratory apparatus . 771
1 Bottles and boxes . . . . . . 771
2 Beakers, flasks, cylinders and test tubes 772
3 Pipettes, burettes, titrating apparatus, pycnometers 773
4 Watch and clock g/asses, crucibIes, dishes, funnels, filtering
equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
5 Glass tubes, glass rodes, pinchcocks, tubes, tongs, spoons,
spatulas, plugs, brushes, cloths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
6 Stands, supports and other auxiJiary equipment. . . . . . . 777
7 Desiccators, Kip apparatus, water jet pumps, thermometers,
Fig. 5с: Carbon dioxide extinguisher, filled with 6 kg of СО "th f hygrometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
nozzle or with tube for СО 2 snow, for fire class В 2' WI og
8 Buckets, bowls, troughs, measuring vessels 778
~ig""5d: Hal?n extinguisher, fШеd with 1.5 or 3.7 kg of inert vaporizing V. Chemicals. . . . . 779
Ilquld, for flre classes В and С
1 Inorganic chemicals 779
2 Organic chemicais 782
3 Reagents . . 782
4 Indicators. . 782
5 Other utilities 782

1. Introduction
The laboratory in а cement works has а variety of duties to perform, including for
example the examination of the raw material components, the decision as to which
individual components are to Ье quarried and in what quantities, and the
determination and monitoring of the raw meal composition. Moreover опе of its
most important tasks is the routine топ itoring of the cement production process to
ensure unvarying product quality, conformity to the relevant Standards, etc.
Testing the accessory materials likewise comes within its sphere of activities. Оп
the other hand, research is not in general conducted in the works laboratory. /п
order to meet the тапу and varied requirements, the laboratory must of course Ье
appropriately designed and equipped. More particularly it should Ье so arranged
~ig" 6: Carbon dioxide extinguisher, mobile, filled with 30 kg of СО f that the various testing sequences сап proceed in accordance with а logical
flre class В 2' or
pattern.
748
749
-..J 3б300
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о
г
I 1--2450 ---11-- 4700_1-2200---lf--4000 ---Н-----11800 11-3200 -----j1--3400 ----H----3450-----l1 Q)
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о
D1
о'
-<
ф
..Q
с:
-О'
3
ф

т
8
со
:L

I
о

8
LЛ

I
,1--
I ~ =1
~/_I:;Л_____', _ _ 1.7nn _ _ '1
L-::..J lu lu ul W LJ 10"" OD
7300---11--2ЗОО---lI-З800--l1-28OQ---jf---4300---------jI------7250
11
2IJ
Fig.1 : Proposal for the layout and equipment of а complete cement works laboratory

Equipment and furnishings

Rooms
а Wall work tabIe
1 Preparation of samples
Ь Cupboard for apparatus or documents
2.1 Store room for chemicals
2.2 Store room for laboratory equipment and accessories с Writing desk
2.3 Store room for technical laboratory d Swivel chair
е Swivel stool
2.4 Store room for X-ray analysis equipment
3.1 Laboratory for chemical analysis f Shelf
3.2 Weighing room (chemical balances) 9 DoubIe work tabIe
h Fume cupboard
3.3 Furnace and oven room
3.4 Room for physical measuring apparatus i Work tabIe
3.5 Room for cleaning glassware, etc. k Titration tabIe
I Balance tabIe
4 Shift laboratory
m Rinsing sink for cleaning glassware, etc.
5.1 Technicallaboratory
5.2 Room for curing of test specimens n ТаЫе
о Chair
6.1 Office for Head of laboratory
р Jaw crusher
6.2 Writing room
7.1 Room for X-ray fluorescence analysis q Disc mill
7.2 Preparation room for X-ray analysis r lon exchanger
s Compression testing machine
t Air-conditioned cabinet
u Large balance
v TabIet pressing machine (for X-ray analysis)

~
8-
с:

~
о'
-..J ::::J
~
Р. Laboratory equipment Proposal for equipment of individual rooms

The information in this chapter is offered only as ап example of the design and 1 Preparation of samples
equipment of а modern laboratory, without laying claim to completeness in the
treatment of this complex subject. 1 wall work tabIe (work bench)
AII the apparatus, chemicals, etc. should Ье availabIe in the laboratory and Ье size of tabIe top: 4500 тт х 700 тт, height 900 тт above floor;
efficiently accommodated and stored. SuitabIe office fuгniture also forms part of comprising тоге particu larly:
the equipmentto Ье provided. Fig. 1 is presented as а suggestion of what а modern 1 tiled tabIe top with cored tiles and apertures; the tabIe top rests оп:
laboratory building should comprise and how its internal layout тау Ье. The 1 tubular steel supporting frame, into which аге slid:
individual work rooms should Ье of ample size and preferabIy all Ье оп the same 2 base units, 600 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other;
floor - the ground floor, if possibIe. If this is impracticabIe for architectural 3 base units, 900 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and inteгnal shelf
reasons, the rooms in question should at least Ье conveniently accessibIe from all 1 base unit, 450 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other; fuгthermore:
parts of the cement works. Cellars ог basements should not Ье used as laboratory 2 end face panels; attachments in ог оп tabIe top:
space, but тау Ье used for the storage of certain bulky materials ог equipment 2 insertion funnels (145 тт х 145 тт);
(е. g., standard sand for mortar tests, empty receptacles and moulds, comparison 2 supply columns for cold water, each with 1 outlet valve, 200 тт high;
specimens which have to Ье kept for some time, etc.) and тау also accommodate 2 supply columns for рroрапе gas, with 2 valves;
the heating installation. 2 supply columns for compressed air, with 2 valves;
at опе end of tabIe:
1 attached sink (600 тт х 400 тт х 300 тт) with bracket; behind this, оп the
tiled tabIe top:
11. Proposed outline sресifiсэtiоп for equipment of 1 supply column for cold water, with 2 valves, 300 тт high.
individual rooms 1 cupboard for apparatus
size: 1171 тт х 494 тт х 1825 тт, with
General remarks
2 leaf doors оп the front, two-thirds glazed, with safety lock, with 4 adjustabIe
(а) AII tiled work tabIe tops аге covered with red-brown matt-textuгed tiles, inteгnal shelves.
including bead edge tiles, jointed with acid-resistant mastic. The tabIe tops have а 1 writing desk
reinforced concrete supporting slab and аге precast in transportabIe units which size of desk top: 1500 тт х 750 тт, height 780 тт above floor, with:
аге assembIed In situ. ТаЫе top thickness about 60 тт. 1 tabIe top of plastic;
(Ь) AII plastic work tabIe tops comprise а 38 тт thick supporting panel of flat- base units from left to right:
platen pressed high-density chipboard. The surfaces, including the edges, аге 1 base unit 450 тт wide with 4 drawers опе above the other;
faced with 1.3 тт melamine resin laminated plastic. The top surface with light 1 base unit 450 тт wide with 1 hinged door (right-hand mounted) оп the front
grey pattern, the undersurface with reverse pattern. ТаЫе top thickness about and inteгnal shelf;
40тт. in addition:
(с) The steel supporting frames consist of square-section (30 тт) tube, suitabIy 2 end face panels.
stiffened and braced. ТаЫе legs аге provided with level-adjusting screws.
(d) AII base units and cupboards аге made of flat-platen pressed chipboard, 19 тт
2.1 Store гоот for chemicals
thick, with plastic facing оп both sides.
Base units аге slid into the steel frames and should leave about 200 тт clearance 8 shelf units
above floor level. basic unit 100 ст wide, 62 ст deep, 187.2 ст high, with 5 shelves.
Fume cupboards аге supported оп steel frames about 200 тт in height. The self-
locking hinged doors have ап opening angle of 100 degrees. Drawers аге made of
2.2 Store гоот for laboratory equipment and accessories
specially profiled and fully plastic-faced chipboard, with runner guideways and
stops. Base units and fume hood superstructuгal parts аге likewise of plastic-faced 4 cupboards for apparatus
construction. size: 1171 тт х 494 тт х 1825 тт, with
(е) Fittings and accessories conform to the relevant Standards and аге coated with 2 glass sliding doors оп the front, with safety lock, 3 adjustabIe internal shelves
light grey plastic. They аге provided with the necessary screw sockets. and 1 fixed shelf.
(f) Sinks аге made of acid-resistant brown-glazed ог white-glazed stoneware and 4 shelf units
аге provided with overflow, loose strainer, plug and trap. basic unit 100 ст wide, 62 ст deep, 187.2 ст high, with 5 shelves.

752 753
Р. Laboratoryequipment Proposal for equipment of individual rooms

2.3 Store room for technical laboratory 1 fume cupboard

size oftabIetop: 1500 тт х 750 тт, overall depth 850 тт, height 900 тт above
8 shelf units
floor, overall height of hood 2500 тт, with:
basic unit 100 ст wide, 62 ст deep, 187.2 ст high, with 5 shelves
1 tiled tabIe top with cored tiles and apertures;
the tabIe top rests оп:
2.4 Store room for X-ray analysis equipment 1 base unit with doubIe sliding door оп the front and internal shelf;
2 cupboards for apparatus furthermore:
size: 1171 ттх494ттх1825тт, 2 end face panels;
comprising inter alia: in front, under the tabIe top:
2 glass sliding doors оп the front, with safety lock, 3 adjustabIe internal shelves 1 continuous boxing containing fittings and provided with appropriate apertures
and 1 fixed shelf; the cupboards stand оп steel supporting frames and аге clear of and holes for fittings, switches and plug sockets;
the ground to provide foot space under them. оп the tiled tabIe top:
4 shelf units 1 hood superstructure with glazed side and геаг walls;
basic unit 100 ст wide, 62 ст deep, 187.2 ст high, with 5 shelves. оп the front· .
1 balanced sliding window, with counterweights, running оп plastlc rollers
concealed in the columns;
3.1 laboratory for chemical analysis
аll glazing to Ье of safety glass; the hood panel~ of wi.red glass; the hood re~r ",:all
1 doubIe work tabIe with Eternit-Glasal (ог similar) glazing materlal, wlth apertures for vепt.llаtюп
size of tabIe top: 4050 тт х 1500 тт, height 900 тт above floor, with dampers; wooden components to comply with requirements stated In the
1 tiled tabIe top with cored tiles and apertures for sinks: base units, side А: "General remarks";
3 base units, 900 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal shelf; in геаг wall:
2 base units, 600 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other; base units, side В: 2 ventilation dampers of grey PVC.
3 base units, 900 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal shelf; Fittings and accessories: ..
2 base units, 600 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other; furthermore. 2 supply outlets for ргорапе gas, each соmРГISlПg:
2 end face panels; 1 supply column and 1 fume cupboard valve;
апасhmеnts in ог оп tabIe top: 1 supply outlet for cold water, comprising: .' .
1 rack for reagents, single-tier, length 3650 тт, width 300 тт, height about 1 supply column and 1 fume cupboard valve, also 1 IПsегtюп funnel of aCld-
350 тт, comprising: resistant brown glazed stoneware (145 тт х 145 тт)
4 supporting columns, each with 2 earthing-contact socket outlets for 220 V, also Attachments оп fittings boxing:
2 mounting studs for stands ог supports, 2 earthing-contact socket outlets for 220V;
the working surfaces to Ье of wire glass, 1 switch for the fan,
in the tiled tabIe top: 1 switch for the lighting;
4 insertion funnels of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware mounted over the hood (above the wire glass):
(145ттх 145тт); 1 complete lighting assembIy, including fluorescent tubes;
оп the tabIe top: behind the геаг wall of the hood:
1 supply column for cold water, with 2 outlet valves, 200 тт high; 1 suction duct of grey PVC (300 тт х 100 тт сюss-sесtiоп), beginning under
2 supply columns for cold water, each with 1 valves, 200 тт high; the tabIe top, with condensate trap; .
2 supply columns for рroрапе gas, each with 2 valves; duct over hood connected via transition piece to PVC duct leadlng to fan;
1 supply column for ргорапе gas, with 4 valves; 1 PVC pipe bend (90 degrees) ; .
2 supply columns for compressed air, each with 2 valves; 1 radial fan for laboratory use, complete with three-phase а. с. motor, Impeller a~d
at опе end of tabIe: casing of grey PVC; casing and drive assembIy mounted оп the same base, wlth
1 sink made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware, 1450 тт х 390 тт shaft seal;
х 275 тт, with: fan accessories;
1 basin (550 тт х 340 тт х 255 тт) and 2 suitabIy profiled lateral draining 2 collars;
surfaces; 2 fixing clips;
1 supply column for cold water, with 3 valves, 300 тт high. 4 vibration dampers.

754 755
Р. Laboratory equipment Proposal for equipment of individual rooms

Note: If the fan cannot Ье installed in the room, it should Ье ascertained what 1 tubular steel supporting frame with 2 pairs of square tubular legs fitted with
length the air intake duct to the fan has or, alternatively, the precise location of the rubber-surfaced castors (2 of which сап Ье fixed); supporting frame has
fan in relation to the exhaust discharge direction should Ье clearly estabIished (а longitudinal bracings and 1 shelf.
sketch will suffice). The height of the room should Ье considered in relation to 2 swivel chairs
these requirements. 4 swivel stools
The exhaust duct should Ье provided with а rain-excluding cowl made of РУС.
3.2 Weighing гоот (chemicai balances)
2 cupboards for apparatus
size: 1171 mm х 494 mm х 1825 mm, each cupboard having: 3 weighing tabIes
size of tabIe top. 900 mm х 620 mm, height 780mm above floor;
2 hinged doors оп the front, 2/3 glazed, with safety lock,
comprising:
4 adjustabIe internal shelves.
1 plastic top. provided with 1 aperture 460 mm х 460 mm for the weighing slab;
1 work tabIe
in the tabIe top: 1 weighing slab 450 mm х 450 mm made of cast stone.
size of tabIe top: 2000 mm х 750 mm, height 800 mm above floor, with plastic top.
1 simple weighing tabIe
1 work tabIe
size of tabIe top: 1000mmх750mm.height 800mm above floor;
size of tabIe top: 1800 mm х 750 mm, height 800 mm above floor, with plastic top.
1 plastic top.
1 titrating tabIe
1 writing desk
size of tabIe top: 2500 mm х 750 mm, height 900 mm above flощ total height
size of top: 1500 mm х 750 mт, height 780 mm above floor, with
1900 mm, depth of top unit 200 mm with wooden top comprising Detopack
1 plastic top;
covering, white colour, total thickness about 40 mт, edges protected with timber
base units from left to right:
strips;
1 base unit, 450 mm wide, with 4 drawers one above the other, with 1 tubular steel
tabIe top rests оп:
supporting frame, 1 sitting recess about 600 mm wide;
1 steel supporting frame;
1 base unit, 450 mm wide, with 1 hinged door (right-hand mounted) оп the front
inserted into this are:
and internal shelf, with 1 tubular steel supporting frame;
2 base units, 900 mm wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal shelf;
in addition:
1 base unit, 600 mm wide, with 1 hinged door, right-hand mounted. and internal
2 end face panels.
shelf;
1 swivel chair
in addition:
2 end face panels; 4 swivel stools
оп the tabIe top:
1 light Ьох, 2500 mm long, 1000 mm high, 200 mm deep, comprising 1 front 3.3 Furnace and oven гоот
frame, detachabIe, with translucent glass infilling, centrally divided; 1 wall work tabIe
in interior of light Ьох: size of tabIe top: 3150 mm х 750 mm, height 900 mm above floor, with tiled top.
1 complete fluorescent tube lighting system installed ready for connection. 1 swivel stool
1 writing desk
size of desk top: 1500 mm х 750 mт, height 780 mm above floor, with 3.4 Room for physical measuring apparatus
1 plastic top;
base units from left to right: 1 wall work tabIe
1 base unit, 450 mm wide, with 4 drawers one abovethe other, with 1 tubular steel size of tabIe top: 3150 mт х 750 mт, height 900 тт above floor, with
supporting frame, 1 sitting recess about 600 mm wide; 1 tiled top, comprising apertures and cored tiles;
1 base unit, 450 mm wide, with 1 hinged door (right-hand mounted) оп the front 1 tubu lar steel su pporting frame;
and internal shelf, with 1 tubular steel supporting frame; 2 base units, 900 mт wide, each with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal
in addition: shelf;
2 end face panels. 1 base unit, 600 тm wide, with hinged doors оп the front and with sink unit as
1 portabIe tabIe integral feature;
940 mm wide, 600 mm deep, 875 mm high. with 1 base unit, 600 mт wide, with 5 drawers one above the other.
1 plastic tabIe top; in addition:

756 757
Р. Laboratory equipment Proposal for equipment of individual rooms

2 end face panels; оп the tabIe top:

in the tiled tabIe top: 1 supply column for cold water, with 2 outlet valves, 200 тт high;
1 sink unit as integral feature, made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware 2 supply columns for cold water, each with 1 valve, 200тт high;
(595 тт х 445 тт) ; 2 supply columns for ргорапе gas, each with 2 valves;
behind this, оп the tabIe top: 1 supply column for ргорапе gas, with 4 valves;
1 supply column for cold water, with 2 valves, 300 тт high; 2 supply columns for compressed air, each with 2 valves;
1 supply column for ргорапе gas, with 2 valves; at опе end of tabIe:
2 electricity supply columns, each with 1 earthing-contact socket outlet for 220 V. 1 sink made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware, 1450 тт х 390 тт
2 swivel stools х 275 тт, with:
1 basin (550 тт х 340 тт х 255 тт) and 2 suitabIy profiled lateral draining
3.5 Аоот for cleaning glassware, etc. surfaces;
1 supply column for cold water, with 3 valves, 300 тт high.
1 sink unit 1 wall work tabIe
size: 2000 тт long, 530 тт deep, height 900 тт above floor; size of tabIe top: 2400 тт х 750 тт, height 900 тт above floor,
comprising:
with:
1 doubIe sink made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware (1060 тт 1 tiled top with aperture and cored tiles;
х 530 тт х 240 тт)
tabIe top rests оп:
for mounting оп wall' 1 tubular steel supporting frame, inserted into which аге.
1 mixing valve unit for cold and hot water, with curved swivel outlet and screw 1 base unit, 1200 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal shelf;
connection for hose; 1 base unit, 450 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other;
2 drainers. 1 base unit, 600 тт wide, with hinged doors оп the front and recess for sink;
in addition:
2 end face panels;
in the tiled tabIe top:
4 Shift laboratory 1 sink LJПit as integral feature, made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware
1 doubIe work tabIe (595 тт х 445 тт) ;
size of tabIe top' 4050 тт 1500 mщ height 900 тт above floor, with: behind this, оп the tabIe top:
1 tiled top with apertures for sinks and cored tiles; 1 supply column for cold water, with 2 valves, 300 тт high;
2 tubular steel supporting frames, with: 1 supply column for рroрапе gas, with 2 valves;
3 base units, side А. 900 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal 2 electricity supply columns, each with 1 earthing-contact socket outlet for 220 V.
shelf; 1 writing desk
2 base units, 600 тт wide, with 5 drawers опе above the other; size of top: 1500 тт х 750 тт, height 780 тт above floor, with:
3 base units, side В, 900 тт wide, with 2 hinged doors оп the front and internal plastic top comprising:
shelf; 1 460 тт х 460 тт aperture for weighing slab;
2 base units, 600 тт wide, with 5 shelves опе above the other; in addition: tubular steel supporting frame is fitted with 4 vibration dampers;
2 end face panels; in the tabIe top:
оп the tiled tabIe top: 1 weighing slab 450 тт х 450 тт made of cast stone.
1 rack for reagents, single-tier, length 3750 mщ width 300 mщ heigh about 1 simple weighing tabIe
350 mщ comprising: size of tabIe top: 1000 тт х 750 тт, height 800 above floor.
4 supporting columns, each with 2 earthing-contact socket outlets for 220 V, also 1 swivel chair
2 mounting studs for stands ог supports; 2 swivel stools
the supporting surfaces to Ье of wired glass mounted in а frame comprosed of
rolled steel sections; 5.1 Technical laboratory
in the tiled tabIe top:
4 insertion funnels of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware 1 wall work tabIe
(145 тт х 145 тт), size of tabIe top. 3400 тт х 750 тт, height 780 тт above floor.

759
758
 Р. Laboratory equipment Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments

1 work tabIe 3 adjustabIe shelves and 1 fixed shelf in interior.

size of ta Ые top: 2000 тт х 750 тт, heig ht 900 тт above floor, with: 1 writing desk
sheet-steel covering 3 тт thick оп wooden backing panel, total thickness of tabIe size of top: 1500 тт х 750 тт, height 780 тт above floor, with:
top 30тт; plastic top;
1 tubular steel supporting frame; base units from left to right:
1 attached sink made of acid-resistant brown glazed stoneware (600 тт 1 base unit, 450 тт wide, with 4 drawers опе above the other, also 1 tubular steel
х 400 тт х 300 тт); supporting frame, 1 seating recess about 600 тт wide;
1 supply column for cold water, with 2 valves, 300 тт high. 1 base unit, 450 тт wide, with 1 hinged door (right-hand mounted) оп thefront,
2 cupboards for apparatus internal shelf, 1 tubular steel supporting frame;
size: 1171 тт х 494 тт х 1825 тт, each with: in addition:
2 hinged doors оп the front, 2/3 glazed, with safety lock, 2 end face panels.
4 adjustabIe internal shelves. 1 swivel chair
1 simple weighing tabIe 1 swivel stool
size of tabIe top: 2500 тт х 750 тт, height 800 тт above floor, plastic top.
1 writing desk
1.2 Preparation room for X-ray analysis
size of top: 1500 тт х 750 тт, height 780 тт above f/oor, with:
1 plastic top and base units. 1 doubIe work tabIe with tiled top
1 swivel chair size of tabIe top: 200 ст х 150 ст, height 90 ст above floor;
2 swivel stools 3 electricity supply columns, each with two socket outlets and base units, but по
other fittings.
5.2 Аоот for curing test specimens 1 sink unit
with mixing valve unitandjoined totiled-topwork tabIewithoutfittings, with base
This room, with facilities for storing the specimens in water, should Ье air- units, L-shaped comprising опе leg of 2 m (sink) and опе leg of 3 m (wall work
conditioned and have по windows.
tabIe).
1 weighing tabIe
6.1 Office for Head of laboratory
size of tabIe top: 900 тт х 620 тщ height 780 тт above floor, Wittl.
2 book-cases, each approx. 120 ст wide 1 plastic top provided with 1 aperture 460 тт х 460 тт for the weighing slab;
1 writing desk 180 ст х 90 ст 1 tubular steel supporting frame fitted with 4 vibration dampers;
1 conference tabIe 120 ст х 70 ст in the tabIe top:
1 swivel chair 1 weighing slab 450 тт х 450 тт made of cast stone.
5 chairs for conference tabIe 3 swivel stools

6.2 Writing room

3 filing cabinets, approx. 120 ст wide
1 writing desk 1 56 ст х 78 ст ш. laboratory equipment with apparatus
1 typing desk 120 ст х 50 ст
1 swivel chair and measuring instruments
3 chairs
1 Preparation of samples
1 jaw crusher
1.1 Аоот for X-ray fluorescence analysis
for coarse reduction, feed opening 60 тт х 60 тщ discharge opening setting 1 to
1 wall tabIe with Resopal top 20 тщ withdrawabIe crushing jaw, electric motor.
size of tabIe top: 200 ст х 100 ст, without fittings or base units 1 mill with grinding discs (toothed discs)
1 cupboard for apparatus with 1.5 h. р. three-phase а. с. motor; cast steel, with toothed preliminary crushing
size: 1171 тт х 494 тт х 1825 тт, with: screw, including 1 pair of special discs for fine grinding.
2 glass sliding doors оп the front, with safety lock, 1 sample splitter with 50 тт passages.

760 761
 Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments
Р. Laboratory equipment

accessories:
1 sample splitter with 8 passages. each of 24 mm; 2 polyethylene containers. 5 litres capacity, for regenerating agents;
a~1 part~ of hot-dip galvanized steel sheet; receiving trays 8 litres capacity; 1 service water filter, size 12 К, for the separation of undissolved substances and
dlmenslQns of equipment 620 mm х 620 mm х 420 mm. suspended matter, with see-through plastic cover;
1 hea~y mort~r, high type, made of extra-hard special alloy, with pestle, поп­ 2 comparison manometers, 63 mm diameter, with fine division and throttle.
mасhlПеd, helght 220 mm, top diameter 200 mm.
1 infrared heating bath (complete)
1 set of hand sieves
3 electric hot plates
300 mm х 300 mm with wooden frame арргох. 300 mm х 450 mm; infinitely variabIe temperature control. up to about
350 С.
0
1 sieve 31.5 mm square apertures
1 sieve 20.0 mm square apertures 2 magnetic stirrers with heating
1 sieve 16.0 mm square apertures type RMH, with stand, electric саЫе, each with stirring rods 25 mm and 40 mm
1 sieve 12.5 mm square apertures respectively.
1 sieve 10.0 mm square apertures 1 rapid incinerator
1 sieve 8.0 mm square apertures for crucibIes, up to 9200 С, with time switch and heating element.
1 sieve 6.3 mm square apertures 2 heating domes, 450 W each
1 sieve 4.0 mm square apertures support for round-bottomed flasks (1 litre flasks)
2 sieves 2.0 mm wire cloth 4 heating domes, 200 W each
support for round-bottomed flasks (250 ml flasks)
2 sieves 1.0 mm wire cloth
2 sieves 0.5 mm wire cloth 2 tripods and supporting rings
2 sieves 0.25 mm wire cloth for 1 \itre heating dome
2 sieves 0.20 mm wire cloth 4 tripods and supporting rings
2 sieves 0.125 mm wire cloth four 250 ml heating dome
2 sieves 0.09 mm wire cloth 6 surface evaporators, 1000 W each
made of quartz, for the rapid evaporation and concentration of liquids, 200 mm
1 air ~et sieve, laboratory type, complete, with the following accessories: diameter, with evaporating dish
test sleve drums, covering and frame made of V2A steel, 200 mm diameter with 6 stands for surface evaporators
attached sealing ring, DIN 4188: ' 4 platinum dishes (without covers)
each approx. 50 ml capacity, weight арргох. 22 9
5 of 0.032 mm aperture 5 platinum dishes (with covers)
2 of 0.040 mm aperture each approx. 30 ml capacity, weight approx. 29 9
5 of 0.063 mm aperture 1 water bath
1 О of 0.090 mm aperture 755 mm х 260 mm, 220 V, with 4 openings
5 of 0.125 mm aperture 1 sand bath
5 of 0.200 mm aperture 450 mm х 300 mm, infinitely variabIe control, for 220 V, 50 Hz. 2 kW
1 laboratory vibrating disc mill 1 vacuum pump
with sound insulat.ion and time switch with 4 setting ranges (0-10sec., complete with drive
0-60sec., 0-1 О mln .. 0-60 min.),
together with :
1 hard al.loy. pot. 1 O~ сm З capacity, with cover, lined with Widia (sintered carbide) 3.2 Weighing room (chemical balances)
alloy; gГlПdlпg medla entirely of Widia.
1 automatic analytical balance
200g capacity, 0.1 mg sensitivity, for 220V, 50Hz.
3.1 Laboratory for chemical analysis 1 precision balance with digital scale
up to 3 kg, readings to the nearest 0.1 g.
1 ion exchanger, two-bed apparatus.
1 mercury barometer
~ominal ca~acity between two regenerations at 100 d foreign ion content 400
790- 630 mm mercury column.
Iltres. effectlve rate 2.5Iitres/minute;
763
762
 Р. Laboratory equipment
Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments

1 set of precision weights

from 1 mg to 100 g, brass, in case. 1 special се" holder for cells up to 40 тт path length
З scale lighting lamps
1 electronic desk top computer
with print-out of results. З micro cells (flow-through type) 10тт
2 portabIe flue gas analysers
3.3 Furnace and оуеп room for the determination of С0 2 , 02 and СО with 4 absorption vessels
accessories:
1 muffle furnace 12 gas collecting tubes with 2 cocks (1 ordinary and 1 capillary) capacity: 250 ml;
with e/ectronic temperature control adjustabIe up tp 11000 С for short . d 8 absorption vessels, Stгбhlеiп-Кгi.iрреl type, with doubIe washing action;
to 11500 С' ff t' . , регю s up
2 burettes, with Karlsruhe type stopcock, 0-21 рег cent fine graduation,
,е ес Ive Internal space. 170тт wide, 90тт high, 270тт dee .
1 spare muffle for replacement р remainder with coarse graduation;
1 drying оуеп 30 rubber bulbs, ScheibIer type;
r~ctang.ular type, e/ectrically hea~ed, adjustabIe from 400 to about 2500 С; internal 2 levelling bottles, 250 тl capacity.
dlmеп~юпs (арргох.): 500т wlde, 478тт deep, 500тт high. 1 flame photometer
; cruclbIe f~rnac~s, Simon Mi.iller type, Model За with connection integral in for rapid emission photometric determination of alkalis and alkaline-earth metals;
шпасе caslng, wlth flex, for 8500 С and 10000 С complete basic apparatus with accessories; furthermore:
1 chamber furnace 2 acetylene cylinders, empty;
~oг temperatures up to 15000 С, heated Ьу silicon carbide elements effective 2 рroрапе cylinders, empty;
Interna~ spac~ 120 тт х 100 тт х 320 тт, connected load 5.4 kW for 380 V 1 set of calibration (standard) solutions,
50 Hz, IПсludlПg: ' , 1 photoelectric turbidimeter (nephelometer)
4 complete sets of silicon carbide heating rods (12 rods рег set). with pointer instrument and built-in voltage stabilizer, with alternative battery
operation, complete with 2 optical cells (100 ml) and spare 'атр 220 V.
3.4 Room for physical measuring apparatus 1 water testing apparatus
for сапуiпg out the following determinations:
1 Eppendorf photometer, type 1101 М
total hardness, carbonate and non-carbonate values, all alkalinity values, phos-
~~u't:Plier versi?n), including Hg spectroscopic 'атр, photomultiplier, 2 scree- phate content, рН, mineral acid, chloride content, inspissation, density of boiler
~ "ng ,~be~, 3 dla~hragms, 3 spare Jamps, and connecting саЫе tor 220 V а. С., feed water, COf1tent of. dissolved oxygen, free and aggressive carbonic acid.
IПсludlПg Iпstгuсtюпs for сапуiпg out metal and water analysis. 1 calorimeter
accessories: for determining the calorific value of оН, complete for 220 V, with steel cylinder
(empty) for oxygen.
1 filter combination 623 пт
1 optical pyrometer (radiation pyrometer)
1 filter combination 578 пт
with 2 ranges of measu rement (7000 to 15000 С and 12000 to 20000 С), with Ni- Cd
1 filter combination 546 пт
rechargeabIe battery, battery charger, and carrying case.
1 tilter combination 492 пт
1 Prandtl-type pitot-static tube
1 filter combination 405 пт
3 тт opening, made of brass with brazed joints, for temperatures up to 4000 С,
1 filter combination 436 пт
length of Ьапеl 500 тт.
1 filter combination 365 пт
1 inclined limb manometer
optical cells, type А.
2 cells 0.5 тт path length 4 Shift laboratory
2 cells 1О тт path length
1 automatic analytica/ balance
2 cells 20 тт path length
200g capacity, 0.1 mg sensitivity, for 220V, 50 Hz.
optical cells, type В: 1 precision balance
4 cells 1 О тт path length with digital scale, up to 3 kg, readings to the nearest 0.1 g.
4 cells 20 тт path length 1 electric hot plate
арргох. 300 тт х 450 тт; infinitely variabIe temperature control, up to about
4 cells 40 тт path length
350 С.
0

764
765
 Р. Laboratory equipment
Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments

1 magnetic stirrer with heating

for the testing of cement prisms, lightweight concrete, refracto~y material.s, lime,
comprising stand, electric саЫе, and 2 stirring rods (25 тт and 40 тт respective-
'у). gypsum, natural stone (for certain tests special attac~ments wlll ~e reqUlred);.
powered Ьу multi-plunger constant-delivery pump, wlth control unlt, manometrlc
1 BI~i.ne air permeability testing apparatus (ASTM С 204-51) for determining the
force measuring system, type 021 О;
speclflc surface of powders, with permeability сеll made of stainless steel, mounted
1 load pacing control unit, type 02022;
оп lacquered rough-service steel plate, with suction fan, filling funnel, 1 set of filter 1 loading rate sensor, type 02041;
papers, 1 bottle of oil and 1 thermometer graduated in 0.1 о С.
1 extension column (100 тт).
calibration sand (аррroх. 100 g), officially certified:
12 two-piece cube moulds
1 filling of sand 1, specific surface арргох. 2800 cm2/g;
made of brass, 50.8 тт edge dimension, conforming to ASTM С 109, type 2121 .
1 filling of sand 11, specific surface арргох. 4000cm 2/g; 2000 Blaine filter papers
1 .27 ст 0/00' 12 clamping frames, type 2121.01.01
24 underplates, glass (120 тт х 120 тт)
5.1 Technical laboratory 1 compression testing unit .
comprising 40.32 тт х 40.32 тт platens, for cement testing in accordance wlth
1 precision balance, е. g., Sartorius model 2353
ASTM С 349 with testing machine type 6313-04, furthermore:
with digital scale up to 3 kg, readings to the nearest 0.1 g.
1 automatic balance 1 pair of spare platens.
range 5 to 50 kg, scale divisions 100 g. 1 flexural testing machine, electrically powered for 630 kg maximum load,
1 sliding-weight platform balance constant loading rate;
made of steel, range 1.5 to 150 kg, scale divisions 100 g. fu rthermore:
1 drying oven 1 tensile testing unit, type 2701 -32, confirming to ASTM С 190-63 for test
rectangular type, electrically heated, settings from 400 to about 2500 С. specimens with 1 sq.in. cross-section.. .
1 Blaine air permeability testing apparatus (ASTM С 204-51) 12 moulds for making tensile test specimens (brlquettes) 1 sq.ln. ASTM С 180-58,
for determining the specific surface of powders, complete. type21 02.
calibration sand (арргох. 100g), officially certified: 12 clamping frames, type 2102.01.01
1 filling of sand 1, specific surface аррroх. 2800 cm2/g; 24 glass plates (120 тт х 120 тт)
1 filling of sand 11, specific surface арргох. 4000cm2/g; 1 flexural testing unit, type 2701-34, confirming to ASTM С 348-63 Т
2000 Blaine filter papers 1.27 ст 0/00 bearings ball-mounted, spacing 119 тт.
1 electronic air permeability tester type 7207 1 vibrating tabIe
for the rapid determination of characteristic values for process control purposes. for the compaction of cement mortar and other specimens in triple mould
1 set of 2 calibration capillaries, with test certificate according to the ISO-RILEM-CEM method;
1 air jet sieve, for laboratory use, comp/ete.
Principle:
1 air-conditioned cabinet
For compaction, two mou Ids аге clamped to the stainless steel top of the ~ab~e. The
арргох. capacity of test compartment: 500 dm З ;
latter is then vibrated at а frequency of 3000 cycles/minute Ьу а magnetlc vlbrator
temperature range +50 to +500 С, temperature accuracy ± 0.80 С; humidity range unit which is mounted in а sheet-steel casing, together with measuring and control
(measured оп specimen) арргох. 90 to almost 100 рег cent.
1 Ultramat 070 equipment. . .
The tabIe top, with dimensions of 560 тт х 355 тт, has а. work.lng helght of
standard apparatus;
about 900 тт and is mounted so as to vibrate freely in thls c~slng. !he total
temperature range 200 to 1700 С, with built-in signalling clock and standard amplitude is adjusted Ьу а control system to 0.6 ± 0.1 тт and. IS m~nltored Ьу
accessories.
means of ап indicating instrument. The run-up time to full amplltude IS not ~oгe
2 thermohygrographs
than 1 second. The required length of vibratory compaction time is pre-set Ьу tlme
with recording instrument (7-day record).
switch. For use оп 220V, 50 Hz supply.
5.1.1 Technical laboratory (ASTM) in addition:
1 compression testing machine quick-action clamping attachment, for fixing 1 ог 2 triple moulds to the tabIe.
1 vibrating tabIe conforming to ASTM С 230
type 2508/2560, class 1, DIN 51220, тах. test load 60 tonnes; adjustabIe test
height Ьу means of central spindle; with mould, tamper and motor drive.
1 mortar mixer
766
767
Р. Laboratory equipment Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments

with two mixing speeds (140 and 285r.p.m.), conforming to RILEM-CEM, 1 mixing bIade, stainless; . " " 1"
DIN 1164, ASTM, AFNOR and other Standards. 1 shrinkage measuring device with mеаsurlПg attachment for 1 х ~ х 11 /4 test
1 program device/basic unit prisms (ASTM), including accessories, accuracy 0.01 тт, checklng rod.
slide-in system, with logic elements, monitor lamps, connection to mortar mixer 100 measuring studs (ASTM)
with multi-pin plugs; 12 triple moulds _
at least the following slide-in program module is additionally required: 40 тт х 40 тт х 160 тт, confirming to RILEM-CEM, DIN 1164, AS ГМ С 348-
63 Т and MF 15-413;
1 RILEM-CEM slide-in program module 4 three-piece top extension units
2 strike-off screeds (scraper bars for excess material removal)
60 sec., 140 r.p.m. (after 30 sec.: signal lamp "put in sand")
2 demoulding attachments
30 sec., 285 r.p.m.
15 sec., stopped (signal lamp "clean edge of mixing рап") 4 cover frames
2 tampers for flexural test specimens, 150 тт х 20 тт, 0.7 kg;
75 sec., stopped (period of rest)
2 tampers for shrinkage test specimens, 11 О тт х 20 тт, 0.5 kg;
60 sec., 285 r.p.m.
2 tampers confirming to ASTM, 7/ а" х 31/4";
240 sec. 500 kg of ASTM standard sand.

1 automatic sand feed device 5.1.2 Technical laboratory (85)

The standard sand must Ье fed in at 30 seconds after the start of mixing and must 1 compression testing machine
then Ье added at а uniform rate of feed for 30 seconds. The sand is kept in readiness type 1120/600, 600 kN (60tonnes), class 11, DIN 51220; forthetesting of 100 т~
in а hopper оп the device. At the required instant for starting the feed the sand cement prisms; for connection to: measuring and control console type 011 0.1 ~ ,
outlet is automatically opened and remains ореп for about 30 seconds. with manualload pacing; load measurement and indication through two рrеСISЮП
1 feed device pressure gauges (class 0.6/250 тт diameter);
with mounting ring, for determining the vibrated bulk density of granular and measuring ranges: 60 to 600kN (6 to 60t); 20 to 200kN (2 to 20t)
powdered materials.
including adapters for 100 тт cubes and for 2.78" cubes;
1 set of sieves conforming to ASTM
200 тт diameter, 50 тт height, with frame, bottom and cover of brass, and the in addition:
tabIe for installing under the testing frame.
following stainless steel woven-wire cloths: Nos. з1 /2' 4, 8, 1 О, 16, 20, 30, 50,
100,170,200 and 325; furthermore: 1", 3/4'" 1/2" and 3/ а ". 1 vibrating tabIe
for the compaction of compression test cubes, 220 V, 50 Hz.
test sieve drums
covering and frame made of V2A steel, 200 тт diameter, with attached sealing 24 moulds for mortar cubes
ring, ASTM: 2.78", complete with base plate.
500 kg of calibrating sand conforming to BS
2 of 0.038 тт aperture, ASTM 400
2 of 0.045 тт aperture, ASTM 325 20 Le Chatelier soundness testers
2 of 0.063 тт aperture, ASTM 230 1 Le Chatelier bath
24 cube moulds conforming to BS 1881
1 Vicat needle apparatus 100 тт edge dimension
complete with accessories, for determining the setting time in accordance with 5 spatulas BS 12
ASTM С 187; also 3 needles and 3 plungers; 3 tampers BS 1881
in addition (as spares) : 4 spatulas BS 12 (weight тах. 210g) ..
12 ebonite rings for setting determination in accordance with ASTM. 1 slump test equipment set, conforming to BS 1881, Part 2 comprlSlng:
1 laboratory high-pressure autoclave, without agitator equipment for testing the slump сопе, tamper, steel
soundness of cement in accordance with ASTM С 151 under saturated steam up to strike-off screed, base plate and spatula.
25 atm. pressure; capacity about 8 litres; complete with fittings, thermal insu lation, 1 set of test sieves conforming to BS 41 О
heating unit, cooling system, and the following additional equipment: 200 тт diameter, 50 тт height, with the following а ре rtures : 0.045, 0.063, 0.09,
1 prism holder for 8 test prisms (1" х 1" х 111/4"); 0.125,0.25,0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 тт; furthermore, conforming to D 1N 4188: 5, 1 О
9 doubIe moulds for making test prisms (1" х 1" х 1 О"); and 20 тт; with cover and collecting рап.

768 769
Р. Laboratory equipment General laboratory apparatus

rectangular screens complete with accessories

aperture sizes: 20 тт, 50 тт and 0.075 тт; 30 ст х 30 ст, with cover, collect- 1 automatic analytical balance
ing рап and suspension chains. 200 9 capacity, 0.1 mg sensitivity, for 220 V, 50 Hz.
1 mortar mixer (Hobart mixer) 1 precision balance
type: n 50, with Cr-Ni steel stirrer and 51itres capacity. with digital scale up to 3 kg, 0.1 9 sensitivity
1 Vicat needle apparatus conforming to BS 1 muffle furnace
complete with accessories; with electronic temperature control system, adjustabIe up to 11000 С, for short
furthermore (as spares) : periods up to 11500 С; effective internal space: 170 тт wide, 90 тт high,
12 brass mou Ids 270тт deep.

6.2 Writing room

IV. General laboratory apparatus
1 electric typewriter
1 Bottles and boxes
7.2 Preparation room for X-ray analysis 1 permanently labelled bottle, white, 500 ml, with stopper, for each of the
1 tabIet press following:
5000 aluminium capsules, 38/39 тт diameter hydrochloric acid 1: 1 сопс., sulphuric acid сопс., ammonia сопс., acetic acid
1 sample splitter сопс., barium chloride 1 О per cent, ammonium phosphate 1 О per cent (6 bottles in
splitter head with 8 passages of 25 тт; all parts made of hot-dip galvanized sheet all)
steel; collecting trays 8 litres capacity; dimensions of the apparatus 620 тт 1 permanently labelled bottle, white, 250 ml, with stopper, for each of the
х 260 тт х 420 тт. following:
1 laboratory vibrating disc mill, type TS 100 hydrochloric acid сопс., sulphuric acid сопс., ammonia сопс., acetic acid 1 :3
with sound insulation and time switch with 4 settings: 0-10sec., 0-60sec., (4 bottles in all).
0-10min.,0-60min.; 1 permanently labelled bottle, brown, 500 ml, with stopper, for each of the
for use оп 220/380 V, 50 Hz; following:
wlth: nitric acid conc., hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate 3 per cent (3
1 hard alloy pot bottles in all).
100 ст 3 capacity, with cover, lined with Widia (sintered carbide) alloy; grinding 1 permanently labelled bottle, 250 ml,
media entirely of Widia. for each of the following:
1 sieving machine nitric acid сопс., silver nitrate, methyl red (3 bottles in all).
for 200 тт diameter test sieves, with time switch up to 60 min., for use оп 220 V 12 narrow-necked bottles with glass stoppers, white, 500 ml
а. с.; 12 narrow-necked bottles with glass stoppers, brown, 500 ml
fu rthermore: 6 narrow-necked bottles with glass stoppers, white, 250 ml
test sieve drums, D IN 4188, covering and frame made of V2A steel, 200 тт 6 narrow-necked bottles with glass stoppers, brown, 250 ml
diameter, with attached sealing ring: 6 dropping bottles, 100 тl
of brown glass, with flat caps
2 of 0.032 тт aperture 6 dropping bottles, 100 ml
2 of 0.063 тт aperture of clear glass, with flat stoppers
2 of 0.090 тт aperture
1 О wash bottles with supports, 1000 тl
2 of 0.125 тт aperture
Jena glass, with rubber stoppers
2 of 0.200 тт aperture
1 О wash bottles with supports, 500 тl
1 of 0.500 тт aperture
Jena glass, with rubber stoppers
1 of 1.000 тт aperture
5 polyethylene wash bottles, 200 ml
1 high-speed micro mill 1 О polyethylene wash bottles, 500 ml
MS 50, complete with accessories 5 polyethylene dropping bottles, 50 ml
1 tabIet fusion apparatus 5 polyethylene dropping bottles, 100 тl

770 771
Р. Laboratory equipment General laboratory apparatus

4 flat-bottomed bottles, 5 litres, 6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with polyethylene stopper (calibratabIe), 250 ml
with bottom tube, rubber plug with bent glass tube (right-angled) and bulb tube 6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with polyethylene stopper (calibratabIe), 500 ml
5 suction bottles (conical), with connection for rubber tube, 500ml 6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with polyethylene stopper (calibratabIe), 1000 ml
5 suction bottles (conical), with connection for rubber tube, 1000 тl 6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, officially calibrated, 250 ml
3 suction bottles with tube, 0.5 litre 6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, officially calibrated, 500 тl
vacuum-tight, Jena glass, with 41 тт adapter, rubber sleeve 41 тт, rubber seal 6 measuring cylinders, high shape, 1 О ml
(Guko 42) 6 measuring cylinders, high shape, 25 ml
1 Woulfe bottle, 500 тl 6 measuring cylinders, high shape, 50 тl
2 stopcocks, attached laterally 6 measuring cylinders, high shape, 100 ml
1 О plastic carboys, 25 litres, narrow-necked, with screw сар 3 measuring cylinders, high shape, 250 тl
1 О plastic carboys, 1О litres, narrow-necked, with screw сар 3 measuring cylinders, high shape, 500 ml
20 polyethylene bottles, 500 ml, with narrow neck and screw сар 3 measuring cylinders, high shape, 1000 ml
20 polyethylene bottles, 1000 ml, with narrow neck and screw сар 200 test tubes, 130 тт х 14 тт ext. dia.
1 О polyethylene bottles, 2000 ml, with narrow neck and screw сар
100 polyethylene powder bottles, 100 ml, wide mouth and screw сар
з Pipettes, burettes, titrating apparatus, pycnometers
100 polyethylene powder bottles, 250 ml, wide mouth and screw сар
50 polyethylene powder bottles, 500 ml, wide mouth and screw сар 1 о measuring pipettes, clear glass, 0.1 ml
50 polyethylene powder bottles, 1000 ml, wide mouth and screw сар 1 О measuring pipettes, clear glass, 1.0 ml
3 round glass boxes, with loose cover, 1 О measuring pipettes, clear glass, 2.0 ml
150 тт diameter, 75 тт high, for filter paper 1О measuring pipettes, clear glass, 5.0 ml
1О measuring pipettes, clear glass, 10.0 тl
2 Beakers, flasks, cylinders and test tubes 1О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 1 ml
1О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 2 тl
36 beakers, Jena glass, 250 ml, low shape 1 О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 5 ml
24 beakers, Jena glass, 100 ml, low shape 1О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 1О тl
24 beakers, Jena glass, 400 ml, low shape 1 О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 20 т!
24 beakers, Jena glass, 600 ml, low shape 1 О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 50 ml
24 beakers, Jena glass, 800 ml, low shape 1О transfer pipettes, clear glass, 100 ml
24 beakers, Jena glass, 1000 ml, low shape 5 Peleus bulbs
40 Erlenmeyer flasks, wide-necked, Jena glass, 300 ml 8 burettes
30 Erlenmeyer flasks, narrow-necked, Jena glass, 300 ml with Schellbach scale, lateral stopcock, 50 ml: 1/1 о, officially calibrated
30 Erlenmeyer flasks, narrow-necked, Jena glass, 500 ml 3 burettes
12 Erlenmeyer flasks, narrow-necked, Jena glass, 1000 тl calibratabIe, Schellbach, with straight stopcock and teflon plug, 1 О ml: 1/50
3 Erlenmeyer flasks, narrow-necked, Jena glass, 2000 тl 3 burettes
6 Erlenmeyer flasks, narrow-necked, with NS 29, 250 ml calibratabIe, Schellbach, with straight stopcock and teflon plug, 50 ml: 1/1 О
30 flat-bottomed flasks, with flanged edge, medium length, 500 ml 3 burettes
30 flat-bottomed flasks. medium length, 250 ml calibratabIe, Schellbach, with straight stopcock and teflon plug, 25 ml: 1/1 О
25 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with plastic stopper, 100 тl 2 burettes
25 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with plastic stopper, 50 ml calibratabIe, Schellbach, with straight stopcock and teflon plug, 1 О ml: 1/20,
25 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with plastic stopper, 250 тl brown glass
25 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with plastic stopper, 500 тl 3 burettes
1 О graduated flasks, Duran glass, with plastic stopper, 1000 ml calibratabIe, Schellbach, with straight stopcock and teflon plug, 25 ml: 1/1 о,
5 graduated flasks, officially calibrated, 50 ml brown glass
5 graduated flasks, officially calibrated, 100 ml 4 automatic burettes
6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with polyethylene stopper (calibratabIe), 100 ml with lateral stopcock and Schellbach scale NS 29, 50 ml: 1/1 о, calibratabIe, with
6 graduated flasks, Duran glass, with polyethylene stopper (calibratabIe), 200 тl stock bottle (2 litres) and rubber bulb

772 773
Р. Laboratory equipment General laboratory apparatus

4 automatic burettes 75 porcelain crucibIes С 102/2,34 mm diameter

with lateral stopcock and Schellbach scale NS 29,25 ml: 1/1 о, calibratabIe, with 25 porcelain crucibIes С 102/3, 40 mm diameter
stock bottle (2 litres) and rubber bulb 35 covers to С 102/1
4 automatic burettes 1О covers to С 102/2
with lateral stopcock, without Schellbach scale, 5 ml: 1/50, brown, calibratabIe, 1О covers to С 102/3
with stock bottle (2 litres) and rubber bulb 1 О sets of glass filtering crucibIes, Jena glass,
4 spare burettes of each of the following: 102, 103, 104
with Schellbach reader NS 29, 50 ml: 1/1 о, calibratabIe 1 О iron crucibIes, without cover, height 35 mm, diameter 45 mm
5 titrating apparatuses, Pellet type (calibratabIe) 1 О iron covers for these
bottle of wide shape (2 litres), with lateral outlet stopcock and automatic zero 1 О pure nickel crucibIes, height 35 mm, diameter 40 mm, wall 2 mm
point adjustment, rubber bellows and stopcock between burette and bottle, 1 О covers for these
burette with Schellbach scale, 50 ml: 1/10. 2 lead crucibIes, height 40 mm, diameter 40 mm, wall 3 mm with cover
5 titrating apparatuses, Pellet type (calibratabIe) 1 О teflon crucibIes, 25 ml
bottle of wide shape (2 litres), with lateral outlet stopcock and automatic zero 1О teflon beakers, with lip, 100 ml
point adjustment, rubber bellows and stopcock between burette and bottle, 6 porcelain dishes, shallow, 60 mm diameter
burette with Schellbach scale, 1 О ml: 1/20. 6 porcelain dishes, shallow, 100 mm diameter
5 titrating apparatuses, Pellet type (calibratabIe) 6 porcelain dishes, semi-deep, 100 mm diameter, bIue inside
bottle of wide shape (2 litres), with lateral outlet stopcock and automatic zero 6 porcelain dishes, semi-deep, 120 mm diameter, bIue inside
point adjustment, rubber bellows and stopcock between burette and bottle, 1 О sets of casseroles, diameters 100 mm, 125 mm and 150 mm with lip and handle
burette with Schellbach scale, 1 О ml. 1/50. 1 О sets of porcelain evaporating dishes
5 titrating apparatuses, Pellet type (catibratabIe) semi-deep, with lip, diameters 80 mm, 90 mm, 100 mm, 185 mm, 230 mm
bottle of wide shape (2 litres), with lateral outlet stopcock and automatic zero 1О sets of porcelain evaporating dishes
point adjustment, rubber bellows and stopcock between burette and bottle, shallow, diameters 80 mm, 140 mm, 200 mm
burette with Schellbach scale, 25 ml: 1/10. 2 porcelain mortars, internally rough, with pestle, 160 mm diameter
3 pycnometers 2 porcelain mortars, internally rough, with pestle, 30 mm diameter
with capiliary sюррег, accurately adjusted, 50 ml 12 aluminium dishes, rectangular, 100 mm х 70 mm х 20 mm
3 pycnometers 24 ignition dishes, 60 mm х 95 mm х 15 mm
with сарillагу stopper, accurately adjusted, 25 ml 24 ignition dishes, 48 mm х 75 mm х 12 mm
3 pycnometers 40 analytical funnels, Jena glass, 11 О mm diameter, rapid funnel
with capillary stopper and thermometer, adjusted, 50 ml 35 analytical funnels, Jena glass, 80 mm diameter, rapid funnel
3 pycnometers 5 Buchner funnels, glass, аррroх. 12 cm
with capillary stopper and thermometer, adjusted, 25 ml 3 glass funnels, 600 angle, 45 mm diameter
3 glass funnels, 600 angle, 80 mm diameter
4 Watch and clock glasses, crucibIes, dishes, funnels, 3 glass funnels, 600 angle, 150 mm diameter
filtering equipment 3 glass funnels, 600 angle, 250 mm diameter
1 О filtering adapters
20 glasses, 30 mm diameter diameter 41 mm, with 1 О rubber seals (GukO 42) for suction bottle and 1О rubber
20 glasses, 40 mm diameter sleeves (41 mm) for filtering crucibIe
20 glasses, 50 mm diameter
20 glasses, 70 mm diameter 5 Glass tubes, glass rods, pinchcocks, tubes, tongs,
20 glasses, 60 mm diameter spoons, spatulas, plugs, brushes, cloths
20 glasses, 80 mm diameter
20 glasses, 100 mm diameter 2 9 lass tu bes
20 glasses, 125 mm diameter 1 m long, right-angled bend at 900 mm, with outlet, 8 mm diameter, lower end with
20 glasses, 150 mm diameter NS соге 29, to fit Erlenmeyer flask 300 ml, tube extending down to about 15 mm
25 porcelain crucibIes С 102/1, 30 mm diameter from bottom of flask

774 775
Р. Laboratory equipment General laboratory equipment

10 kg of glass tubes, 4 to 10 тт diameter 5 sets of Suberit cork rings, for flasks, 8 тт, 11 тт, 14 тт and 17 тт diameter
20 tube connectors, of glass, for tubes of various diameters, 120 тт totallength, per set
18 тт maximum diameter 5 spray brushes, 10 тт d iameter
10 glass tees, with connectors for rubber tubing, 8 тт diameter 5 test tube brushes, wool-tipped, 15 тт diameter
20 U-tubes with ground-in stopcocks and side tubes 12.5 ст long 5 test tube brushes, wool-tipped, 30 тт diameter
30 glass rods, 5 тт diameter, 130 тт length 5 Erlenmeyer flasks and bottle brushes, 45 тт diameter
30 glass rods, 5 тт diameter, 200 тт length 5 beaker brushes, with wooden handle, 60 тт diameter
10 kg of glass rods, 3 тт to 6 тт d iameter 5 rinsing brushes, 65 тт diameter
6 pinchcocks, Mohr's type, 50 тт length 20 fine brushes, round tuft, approx. 200 тт length
6 pinchcocks, Mohr's type, 60 тт length 20 fine brushes, flat tuft, 100 тт length
6 pinchcocks, Mohr's type, 70 тт length 5 round-tufted brushes of brist!e, approx. 30 тт diameter
6 pinchcocks, Hoffmann's type, hinged, 17 тт wide 10 soft cleaning cloths
6 pinchcocks, Hoffmann's type, hinged, 20 тт wide 20 cleaning rags
6 pinchcocks, Hoffmann's type, hinged, 30 тт wide 20 towels
50 m of PVC tubing, 5 тт internal diameter 50 glassware cloths
50 m of PVC tubing, 6 тт internal diameter 2 Кlеепех towels
50 m of PVC tubing, 8 тт internal diameter 2 plastic holders to fit
50 m of PVC tubing, 10 тт internal diameter
50 m of PVC tubing, 12 тт internal diameter
50 m of PVC tubing, 20 тт internal diameter
50 m of rubber tubing, red, 5 тт internal diameter, wall thickness 1.5 тт
50 m of rubber tubing, red, 8 тт internal diameter, wall thickness 2 тт 6 Stands, supports and other auxiliary equipment
50 m of vacuum tubing, 5 тт internal diameter, wall thickness 5 тт
2 crucibIe tongs with platinum shoes, 1.5 to 2 9 of platinum, length 50 ст 8 filter stands, quadruple, adjustabIe, made of PVC
2 crucibIe tongs with platinum shoes, 1.5 to 2 9 of platinum, length 25 ст 2 test tube holders, for 12 tubes, made of PVC
4 crucibIe tongs of 18/8 steel, length 20 ст 4 pipette stands, for 24 pipettes, made of plastic
1 crucibIe tongs of 18/8 steel, length 50 ст 6 doubIe burette holders, with plate support, 150 тт х 300 тт
2 crucibIe tongs of рше nickel, length 20 ст 6 tripods, 12 ст diameter
2 evaporating dish holders 3 triangles of chrome-nickel wire, without tubes, leg length 60 тт
6 weighing-in spoons with wooden or plastic handle 20 clay triangles 40 тт
6 horn spoons, 140 тт length 20 clay triangles 70 тт
5 spoons for chemicals, short-handled, 140 тт length 25 asbestos wire gauze pieces 16 ст х 16 ст
5 scoops of low-pressure polyethylene, 62.5 ml 5 angled clips, without sleeve, 40 тт
5 scoops of low-pressure polyethylene, 1ба ml 3 support rings, without sleeve, 70 тт diameter
5 scoops of low-pressure polyethylene, 500 ml 4 support rings, without sleeve, 100 тт diameter
5 scoops of aluminium 10 sleeves for stands, 16 тт grip
5 scoops of aluminium 20 doubIe sleeves
5 ladles of special steel, 200 ml 5 stands with plates, supporting rod 750 тт, plate 125 тт х 200 m
10 large spatulas, 250 тт, with flexibIe stainless bIade and wooden handle 5 supporting rods, 500 тт
15 weighing-in spatulas, with wooderl ~landle, width 14 тт 5 supporting rods, 750 тт
5 spatulas of 18/8 steel, length 21 ст 5 supporting rods, 1000 тт
2 forceps (bIunt), length 120 тт 5 round clips, without sleeve, 25 тт
20 rubber wipers, spade-shaped 5 round clips, without sleeve, 40 тт
12 rubber wipers, rod-shaped 5 round clips, without sleeve, 60 тт
1 large assortment of cork bungs, bottom diameter from 7 to 45 тт 5 angled clips, without sleeve, 25 тт
3 large assortments of rubber bungs, bottom diameter from 4 to 63 тт 2 lifting platforms, plate 200 тт х 200 тт

776 777
 Chemicals
Р. Laboratory equipment

7 Desiccators, Кipp apparatus, water jet pumps, 1 agate mortar .

with pestle, external diameter 100 mm. standard quallty
thermometers, hygrometers
1 horseshoe magnet, 100 mm length
2 desiccators 7 waste disposal buckets, with cover
diameter 150 mm, with curved NS stopcock in cover, including porcelain plate 2 air dryers .
2 desiccators 6 Bunsen burners for ргорапе gas, with valve and pllot flame
diameter 200 mm. with curved NS stopcock in cover, including porcelain plate 2 spirit lamps, made of glass, 100 ml
3 desiccators 2 bIast lamps for ргорапе gas
diameter 200 mm. with NS stopcock in side tube, including porcelain insert 3 electric burners. 500 W . .
3 desiccators with Сг- Ni steel support for fairly large vessels and cruclbIe holder of heat-reslstant
diameter 250 mm. with NS stopcock in side rube, including porcelain insert wire
1 Kipp gas generating apparatus 3 gas lighters. each with 1 О spare flints .
complete with NS stopcock 29/32 in bottom tube, capacity 1 litre 5000 round filter papers, 12.5 ст, bIack rlbbon
5 water jet pumps, with non-return valve 5000 round filter papers, 12.5 cm, white ribbon
metal, '/2'" stopcocks with smooth outlet tube 5000 round filter papers, 12.5 cm, bIue ribbon
1 О laboratory thermometers, О to 3600 С 5000 round filter papers, 12.5 cm red ribbon
1 О laboratory thermometers, О to 1500 С 500 folded filter papers. 32 cm diameter .
1 О laboratory thermometers, up to 2500 С, graduated in 1/1 25 weighing glasses, 30 mm х 50 ~m. wit.h ground-In ~Iass cover
5 general purpose thermometers, graduated up to 500 С 3 weighing boats, made of aluminlum. wlth counterwelght. 8cm length
5 general purpose thermometers, graduated up to 1000 С 20 refillabIe chinagraph pencils
5 general purpose thermometers, graduated up to 2500 С in each of the following colours: red, green. bIack
5 general purpose thermometers, graduated up to 4200 С 30 boxes of spare leads, each containing 6 assorted leads .
1 window thermometer max./min., оп glass plate, with magnet 1 glass cutter of Widia steel with wooden handle and renewabIe cuttlng bIade
1 hair hygrometer 1 cork Ьогег set
1 cork Ьогег sharpener
8 Buckets, bowls, troughs, measuring vessels 1 tool cabinet
complete, with usual tools for domestic use
5 plastic buckets, without lip and without cover, 1 О litres 3 tins of Vaseline
2 plastic buckets, with lip and without cover, 12 litres 250g of desiccator grease .
5 round bowls, made of polypropylene, 200 mm diameter 1 large first aid kit for laboratories. fully еqшрреd
5 round bowls, made of polypropylene, 335 mm diameter 5 pairs of rubber gloves
5 round bowls, made of special steel, 335 mm diameter 5 pairs of asbestos gloves
5 rectangular bowls, ground and polished, арргох. 250 mm х 180 mm 2 pneumatic еуе bathing bottles . . ' . .
5 troughs, made of polypropylene, 320 mm х 250 mm х 135 mm for immediate bathing of the eyes If splashed wlth caustlc Ilqшd
1 О measuring vessels, with handle, made of polypropylene. 1 litre 1 О pairs of safety goggles
Other equipment: 2 step-Iadders
1 universal time switch
with programmabIe switching operation for 1 -day period, оп and off from 0.5 to
12 hours. 16 А, 220 V. 50 Hz V. Chemicals
2 stop-watches 1 Inorganic Chemicals
2 time interval meters, 60 minutes
2 time interval meters. 30 minutes 50 х 2500 ml hydroch!oric acid, fuming, at least 37 рег cent.
1 magnifying glass. 1 Ох A.R. (= analytical reagent)
1 iron mortar 4х2500 ml sulphuric acid, 95 to 97 рег cent, A.R.
standard mortar, tall shape. made of extra-hard special alloy. with pestle. 15 cm 10х2500 ml nitric acid. at least 65 рег cent, A.R. (1.40)
diameter. 18 cm height. unmachined 5х2500 ml orthophosphoric acid. at least 85 рег cent. A.R.
779
778
 Chemicals
Р. laboratory equipment

1х 500 9 potassium acid carbonate, fine-9rained. A.R.

1 х 2500 ml chromosulphuric acid for cleanin9 91assware potassium регоху disulphate, A.R.
1х 250 9
24х 500 ml hydrofluoric acid, at least 40 рег cent, A.R.
4х 250 9 potassium perman9anate, A.R.
1 х 2500 ml perchloric acid, аррroх. 70 рег cent, A.R. (арргох. 1.67) potassium sulphate, A.R.
1х 500 9
1 х 1000 ml hydrobromic acid, at least 47 рег cent, potassium pyro-sulphate, A.R.
4х 500 9
A.R. (арргох. 1.50) potassium chloride, A.R.
1 х 500 9
25 ampoules Titrisol0.1 N potassium perman9anate potassium nitrate, A.R.
1 х 500 9
25 ampoules Titrisol0.1 N H 2 S0 4 potassium nitrate, pure
1 х 1000 9
25 ampoules Titrisol 0.1 N Н CI potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), A.R.
1 х 500 9
25 ampoules Titrisol0.1 N NaOH potassium hydroxide, in tabIets, hi9hest purity
10 х 1000 9
10 ampoules Titrisol0.1 N oaxalic acid potassium chlorate, A.R.
1 х 500 9
25 ampoules Titrisol 0.1 silver nitrate solution potassium cyanide. A.R.
1 х 5009
50 ampoules Titrisol0.1 N Titriplex 111 solution caustic potash, арргох. 50 рег cent
10 х 1000 ml
50 ampoules Titrisol0.1 ammonium rhodanide iron(ll) chloride, А. R.
2 х 250 9
2х1000 ml Titriplex solution А 1 ml, for det. water hardness iron(lIl) chloride. A.R.
2 х 250 9
2 х 1000 ml Titriplex solution В 1 ml, for det. water hardness iron(ll) sulphate
2 х 1000 9
1 х 250 ml perhydrol (hydrogen peroxide), A.R. iron(llI) oxide
2 х 100 9
20х 5000 ml ammonia, at least 25 рег cent mercury(l) chloride, A.R.
1 х 250 9
1 х 1000 9 ammonium sulphate, A.R. mercury(ll) chloride, A.R.
4х 250 9
1 х 500 9 ammonium thiocyanate, A.R. tin(lI) chloride
6 х 250 9
1х10009 ammonium peroxide disulphate, A.R. di-arsenic trioxide, subIimated, A.R.
1 х 500 9
1х 500 9 ammonium nitrate, A.R. Kupferron (N-nitroso-N-phenylhydroxylamine,
2х 25 9
1х 500 9 ammonium iron(lI) sulphate, A.R. ammonium salt)
1х 500 9 ammonium iron(lll) sulphate, A.R. silver nitrate, A.R.
4х 259
4х 250 9 ammonium heptamolybdate cryst. zinc oxide. A.R.
2 х 100 9
1х 500 9 ammonium carbaminate (carbonate), A.R. copper(l) chloride. A.R.
10 х 250 9
4х 500 9 ammonium acetate, A.R. соррег(lI) chloride, A.R.
1 х 250 9
10х 500 9 ammonium chloride, A.R. ma9nesium chloride, A.R.
1 х 250 9
10 х 250 9 ammonium oxalate, A.R. ma9nesium oxide, A.R.
2 х 250 9
5 х 1000 9 ammonium acid phosphate, A.R. ma9nesium sulphate, A.R.
1 х 500 9
5 х 250 9 hydroxyl ammonium chloride, A.R. sodium acetate, hi9hest purity
2 х 1000 9
4 х 500 9 barium chloride, A.R. sodium potassium carbonate, A.R.
5 х 1000 9
1 х 500 9 lead(lI) acetate, neutral, A.R. sodium acid carbonate, fine-9rained, A.R.
1 х 1000 9
1 х 500 9 boric acid, cryst., A.R. sodium carbonate, A.R.
2 х 1000 9
1 х 1000 9 cadmium acetate sodium sulphite, anhydr., A.R.
1 х 500 9
3 х 250 9 calcium carbonate, precip. for analysis sodium sulphate decahydrate, cryst., A.R.
1 х 1000 9
4 х 500 9 calcium chloride dihydrate cryst., A.R. sodium peroxide, 9гап., A.R.
1 х 500 9
2x1000g calcium chloride, A.R., medium fine, for dryin9 sodium thiosulphate, pentahydrate, A.R.
1 х 500 9
4 х 250 9 calcium chloride. A.R., for elementary analysis disodium acid phosphate. A.R.
2 х 250 9
2 х 1000 9 man9anese(ll) sulphate monohydrate, A.R. tetrasodium diphosphate decahydrate, A.R.
1 х 500 9
1 х 250 9 potassium thiocyanate, A.R. bromine, A.R.
1 х 100 ml
2 х 250 9 potassium iodide, A.R. iodine, subIimated, A.R.
1 х 100 9
1 х 1000 9 potassium acetate, hi9hest purity mercury, A.R., for analysis and for pola ro 9 ra phy
2 х 1000 9
1 х 500 9 potassium bromate, cryst., pure tin, 9геу, A.R.
2 х 100 9
1 х 250 9 potassium chromate, A.R. zinc, coarse powder, A.R. (for reducer fillin9 s)
2 х 1000 9
1 х 500 9 potassium bichromate, A.R. marbIe, 9ranulated, for сагЬоп dioxide evolution
2 х 1000 9
2 х 500 9 potassium carbonate, A.R.
781
780
 Chemicals
Р. Laboratory equipment

2 Organic Chemicals 5 Other Utilities

2 х 1000 9 sea sand, acid-cleaned and calcined, A.R.
5 х 2500 ml acetic acid (glacial), at least 96 рег cent,
A.R. (арргох. 1.06) 2 х 1000 9 glass wool
1 х 1000 ml formic acid, 98 to 100 рег cent, A.R. 4х 1000 9 silica gel with moistuгe ind.
1 х 500 9 oxalic acid, A.R. 1 х 250 9 desiccator grease
2 х 250 9 soda asbestos, fine-grained, for elementary analysis
3 х 1000 9 L( +) tartaric acid, A.R., cryst., highest puгity
2 х 1000 9 asbestos for Gooch crucibIe
6х 250 9 5-sulphosalicylic acid, A.R.
2х 1000 ml acetoacetic ester 10 х 1000 ml RCH СО absorbent
2х 1000 ml 2-propanol (isopropyl alcohol), A.R. 10 х 1000 ml RCH 02 absorbent
4х 1000 ml n-butanol (n-butyl alcohol), A.R.
12 х 2500 ml ethanol (ethyl alcohol), арргох. 95 рег cent
3 х 1000 ml diethyl ether, A.R.
2 х 1000 ml acetone, A.R.
8x5000ml ethylene glycol, A.R.
4х2500 ml m-xylene, highest puгity
2х2500 тl pyridine, highest purity
2х2500 ml сагЬоп tetrachloride, highest purity
2х2500 ml chloroform, A.R.
1 х 500 тl glycerin, doubIe dist. (аррroх. 87 рег cent), A.R.
2 х 500 9 hexamethylene tetramine, A.R.
1 х 1000 ml formaldehyde solution, 35 рег cent
1 х 250 9 starch, solubIe, A.R.

з Reagents
2 х 1000 9 Eschka's reagent, A.R.

4 Indicators
50 boxes universal indicator рарег рН 1 -1 О
50 rolls litmus рарег, in plastic boxes, red
50 rolls litmus рарег, in plastic boxes, bIue
1 х 25 9 phenolphthalein indicator
40х 5 9 I-naphthol phthalein indicator
4х 25 9 methyl orange indicator
1 х 500 9 indicator buffer tabIets
40 х 25 9 calcon carboxylic acid indicator for metal titration
1О х 25 9 eriochrome bIack Т, indicator for metal titration
1 х 25 9 Ьгото phenol bIue indicator. A.R.
10х 5 9 1,1 O-phenanthrolinium chl6ride, A.R.,
and redox indicator
783
782

Subject Index
accident prevention regulations 688
acoustic screens 668
addition of sound levels 661
additive materials 4
aerial ropeways 54
after cooling zone 367
airborne sound 658, 685
air break-through 365
air change 676
air demand 355
air excess 340
air flush 11
alite (tricalcium silicate) 128
alphanumeric display unit 609
alumina ratio 112
aluminate phase 129
analysis of gases 589
angle of inclination 517,521,544,
547, 552
angle of repose 572
applicator 488
аргоп conveyor 543Н.
-, degree of slope 544
аргоп feeder 572, 574
arrangement of bIending beds 90
assessment of а bIending bed 69
assessment of classification
processes 232
autogenous grinding 251
autogenous mills 250
automatic palletizer 492
automatic sack lоаdёг 494, 496
automation 585
automation of cement despatch 511
auxiliary equipment for crushers 193
averaging of sound pressure levels 664
A-weighted sound level 661
background noise 666
background noise level 667
bag filters 644
basis for maintenance work 695
batchwise homogenization 295
bed-bIепdiпg theory 66
belite (dicalcium silicate) 129
belt bucket elevator 525ff.
belt conveyor 52, 482, 516ff.
-, capacity data 522
, degree of slope 521
-, drive power requirement 522
Subject Index
belt and bend conveyors 516Н.
-, belt conveyor 516Н.
-, stell band conveyor 523
belt connection 525
belt feeder 572, 574
belt weigher 579Н.
"Big bag" despatch 503
-, filling terminal 506
berms and quarry faces 59
bIaded rotor separator 219
bIasting 32, 36
bIending bed
arrangement of the 90
assessment of а 69
based оп the cone-shell method 89
, mode of operation of the 66
bIending bed systems
with horizontal and inclined
stacking 88
- with windrow stacking 84
bIending control system 595
bonus systems 691
Ьоот stacker 79,83,84
breaker bars 378
breaking out the rock 32
breaking teeth 376
bridge mОШltеd bucket-wtleel
reclaimer 82
bridge type scraping reclaimer 81
bridging plates 364
bucket elevators 481, 523Н.
-, drive power requirement 535
bucket-wheel reclaimer with slewing
Ьоот 83
bundles 489
bypass system 23
cabIe-орегаtеd excavators 46
calculating the mill drive power 248
calculation of the raw mix proportions
113
calculation of reserves 23
capacities of clinker storage structures
461
capacity data
for belt conveyors 522
for flight conveyors 540
for pneumatic trough conveyors
569
785
Subject Index
eapacity data
for short-pan аргоп conveyors 546
for swing bucket elevators 537
for vertical bucket elevators 532
of pneumatic handling systems
562
of screw conveyors 558
carbonates, decomposition of 122
сагЬоп monoxide 625
cascading of grinding media 245
cataracting of grinding media 245
cement burning process,
chemical aspects
mineralogical aspects
physical aspects 119
cement despatch 490
cement clinker 461
cement silos 472
cement standards 170
cement testing 166
central compressor installation 722
centrifugal discharge 524
chain bucket elevator 529Н.
chain conveyors 539Н.
-, аргоп conveyor 543Н.
-, continuous-flow conveyor 541 Н.
-, flight conveyor 539Н.
chain feeder 572, 57Бf.
chain pitch 517, 530, 536, 543, 545
channei wheei separator 225
checking the diaphragms 258
checking the lining 258
checking the sampling system 98
chemical aspects of the cement burning
process 119
chemical composition of cement kiln
dusts 623
chemical investigations 20
chevcon method 77
chevron method 73
circular stockpile 91, 92
circulating air separators 220
classification and designations of се-
ments 159, 160
classification associated with dry grind-
ing processes 216
classification in wet grinding 226
classification of cements 159, 160
classification of reserves 23
classifier tests 238
clay 4
clay component 16, 22
clay minerals, dehydration 121
786
cleaning methods
- mechanical 646
- pneumatic 646
clinker breaker 350
clinker column control 415
clinker gradings 334
clinker handling system 516
clinker in outdoor stockpiles 459
clinker loading 503
clinker phases 128
clinker storage 459, 465
closed-circuit reduction 181
closed lоор control 591
coal grinding/drying plants 657
соа' grinding mill 285
соа' mixing installation 577
collecting electrodes 655
collection efticiency 641, 654
combination cooler 354
combined system 295
combustion air rate 340
comminuting action 241
compact controller 592
compound impact crusher 189
compressed air cleaning 646
compressed air supply 722
computer-controlled system 695
computer in exploration 25
computerized control 606
соmрutепzеd control centre 608
computerized maintenance control 704
computerized maintenance system 698
cone-shell method 75
constituents of cements 163
construction of lubricant stores 737
continuous bIending 295
continuous conveyor 515
continuous-flow conveyor 541 Н.
-, drive power requirement 542
continuous-flow feeder 572
control desk 603
controller modules 592
control of coolers 404
control of roller mills 276
control рапе' 601
conventional air separator 221
conveying speed 517, 520, 540, 546,
548, 552
conveyors 483, 556Н.
аргоп conveyor 543ff.
belt conveyor 516Н.
drag-plate аргоп conveyor 548
continuous conveyor 515
conveyors
continuous-flow conveyor 541 Н.
flight conveyor 539Н.
pneumatic conveyor 559Н.
pneumatic trough conveyor 567Н.
screw conveyor 556Н., 577
short-pan аргоп conveyor 516,
544Н.
steel band conveyor 523
vibrating trough conveyor 551,
555
, vibratory conveyor 550Н., 581
cooling air fan 368
cooling air flow control 409
cooling air rates 407
cooling curve of clinker 373, 389
cooling drum 397
cooling tower 718
cooling water circuit 720
соге barrels 9
соге drilling in clay 12
соге drilling in limestone 9
cost of bIasting 40
cost of maintenance 697
cotton 643
counter-current gravity separators 635
crawler loaders 49
cross-current gravity separators 635
crusher drive systems 193
crushing plants 196
- mobile 55
сшЬ plates 364
curve display unit 609
curved screens 229, 230
curved transition belt 482
cut size 235
cyclone separators 635
DDC back-up control 594
ООС control 593
dead zero signal 587
decibel (dB) 659
decomposition of carbonates 122
degree of slope
for аргоп conveyors 544
- for belt conveyors 521
- for screw conveyors 559
- for vibrating trough conveyors 555
dehydration of clay minerals 121
designation of cements 159, 160
design dimension 355
design of clinker storage 464
Subject Index
despatch of cement
automation of despatch procedures
511
"big bag" 503
bu\k 495
direct 494
indirect 490
palletized 492
sack 490
, shrink wrapped, palletless 506
determination of wear 262
determining the crusher capacity 207
determining the loading percentage 256
dialogue keyboards 611
diameter of idles 521
diaphragms 258
difterential thermal analysis 22
direct firing system 279
direct loading 494
discharge carriage 548, 577
discharge diaphragms 253
discharge electrodes 655
discharging screw 577
distribution curve 181
distribution of lubricants 742
division of the соге 13
dolomite staining methods 21
doubIe-Ьеllоws loading spout 570
doubIe-гоll crusher 187
doubIe tube 9
drag-plate аргоп conveyor 548
drill bits 9
drilling 8, 32
drilling large-diameter holes 32
drilling machines 35, 36
drilling героп 13
drinking water 718
drive power requirement 519Н.
for belt conveyors 522
for bucket elevators 535
for continuous-flow conveyors
542
for screw conveyors 558
for swing bucket elevators 538
for vibratory conveyors 552
drum reclaimer 83
drum-type electromagnetic separators
204
drying of соа' 277
DSM screen 231, 232
duotherm circuit 354
dust collectors for coolers 417
dust emission of coolers 333, 417
787
Subject Index Subject Index

dust extraction devices 629 fa bric fi Iters 641
dust layer 643 factors aftecting the burning process
dust loading, influences upon the 628 125
dust precipitation 641 fans 632
dust receiving hoppers 655 feeder 570Н.
dust-type emissions 622 apron feeder 572, 574
belt feeder 572, 574
chain feeder 572, 575f.
eftect of volume increase оп grinding continuous-flow feeder 572
246 rotary gate feeder 565, 572, 574,
electric energy consumption of coolers 576
346 screw-fed pneumatic conveying
electric resistance 653 system 565
electromagnetic belt pulleys 205 screw feeder 572
electronic data processing system 699 tabIe feeder 572, 575
electrostatic precipitators 652, 658 , vibratory feeder 572
elevating height 525, 537, 545 feeding of two components 202
elevators ferrite phase 132
belt bucket elevator 525ff. fibrous filter materials 643
bucket elevators 523Н., 535 filling of silos for cement clinker 465
chain bucket elevator 529ff. filling ratio 256
swing bucket elevator 535ff. filling silos 465
, vertical bucket elevator 532 filling spout 485
emission of dust in the quarry 60 film, shrink wrapping 507
- of noise in the quarry 60 filter 658
emptying of silos for cement clinker filter area ratings 649, 650
465 filter, bulk loading unit with integrated
emptying silos 465 502
end-cone probIems, measures to сот- filtering properties 643
bat 93 filter medium 642
energizing units 655 final cooling 331, 366
envelope filters 644 final quarry floor 59
environmental nuisance of coolers 333 fineness 141
equal-arm weigh-beam 484 - (DIN 1164, part 4) 167
equivalents continuous sound level fineness and particle size distribution
660 141
estimating the homogenizing eftect in fines output 233
advance 71 finish grinding 137
evaluation of the classifier tests 238 firefighting appliances 744
evaluation of the result of the investi- firefighting equipment 744
gations 22 flat film process 51 О
evolution in haulage vehicles 51 flat link chain 530
excavators, cabIe-орегаtеd 46 flight conveyor 539Н.
excavators, hydraulic 47 -, capacity data 540
execution of the maintenance 695 flow control gate 473
exhaust air design for dust collectors at fluidized flow conveying 560f.
coolers 416 flushing media 11
exhaust air fan 373, 377 fly-ash 139
exhaust air utilization 344 flying fragments of rock 684
exit gas conditions 625 forced-draught ventilation 677
exploration procedure 6 forms of silo for the storage of cement
extracting the dust 629 clinker 460
extraneous noise 666 fractional dust collection efficiency 640
free СаО (uncombined lime) 132
free MgO (periclase) 132
frequency 658
frequency weighting 661
Fuller pump 565
gaseous emissions 624
gases, analysis of 589
general laboratory apparatus 771
geochemical evaluation 23
geo-electric exploration 19
geo-electric method 16
geophysical investigations 17
geophysical methods 16
glass fibres 643
grades of materials used in coolers
347
gradients (angle of inclination) 517,
521,544,547,552
granular bed filters 651
graphical display unit 608
grate coolers 348
grate girder 352
grate plates 351
gravity cooler 401
grindability 22
grinding 239
grinding action 273
grinding aids 144
grinding diagram 260
grinding media classification 257
grinding media wear 262
grinding of соа' 277
grizzly 201
gross weighing 503
ground vibrations 680
ground water level 20
guide lines for quarrying 28
gyratory crushers 185
hall-type building 461
hall-type clinker storage 465
hammer bIow method 17
hammer bIow technique 16
hammer crushers 189
hand extinguishers 745
handling the dust 631
hardware 612
haulage 50
haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles
heat balance of coolers 342
heating of crushers 206
heat loss of coolers 339
heat of hydration
(DIN 1164, Part 8) 169
heat recovery 337
historical introduction 103
homogenizing tanks or troughs 92,
93
horizontal grate 359
horizontal layers 75
horse shoe arrangemant of plates 363
hydration of cement 146
hydration of dinker phases 149
hydration of pozzolanic cements 153
hydration of slag cements 153
hydraulic excavators 47
hydraulic modulus 11 О
hydrocyclones 227
hydrogeological investigations 20
identification of cements 163
idler spacings 521, 548
impact crushers 187
impeller 485
impulse noise 660
inclined grate 359
individual cyclones 637
individual tone 660
induced -draught ventilation 678
inertia-force separators 635, 658
inertial separators 635
infiltrated air 341
influences upon the dust loading 628
infrared measurements 41 О
inlet elbow 376, 381
inlet nozzle 373, 407
inlet sockets 377
inlet vane 369
in-line packers 479
in-line stockpiles 91
inorganic chemicals 779
in-plant dust sources 658
insulators 655
intermediate clinker breaker 362
intermediate diaphragms 253
intermediate screening 202
intermediate size reduction 355, 359
internal fittings 386
iron modulus 112
issue of lubricants to consumers 741
50
jaw crushers 184
judging the quality of clinker 133

788 789
Subject Index Subject Index

kiln dust 624
kiln hood pressure 408
konterpac process 508
laboratoryequipment 749
laboratory investigations 20
large-capacity silos 472
large silos for clinker 459
layout of open-cast operations
28
lifters 376
lifting ridges 376
lifting vehicles 21 О
light pens 612
lime standard 11 О
limestone 4, 21
limestone deposits 15
limiting speed 520, 523, 536, 548
limits imposed оп the MgO content of
portland cement 5
linig wear 265
live zero signal 587
load and сапу 53
loading, automatic 495, 496, 497
bulk 490
clinker 503
- crushed stones 503
- direct 494
sack 490
loading factor 517, 535, 547
loading machines 46
loading of quапiеd material 46
loading percentage 256, 535, 545,
547, 559, 561
loading spout 568Н
location of the lubricants 735
longitudinal stockpiles 90
loudness 661
lubricant oil tank 740
lubricants 729
distribution of 742
location of 735
- method of storage 739
principal properties of 731
size of store for 737
storage of 730, 734
, types of 730
lubricants consumption 743
lubricants stores 735
-, construction of 737
lubrication 729
lump crusher 474
machinery 73
maintenance 657,659
, cost of 697
-, execution of the 695
-, organization of 699
maintenance control, computerized
704
maintenance control centre 700
maintenance program 698
maintenance system, computerized
698
maintenance work, basis for 695
materials preparation technology 179
measurement 587
measurement of secondary air tempera-
ture 405
measuring surface ratio 660
mechanical cleaning method 646
metal detectors 206
method of lubricant storage 739
MgO content of portland cement 5
microprocessors 613
migration velocity 654
mill atmosphere 142
mill drive power 250
mill heads 255
mill lining 253
mill shell 255
mineralogical and petrographic iпvеsti
gations 21
mineralogica\ aspects of the cement
burning process 119
mineralogical investigations 21
minimum quantity of air (L,."m) 340
mobile crushing plants 55, 208
mobile extinguishers 746
mode of operation of the bIending bed
66
Mogensen sizer 201
monitoring and operation 600
monitoring of wear 252
motion of grinding media 243
motion of the material being ground
246
motivation to safety-consciousness 691
multi-cyclons 637
multiple cyclones 637
multiple stage cooler 355
multi-stage crushing 198
multi-stage reduction 180
natural ventilation 677
needle felts 643
net weighing 502
nitrogen oxides 625
noise 659
noise abatement 670
noise emission 333, 335
noise in the working environment
nomenclature of clay
gravel 4
sand 4
silt 4
stones 4
потех 643
non-woven-fabrics 643
octave 659
open-circuit reduction 181
ореп mouth sack 478
operating costs of coolers 337
organic matter in raw materials 20
organization of maintenance 699
organizing ап exploration project 24
outdoor stockpiles 459
outdoor stockpiles for clinker 465
outdoor stockpiling of clinker 469
overall collection efticiency 640
overburden 16
overburden investigations 16
overburden removal 30
overload protection 204
paddle shaft 577f
palletizer, automatic 492, 493
palletizing 492
palletless shrink wrapping 506
-, flat film process 51 О
-, konterpac process 508
-, reverse hood method 509
pallet size 494
parallel stockpiles 90
particle size 181, 518
particle size distribution 141, 184
partition wall 361
pasted valve sacks 479
percussive drilling for raw material ех-
ploration 14
permanent magnets 205
personal protection against noise 680
personnel requirements 725
petrographic investigations 21
physical aspects of the cement burning
process 119
physical investigations 22
physical properties of fibres for filter
fabrics 645
pipelines 631
plane sources 668
planetary cooler 375
678 planning 695
plate апапgеmепt 364
plug flow conveying 560
pneumatic cleaning method 646
pneumatic conveyor 559Н.
pneumatic handling systems
-, capacity data 562
pneumatic trough conveyor 567Н.
-, capacity data 569
polyacrylonitrile 643
polyamide 643
polyester 643
polyethylene film 507
power consumed in raising the та-
te~al 517, 53~ 538
power factor С 250
pozzolanas 139
precipitation efticiency 234
precooling grate 366
prediction of ground vibration inten-
sities 682
preliminary screening 199, 200
preparation of the coal 277
preparation room for X-ray analysis
770
pressure drop 640, 642, 657
pressure vessel pneumatic conveying
system 566
prevention of ground-water pollution
737
primary air rates 341
primary reduction 177, 179
principle characteristics of coolers 329
principles of proportioning the raw та-
terials 109
printer 611
process computers 605
process control system 585, 614
process engineering 585
process engineering methods 73
programmabIe controllers 596
proportioning, the raw materials, prin-
ciples of - 109
protection against foreign bodies 203
purging air 649
quality control 164
-, external 164

790 791
Subject Index Subject Index

quality control roller mills 266 service water (cooling water) 718 sound pressure levels, averaging of
-, internal 164 -, control of 276 set-point control 594 664
quarries and landscaping 58 rotary cooler 397 setting times (DIN 1164, Part 5) 168 sound propagation 667
quarryequipment 29 rotary gate feeder 565, 572, 574, 576 settling ponds 60 sound reduction indexes 660, 674
quarrying methods 4 rotary packer 479 sewn valve sacks 479 sources of noise in cement works
quarrying operations planning 23 rotary valve 565, 567 shaft cooler 400 668
quartz in the limestone matrix 21 RRB diagram 182 shell temperature 41 О space requirements of coolers 335
short-pan аргоп conveyor 516, spare parts 696
sacks 478 544ff. spare part store 709
railcar loader 491 sack loader, automatic 494, 496 -, capacity data 546 specific cooling air rate 349, 358
rail haulage 50 -, for trucks 491 shrink wrapping specific precipitation efficiency 235
rail-mounted crushers 209 -, for railcars 491 film 507 specific wear 262
raking-down devices 80 sack loading, individual 490 flat film process 51 О spillage hopper 481
rapping the electrodes 655 into railcars 491 konterpac process 51 О spout 483
raw materials 4 onto trucks 491 lines 507 spray pond 718
raw materials for cement manufacture palletized 492 palletless 506 stacking machines 77,78, 84, 88
105 , shrink wrapped 506 , reverse hood method 509 stacking methods 73
raw meal analysis 117 sack size 494 silica modulus 111 static air separator 217
raw теа' silos safety requirements 291 silo bottom construction 475 stationary crushing plants 197
-, combined system 295 safety rules 692 simultaneous feeding 203 steel band conveyor 523
raw mix sample quantity 94 single-grates cooler 354 stockpilin-g of clinker 469
-, analysis 109, 117 sampling stations 93, 94 single-rotor hammer crusher 190 storage capacity for clinker 459
-, proportioning 109 sampling systems, checking the - 98 single-row bIasting 33 storage in the cement works 145
raw mix proportions, calculation of the satellite cooler 375 single-stage reduction 180 storage of cement 145
113 scattering flights 393 single tube 9 storage of explosives 42
raw water condition 719 scattering of the clinker 387 site restoration 57 storage of lubricants 734
reactions during cooling 124 scoops 376 size classification 214 storage of overburden material 31
reactions in the presence of liquid scraper 86, 87 size of store for lubricants 737 storage оп the construction site 146
phase (clinkering) 123 screen 481 size reduction 259 strata method 75
reciprocating grate cooler 350 screen filters 644 size reduction progress 259 stratigraphic investigations 14
reclaiming Ьу side-acting scrapers 86 screening 215 skid-mounted plants 21 О strength (DIN 1164, part 7) 169
reclaiming machines 77,88 screw conveyor 556ff., 577 slip-ring pick-up 411 stripping 45
reclaiming with front-acting machines capacity data 558 slot bunker 577 structure-born noise propagation 671
80 -, degree of slope 559 snow теп 350, 354 structure of the deposit 15
rectifier 655 -, drive power requirement 558 software 612 suction 564
recuperation zone 358 screw-fed pneumatic conveying sys- solid-borne sound 658 suction and pressure system 560
recycle ratio 233 tem 565 solid reactions (reactions below clinker- suggestions for the use of cements
reducing the vibrations 683 screw feeder 572 ing) 123_ 165
reduction factor 517, 521, 535, 547 secondary air 391 sound 658 suitability of coolers for different clinker
reduction ratio 181 secondary bIasting 41 sound absorption 661 gradings 334
reels of sacks 490 segment fastening system for buckets sound absorpticn coefficient 661 suitability of coolers for hot air extrac-
relieving the crusher 200 527f. sound attenuators 673, 678 tion 332
renewabIe parts (see wearing parts) selection criteria of coolers 329 sound-insulated buildings 674 sulphates 139
696, 697 selection criteria what type of storage sound insulation 660 sulphur dioxide 625
resistance coefficients of pipe fittings structure to use 463 sound intensity 659 supply and identification of cements
634 selectivity 234 sound intensity level 660 163
restoration features 58 semi-direct firing system 280 sound level 335,414 supply of cements 163
return-flow nozzles 657 semi-mobile crushing plants 21 О sound levels, addition of 661 surface bIasting 35
reverse hood method 509 separation curve 235 soundness (DIN 1164, part 6) 168 surface samples 7
riddlings 354 searation efficiency 234 sound power 659 suspended magne~ 205
ridged brickwork 391 separator systems 635 sound power level 659 swing bucket elevator 535ff.
ripping 17,43 series firing of small-diameter bIas- sound pressure 659 -, capacity data 537
roll crushers 187 tholes 41 sound pressure level 659 _, drive power requirement 538

792 793
Subject Index

tabIe feeder 572, 575 vibratory feeder 572

technical laboratory (ASTM) 766 voltage regulation 655
technicallaboratory (8S) 769 volume flow rates 521 f., 533, 537,
technical laboratory, general 766 540, 544
tectonics 15
teflon 643
tent-shaped circular store 461 waggon loader 491
testing of drilled cores 13 walking mechanism 21 О
thermal efticiency 339 WARTAS 697
third 659 waste tips 59
timbre 659 water consumption 718
tone 659 water cooled steel plate 350, 354
transfer points of belt conveyors 629 water cooling 394, 396
transformer 655 water flush 11
transition radius 522 water injection 373
travelling grate 576 water preparation 720
trave\\ing grate coolers 349 water spray tower 657
treatment of the cores 12 water storage 720
trial pits 7 water supply 717
trial pits and surface samples 7 water winning 720
truck loader 491 wear 22
-, automatic 496, 497 -, probIems of 705
trunnion bearings 254 wear in cement works 705
tube mills 242 wearing parts 697
tumbIing mills 241 wear of the diaphragms 266
tunnelling method 40 wear-resistant linings 641
twin-rotor hammer crusher 191 weigh belt feeder 516, 580f.
twin-shaft mixer 577 weighing equipment 578Н.
types of grinding mi\\ 241 weighing system 502
types of storage structure 459 -, gross 503
-, net 502
undergrate compartment 354 weighting for duration 661
unit load 490 wheel loaders 48
windrow method 73, 74
valve sack 478 wire line 11
velocity of propagation 680 wool 643
velocity of vibration 681 workabIe quantities 22
ventilation, forced draught natural 677 workshops 709
ventilation, induced draught 678 woven fabrics 643
ventilation of buildings 676 woven-fabric filters 643
vertical bucket elevator
-, capacity data 532
vibratory conveyor 550Н., 581 Х-гау analysis 589, 117
drive power requirement 552 Х-гау examination 21
vibrating trough conveyor 551, Х-гау fluorescence analysis 21
555 Х-гау spectrometer 594

794