Learning in the Information Age

Author(s): Rune Pettersson

Source: Educational Technology Research and Development , 1994, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1994),
pp. 91-97
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/30220066

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International Review D- Nick Eastmond, Editor

Editor's Note: While the source of the ideas in

panoramic view of educational technology
this issue is Scandinavian, their implications
around the globe. For me as editor, the assign-
are worldwide. In the "new world order" ment has been personally and professionally
emerging following the collapse of communism,
rewarding. Potential contributors, especially
information resources become both the grounds
those with foreign language expertise or over-
seas contacts, are urged to contact the new
for global competition and the field for mutual
cooperation. Editor, Dr. Karen Murphy, at the address
below.
Rune Pettersson, our correspondent from
Sweden, provides a personal essay examining Dr. Karen Murphy, EHRD, Texas A&M
learning issues in the information age. University, College Station, TX 77843-3256
Pettersson sees the obtaining of relevant,
objective information as key to the success of
individuals, institutions and nations. Instruc- Learning in the Information Age
tional technology has a key role to play in
helping to supply, systematize, and make by Rune Pettersson
meaningful the large array of information
now becoming available. l Throughout the 1980s, major changes
Vicki Napper examines issues of system occurred in the way our society produced,
design in her review of a collaborative effort stored, processed, and accessed information.
by Danish/American authors, entitled Design Monfils (1993) noted that regardless of the spe-
at Work. Again, the issues involved are cific application of technology, consensus had
global rather than regional, the result of been reached on the increasing impact of infor-
researchers in cross-national collaboration. mation technology on all aspects of our lives.
The book's ideas to involve workers in the The amount of available information is seen as

cooperative design of computer systems are increasing every day. Modern research and
most stimulating, providing a fine example of development produce more information than
intellectual enrichment from transnational ever before. Our society views the availability
excursions. of and the need for information as the basis for

With this being my last issue as Editor of decision-making as continually increasing.

the International Review, I wish to thank the Frequently, people in a variety of occupa-
many contributors of scholarly work over the tional settings find that their basic knowledge
past five years. Taken over time their contribu- is inadequate. While we can easily learn a little
tions have enriched our readership with a about a great many subjects, this kind of learn-

ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1994, pp. 91-99 ISSN 1042-1629 91

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 92 ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 1

ing leaves us guage of photo, film,

with littlevideo and satellite
more com-
of superficialmunications.
knowledge. For
ultimate goal actually seems
Clearly, a modern definition of literacy must to
tle somethinginclude
about everythin
much more than reading and writing.
altogether fragmented knowl
what does information literacy
In an information society, ev
Information Literacy mean?
have the right to access nee
Even if most people are able t
In 1989, the American Library Association
biased opinions presented by
(ALA) defined information literacy as follows:
in fact, are able to find objec
"To be information-literate, a person must be
Thus, we also need to learn to
able to recognize when information is needed
and use information; we need
and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use
dle various new situations in th
effectively the needed information" (page 1).
mation."
That same year, a National Forum on Informa-
tion Literacy was established in the United
Literacies States of America as an umbrella group for
national organizations committed to helping
Traditionally, the concept of literacy was people become effective consumers of informa-
restricted to the ability to read and write. Dur- tion. The group wants to show that literacy can
ing recent decades, however, people have rec- no longer be considered merely the ability to
ognized the need for a wide array of otherread and memorize a base of knowledge; in-
literacies-such as cultural literacy, computerstead, literacy must entail the ability to acquire
literacy, information literacy, media literacy, sci- and evaluate the information that is needed in
entific literacy, technical literacy, and visual any situation. Most of the members of the
literacy. National Forum on Information Literacy are
Monfils (1993) argued that to be computer- representing educational organizations.
literate one need only be a computer user, not According to Senn Breivik and Jones (1993),
a computer programmer. Considine and Haley society has reached the point where the tradi-
(1992) noted that computer literacy clearly tional literacies sought by liberal education are
relates both visual literacy and media literacy to insufficient. "Higher education is being called
the traditional concepts of reading and writing. upon to define and develop a new learning
The effective integration of imagery into style that fosters within students the abilities
instruction can facilitate the student's ability to needed to be information-literate" (page 26).
read, recall, and comprehend. Visual literacy Educational technology has a great capacity
what kinds
of literacies?can therefore support traditional literacy. The to support and advance the restructuring of
definition of reading means more than recog- teaching and learning. It has the power to
nizing words; it also implies comprehending deliver high quality and consistent multidimen-
the meaning of the words we read. Media liter- sional messages to wide audiences.
acy helps students recognize, read, compre- Dwyer (1993) pointed out that educational
hend, and question ideas and information, technology is revolutionizing the way we think
whether conveyed through print or picture. about learning and is helping us to begin to
In a discussion on the evolution of imagery understand what happens in the mind during
technologies, Fredette (1993) cited Loveless information processing. The appropriate use of
(1992), who wrote about the evolution of media visualization transmitted by the new electronic
technologies and identified their changing technologies has the potential for significantly
effects on consciousness, and their parallel role improving the quality of the teaching-learning
in redefining literacy. Loveless suggests that
process. There are thousands of colleges, uni-
children of the future will need to be literate
versities, corporations, government agencies,
in both data in motion and images in motion. and so forth, that use educational technology
The latter means being literate in the lan- for education and training.

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 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW 93

Teaching "Curriculum 21," predicts several major

changes in the way we do things today. Engi-
During the latter part of the 1980s, the volume neering students will change from passive
of information was growing at such a rate that observers to active participants. Memorization
conventional information storage and retrieval of facts will change to problem-solving. Tradi-
methods could no longer keep pace. What tional printed text will evolve into visually-
good is information, we may ask, if it cannot be based presentation of information.
located, evaluated, or used as we want? Natu-
Faculty members can assist in building well-
rally, others have asked this same question.
structured, resource-based learning environ-
Boyer (1987) noted that: "Today, about one out
ments. Pettersson (1989, 1993 a) points out that
of every four undergraduates spends no time in
in the future our current libraries may be con-
the library during a normal week, and 65 per-
verted into "mediateques"; that is, places
cent use the library four hours or less each
where information can be sought. A
week" (page 160). This gap between the class-
mediathque could consist of a TV set/CRT dis-
room and the library, first reported almost half
play with decoders for teletext and videotex, a
a century ago, still exists. Moreover, we know
telephone plus a modem, a small computer
that teachers spend most of their time in the
with built-in memory, software for intelligent
classrooms talking at their classes (Gustafsson,
search routines, one or more optical video disc
1980; Sigurgeirsson, 1990; Pettersson et al.,
players, CD-ROM and CD-I players, and a
1991). Teachers generally teach the way they
laser printer.
were taught, following the traditional approach
In the United States of America, the Saturn
to education, providing prepackaged informa-
tion to students. We still find a "talk and chalk" School Project is an attempt to use the best of
what is known with respect to learning
situation in most schools today.
research, instructional strategies, and individ-
Cunningham (1993) noted that we now live
ual learning differences (Dwyer, 1993). Stu-
in a global society, where the instructor must
dents at Saturn Schools use computers,
deal with the multiplicity of effects of socioeco-
modems, videos, word processing, lego-logo
nomic, cultural, and linguistic differences. Fur-
robotics, HyperCard programming, Interactive
thermore, certain groups of people may be less
Learning systems, and so forth, and integrated
suited for, or intimidated by, the gadgetry com-
components of their instructional program.
monly used to make presentations. The role of
Starr Hiltz (1993) has described the Virtual
faculty members, in universities as well as in
Classrooma. Students at New Jersey Institute
private "training establishments," will change.
of Technology share their thoughts, questions,
Emphasis must shift from faculty members that
and reactions with professors and classmates
provide students with information to faculty mem-
using a computer-mediated conference system.
bers that provide students with opportunities to find
Special software supports asynchronous group-
and evaluate information on their own. In this new
oriented learning processes for distance educa-
role, faculty members become collaborators in
tion. Most students report that the system
learning, helping students find efficient ways to
improves access to educational activities, and is
gather information and to make discerning
a better mode of learning than traditional face-
judgments about what is and what is not useful
to-face, classroom courses.
among the over-abundance of available data
and information. A systematic effort is needed
to integrate information resources and technol-
Learning
ogies into the heart of various curricula.
Walker (1993) reported on the progress of Senn Breivik (1992) pointed out that an empha-
the development of an engineering visual sis on information literacy recognizes that
database index. She noted that eight engineering while the learning of facts is important, so also
schools have developed a curriculum designed is learning to learn. Information-literate stu-
to meet the educational needs of engineering dents have learned how to learn, and they are
graduates for the 21st century. This curriculum, sophisticated users of information and of infor-

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 94 ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 1

mation technology. According

the insurance industry, learning through trial
those who lack the skills to use the modern and error is too expensive (Robert, 1993). Most
successful managers agree that people can
information resources available today will soon
become a new underclass. learn more quickly from other people's experi-
ence and mistakes. Mentoring is an important
An emphasis on information literacy
way to build on the collective knowledge of
requires that students use a variety of informa-
tion resources, such as factual study books, generations.
past
newspapers, journals, reports, and on-line Berg (1993) concluded that in the learn-
ing/modular/virtual/boundaryless/permanently
databases, videodiscs, and multi-media sys-
flexible organizations that are being promoted
tems, as well as subject experts, as an integral
as the best organizational structures for today's
and natural part of their assignments. The abil-
ity to locate, evaluate, and subsequently usefast-changing environment, continuous learn-
ing is a critical variable for success. Companies
information effectively is very critical to learn-
that excel will be those that make full use of
ing. Learning should be active and integrated,
not passive and fragmented. A restructuringtheir
of peoples' capacity to learn. According to
Berg,
the learning process will not only enhance the the ideal employee is a person who loves
learning, is flexible, acquires new skills as
critical thinking skills of students, but will also
empower them for a life of learning. needed, and is confident enough to devise new
Senn Breivik (1991, page 4) also noted that rules when the old ones do not work any
"the many formats in which information longer.

appears allow for variances in preferred learn-As a society we place too much faith on col-
ing styles among students who may, for exam- lecting facts. Experience suggests that there
ple, learn more comfortably with visual should be a correct way to do everything; as a
materials or computer-assisted media than by result, we waste a great deal of time, money,
relying solely on printed materials." and energy searching for this mythical right

Dwyer (1993) presents a hierarchical learn-

answer. Gathering insight and experience is
not helpful unless it leads to constructive
ing paradigm which illustrates four different
action. Berg (1993) provided eight steps that
levels of learning. These levels are (1) basic ter-
organizations and individuals can take to learn
minology and facts, (2) concepts, (3) rules and
the lessons they will need for future success.
principles, and (4) problem solving.
When learners are introduced to an unfamil- These steps are:
* Assume nothing
iar subject, they first have to learn the basic ter-
minology and facts which make up the basic * Give up the search for right answers
* Trash your taboos
components of the language of the discipline.
The more terms, facts, and definitions that
* Devote time to learning
* Reward failure
learners are familiar with within a subject mat-
ter, the better prepared they will be to relate
* Do not do more of what does not work
and combine these units of information to form
* Do not put people into slots on an organiza-
the concepts in the discipline. tional chart
The more concepts the learners possess, the
* Reward contribution, not position, longevity
easier it is for them to form rules, proceduresor status
and principles for the discipline.
According to Berg, the future belongs to
The more rules learners possess, the easier
those who question the past assumptions, con-
they can solve problems successfully. stantly innovate and thrive on change.
Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992) concluded
Organizations for Learning that essentially, learning organizations are not
only capable of learning, but also of learning to
A growing number of business experts are
learn--which is meta-learning. In other words
learning organizations are not only able to
beginning to question the adage that experi-
ence is the best teacher. According to leadersbecome
in competent but also to remain compe-

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 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW 95

"established fields," such is

tent. The basis for meta-learning as aesthetics,
self-know art,
edge; in particular knowledge about
audio-visual media, cinema, computer how
science, a
why we are learning and
education, film,why we information
graphic design, wish t
learn. A learning organization is based
ergonomics, information science, informationon
philosophy in which its information
technology, members consid
theory, journalism, lin-
themselves and each guistics,
other massascommunications,
adults: media,as peoplpeda-
who have the will and
gogics, the courage
photography, physiology, to take
psychological
information
responsibility for their own theory, semantic information
functioning inthe-re
ory,
tion to other presons andsemiology, sociology,the
expect speech same
communica-
fro
them. tion, television, trade language, visual arts, and
visual thinking. The
In a learning organization concept of information
learning take
place on the job. The learning onprocesses
design usually focuses typography and a
graphic design of information
linked to the work processes. materials.
A work-place i
also a learning situation and
In areas such a taskand
as science is likewis
technology,
an exercise. The emphasis is on learning illustrations aid learning. For decades teachers
together in teams. And not just within a divi- in these areas have used a variety of teaching
sion, department or group, and not only at one aids in their teaching. Such "multimedia-sys-
level, but also between departments, divisions, tems" often include books, individual work
groups and between the different levels. sheets, teachers' guides, slides, overhead
transparencies, films and/or video. Originally,
"multimedia" referred to this use of several dif-

Presentation of Information ferent media in a system. Today, multimedia

refers more specifically to the use of several
representations on a computer screen, or on
Senn Breivik (1992) also noted that very few
several screens controlled by a computer. It
campuses today seriously attempt to teach stu-
may be still or motion video, text, graphics,
dents how to package information effectively.
audio, and animation. The information is usu-
In the business world, for example, presenta-
ally stored with digital technology on digital-
tions almost always include visuals (Griffin
based platforms.
1989, 1990). Griffin and Gibbs (1993) reported
that business people report participating in The development of different compact discs
about one business presentation per month. makes it possible to create the total teaching aid
However, most of today's business students encompassing text, sound, pictures, numerical
graduate without ever having given a thought information, and opportunities for various
to how they might make a presentation using kinds of information processing in a single
graphics or charts. Generally speaking, people medium (Pettersson, 1993a). A total teaching
in business are not visually literate when it aid is a multimedia database (a hyper-medium)
comes to understanding common visual sym- offering the user complete freedom in moving
bols (Griffin and Gibbs, 1993). back and forth between verbal, numerical,
visual, and audio information.
In the information age, the competent indi-
vidual needs a basic knowledge of infology, the Already we are seeing virtual reality, the dis-
science of verbo-visual presentations of infor- play and control of synthetic scenes by means
mation (Pettersson 1989, 1993 a). Infology of a computer and peripherals, such as data-
encompasses studies of how verbo-visual rep- gloves, helmets, and joysticks. Systems for vir-
resentations should be designed to achieve tual reality allow users to vicariously interact
within "virtual worlds."
optimum communication between sender and
receiver. Some studies concentrate on the
The justification for using redundant infor-
sender, others on the receiver, the representa-
mation in both print/oral visual channels is to
tion, or the communication process. provide the learner with the opportunity to
receive information alternatively from either
Infology is an interdisciplinary study that
encompasses many aspects from already
channel, and to help the person short-circuit

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 96 ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 1

any dependence on printed a

Rune Pettersson is manager of Technical Training
tion. Educational technolog
for the Swedish R&D firm ELLEMTEL. In addition,
reduce the time it
he teaches at the takes
University of Stockholm. to c
knowledge out of informatio

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