Active Filters

Introduction

 Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals

within a band of frequencies while rejecting or blocking
signals of frequencies outside this band.

This property of filters is also called “frequency

selectivity”.
 Types of Filters
There are two broad categories of filters:
 An analog filter processes continuous-time signals
 A digital filter processes discrete-time signals.
The analog or digital filters can be subdivided into
four categories:
 Lowpass Filters
 Highpass Filters
 Bandstop Filters
 Bandpass Filters
 Ideal Filters

Lowpass Filter Highpass Filter

M(ω)

Stopband Passband
Passband Stopband

ωc ω ωc ω

Bandstop Filter Bandpass Filter

M(ω)

Passband Stopband Passband Stopband Passband Stopband

ωc ωc ω ωc ωc ω
1 2 1 2
 Analog Filter Responses

H(f) H(f)

0 f 0 f
fc fc

Ideal “brick wall” filter Practical filter

Filter can be also be categorized as passive or active..

Passive filters:
filters The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC
circuits.

Active filters : The circuits that employ one or more

op-amps in the design an addition to
resistors and capacitors
 Passive filters
Passive filters use resistors, capacitors, and inductors
(RLC networks).

To minimize distortion in the filter characteristic, it is

desirable to use inductors with high quality factors

practical inductors includes a series resistance.

 They are particularly non-ideal
 They are bulky and expensive
Active filters overcome these drawbacks and are
realized using resistors, capacitors, and active
devices (usually op-amps) which can all be
integrated:

 Active filters replace inductors using op-amp based

equivalent circuits.
 Advantages
Advantages of active RC filters include:
 reduced size and weight
 increased reliability and improved performance
 simpler design than for passive filters and can realize a wider
range of functions as well as providing voltage gain
 in large quantities, the cost of an IC is less than its passive
counterpart
 Disadvantages
Active RC filters also have some disadvantages:
 limited bandwidth of active devices limits the highest
attainable frequency (passive RLC filters can be used up
to 500 MHz)
 require power supplies (unlike passive filters)

 increased sensitivity to variations in circuit parameters

caused by environmental changes compared to passive
filters

For many applications, particularly in voice and data

communications, the economic and performance
advantages of active RC filters far outweigh their
disadvantages.
 Bode Plots
Bode plots are important when considering the
frequency response characteristics of amplifiers.

 They plot the magnitude or phase of a transfer

function in dB versus frequency.
Bode plots use a logarithmic scale for
frequency.
One decade

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200

where a decade is defined as a range of

frequencies where the highest and lowest
frequencies differ by a factor of 10.
 The decibel (dB)

Two levels of power can be compared using a

unit of measure called the bel.
P2
B = log10
P1
The decibel is defined as:

1 bel = 10 decibels (dB)

 P2
dB = 10 log10
P1
A common dB term is the half power point
which is the dB value when the P2 is one-
half P1.
1
10 log10 = −3.01 dB ≈ −3 dB
2
  P2 
Decibel (dB) By Definition: dB = 10 log  
10 
 P1 

(1) Power Gain in dB : (2) Voltage Gain in dB: (P=V2/R)

Pin Pout vin vout

P  v 
Ap ( dB ) = 10 log10  o  Av ( dB ) = 20 log10  o 
 Pin   vin 

P 
 vin 
0dB = 10 log10  in  0dB = 20 log10  
 Pin   vin 
1 
1   vin 
 Pin  − 6dB = 20 log10  2 
− 3dB = 10 log10  2 
 Pin   vin 
   
 2P   2vin 
+ 3dB = 10 log10  in  + 6dB = 20 log10  
 Pin   vin 
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 Cascaded System
Av1 Av2 Av3
vin vout
x10 x10 x10

20dB 20dB 20dB

Av = Av1 × Av 2 × Av 3
Av = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103
Av ( dB ) = 20 log10 ( Av1 × Av 2 × Av 3 )
Av ( dB ) = 20 log10 ( Av1 ) + 20 log10 ( Av 2 ) + 20 log10 ( Av 3 )

Av ( dB ) = Av1 ( dB ) + Av 2 ( dB ) + Av 3 ( dB )

Av ( dB ) = 20dB + 20dB + 20dB

20 log10 (10) = 20dB
Av ( dB ) = 60dB 20 log10 (103 ) = 60dB

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 Poles & Zeros of the transfer
function
pole—value of s where the denominator goes to
zero.
zero—value of s where the numerator goes to zero.
 A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz to
critical frequency, fc and significantly attenuates all other frequencies.

roll-off rate
Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response drops abruptly at the critical frequency, f H

Passband of a filter is the
range of frequencies that are
allowed to pass through the
filter with minimum attenuation roll-off rate
(usually defined as less than
-3 dB of attenuation).

Transition region shows

the area where the fall-off
occurs.
Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most attenuation.

Critical frequency,
frequency f c , (also called the cutoff frequency) defines the
end of the passband and normally specified at the point where the
response drops – 3 dB (70.7%) from the passband response.
 Vo

 At low frequencies, XC is very high and the capacitor circuit can be

considered as open circuit. Under this condition, Vo = Vin or AV = 1
(unity).
 At very high frequencies, XC is very low and the Vo is small as
compared with Vin. Hence the gain falls and drops off gradually as the
frequency is increased.
 The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is equal to fc:

BW = f c
The critical frequency of a low-pass RC filter occurs when
X C = R and can be calculated using the formula below:

1
fc =
2π RC
 A high-pass filter is a filter that significantly attenuates or rejects
all frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies above fc.
 The passband of a high-pass filter is all frequencies above the
critical frequency.

Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response rises abruptly at the critical frequency, fL

 The critical frequency of a high-pass RC filter occurs when
X C = R and can be calculated using the formula below:

1
fc =
2π RC
 A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band
between a lower-frequency limit and upper-frequency limit
and essentially rejects all other frequencies that are outside
this specified band.

Actual response Ideal response

 The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference between
the upper critical frequency (fc2) and the lower critical
frequency (fc1).

BW = f c 2 − f c1
 The frequency about which the pass band is centered is called
the center frequency , f o and defined as the geometric mean of
the critical frequencies.

f o = f c1 f c 2
  Band-stop filter is a filter which
its operation is opposite to that of
the band-pass filter because the
frequencies within the bandwidth
are rejected,
rejected and the frequencies
above fc1 and fc2 are passed.
passed
Actual response

For the band-stop filter, the

bandwidth is a band of
frequencies between the 3 dB
points, just as in the case of the
band-pass filter response.
Ideal response
 Figure below shows the basic Low-Pass filter circuit

At critical frequency,
Resistance = Capacitance
R = Xc
1
R=
ωc C
1
R=
2πf c C
So, critical frequency ;
1
fc =
2πRC
 Figure below shows the basic High-Pass filter circuit :

At critical frequency,
Resistance = Capacitance
R = Xc
1
R=
ωc C
1
R=
2πf c C
So, critical frequency ;
1
fc =
2πRC
 Single-Pole Passive Filter

R vout ZC 1 / sC
= =
vin R + Z C R + 1 / sC
vin C vout 1 1 / RC
= =
sCR + 1 s + 1 / RC

First order low pass filter

Cut-off frequency = 1/RC rad/s
Problem : Any load (or source) impedance will
change frequency response.
 Bode Plot (single pole)
1 1 R
H ( jω ) = =
1 + jωCR ω
1 + j  
 ωo  Vi C Vo

1
H ( jω ) = 2 Single pole low-pass filter
ω
⇒ 1 +  
 ωo 
 ω
2

H ( jω ) dB = 20 log10 H ( jω ) = 20 log10  1 1 +   
  ωo  
 
For ω>>ωo

ω
H ( jω ) dB ≈ −20 log10  
 ωo 

Ref:080222HKN 31 EE3110 Active Filter (Part 1)

 ω 
H ( jω) ≈ −20 log10 
ω 

 o 
ω 2
For octave apart, = H ( jω ) ≈ −6dB
ωo 1
For decade apart, ω 10 H ( jω ) ≈ −20dB
=
ωo 1
H ( jω) dB
ωx 2ωx 10ωx
ω(log)
6dB

slope
20dB

-6dB/octave
-20dB/decade

32
Single-Pole Active Low-Pass Filter

R
vin C
vout

Same frequency response as passive filter.

Buffer amplifier does not load RC network.
Output impedance is now zero.
 Single-pole active low-pass filter and response curve.

 This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade above the

critical frequency.
The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a
noninverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage gain in the
passband is set by the values of R1 and R2 :

R1
Acl ( NI ) = +1
R2
 The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
fc =
2πRC
One-pole (first-order) low-pass filter.

 The critical frequency,

frequency fc is determined by the values of R
and C in the frequency-selective RC circuit.
 Each RC set of filter components represents a pole.
pole
 Greater roll-off rates can be achieved with more poles.
poles
 Each pole represents a -20dB/decade increase in roll-off.
 In high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor and resistor are
reversed in the RC circuits as shown from Figure (a). The negative
feedback circuit is the same as for the low-pass filters.
 Figure (b) shows a high-pass active filter with a -20dB/decade roll-off

Single-pole active high-pass filter and response curve.

The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a
noninverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage gain in the
passband is set by the values of R1 and R2 :

R1
Acl ( NI ) = +1
R2
The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
fc =
2πRC
The number of poles determines the roll-off rate of the filter.
 A Butterworth response produces -20dB/decade/pole
This means that:
 One-pole (first-order) filter has a roll-off of -20 dB/decade
 Two-pole (second-order) filter has a roll-off of -40
dB/decade
 Three-pole (third-order) filter has a roll-off of -60
dB/decade
 The number of filter poles can be increased by cascading .
To obtain a filter with three poles, cascade a two-pole with
one-pole filters.

Three-pole (third-order) low/high pass filter.

 Two-Stage Band-Pass Filter
C2 R4

+V
R2 R1 +V
+ C4 C3
vin +
C1 - R3
Rf1 - vout
-V
Rf3
-V
Rf2
Rf4
Stage 1 Stage 2
Two-pole low-pass Two-pole high-pass
Av

Stage 2 Stage 1
response BW response
BW = f2 – f1
Q = f0 / BW

f
f1 fo f2

41
 Band-Stop (Notch) Filter
The notch filter is designed to block all frequencies that fall
within its bandwidth. The circuit is made up of a high pass
filter, a low-pass filter and a summing amplifier. The
summing amplifier will have an output that is equal to the
sum of the filter output voltages.
Low pass Av(dB)
filter low-pass high-pass

f1
Summing
amplifier
{
-3dB

High pass
filter
Σ
v in v out

f2
f
f1 f2
Block diagram Frequency response

42
Notch filter

43
 Transfer function H(jω)

Transfer
Vi Function Vo
H ( jω )

Vo ( jω ) H = Re( H ) 2 + Im(H ) 2
H ( jω ) =
Vi ( jω )

H = Re( H ) + j Im(H )

44
 Frequency transfer function of filter
(I) Low - Pass Filter H(jω)
(IV) Band - Stop (Notch) Filter
H ( jω ) = 1 f < fo
H ( jω ) = 0 fL < f < fH
H ( jω ) = 0 f > fo
H ( jω ) = 1 f < f L and f > f H
(II) High - Pass Filter
H ( jω ) = 0 f < fo (V) All - Pass (or phase - shift) Filter
H ( jω ) = 1 f > fo
H ( jω ) = 1 for all f

(III) Band - Pass Filter

has a specific phase response
H ( jω ) = 1 fL < f < fH
H ( jω ) = 0 f < f L and f > f H

45
Advantages of active filters over passive filters (R, L, and C
elements only):
1. By containing the op-amp, active filters can be designed to
provide required gain, and hence no signal attenuation
as the signal passes through the filter.
2. No loading problem , due to the high input impedance of
the op-amp prevents excessive loading of the driving
source, and the low output impedance of the op-amp
prevents the filter from being affected by the load that it is
driving.
3. Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range without
altering the desired response.